CESAR, Ciseneros. On The Roots of Qualitative Research

Cisneros, C. (2008) On the Roots of Qualitative Research.
En Josef Zelger, Margit Raich, y Paul

Schober (eds) GABEK III. Organisationen und ihre Wissensnetze (pp.53-75). Austria: Studien
Verlag
On the Roots of Qualitative Research
César A. Cisneros Puebla
Abstract: In this essay I do intend to draw the experience and practice of qualitative research conducted in
Iberoamerica (Spain, Portugal, Central and South America, and the countries of the Caribbean). Mostly of
Spanish speaking colleagues interested on interpretative and qualitative inquiry lives in developing
countries and have to deal with specific troubles on getting trained or getting fundings. Comparing the state
of the art of qualitative research in different countries this manuscript is a first effort to disseminate the
discussion we are facing in our Spanish speaking societies in the context of the globalization of the
academia. To illustrate some of the methodological issues the qualitative researchers from Iberoamerica are
dealing with this paper is focused on using qualitative software. How does it look like the “Iberoamerican”
qualitative research as viewed by means of such “globalization”? What are our main concerns using
qualitative software? What about methods and approaches? Particularly I will take in account the
Iberoamerican context to point up a particular set of obstacles and challenges of doing qualitative research
in these countries.
1. Introduction
Qualitative research has changed in the last decade some of our practices as a scientists.
Even though all of us have been acting and doing research in the way we learnt and
embracing or advocating the approaches we prefer to use in the context of the “paradigm
war”, we must to recognize how far the current discussion of qualitative mehods is from
the debate ocurred just 30 years ago, for instance. Recently the dialogue between
methods, approaches and methodology have provided relevant reflections in diverse
disciplines and the influence of any qualitative tradition is being evaluated or re-valuated
in different fields.
Methods, approaches and methodology have been enhanced, thanks to such dialogue, but
also as a consequence of the aperture of spaces to know and discuss what people is doing
in different regions of the world. Our knowledge around different traditions, concepts and
theories let us be aware of our unity and diversity. Qualitative research is very rich and
charmed because of the various legacies and treasures gathered in each country.
There are some very well know national examples which have been broadly discussed
around the world, as the North American one (DENZIN & LINCOLN 1994). But the
story of qualitative research is also formed by other narratives, authors and appraches. To
take a look at the non-Anglo-Saxon "peripheries" in the field of qualitative research is the
basic goal of this essay. Presenting some ideas regarding to the national differences and
experiences, discussing such diversity and analysing its unity, lead us to explore the
conceptual roots of our current practices and to act in a future globalized academia. To
compare worldwide the current stages of qualitative research some examples and
discussions will be provide about various European countries. Here I will intend too to
draw the experience and practice of qualitative research conducted in Iberoamerica
(Spain, Portugal, Central and South America, and the countries of the Caribbean). But the
effort could be in vain, because of the lack of sources and data from Portugal, for
instance. Having Spanish as a first language, the idea of Iberoamerica is to include Brazil
and Portugal even though the native language in both countries is Portuguese, because of
the commun legacy living in the New World since the XV century. Mostly of Spanish
speaking colleagues interested on interpretative and qualitative inquiry lives in
Cisneros, C. (2008) On the Roots of Qualitative Research. En Josef Zelger, Margit Raich, y Paul
Verlag
developing countries and have to deal with specific troubles on getting trained or getting
fundings. Comparing the state of the art of qualitative research in Spain and South
America this essay is a first effort to disseminate the discussion we are facing in our
Spanish speaking societies in the context of the globalization of the academia.
To illustrate some of the methodological issues the qualitative researchers from

Iberoamerica are dealing with the manuscript is focused on using qualitative software.
How does it look like the “Iberoamerican” qualitative research as viewed by means of
such “globalization”? What are our main concerns using qualitative software? What
about methods and approaches? Particularly I will take in account the Iberoamerican
context to point up a particular set of obstacles and challenges of doing qualitative
research in Spanish speaking countries.
2. Qualitative Research in a Globalized World

It is fair to recognize that qualitative research is diverse and it has specific faces in each
country. ALASUUTARI (2004) has called our attention on the anglo-american
dominance of social sciences and its impacts on the path and practices of qualitative
researches around the world. He emphasize about two fallacies in the progress narrative
associated to some views of the development of science, in general, and to the analysis of
phases in qualitative research development. The first is related to how the progress
narrative makes difficult to think about the parallel developments going on in different
countries and in different disciplines. The way somehow we use to see the changes of
qualitative research practices as a consequence of the struggle between outdated and new
modes of thought wherein the better, valid and more adequate are always the renew ones,
is conceived as the second fallacy of such progress narrative guide us to think about
science development.
Qualitative research is particular and multivaried because of its roots in national

experiences. As ATKINSON (2005, 1) summarizes, there is "no question that qualitative
research of many varieties has flourished on a global scale over the past twenty years."
Even though many experiences are not very well known because of the absence of
discussion in international scale. There are lots of unknow research given that has only
published on the researchers’ native language, as Corbin says in the case of Grounded
Theory published in Spanish (CISNEROS-PUEBLA 2004).
2.1 North America

As ALASUUTARI (2004, 601) has commented on his critical view of globalization of
qualitative research "the theories and methodologies formulated from a centre position
are more easily heard and seen" than others coming out from the peripheries. Since 1994
when the first edition of the Handbook was published until the two years ago released
third edition, DENZIN & LINCOLN (2005) book have been very influential on the way
of thinking around the origin and development of qualitative research. They provided us a
temporal schema based on moments to think about qualitative research in North America.
The traditional moment (1900-1950) is associated to Malinowsi and the Chicago School
urban ethnography. The modernist or second moment (1950-1970) was described by
DENZIN & LINCOLN (:8) as “the golden age of rigorous qualitative analysis”, it is
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related to canonical texts as BECKER, et al (1961) and GLASER & STRAUSS (1967)
and it is dominated by rhetoric of positivist and postpositivist discourses. During the
“blurred genres” moment –term borrowed from GEERTZ’s books (1973 & 1983)- the
naturalistic, postpositist and constructionist movements gained some spaces in the
discussion. This third moment goes from 1970 to the second half of the 1980’s. The crisis
of representation or forth moment happened at the midst of the 1980s wherein new
models of truth, methods and representation were sought through of George Marcus,
Michael Fischer, James Clifford, Victor Turner, Edward Bruner & Clifford Geertz. The
posmodern or experimental period (1990-1995) correspond to the work and practice of
new ethnographers as Carolyn Ellis & Arthur Bochner and faced the triple crisis of
representation, legitimation and praxis confrontated by the qualitative researchers in the
context of the critical, interpretive, linguistic, feminist and rhetorical turns in social
theory. Sixt moment or postexperimental inquiry period (1995-2000) was was a period of
great excitement wherein the experiments with new ways of inquiry were the main goal:
literary, poetic, autobiographical, multivoiced, critical performative among others
representations were constructed. The seventh moment (2000-2004) is named “the
methodologically contested present” is the confluence of diverse approaches as critical
theory, feminism, queer theory, performative ethnography, and others to characterize a
period of great tension. The eight moment (2005-) is associated with “Bush science” and
evidence-based social movement.
American pragmatism and symbolic interactionist tradition are relevant contributions

from this part of the world to the international debate, even though its influence hasn’t
been comparatively evaluated in different regions. But it is possible now to compare the
American way of thinking qualitative research to the European case (KNOBLAUCH, H.,
FLICK, U. and MAEDER, C., 2005a, 2005b; FIKFAK, Jurij, FRANE, Adam and Detlef
GARZ, 2004 and FLICK, Uwe., E. VON KARDORFF and I. STEINKE 2004)), for
instance.
2.2 Germany
In the German case, MEY & MRUCK (2007) distinguish six phases in the development
of qualitative research in such country: (1) an initial flourishing followed by a decline; (2)
(re)invention and meta-theoretical foundations; (3) empirical elaboration; (4) technical
and reflexive elaborations; (5) consolidation and establishment; and (6) internationalizing
qualitative research.
The first period is characterized by the influence of hermeneutics and phenomenology

and in the specific field of sociology, Dilthey, Simmel, Mannheim, Weber and many
others, as Pierce, Dewey, Thomas and Znaniecki, played a crucial role in the early
elaboration of qualitative approaches. Lewin and Stern from the Hamburg Institute had
some influence in psychology . In the phase of (re)invention and meta-theoretical
foundations, texts by Lazarsfeld, Merton, Glaser and Strauss, Becker and Geer, Mead,
Blumer, Cicourel and many others reached a broader audience, especially in sociology.
Thanks to the influence of interactionist, phenomenological and hermeneutic apporaches
some technics as the objective hermeneutics (Oevermann) and the narrative interview
(Schütze) are developed. Deep-structure hermeneutics approach also appears in this
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period leaded by the Bremen group based on the work of Lorenzer. In the third phase,
recognized as of empirical elaboration, some other approaches are outlined, as the
problem-centred interview and the ‘qualitative content analysis’, developed by
MAYRING (2000). This phase is characterized by an interest on empirical research
instead of methodological and meta-theoretical debates. During the four phase German
researchers are not anymore concerned about data collection and its interest is focused on
data analysis. So, Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis (CAQDAS) Networking
Project from UK found in Germany excellent ideas and software prototypes to enhance
some discussions about technology and methodology. AQUAD, ATLAS.ti and WINMax
(very well know now as MAXqda) are some examples of qualitative computing
developed in this phase that, as MEY & MRUCK says (2007, 142) comprise since the
end of the 1980’s to the beginning of the 1990’s. The consolidation of German qualitative
research is associated to the strengthment of some working groups and associations as
well as the appearance of some journals and books. Metaphor and conversation analysis
and biographic approaches are relevant in this phase. Finally, the years for
internationalization of German qualitative research in the 21st century is seen as a
consequence of the development of some traditions as a whole and the permanent effort
of some projects as FQS journal (MRUCK, K., BERGOLD, J., BREUER, F. and
LEGEWIE, H., (2000).
It is important to say that MEY & MRUCK’s cartography, as they like to call their
contribution, never mentions GERHARDT’s analysis (1988) of qualitative sociology in
the Federal Republic of Germany, even though her analysis is illustrative of the presence
of Weber, Schütz, Simmel and Mannheim at the origins of qualitative research. It worths
to say, althought, Mey & Mruck’s description is similar to Flick’s scheme about the
trajectory of qualitative research in Germany. FLICK (2002, 2005) have wrote about six
phases of qualitative research in Germany: (1) Early studies (ending XIX-beginnings
XX), (2) Phase of import (early 1970s), (3) Beginning of original discussion (late 1970s),
(4) Developing of original methods (1970s-1980s), (5) Consolidation and procedural
questions (late 1980s & 1990s), and (6) Research practice (2000). GERHARDT (1988)
recognize five divergent positions in the German sociology of those days (narrative
interview, objective hermeneutics, life cycle, grounded theory, and constructivism) and
two traditions of methodology (sociology of language perspective and the biographical
perspective).
Even though the "hegemonic position" of sociology in qualitative research fields is partly
a (self) construction of sociologists (and others), as MRUCK, K., CISNEROS PUEBLA,
C. A. and FAUX, R. (2005) have outlined to talk about the centers and peripheries of
qualitative research, it is relevant to see the importan role played by the Qualitative
Sociology at the end of the 80’s in the discussion of international perspectives around
qualitative reseach. Beyond of any possible "sociological bias" in the evaluation of
qualitative research as a whole, we could know for instance, in the case of Israeli
qualitative researchers, COHEN (1988) recognize them as peripherical in the context of
American and European sociologies. Nowadays we have small description of the Israeli
national experience (WEILL 2005) to know about the absence of an anthropology
department in any Israeli university or college, which would traditionally foster
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qualitative methods, although it is visible the activity of the Isreli Center for Qualitative
Methodologies http://www.bgu.ac.il/ICQM/ . Although going back to the current German
Sociology case HITZLER (2005) recognize four main perspectives: methods,
biographical research, sociology of knowledge and Objective Hermeneutics.
2.2 Mexico
Currently the interest on qualitative methodologies is increasing in Mexico. Not counting
the professional associations that gather researchers of this orientation, nor the
specialized journals dedicated exclusively to qualitative research, Mexican social
scientists have been working on these traditions against the mainstream paradigm. From
previous decades, Cultural Anthropology, Urban Studies, Feminist Theory and
practitioners of community work accumulated experiences that nowadays make the
methodological reflection very rich. Just with illustrative purposes is interesting to
compare Mexican case to the New Zealand one because MAST (1988), for example, has
based her overview on qualitative research in New Zealand in three substantive areas:
cultural studies, feminist studies and community studies.
From diverse fields of knowledge, researchers have started to analyze people's daily
experiences, aiming to overcome the gap created by the conventional empirical paradigm
between science and common sense. This way, the “narrative turn” has been enriching
the Mexican actual ways of making social research. It is clear now that qualitative inquiry
is a critical and interpretive analysis of the narratives of everyday people in the real
world.
Social sciences as a whole have experienced unequal processes of development. Either at

a national or international level. Keeping in mind the big cultural differences, I could say
the history of Mexican qualitative sociology is similar to that which has been described
by KATO (1988) for the Japanese case. Since in both countries qualitative taditions was
assumed to have the same origins based on the analysis of the rich cultural inheritance
that accumulated for centuries, and was also similar in the debate between Sociology and
Marxism in the 60’s. Although Sociology, a discipline born in Japan after the Meiji
Revolution (1868) and in Mexico before the Revolution (1910), the two cases are
different at the present time, especially in the relationship with the empirical or
quantitative sociology. In Japan its presence is peripheral and in Mexico, on the contrary,
it dominates the institutional panoramas, converting in marginal to interpretive paradigm
constituted by comprehensive tradition, symbolic interactionism and ethnomethodology.
Our Social Psychology is also very recent and could be also compare to the Japanesse
Psychology (SUZUKI 2000). It dates back to the 80’s and the terms of the debate are still
being defined between the objectivistic and the interpretive paradigms. The first
Department of Psychology was founded in the first half of the 70’s, when the Department
of Philosophy was separated in the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. In those
years, Psychology was defined in behaviorist backgrounds and Social Psychology was
reduced to laboratory research on basic processes of minimum group. Until recently,
researchers who practice the interpretive paradigm formed by symbolic interactionism,
phenomenological and/or contructionist traditions, are gaining ground.
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I think that theoretical homogeneity of the 70’s was based on diverse interpretations of
Marxism, as well as in the Sociology of Development and in the Theory of Dependence.
In the 80’s, Mexican Sociology was characterized by the crisis of old theories and a
frenetic search for possibilities of empirical investigation which are more related to
empirical problems. "Theoretical pluralism" and a set of disenchantment characterized
those years.
Although OOMEN (1988) see Indian qualitative sociology as a fostered result of three
basic orientations of Indian sociology: traditionist, nationalist and pluralist, he
highlighted (:51) the influence of some Latin American social scientist –as Andre
GUNDER-FRANK, Paulo FREIRE and Ivan ILLICH, among others- on the Indian
qualitative sociologists.
Thinking in a Latin American perspective could be possible to explore the pertinence of

the next periodization of qualitative research to the Spanish speaking countries belonging
to American continent. Undoubtedly there are differences between Panama and
Venezuela or between Nicaragua and Mexico but, from my analitical view the
development of qualitative research in the region is understanble if we see it as: (1)
Origin of Social Sciences (first half XX century), with some specific features of
positivism in each country. (2) Abstracted empiricism and Marxism (1960s & 1970s),
struggling against some dictatorship in the most part of Central and South America. (3)
Theoretical Pluralism (1980’s), as a consequence of emergent democracies and some
external influences in the epistemological and ontological realms. (4) Dawn of qualitative
researh: Phase of uncritical import (1990’s), of theories, methods and approaches. (5)
Assimilation, use and analysis (2000), with no particular and relevant contributions. (6)
Desirable and possible scenarios (XXI century) with the reevaluation of some
experiences associated by FALS-BORDA and FREIRE, among others.
2.3 Spain
In his goal to provide a pictorial-cartographic representation of the case of qualitative
research in Spain, VALLES (2005) draw six different stages of qualitative social research
in such country. At the beginning of 20th century he found some roots in the social
reform and the novel in the works of authors as PÉREZ GALDÓS, BAROJA,
UNAMUNO, PALACIO VALDÉS or CLARÍN. The sociological philosophy of
ORTEGA Y GASSET (1913-1939) as well as the socioeconomic crisis (1913-1917), the
Second Republic (1931-36), and the end of Civil War, 1936-39 are the context of the
second period which is dominated by the influence of German neokantism and
phenomenology. The post-Spanish Civil War and exile parenthesis (1940-1959) outline
the next stage. During the four period the contribution of Jesús IBÁÑEZ is the main
feature, and VALLES called it “near sociological research roots” and it goes from 1960
to 1975. The boom: use and abuse? period (1975-1993) is the fifth one and represents
process of institutionalisation of sociology in a postdictatorship process. Finally, the
specialization and systematization stage (1994- today) depicts the coming of age period
for qualitative applied research and methodology in the Spanierd social sciences field.
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As we can see in the next section, the dialogue between qualitative researchers from
Spain and colleagues from other Spanish speaking countries has been permanent and very
rich. In a very meticulous way BOLIVAR & DOMINGO (2007) reviews and describes
the biographical-narrative research origin, development and variants in the social
sciences of Iberoamerican countries showing us the reciprocal enhancement qualitative
researchers from both sides of Atlantic Ocean and belonging to the Spanish speaking
world have had during decades. It would be interesting to evaluate the situation of
English speaking world to highlight the specific features of Brittish and American
qualitative research in the way some authors have done (HENWOOD, Karen & LANG,
Iain 2005; STRONG 1988) and compare also to the German case (FLICK 2005).
3. Qualitative Computing in Perspective: Spanish Speaking World

According to the classification proposed by CISNEROS-PUEBLA (2003), in Latin
American countries, we can observe today the coexistence of three kinds of qualitative
researchers:
1) those who prefer handicraft techniques of work (color pencils, scissors, cards, glue,
etcetera); they are the most “romantic” of the manual work who consider that this is the
real way of “touching” data and making interpretative analysis; they categorically reject
the use of computational techniques, frequently due to the poor kinship with computers or
due to the lack of experience with them;
2) those who privilege the use of general programs or “multipurpose programs” (word
processor, data bases, spreadsheet, etc.); they are researchers who are satisfied with the
use and results obtained with some technique and do not want to try other means, due to
the fear of confronting with more complex software, due to the lack of time to learn
them; and
3) those who use programs specifically designed for the analysis of qualitative data; they
are the great CAQDAS` defenders, that pronounce that they don’t want to go back to any
of the earlier phases and the researchers that go to the field with their lap top, their digital
video camera or their digital recorder, or those that have technical support for digital
transcription of qualitative data that had been originally stored in analogical format.
Independently of interpretative tradition in which the researchers are located (grounded

theory, phenomenology, constructionism or ethnomethodology), and research design
wherein inscribes his or her activity (discourse analysis, biographical studies,
ethnography, case study or any other), exists a corpus of documentary resources that give
rise to Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software as a singular and
privileged field of knowledge. Singular because is distinguished of other analytic efforts
linked to qualitative reflection by its specialization level, at the same time that represents
the combined effort of a scientific vanguard group that generate specific problems. As a
result, the whole discussion around coding, conceptual networks, hierarchical structures,
and hyperlinks among conceptual models, memos, codes and text segments, has not
generated without the participation of scientists involved on CAQDAS. Moreover, is a
privileged reflection area that has been extending, gradual and increasingly, to the
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numerous forms of doing research in the interpretative tradition. Indeed, computerized
techniques that at some time were identified as qualitative analysis of text, are already
supporting biographical studies; in turn, phenomenological reflections on the built
character of data are remitted to the central position that the selective code carries out
when being perfected by computer science use.
That some researchers call it “methodological revolution” in the qualitative research,

expressed by the introduction and invigoration in ways of thinking, to represent and to
link data from the computer, already possesses some books that are truly classic, as
TESCH (1990), FIELDING & LEE (1992), MILES & HUBERMAN (1994), KELLE
(1995), WEITZMAN & MILES (1995), among others. Although for the own speed with
which go incorporating the last advances of computing programming, the detailed
descriptions that are made of some versions, in a while of one year or two, should be
updated. Nevertheless, clarity of the analytic effort and concern to systematize
achievements and obstacles, make these books a required reference for any qualitative
researcher. Although is also interesting to observe that theoretical and conceptual
problems related with programs design by itself, has never been far from the research
requirements. For example, necessity of visual representation of conceptual interaction
meant a challenge for theoretical modelling strategies or, necessity of import-export data
to statistical numeric calculation software has meant a bring up to date of problems linked
to triangulation strategies and elaboration and improvement of blended and mixed
methodologies.
Beyond of any classification systems to include each software of CAQDA, it is worth to

remember that the decision around which of them to use and for what reason will not
only depend on the research’s goals, but also depend on the tradition in which design and
analysis type that you wanted to carry out are supporting. TESCH (1992) affirms that to
choose the program we should consider the variations in the processes of data analysis.
Mainly when recognizing that for “qualitative analysis” we understand non numeric data
analysis; indispensable distinction since should be recognized that text’s meaning
understanding, which is a research central task, is not an activity that can be calculable or
computerized then can not be reduced to algorithmic processes neither should be treated
as a purely mechanical task.
Overall, when it is possible to distinguish a new pattern on using qualitative software

(FIELDING & LEE 2002) formed by users with a limited theoretical and conceptual
social science background is necessary to be aware of Computer Assisted Qualitative
Data Analysis Software risks, advantages and limitations. Because from the perspective
of current questions about cognitive processes involved in qualitative data analysis is
relevant to generate knowledge on unmeasured and unjustified confidence to computers
as well.
3.1 A brief look about CAQDAS early experience in Iberoamerica

Be that we think on computer science application in interpretative studies, be that we
recognize the “methodological revolution” in qualitative research or that, finally call to
this whole field qualitative analysis assisted by computer, when evaluating its practical
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and/or exercises in Spanish speakers countries in those that, should necessarily be
recognized that software and hardware have not been developed, we are in front of a
recent history. And follow its trail is not easy task. In fact, we can affirm that
Iberoamerican qualitative researchers are pending of computer science advances and they
are using these tools.
For the debate that generated and the information that presented even though the revision
wasn’t updated sufficiently, some manuals, chapters of anthologies and teaching books
published in Spain (VALLES 1997; RODRÍGUEZ, GIL & GARCÍA 1999 and
NAVARRO & DÍAZ 1999) have been of great utility. Although we also be obliged today
to consider the teaching tasks, formation, dissemination and preparation of guided cases
that different investigators have prepared in their respective Universities and Institutions.
For the case of Mexico, highlight the Program of Qualitative Health Research of
University of Guadalajara and its training trajectory in the use of Ethnograph and the
Area of Rural and Urban Studies of Metropolitan Autonomous University Campus
Iztapalapa and its training trajectory on the use of NUDIST and graduate courses on
qualitative methodology. As an important and notorious influence through
interconnectivity in WWW, we have the indispensable and praised work that has
developed in Spain (MUÑOZ 2000) from Autonomous University of Barcelona, on
Atlas-ti training, application to research projects and his manual in Spanish version has
been of great utility for the Spanish-speaking community. Although we should also
mention the valuable contribution that has represented from Argentina, for qualitative
analysis assisted by computer, RODRÍGUEZ, P. G. (1997) who has developed a wide
work of diffusion of Qualitative Solutions & Research tools, included his NUD*IST4
Quick Reference Guide in Spanish. No doubt would be great to have a teaching book in
Spanish for CAQDAS; in Mexico, there are efforts in this way.
On the other hand, RODRÍGUEZ, P. G. (1998) made a small and simple investigation in
which he quantify Latin American researchers participation in several mailing lists linked
to qualitative analysis data assisted by computer. In spite of difficulties to have the
complete lists of subscribers, his analysis stands out that the presence of Latin American
subscribers doesn't even reach 3% participation in the included lists (QUALRS-L, Qual-
software, QSR-Forum and Atlas-ti) and, regrettably, only includes researchers from
Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Mexico, Uruguay and Venezuela. These countries,
during a period of two weeks in 1998 when was carried out the lists report had one or two
subscribers in some of these lists.
Next, we will mention like example some of the papers that either by reports suitably
official statements in the form of chapters of books or articles in scientific journals has
made mention of some use of qualitative computers programs. We also include articles
and/or papers that are available in personal or institutional web pages. As will be
observed immediately, articles and/or papers from Brazil, Chile, Ecuador and Venezuela
are not mentioned, regrettably in spite of that reported by RODRÍGUEZ, P. G. (1998).
Equally, it happened in case of Colombia, country in which is developing a solid and
increasing qualitative research also is developing an interesting training strategy on
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qualitative computing (CARVAJAL, D. 2002). However, all of us are waiting for more
and more published reports about using CAQDAS.
In this section, we present some data at once to Spain, Mexico, Argentina and Uruguay.
This does not mean that in other countries of Latin America there is not qualitative
research assisted by computers. Express only that there still are not available information.
Spain. Beyond of the work developed from the Autonomous University of Barcelona
around the use of the Atlas-ti, we can verify that some experience has accumulated in
recent dates in this country with other software. Among other, the investigation carried
out by VILLAR, CABERO, MORALES, BARROSO, CABERO & DOMENE (1998)
around the use of the new technologies for High School professors in Seville, reports that
HyperResearch was used to carried out coocurrence textual analysis of selected codes
with Delphi technique. CARERAS (1997) meditates on the application of AQUAD in the
specific field of case studies for the horizon of special education. When studying children
and girls integration with special educational necessities in the Physical Education
classroom, RIVERA, TRIGUEROS & CAMACHO (2000) have reported the use of
indexes generated with NUDIST. On the other hand, CABERO & MÁRQUEZ (1997)
affirm that now they are few studies that do not use some computer program to try with
interviews, newspapers and another type of documents to show that, researchers of the
Institute of Sciences of the Education of the University of Seville, before “reduction” and
data analysis prefers to use HyperResearch.
From these four experiences, we can mention that, without being linked directly to
qualitative health research they are an example of research report carried out by
CAQDAS use. Indeed, in all of them the use of software is only mentioned (AQUAD,
NUDIST or HyperResearch) but does not discuss its relevancy and adequacy in the data
construction process. As has been affirmed above, this practice is maybe associated to the
erroneous underlying supposition that using qualitative software constitutes a solid
support to reliability and validity of qualitative analysis.
Another mention requires the investigation on causes of blood donation decrease in

Catalonia that constitutes the hermeneutic unit with which MUÑOZ (2000) illustrates
Atlas-ti functions for the textual data qualitative analysis.
Mexico. Similar situation appears in Mexico. Articles of Mexican scientists mentioned

software use (Ethnograph, Atlas-ti, Text base Alpha and Anthropac) and exclusively in
one of them (CASTRO 1996) questioning on data construction when thinking about
“transformations of the information” in the qualitative methods (from observation and
interview to recording, from there to transcription, at once coding to arrive, finally, to
interpretation). Is also important notice here that for its use in “free lists” analysis (listing
free of words) the program Anthropac, developed by BORGATTI (1992), has been used
as a tool of lexicographical analysis.
In a study on micro socials decisive factors to health care services election carried out in
some urban areas of Mexico, BRONFMAN, CASTRO, ZÚÑIGA, MIRANDA &
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OVIEDO (1997) applied 192 open interviews and formed 8 focal groups with sick
individuals and 61 interviews to doctors and health care services lenders. All the
interviews, with duration average of 60 minutes, were processed with Ethnograph. When
studying the family’s confrontation mechanisms facing addictions, NATERA & MORA
(2000) report the use of Text base Alpha to emergent categories handling. In order to
illustrate complexity of qualitative approaches, CASTRO (1996) has presented the
treatment that he gives to interviews carried out in rural environments using Ethnograph.
Also, research projects are developed around social, cultural and economic factors of
alternative health services production (NIGENDA, MORA, ALDAMA & OROZCO
2000) and about physicians perceptions on their own practices and on institutional
exercises of medical assessment (MORA & NIGENDA 2000), in those that conceptual
networks will be orchestrated using Atlas-ti. On the other hand, CABALLERO & URIBE
(1998) have reported analysis of cultural universes around AIDS using Anthropac.
Lastly, is worth to highlight that there still are not reports that have leaned on using
NUDIST and NVivo. That which is natural since is very early the incorporation of these
tools to the institutional academic life, in most of the cases it is investigations that are still
in process.
Argentina. In inverse sense of what happens in Mexico with reference to software with
approach based on index system, in Argentina its use has already been reported.
Therefore, CEIRANO & RODRÍGUEZ (1997) have presented what themselves considers
like one of the first investigations that uses NUDIST for discourse analysis purposes;
concept of poverty is analyzed as semiotic object socially built. Independently of the
appropriateness of using NUDIST for to do discourse analysis when NUDIST’s
developers link it, insistent and recently, to Grounded Theory tradition (RICHARDS
1999), the teamwork of the Superior School of Social Work of the National University of
La Plata is highly praised.
Uruguay. In this country of South America, we only find that UISDP (1995) incorporates
in its discussions topics related to computer science role in qualitative data analysis.
To finalise this section is worth to make patent the interest that has appeared in the last
years in Peruan, Chilean, Venezuelan and Central American scientific communities for
using NVivo and Atlas-ti in multicentric research projects context directed toward some
of public health and/or educational evaluation dimensions problems. Although almost the
majority of them are going on or are in the final phases writing reports. I want to
emphasize the necessity to add efforts around the constitution of researcher social
network that are using some type of CAQDAS in order to establish better communication
strategies and exchange of experiences.
4. Obstacles and Challenges

Visualizing some perspectives for social qualitative research in Mexico, CISNEROS-
PUEBLA (2000) identified eight problematics areas to be strengthened to develop the
traditions associated to the qualitative paradigm. Eight years after such identification is
still valid but nor only to Mexico but to the whole Spanish speaking world. Such areas
Verlag
are: Political Action and Empowerment, Journals, Networks, Civic Journalism,
Interdisciplinarity, Conceptual Heritage, Assemble and New Topics.
In this final section I would like to add some other problematic isues to the practice of
qualitative research in the Spanish speaking worlds I am interested in, Latin America.
Doing it I wanted remember that SEALE, Clive, GOBO, Giampietro, GUBRIUM, Jaber
F. & SILVERMAN, David (2004) generated a project to discuss about qualitative
research practice, a topic relatively neglected in American publications, but they didn’t
published an “European” book, as they like to say. Next ideas could be appear very
“Latinamerican” to some audiences but they are inspired by very specific social
conditions different to those descibed by ADAM, Frane & PODMENIK, Darka (2005)
for Slovenia; BRUNI, Attila & GOBO, Giampietro (2005) and CORRADI, Consuelo
(1988) for Italy; WYKA, Anna (1988) and KONECKI, Krzysztof T., KACPERCZYK,
Anna M. & MARCINIAK, Lukasz T. (2005) for Poland; EBERLE, T. S. and ELLIKER,
F. (2005) for Switzerland; SCHUBOTZ, Dirk for Ireland and ENEROTH Bo (1988) for
Sweden.
What are the main obstacles and challenges to Latinamerican countries?
First one is the digital divide and the speed technological change. Latinamerican
countries are living in a complete technological delay. The illusion of “globalized”
internet communication is just that, an illusion. Related to that and particularly connected
to the previous discussion on qualitative computing appears the trouble of software
development, market and training: there are not latinoamerican software developers and
get training is too hard. Third obstacle is the lack of professionalized fields to apply the
social and human disciplines: Sociology and Social Psychology, just to mention few
cases, are barely professionalized in the public space, in the society as a whole. In
addition, there are still a huge need for local, community, national and international
networking to enhance qualitative research practice.
CISNEROS-PUEBLA, Cesar A., FAUX, Robert & MEY, Günter (2004) from Mexico,
US and germany, respectively wrote a piece about the concept of interview society and
their agreement about the topic is relevant because of the obvious difference between the
social production of each one knowledge. By the way I would like to remember some
characteristics of the interviewing in the context of interview society to conclude this
essay. The characteristics are: the confessional mode of discourse is a form of
entertainment, the private is a public commodity, the private self is the real self,
interviewers “have access” to this self, certain experiences are more authentic than others,
persons have access to their own experiences and the first-person narratives are very
valuable.
Interviewing is one the basic techniques of data collection. What about that? I would like
to call the attention about some remarkable and basic dilemmas Latin American
qualitative researchers have to deal with when they decided using any form of qualitative
interview as data collection strategy. The dilemmas are: (1) the informed consent is not
yet an institutionalized interaction between interviwers and interviewee, i.e, there are not
Verlag
a legitimated and legal conection between real persons doing co-research. (2) there are
not either a clear and rigorous understanding how the self is produced. (3) Personalization
is an incomplete and contested topic in the real daily life. (4) Lack of techniques and
methods appropriate to any participant, with the consequent absence of data analysis
strategies. (5) Urgent neccesity of secondary qualitative data archives. (6) Future
discussion about work and get out inner views instead of interviews. (7) Participants
recruitment is always big issue and there is no any ethical regulation on it.
Just using the theme associated to interviews, such dilemmas are crucial for qualitative
research in Spanish speaking world. Why? Because if we decide compare Spanish
qualitative research practice to the American one described by DENZIN, we will dicover
a huge “temporal” distance between our practices: Mostly of the research in my world is
conducted by means of the structured, semi-structured and/or open-ended objective
format. According to DENZIN such practices belong to the traditional moment (1900-
1950) and to the modernist or second moment (1950-1970). There is no much experience
interviewing from the feminist criticisms of these formats (third moment is 1970’s and
1980’s in Denzin’s ideas and forth moment is in the midst of the decade of 1980’s).
Being honest there is no auto-ethnographic style and postexperimental writtings in Latin
american qualitative research practice (Denzin’s periods 5 & 6) and the performative turn
(seven moment) doesn’t exist in our current practice.
Is it fair comparing that way the national experiences? Don’t think so! As CISNEROS-
PUEBLA, César A.; DOMÍNGUEZ FIGAREDO, Daniel; FAUX, Robert; KÖLBL,
Carlos & PACKER, Martin (2006) have pointed out it is urgent to incorporate into our
agenda as qualitative researchers discussions of how epistemological perspectives are
constructed and how social conditions can shape qualitative inquiry differently. GOBO
(2005) has suggested five scenarios for the future of qualitative research: (a) the major
formalization of the methods; (b) the development of data analysis; (c) the marriage
between computers and qualitative research; (d) the necessity of qualitative methods in a
multicultural society; and (e) the implications for applied research. Spanish speaking
world will participate in such scenarios providing its contribution, I hope.
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CESAR, Ciseneros. On The Roots of Qualitative Research

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Cisneros, C. (2008) On the Roots of Qualitative Research.

En Josef Zelger, Margit Raich, y Paul

To illustrate some of the methodological issues the qualitative researchers from

2. Qualitative Research in a Globalized World

Qualitative research is particular and multivaried because of its roots in national

2.1 North America

American pragmatism and symbolic interactionist tradition are relevant contributions

The first period is characterized by the influence of hermeneutics and phenomenology

Social sciences as a whole have experienced unequal processes of development. Either at

Thinking in a Latin American perspective could be possible to explore the pertinence of

3. Qualitative Computing in Perspective: Spanish Speaking World

Independently of interpretative tradition in which the researchers are located (grounded

That some researchers call it “methodological revolution” in the qualitative research,

Beyond of any classification systems to include each software of CAQDA, it is worth to

Overall, when it is possible to distinguish a new pattern on using qualitative software

3.1 A brief look about CAQDAS early experience in Iberoamerica

Another mention requires the investigation on causes of blood donation decrease in

Mexico. Similar situation appears in Mexico. Articles of Mexican scientists mentioned

4. Obstacles and Challenges

What are the main obstacles and challenges to Latinamerican countries?

Alasuutari, Pertti: The Globalization of Qualitative Research. In Seale, Clive, Gobo,

Atkinson, Paul: Qualitative Research—Unity and Diversity [25 paragraphs]. Forum

Bolívar, Antonio & Domingo, Jesús: Biographical-narrative Research in Iberoamerica:

Borgatti, S. P.: ANTHROPAC 4.0. Methods Guide. Columbia: Analytic Technologies

Cisneros Puebla, C.: Computer-Assisted Qualitative Analisis. In: Sociologias, No. 9,

Corradi, Consuelo: Qualitative Sociology in Italy. In: Qualitative Sociology 11 (1 & 2)

Denzin, Norman K. & Lincoln, Yvonna S. (Eds.): Handbook of Qualitative Research.

Denzin, Norman K. & Lincoln, Yvonna S. (Eds.): Handbook of Qualitative Research.

Eberle, T. S. and Elliker, F.: A Cartography of Qualitative Research in Switzerland,

Eneroth Bo: The Invisibility of Qualitative Sociology in Sweden. In: Qualitative

Flick, Uwe., E. von Kardorff and I. Steinke: A Companion to Qualitative Research.

Gobo, Giampietro: The Renaissance of Qualitative Methods [22 paragraphs]. Forum

Hitzler, R.: The Reconstruction of Meaning. Notes on German Interpretive Sociology,

Kato, Hidetoshi: Qualitative Sociology in Japan. In: Qualitative Sociology 11 (1 & 2)

Mayring, P.: Qualitative Content Analysis, Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/ Forum:

Mey, Günter and Katja Mruck: Qualitative Research in Germany

Miles, M. & Huberman, M.: Qualitative Data Analysis. An Expanded

Muñoz, J. J.: Análisis cualitativo de datos textuales con ATLAS/ti. 2000,

Oomen, T. K.: In Search of Qualitative Sociology in India. In: Qualitative Sociology 11

UISDP: Boletín No. 4. 1995, http://www.rau.edu.uy/fcs/banco/boletines/bol4.htm#inicio

Valles, M.: Técnicas cualitativas de investigación social. Madrid: Síntesis 1997

Weil, Shalva: Qualitative Methods in Israel [22 paragraphs]. Forum Qualitative

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