Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 188 (2023) 113767

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Review article

Wind turbine nacelle testing: State-of-the-art and development trends

Muhammad Omer Siddiqui a,b ,∗, Paul Robert Feja a , Philipp Borowski a , Hans Kyling a ,
Amir R. Nejad b , Jan Wenske a
a Fraunhofer Institute for Wind Energy Systems IWES, Am Luneort 100, 27572 Bremerhaven, Germany
b Department of Marine Technology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NO-7491, Trondheim, Norway

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Wind turbine nacelles are complex machines that are designed to operate under extreme loads and harsh
Wind turbines environments. Extensive tests are performed throughout their development process to ensure that they can
Drivetrains operate with high reliability. As both onshore and offshore wind turbine systems have rapidly evolved, so have
Nacelle testing
the methods for testing the nacelle systems and subsystems. This paper presents the state of the art in wind
Wind turbine certification
turbine nacelle testing and the development trends in this field. It discusses the existing test requirements
Reliability
Grid compliance testing
for certification and the different levels of testing that form part of a nacelle system’s development. The
latest changes to the nacelle certification requirements are highlighted, along with several important research
activities related to drivetrain testing. Future challenges for nacelle testing are identified and their potential
solutions are proposed.

1. Introduction
Wind power generation has become the most representative source
of renewable energy, as almost 94 GW of capacity was added in
2021, bringing the global cumulative wind power capacity to 837 GW
and representing a year-over-year growth of 12% [1]. This growth is
driven by both the rising number of wind turbines that have been
installed and the fact that modern wind turbines are of a much larger
power rating than their predecessors. Figs. 1 and 2 show the increasing
trend in power rating and rotor size for both onshore and offshore
wind turbines. As the global transition towards renewable energies is
accelerating, it is expected that around 557 GW of new capacity will
be added in the next five years [1].
Wind turbine manufacturers are competing to capture the greatest
market share in this growing industry by developing reliable and
cost effective wind turbine systems [2,3]. However, with the drastic
changes in wind turbine sizes, several new challenges have appeared
for developing reliable designs, as larger wind turbines tend to suffer
more failures than smaller ones [4,5]. Furthermore, the design practices
and standards for wind turbine drivetrains have not yet fully matured,
as there is limited experience with such huge machinery operating in
harsh environmental conditions [6,7]. As a consequence, the reliability
of wind turbine drivetrains and their subsystems, such as the gearbox
and generator, has not improved as desired and still poses several
technical challenges [8,9]. Wind turbine drivetrain reliability is of
significant importance, as its failures cause long downtimes with costly
repairs, which dominate the overall O&M costs [10,11]. It has an even
higher importance for wind turbines that are installed offshore or in
remote locations with limited accessibility, making regular inspections
and maintenance very challenging. Developing more reliable wind
turbine systems increases their operational availability, which can help
in reducing the O&M costs [12].
Therefore, to improve wind turbine system reliability and ensure
that the final product fulfills all the requirements of international
standards, comprehensive testing of wind turbine nacelle systems and
their subsystems forms a fundamental part of the entire development
chain. However, with the growing demands of the rapidly evolving
wind turbines, the methods and requirements of testing relevant for
wind turbine nacelle systems have seen significant advancements in
recent years. New testing methods are being developed to shorten the
certification process and time to market. It is important to bear in mind
these recent developments and identify any foreseeable challenges. De-
spite several significant advances in nacelle testing, there has not been
an extensive set of research exploring these developments. This paper
is the first attempt that addresses the current position of nacelle system
testing and the industrial practices in this field. It reviews the state of
the art of testing methods that revolve around wind turbine nacelles
and their subsystems. It highlights the key research developments in
the field of nacelle system and subsystem testing. It also addresses the
foreseeable challenges in testing modern wind turbine nacelles. For the
most important of the discussed challenges, the paper also suggests

∗ Corresponding author at: Fraunhofer Institute for Wind Energy Systems IWES, Am Luneort 100, 27572 Bremerhaven, Germany.
E-mail address: muhammad.omer.siddiqui@iwes.fraunhofer.de (M.O. Siddiqui).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113767
Received 2 October 2022; Received in revised form 14 September 2023; Accepted 18 September 2023
Available online 7 October 2023
1364-0321/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M.O. Siddiqui et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 188 (2023) 113767

Over the years, wind turbines have witnessed a wide variety of

Abbreviations
BRT Bearing robustness test
DLC Design load case
DOF Degree of freedom
DUT Device under test
FE Finite element
FGW Fördergesellschaft Windenergie und andere
Dezentrale Energien
FRT Fault ride-through
GRC Gearbox Reliability Collaborative
HiL Hardware-in-the-loop
IEA International Energy Agency
IEC International Electrotechnial Commission
LAS Load application system
LSS Low speed shaft
LVRT Low voltage ride-through
NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory
O&M Operation and maintenance
OEM Original equipment manufacturer
UL Underwriters Laboratories
possible solutions. The focus of this paper is primarily on nacelle system
testing of horizontal axis wind turbines, excluding every other type of
wind turbine such as vertical axis wind turbines. Ground testing of the
nacelle system, which may include the drivetrain systems, subsystems,
components, and auxiliaries that are housed inside the nacelle cover of
a horizontal axis wind turbine, will be referred to as ‘‘nacelle testing’’
in the context of this paper. Test requirements and methods for small-
scale wind turbines are also not covered in this paper. Furthermore,
topics related to industrial procedures for nacelle system testing and
the specifics of the nacelle test bench facilities are obtained from the
limited publicly accessible information.
The paper begins with a brief introduction of a wind turbine nacelle
system and describes the various purposes of testing. Then, a systematic
review is performed on the current certification requirements that are
related to wind turbine drivetrain and subsystems. Afterwards, the state
of the art of different levels of testing related to wind turbine nacelle
drivetrain and subsystems is presented. Then, the current industrial
practices are described, focusing on test procedures that form part of
a nacelle system’s development. In light of the completed review, the
present status of the state of the art for nacelle system testing is ana-
lyzed. Afterwards, the development trends related to the nacelle system
and subsystem testing are highlighted and discussed. The challenges for
nacelle testing are identified, and possible solutions are suggested. The
paper ends with a summary and concluding remarks.
2. Wind turbine nacelle system and the purpose of testing
The nacelle system of a wind turbine comprises the entire drive-
train, cooling system, yaw system, control electronics, and, in some
designs, the power conversion system. Modern wind turbines utilize
the aerodynamic lift forces acting on the blades to produce a net
positive torque on a rotating shaft resulting in mechanical power. The
drivetrain of a wind turbine is a chain of sub-systems and components
that converts this mechanical power to electrical power and transmits
the parasitic rotor loads to the bedplate and tower. The sub-systems
and components forming a drivetrain typically include the main shaft,
main shaft bearings, gearbox, coupling, safety brake, and a generator.
The drivetrain is assembled on a bedplate that provides a point of
attachment to the yaw system which controls the orientation of the
nacelle.
drivetrain concepts. Fig. 3 describes the different drivetrain concepts
in the form of a classification tree. The classification of the drivetrain
concepts as geared drivetrains and direct drives is the most common
form. Fig. 4 shows the schematics of a wind turbine nacelle system
with a geared drivetrain and a direct drive. The majority of wind
turbines installed in past decades have nacelles with geared drive-
trains [13]. Geared drivetrains seem to be the dominant technology in
onshore wind turbines, whereas the majority drive system technology
for offshore application is still not definitive [2,7].
Regardless of the drivetrain concept, modern wind turbines are
required to have high availability and reliability with an expected
operational life of at least 20 years [15]. Stochastic wind loads, complex
rotor dynamics, emergency stops, grid losses, and wave-induced loads
(in the case of offshore wind turbines) impose significant loads on
drivetrain components [16,17]. Such extreme operational conditions
demand a very robust and reliable drivetrain system with a compre-
hensive development process and detailed technical requirements. To
ensure that the final product meets the required design objectives, test-
ing at every level of the product development chain plays an important
role. Testing of wind turbine systems, as mentioned in [16], may have
the following purposes:
• Validation of models used during the design process
• Identification of possible design problems and testing different
solutions
• Ensuring operational safety
• Obtaining certification for a new design
• Prototype testing for verification and development of new turbine
designs
• Research and development to advance the current state of the art
Moreover, testing can also aid in estimating the reliability of critical
systems and components of a nacelle, which can allow wind turbine
operators to plan the maintenance procedures throughout a turbine’s
lifetime. Lack of testing, on the other hand, increases the risk of failures
that could lead to the opportunity cost of spending time rectifying
the failed system, repair costs, regulatory fines, and loss of reputation.
Performing comprehensive testing throughout the development phase
ensures that the best version of the product enters the market. It
helps in achieving the required system reliability, which increases the
operational availability, which can subsequently lead to lower O&M
costs.
3. Certification requirements
In the early days of wind energy use, the requirements for the
drivetrain systems of wind turbines were mostly functionality driven,
and the drivetrain relevant loads and dynamics were either not known
or often underestimated [18]. As a consequence, a lot of drivetrain-
related failures were experienced in the past decades, which led to
several standardization activities and design certification procedures
in the 1980s eventually being incorporated into international frame-
work in the early 1990s [19–21]. Since then, mandatory certifications
and design standards for wind turbines systems have been established
that require standardized testing of wind turbine systems in order to
improve system safety and reliability.
3.1. Major levels of certification
The wind turbine certification activities involve independent proof
of performance, safety, and design verification undertaken by approved
entities to ensure that the wind turbines are built and installed in
accordance with the defined guidelines, codes, and standards [16]. All
wind turbine systems require different levels of certifications. The five
major levels of certification as recognized by DNV [22] are:

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M.O. Siddiqui et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 188 (2023) 113767

Fig. 1. Rapid growth in power production capacity of onshore wind turbines between 2000 and 2019 with further growth potential up to 6 MW by 2035 .
Source: Data gathered from [2,14].

Fig. 2. Power production capacity of offshore wind turbines increased rapidly between 2000 and 2019 with further growth expected up to 20 MW by 2035.
Source: Data gathered from [2,14].

• D-level certification: Applicable for the conceptual design stage
• C-level certification: This level has a prototype certificate as the
final deliverable. It involves demonstration of wind turbine design
for the prototype stage during the development of a new wind
turbine type.
• B-level certification: The provisional type certificate is issued.
• A-level certification: Fulfillment of the complete certification
scheme resulting in a type certificate
• Site-level certification: Site-specific certification for integration
towards project certification
Fig. 5 shows the sequence of the principal levels of certifications
needed for the realization of a commercial wind turbine system and its
installation in a wind farm (both onshore and offshore). A prototype,
by definition, is the first specimen of a new turbine design, and the
prototype certification process evaluates this design and allows the
customer to manufacture, install, and operate a prototype wind turbine
during the period of validity of the certificate. Prototype testing is
typically carried out on site and involves examination of design-related
requirements during the production and erection phases.
The type certification involves the complete assessment of the serial
product and certification of all the components of the wind turbine
along with checks for quality, safety, and workmanship. The complete
system design is evaluated with an option to perform site-specific
design assessment. Furthermore, component certificates, which cover
relevant modules of type certification, may be issued for specific com-
ponents, such as the gearbox, brake, coupling, yaw system, nacelle
frame, generator, and other electrical components. Details for perform-
ing the aforementioned certification procedures are provided by DNV
in the DNVGL-SE-0441 [22] specification document.
The site level certification covers the design, testing, and manufac-
turing of site-specific conditions of wind turbines and is preparation for
project certification. During this process, the wind farm is monitored
periodically from manufacturing until the commissioning phase.

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M.O. Siddiqui et al.
Fig. 3. Wind turbine drivetrain classification tree.
3.2. Standards for wind turbine system testing and measurement techniques
In 1995, the Technical Committee TC 88 within the IEC initiated
efforts for the international standardization of wind turbine certifi-
cation procedures. Since then, several developments have occurred
in standardization procedures as the wind turbine technology was
evolving, leading to a series of IEC 61400 standards [15,23–50]. From
these, the following IEC standards exist for wind turbine system testing
and measurement techniques:
• IEC 61400-4 Design requirements for wind turbine gearboxes
(with recommendations for gearbox testing)
• IEC 61400-8 Design of wind turbine structural components
• IEC 61400-11 Acoustic noise measurement techniques
• IEC 61400-12-1 Power performance measurements of electricity
producing wind turbines
• IEC 61400-12-2 Power performance of electricity producing wind
turbines based on nacelle anemometry
• IEC 61400-12-3 Wind farm power performance testing
• IEC 61400-13 Measurement of mechanical loads
• IEC 61400-21 Measurement and assessment of power quality
characteristics of grid connected wind turbines
• IEC 61400-22:2010 Conformity testing and certification (with-
drawn on 31-08-2018 and replaced with the deliverables for
the wind sector (WE-OMC) contained in the IECRE Conformity
Assessment System [51])
The IEC standardized the procedures to obtain the type and project
certificates which are elaborated by DNV in the DNVGL-SE-0074 [52]
specification document. Additionally, DNV also maintains existing type
certificates according to old schemes like GL-IV-1 [53], GL-IV-2 [54],
and IEC WT 01 [55]. In Germany, additional technical guidelines have
been developed by the FGW since 1992, and measurements in accor-
dance with FGW guidelines [56–65] are required by the transmission
system operators for the purpose of calculations with regard to con-
nections to their power grids. However, these guidelines have already
formed the basis for the IEC 61400 series of standards, which will more
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 188 (2023) 113767
or less replace the FGW guidelines by integrating its content [56]. A de-
tailed overview of wind turbine certification requirements in different
countries is summarized in the DNV Report 2020-1194 [66].
3.3. Grid compliance requirements
Since wind turbines are power-producing plants connected to the
power grid, general grid compliance rules with additional regional
regulations have to be followed. A grid code specifies how a power-
generating system should behave under normal as well as abnormal
grid conditions. Grid codes may vary depending on regional and ge-
ographic differences. However, all grid codes have the same ultimate
goals of ensuring safe and reliable operation of the power system as
their aim. The main elements of grid codes typically include [67]:
• FRT requirements
• active/reactive power control
• frequency/voltage regulation
• power quality
• system protection
The recommended assessment methods for grid compliance are ad-
dressed in the IEC TS 63102:2021 [68] standard which include the
simulation, testing and monitoring of drivetrain electric systems. The
IEC 61400-21 [36] standard defines the testing methodology for full
power testing of a grid-connected wind turbine. Grid compliance testing
is crucial for validation of electrical simulation models and assessing
if the wind turbine power electronics comply with the relevant grid
codes. The current state of grid compliance testing of wind turbines
requires field tests, with only some components, such as the grid
protection devices, being tested at laboratory facilities [69,70]. In
Germany, the use of test benches for the electrical certification has
been approved by means of the technical guideline FGW TR3 [58].
The new IEC 61400-21-4 [38] will make this option internationally
available as well, allowing FRT and reactive power control tests on test
benches [71].
4. Testing types
A wind turbine nacelle comprises multiple mechanical and electrical
components and subsystems. Testing is therefore performed at different
levels of system integration and throughout the development process.
Similar to other major industries, the different levels relevant for the
development of wind turbines follow the testing pyramid [72] as shown
in Fig. 6. The cost of testing and complexity increases as we move up
the testing pyramid. Moreover, the level of uncertainty also increases,
partly due to the physical limitations of load measurement systems,
test setups, and the lower number of tests conducted. As it is more
feasible to conduct a large amount of testing at component and material
levels as opposed to system and product level, the statistical uncertainty
reduces as we move down the testing pyramid. Nevertheless, each level
of testing plays a vital role in the development of the final product, as
will be discussed in the following sections. Special emphasis will be
given to system testing on the nacelle test bench.
4.1. Product testing in the field
Field testing sites offer a primary platform for full-scale testing
and the complete performance assessment of the entire wind turbine
system. This enables the manufacturers to validate their designs and
modeling codes as well as to identify problems and make necessary
improvements before the final product enters the commercial market.
Such sites have test pads, where complete wind turbine prototypes are
installed for testing. These test pads are also integrated with a grid
simulator that enables the prototypes to be tested under certain power
anomalies such as grid faults and frequency fluctuations to ensure that
the product complies with the power grid.
M.O. Siddiqui et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 188 (2023) 113767

Fig. 4. A typical wind turbine nacelle system with a geared drivetrain (left) and a direct drivetrain (right).

Fig. 5. Sequence of major certification levels for wind turbine systems [22].

Fig. 6. Testing pyramid for wind turbines.

Generally, field tests are performed when the complete wind turbine
prototype requires type certification. Specialized field-testing facilities
like the NWTC at the NREL [73] offer field tests in accordance with the
MEASNET and IEC standards as follows:
• Acoustic Noise according to IEC 61400-11 [30], IEC 61400-
14 [35] and the MEASNET Acoustic Noise Measurement Proce-
dure [74]
• Power Performance according to IEC 61400-12-1 [31] and the
MEASNET Power Performance Measurement Procedure [75]
• Mechanical Loads according to IEC 61400-13 [34]
• Power Quality according to IEC 61400-21 [36] and the MEASNET
Procedure for Measurement of Electrical Characteristics [76]
• Duration, Safety, and Function Testing according to IEC 61400-
2 [23]
Before performing the field tests, a site evaluation is conducted to
assess the site-specific conditions according to IEC 61400-12-1 [31].
Field testing may focus on any aspect of wind turbine operation and,
therefore, requires a large number of sensors of different types to ensure
that all quantities of interest are being measured. A detailed list of
sensors needed for full-scale wind turbine testing can be found in [16].
An example of the full-scale testing data can be obtained from the LIST
program [77].
Even though field testing of wind turbine prototypes provides the
most realistic platform for system level performance evaluation, accord-
ing to [78,79], it has the following shortcomings:
• Uncertainty in wind measurements and consequent loads
• Lack of freely adjustable and reproducible load conditions
• Long waiting times for ideal wind conditions to reach the desired
load spectrum

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M.O. Siddiqui et al.
Table 1
Typical mechanical and electrical tests conducted on a nacelle testing bench.
Mechanical tests Electrical tests
Modal analysis FRT tests
Acoustic noise and vibration Control performance
Speed and torque ramp-up Frequency variations
Heat run Flicker tests
Lubrication tests Grid impedance
Parasitic loads Harmonic injection
Shock tests Power quality
• High testing costs
Furthermore, certain problems arising due to the interaction of multiple
drivetrain components might only be discovered after deployment in
the field [78]. Since field tests are the final comprehensive check of
the complete wind turbine and an important step in the certification
process, it is always desirable to solve all major issues prior to field
testing.
4.2. System testing on the nacelle test bench
Demands for lower testing costs and faster times to market moti-
vated the wind industry to seek alternate methods for testing wind
turbine nacelles. As a result, significant advances have been made to-
wards finding alternatives to field testing in recent years, leading to the
development of several ground-based nacelle testing facilities around
the world [80]. These facilities offer system-level testing capabilities for
the complete nacelle with a goal of applying realistic loads in multiple
DOF that the drivetrain components will endure in field operation.
Some of the individual tests that can be conducted during a nacelle test
campaign are listed in Table 1. Compared with field testing, nacelle test
benches offer a number of advantages, including:
• Providing a controlled environment for performing electrical and
mechanical testing with repeatable loads
• Deterministic loads with the possibility of load application with
a single or multiple degrees of freedom
• A platform for model validation
• Possibility to perform robustness tests
Table 2 provides a list of active and independent nacelle test
benches from around the world, most of which belong to a public
research institute. Beside the listed test benches, manufacturers such
as Vestas, Goldwind, and Adwen (now part of Siemens Gamesa) have
nacelle testing facilities as well, however they are only available for
their own use [81]. Although the testing facilities listed in Table 2 are
all considered nacelle test benches, they differ significantly from each
other in terms of their size, configuration, operational capacity, load
ranges, and testing features such as real-time wind and grid emulation.
However, most of the nacelle testing facilities have the following key
features:
• A drive system
• A non-torque load application system
• A grid emulator
• Rotor emulation in real-time via HiL
4.2.1. Drive system and load application system
The drive system can be powered by a single or multiple motors,
which apply the torque loads and speed ramps on a nacelle DUT. The
drive system can be either a direct drive or a geared drive. Although
geared drive systems have the advantage of requiring smaller drive
motors, they have lower dynamic capabilities for applying torque when
compared to direct drive systems. The drive system can have speed
and torque control capabilities by incorporating a sophisticated drive
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 188 (2023) 113767
controller, which is usually an observer-based controller [82–85] due
to the physical limitations in measuring the drive torque in the MN m
range for the feedback signal [86,87].
The non-torque loads are applied by a LAS, which is operated by
either hydraulic piston actuators similar to a Stewart platform, or an
array of prestressed actuators located on a spinning journal disc. In both
types, the LAS is powered by an extensive hydraulic circuit to provide
fluid power to the LAS actuators. The LAS and the drive system have
a rotating flange interface with a bearing to isolate the two systems.
The LAS can apply static loads, however a certain degree of dynamic
loads can also be applied with dynamic ranges depending on the type
and size of hydraulic actuating system. Together with the drive system
and the LAS, 6-DOF loads can be applied on the drivetrain, combined
or unidirectional in a controlled and repeatable fashion.
4.2.2. Grid emulation
Validation of a wind turbine’s compliance with grid codes and
technical guidelines is conventionally done by performing lengthy test
and measurement campaigns on fully erected wind turbines in the
field. Using this approach, conclusive statements about a wind tur-
bine’s power quality and FRT capability can only be made late in its
development, as the entire turbine needs to be developed, constructed
onsite and fully operational. Additionally, an appropriate test site for
the erection of a new wind turbine, possibly a prototype which has
not yet officially received a type certification, needs to be found in
the first place. Unknown wind turbine characteristics and uncontrol-
lable grid behavior at the test site, be it time-variant grid frequency,
background harmonics, or an unknown grid impedance [88], pose
further difficulties in grid compliance testing. Furthermore, it is not
feasible for certain properties such as frequency changes, phase jumps,
control interactions, and increasingly complex grid code requirements
regarding black-start and grid-forming capabilities to be tested in the
field at all [89].
Grid emulation describes the concept of artificially replicating the
electrical behavior of the power grid but with full control over its
characteristics (amplitude, frequency, harmonics, etc.). Modern nacelle
test facilities use a power electronic converter system as their grid em-
ulator [89]. The converter system is used as a controlled voltage source
and, when combined with a digital real-time simulator running a virtual
grid model, can replicate many grid characteristics and even mimic grid
faults such as over-voltages and voltage dips. With a grid emulator,
certification-relevant grid connection tests on a wind turbine can thus
be performed in a known and controllable laboratory environment
without the constraints of the real power grid. Fig. 7 schematically
shows the grid emulation principle. When done accurately, the DUT
cannot distinguish between an artificial and a real power grid.
Few research facilities currently operate large-scale grid emula-
tor systems specially designed to perform grid integration tests for
multi-megawatt wind turbines (listed in Table 2). Each of them has
differences in the grid simulation capabilities, mainly in terms of capac-
ity, which have been summarized in the NREL report [90] with further
details of Dynalab in [91–93], the CWD grid simulator in [89,94,95]
and the CENER grid simulator in [96].
4.2.3. HiL system
HiL testing refers to a combined process of simulation and hardware
testing in which parts of the system are represented by models in a
simulation environment while other parts of the system exist in physical
hardware [79]. In HiL testing, the following parts of a wind turbine
are typically part of the physical hardware that is installed in the test
facility:
• Mechanical drivetrain which refers to the main bearing assembly
including the main shaft, a gearbox (if part of the drivetrain
concept) as well as possible couplings and brake system
• The generator and the corresponding power converter system
M.O. Siddiqui et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 188 (2023) 113767

Table 2
List of active nacelle testing facilities around the world, excluding the test benches operated by wind turbine manufacturers.
Source: Gathered from [81] and updated.
Nacelle test Test Drive Non-torque Maximum Real-time Real-time
facility capacity system loads torque wind grid
CWD RWTH 1 MW Geared 4-DOF 0.33 MN m ✓ ✓
Aachen 4 MW Direct 5-DOF 3.4 MN m ✓ ✓
NREL 2.5 MW Geared Radial, thrust 1 MN m ✓ ✓
5.8 MW Geared 5-DOF 4.6 MN m ✓ ✓
CENER 8 MW Geared 5-DOF 6 MN m × ✓
Fraunhofer IWES 10 MW Direct 5-DOF 13 MN m ✓ ✓
Clemson 7.5 MW Geared 5-DOF 6 MN m ? ✓
University 15.7 MW Geared 5-DOF 15 MN m ? ✓
ORE 3 MW Geared 5-DOF 5 MN m × ✓
Catapult 15 MW Direct 5-DOF 14.3 MN m ? ✓
LORC 10 MW Direct × 12 MN m ✓ ✓
10 MW Direct 5-DOF 15 MN m × ×
20 MW Direct 5-DOF 32 MN m ? ?

Fig. 7. Grid emulation principle on a wind turbine nacelle test bench using a power electronic converter as a controllable voltage source and a virtual grid model on a real-time
simulator.

• The generator and global turbine controllers
• Mainframe (depending on the drivetrain configuration)
Other components of a wind turbine, which are not physically present
at the nacelle test bench, are modeled and coupled to the hardware
system in order to emulate field-like conditions such as the wind and its
turbulence, rotor blades, hub (if not present at the test bench), tower,
aerodynamics, and possible wake effects as well as certain electrical
grid conditions.
In earlier developments of HiL test setups for wind turbine drive-
trains, simplified torsional models were used to emulate the dynamic
behavior of the wind turbine rotor [97,98]. With modern aeroelastic
simulation tools being capable of executing fully-coupled time domain
load simulations faster than in real time, the level of model detail
has increased significantly [99]. However, the dynamics of the applied
loads during the tests are limited by the aeroelastic models, which can
roughly be estimated to be reliable up to 5–10 Hz. The virtual wind
turbine representation has an interface at the hub flange and another
at the tower top, which might include or exclude the yaw drive and
bearing depending on the test setup. Fig. 8 provides a general schematic
of a HiL framework in a nacelle test bench.
Depending on the control variable of the test bench drive, different
setups are possible, posing the challenge of emulating the large inertia
of the wind turbine rotor, which is not present at the test bench [83,
100]. A feedback between the hardware and the virtual components
needs to be established to allow for a closed-loop control scheme.
Typically, the following variables are exchanged between the virtual
and the physical systems:
• Speed or torque setpoint, provided by the virtual model and
applied at the test bench’s prime mover
• Pitch angle or pitch rate setpoint, provided by the controller
hardware of the DUT and forwarded to the virtual rotor model
• Drivetrain rotation speed or torque feedback, measured or esti-
mated at the DUT and forwarded to the virtual model
It is also possible to use a model which incorporates a simplified
drivetrain model [101]. In this case, the drivetrain might be repre-
sented twice; once physically on the test bench and once virtually in
the simulation model. The simulation model provides the rotational
speed setpoint to the test bench, while the corresponding generator
torque is returned to the model. In a more sophisticated approach (as
implemented in [101–103]), the drivetrain can be cut out of the simu-
lation model, which makes it possible to forward the actual hub torque
from the simulation model to the test bench motors. In this case, the
feedback signal is the rotation speed of the drivetrain’s LSS as measured

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M.O. Siddiqui et al.
Fig. 8. HiL testing on a nacelle test bench.
on the test bench. This setup allows for far greater dynamic control
using the torque as a set-point, but requires increased efforts when it
comes to test bench control as well as model interface definition and
model stability.
Where nacelle and drivetrain testing of wind turbines is concerned,
a HiL test can be implemented for a number of different reasons:
• To increase the level of realism of nacelle testing by emulating
wind, rotor, and tower effects, which are not a physical part of
the nacelle test
• To allow testing of the actual wind turbine controller implemen-
tation and generator-converter system in a realistic environment
• For electrical certification of wind turbines on a nacelle test bench
by recreating the standard electrical certification relevant tests
and DLCs
The primary reason for implementation of a HiL test setup is the
electrical testing of nacelles at the test bench [78,102]. As described
above, the certification process requires certain tests to be conducted
in the field, which often involves long waiting times for proper wind
conditions in combination with the possibility to perform the intended
tests. This is where HiL tests offer considerable potential to speed up the
electrical certification process by providing a realistic representation of
the simulated components.
4.3. Subsystems, components, and material testing
The main drivetrain subsystems include a brake system, gearbox and
generator. Gearbox testing as defined in the IEC 61400-4 standard [26]
is as follows:
• Prototype tests on a test rig
• Robustness tests on a test rig
• Cold climate tests in a climate chamber
• Component and subsystem tests
• Material test
• Field tests of the gearbox
• Field tests of the gearbox oil
• Acceptance tests for series production
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A new edition of the IEC 61400-4 standard will be published soon that
will suggest a failure mode-oriented view for the verification process
of the design [104]. It will allow the use of verification and validation
of a new gearbox type based on similarity with previous designs and
variants if at least one variant of the type is verified by testing.
Apart from the reliability and performance aspects, gearboxes are
developed for minimal emission according to IEC 61400-11 [30] with
experimental evaluation of generated airborne noise. The majority of
the preceding tests (with the exception of field tests) can be per-
formed in dedicated gearbox test rigs. Gearbox manufacturers generally
have their own test rig facilities to carry out certification-relevant and
production-related gearbox tests [105]. A gearbox test rig generally
comprises of back-to-back configuration, which includes a driving gear-
box that is connected to a driven gearbox (which is the device being
tested) and attached to a counter torque unit. It can have either a
mechanical power circulation or electrical power circulation [106,107].
There are even possibilities for variable torque loading [108].
The test methods for electrical subsystems are defined in the IEC
61400-21 [36] standard. Generator-converter test rigs (such as the
GeCoLab [109] at Leibniz University Hannover and the ABB drivetrain
testing laboratory [110]) allow the investigation of stationary and
dynamic properties of generator-converter system and their interac-
tions. They provide a platform to evaluate the electrical drivetrain
dynamic performance, grid codes requirement fulfillment, converter
dimension optimization, and validation of simulation models against
full power testing. The different types of generator-converter tests may
include [80]:
• Functional, efficiency, vibration, and acoustic tests for the gener-
ator
• Overload tests for the generator and converter
• Overspeed tests and transient surges for the generator
• Heat-run tests for the generator and converter
• FRT tests
• Accelerated lifetime tests on the generator and power electronics
In general, gearbox and generator manufacturers test their products
in consultation with the wind turbine manufacturers before they are
delivered [16].
M.O. Siddiqui et al.
Another drivetrain subsystem is the mechanical brake, which is
located on either the low-speed side or the high-speed side of the
gearbox. The mechanical brakes are engaged for parking and emer-
gency stop operations. Clutch-type brakes and caliper brakes are the
commonly used types of drivetrain brake systems [16]. An inertial
brake tester with adjustable brake inertia is typically used for the
performance tests of the brake system with high speed and heavy loads
of the multi-megawatt class wind turbines [111,112]. Shutdown tests
with braking procedures are also conducted during the course of wind
turbine commissioning tests as a mandatory requirement according to
the IEC 61400 standard [15].
Component level tests include individual testing of bearings, gears,
shafts, and couplings mainly performed by the component suppliers.
Larger bearings (such as the main bearings of multi-megawatt wind tur-
bines) are tested on dedicated bearing test rigs [113,114]. Component
testing has the advantage of performing several tests with overload ca-
pacity and good observability. However, they have some shortcomings
in terms of synthetic interfaces, reduced degrees of freedom, and lack
of system influence [115].
Material-level testing forms the base of the testing pyramid and
primarily includes static strength tests, dynamic tests, characteriza-
tion of materials, damage analysis, and quality tests [80]. Details on
material testing of drivetrain components are available in GL-IV-1
guideline [53].
5. Nacelle system and subsystem testing: Current industrial ap-
proach
Modern wind turbine nacelles require testing at various stages of
system integration and throughout the development process. Several
tests have been standardized by the IEC that are mandatory for ob-
taining certifications. Based on the guidelines that are described in
standards, the wind turbine manufacturer develops the overall system
and derives its product requirements. These requirements are sent to
subsystem and component manufacturers, e.g., gearbox and generator
suppliers, who test their products according to the given requirements
before shipping them to the wind turbine manufacturers [16]. The
gearbox suppliers may develop and optimize their product design in
cooperation with the wind turbine OEMs [116]. These companies may
further repeat the process for purchasing the components, e.g., bear-
ings from their suppliers. The subsystem and component suppliers
may follow company-specific procedures for quality assurance or a
set of quality assurance procedures agreed upon by the wind turbine
manufacturers and the suppliers, such as the APQP4Wind [117]. The
test procedures that are required in standards or are mandatory for
certification are performed all along the development chain.
In other industries, the well-known V-model for system design
according to VDI-2206 [118] is commonly followed as a product de-
velopment methodology which links the development tasks and ver-
ification activities via iterative processes. It has been well practiced
across several major industries such as the aerospace industry [119],
the automotive industry [120,121], and in the railway industry [122].
For the development of a wind turbine system, the V-model approach
can be practiced in which testing can be performed at every level of
system integration [80,123,124] as shown in Fig. 9. On the left side
of the V-model, the product is broken down into different integration
levels, each having its own set of requirements. On the right side,
the design properties for each integration level are assured by means
of validation and verification and integrated into the overall product
property fulfillment.
Currently, test requirements have been standardized at material,
component, subsystem and product integration levels. However, for
the system integration level, there are still no standardized test re-
quirements. Nacelle testing is a fairly new approach compared with
other aspects of wind turbine testing, such as structural testing of wind
turbine support structures, which is already quite established in the
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 188 (2023) 113767
design process. As the existing IEC standards do not specify nacelle
testing as a mandatory requirement during the development process,
the verification and validation activities of the complete drivetrain and
nacelle system may vary between wind turbine manufacturers. Gener-
ally, the wind industry follows the conventional approaches for turbine
technology development using a combination of modeling tools, scaled-
model validation testing, and risk mitigation through prototype field
testing [125]. The OEMs require subsystem tests from the supplier and
only a few OEMs include system-level testing on nacelle test benches
during the development process. They may perform nacelle tests for a
new system design, a redesign of the system, or a technology change.
Consequently, the extent to which the V-model approach is followed
varies between wind turbine manufacturers since not all of them per-
form nacelle testing on a test bench during their product development
process. Modern nacelle test benches offer the possibility to perform a
variety of tests, and the method of utilizing these testing features can
also differ among OEMs due to multiple reasons, such as:
• type of tests employed (robustness tests, control performance,
etc.)
• system in focus (mechanical system, electrical system, auxiliaries,
etc.)
• various subsystems that may or may not be part of the test (yaw
system, cooling system, lubrication system, etc.)
Furthermore, for the same type of tests and system in focus, the OEMs
may conduct nacelle testing by following the DLCs according to the
IEC standards or use their own test profiles and load cases which are
tailored for the desired assessment of their product on a nacelle test
bench.
In principle, field testing of complete wind turbines provides the
necessary system-level assessment but is often a lengthy process. Since
field tests are necessary to acquire type certification, it is preferable
to perform them successfully without running into any unforeseen
design concerns that might delay the certification process. Although
nacelle testing on test benches comes at a certain cost, incorporating
nacelle testing prior to field tests can uncover undesirable performance
issues that would have otherwise been identified only during field test-
ing. This could potentially shorten the time required for field testing,
resulting in a quicker certification procedure and bringing the final
product to market faster. Despite these potential benefits, not all OEMs
currently incorporate nacelle system testing into their development
process. One of the reasons for this could be the additional expense
of performing nacelle testing on a test bench facility. By reducing the
cost of nacelle system testing on test benches, it is believed that more
OEMs might incorporate nacelle testing in their development process.
6. Development trends
6.1. Emphasis towards system-level approach
Despite reasonable adherence to the accepted design practices, fail-
ures related to gearboxes are frequent and often require significant
repairs well before the end of their intended design life [8,9,126].
The NREL conducted extensive case studies in the GRC project to find
the possible causes of this issue. The project employed a three-step
approach, which involved simulations, ground based laboratory tests,
and field tests. By considering the entire drivetrain in the test setup, the
findings of the GRC project highlighted the non-torque loads entering
the gearbox in 3-point mounted drivetrains as a significant contributor
to planet bearing loads and rolling contact fatigue which can lead
to premature gearbox failures [127,128]. Following the design and
verification approach as stated in the current state of the art, such issues
are typically verified during field tests which allow the evaluation of
system-level performance and the assessment of gearbox under possible
non-torque loads. However, it is desirable to identify and resolve such
M.O. Siddiqui et al.
Fig. 9. V-model approach for testing of wind turbine systems.
design issues before performing field testing, as any re-designing at that
stage will cause significant delays in obtaining certification.
Consequently, a greater interest has been observed in system-level
tests using nacelle test benches, limited not only for geared drive-
trains but also for direct drivetrains, where evaluating the influence
of non-torque loads on the generator air gap is crucial. In addition
to utilizing nacelle test benches for system-level testing, conventional
gearbox testing methods are also being enhanced with non-torque load
application capabilities. A new 30 MW gearbox test rig is currently
being developed at ZF Wind Power’s future Test and Prototype Center
in Lommel, Belgium [129]. This test rig will offer back-to-back testing
of two powertrains or two gearboxes simultaneously with non-torque
load capabilities for simulating the various wind loads that a nacelle
powertrain might experience in its lifetime. Such enhancements to the
conventional back-to-back gearbox testing approach will enable the
assessment of potential non-torque loads entering a gearbox prior to
field testing.
Furthermore, aside from the rotor-side loads, there has been a
growing interest in analyzing the influence of dynamic grid events on
the drivetrain components. A grid loss can cause severe slippage in the
gearbox’s high-speed bearings, and many researchers consider it a trig-
ger for bearing failure [130]. In the DynaGET project [131], studies are
being conducted using a nacelle test bench to evaluate the influences
from the grid side on the drivetrain system (primarily the gearbox). It
is becoming apparent that system-level testing during the development
phase can help in understanding the possible failure mechanisms and
reduce the existing reliability issues. Some wind turbine manufacturers
perform nacelle testing as part of their quality assurance procedures.
However, the adoption of system testing on nacelle test benches by all
OEMs as a regular (or mandatory) step during the development process
is yet to be seen.
6.2. Innovations in subsystem and component testing
The development of better test procedures for improving gear-
box reliability requires knowledge of the damages mechanisms that
occur during operation as well as the damage-relevant loads. The
phenomenon of ring creep, which occurs especially in wind turbine
planetary bearings due to rapidly increasing gearbox torque density,
has been a topic of research in recent years as it can lead to secondary
failure modes. Although the ring creep is somewhat understood on
small-scale model test benches, it is still not possible to predict ring
creep accurately in planetary bearings of wind turbine gearboxes during
normal operation [132]. In the project WEA-GeR [133], test methods
are being developed to describe the gearbox robustness against such
failure modes. Preliminary findings from the developed methods for
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predicting ring creep seem promising, however the results are highly
dependent on the correct information of the manufacturing tolerances
and, at best, would predict ring creep in a probabilistic rather than a
deterministic way [134].
At component level, the existing testing methods for bearings only
investigate isolated failure mechanisms such as the standard fatigue
tests. However, this approach is unable to completely replicate the real
load conditions that the bearings of a wind turbine gearbox endure dur-
ing operation [135]. To resolve this issue, new bearing test rig designs
have been proposed [136] in the WT-BearingCenter.NRW project [137]
to test full-size rolling bearings under real operating conditions. Here, a
novel method for performing a BRT has been developed, which consists
of a load spectrum relevant for classic fatigue combined with critical
operation modes (emergency shutdown, LVRT, etc.), which trigger
the specific bearing failures [138,139]. Preliminary results based on
simulations have demonstrated that the proposed methodology using
the new test rig can reproduce the specific field load situation [140].
Inclusion of this novel BRT process early in the product development
cycle may possibly help reduce the failure rate of the bearing, provided
the load conditions during the proposed robustness test are comparable
with those in field operation.
Besides reliability, developing lightweight drivetrain components is
another desirable design objective that wind turbine manufacturers aim
to achieve. In the Gusswelle project [141], new lightweight main shaft
designs made of cast iron are being tested and evaluated in a main
shaft testing facility at Fraunhofer IWES. This test setup allows highly
accelerated fatigue testing of the main shaft device under test, allowing
rapid evaluation of several design variations.
6.3. Testing novel measurement concepts and technology qualification for
other sectors
Nacelle test benches have been employed to develop novel methods
for torque measurement and drivetrain efficiency evaluation in recent
years. The MN m Torque project [142] delivered new methods for mea-
suring mechanical torque in MN m range on the drivetrain low speed
shaft with high certainty [143–145]. Accurate torque measurement is
important, since it can be used for drivetrain condition monitoring
and can potentially be an input for the wind turbine controller for
improved system control. Moreover, effective determination of torque
is also the primary method for the efficiency determination of wind
turbine drivetrains [146]. The findings from the MN m Torque project
have been further applied in the WindEFCY project [147], where
standardized efficiency determination methods are being developed for
wind turbine drivetrains using nacelle test benches [148–150].
M.O. Siddiqui et al.
Nacelle test benches have also been used for developing and testing
new technologies. The EcoSwing project [151] utilized the 10 MW na-
celle test bench at Fraunhofer IWES to test and evaluate the world’s first
MW-scale superconducting generator for wind turbines [152,153]. The
HydRoLa-6M project [154] introduced a hydrodynamic main bearing
concept for future drivetrains that has been developed and tested using
the 1 MW test bench at the CWD. The successful implementation of
such technology in future wind turbines has the potential to improve
their reliability and operational availability.
Furthermore, another new application of nacelle test benches is the
testing of machinery from the marine industry. The OsT project [155]
demonstrated the use of the 1 MW test bench at the CWD to develop
methodologies for lifetime testing of a tidal turbine drivetrain system.
Observing the success of this project’s test objects [156], one can expect
to see nacelle test benches employed beyond the wind industry in the
future.
6.4. Nacelle test benches for certification
Though nacelle test benches are able to recreate several field-like
drivetrain responses [157,158], this does not necessarily imply that
they can fully replace field testing, as there are certain limitations, pri-
marily due to the absence of physical structures such as the blades and
the tower [159]. However, performing some (if not all) certification-
relevant tests in a laboratory environment can help reduce the time
and effort involved with in-field certification tests.
The IEA established Wind Task 35, in which the existing nacelle
test laboratories collaborated to develop a framework for unified na-
celle test descriptions [160]. Starting in 2014, the IEA Wind Task 35
members developed recommendations for test methods for full-size
ground test rigs comparable to in-field tests and listed load cases which
could serve as an extension of the DLCs of the IEC 61400 standard in
order to facilitate and shorten the type certification procedures [161].
Since then, activities related to standardized testing methods using test
benches to facilitate and improve the type certification procedures have
seen several advances.
However, in order to do so, a nacelle test rig’s ability to reproduce
the DLCs plays a crucial role for performing certification-relevant tests,
which may vary between different test facilities due to specific test
bench configurations. The possibility of reproducing the DLCs specified
in the IEC 61400-1 [15] on a nacelle test bench was investigated at the
Clemson University nacelle testing facility. The studies demonstrated
the test rig’s capability to replicate mechanical loads on the drivetrain
based on an IEC 61400-1 [15] DLC and proposed a method and
acceptance criteria which are applicable to any wind turbine drivetrain
test bench [162–165].
Compared to mechanical tests, significant advances have been made
in performing electrical certifications of wind turbine nacelles on a
test bench, as was demonstrated in the recently completed CertBench
project [166]. In this project, a complete wind turbine nacelle of 3 MW
rated power with direct drive configuration obtained electrical certifi-
cation in compliance with FGW TR3 [58] solely based on tests carried
out on the nacelle test bench. With the comparisons of the test bench
measurements against the field tests showing good correspondence, the
project concluded that electrical certification activities can be carried
out on nacelle test benches without any major restrictions [102].
The ongoing ReaLCoE project [167] is developing a modular testing
and certification concept for next-generation offshore wind turbines
with double-digit rated power with a focus on balancing costs and
validation processes. Part of the project will involve accelerated testing
of the prototype using a nacelle test bench with the aim of shortening
the certification process and reducing the time to market.
In light of the aforementioned developments, UL published a tech-
nical report [70] which compares the capabilities of electrical tests
conducted on test benches and offers suggestions for standard electrical
tests that can be conducted on test benches. According to this report,
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the use of nacelle test benches, instead of measurements in the field,
is acceptable as long as the response of the DUT is equivalent to the
field response and an agreement has been reached with the certification
body in advance. Furthermore, the IEC Technical Committee 88 is
aiming to specify uniform testing procedures for nacelle test benches
on a global basis and addressing the definition of a nacelle test bench,
system requirements, and test and measurement procedures [168].
Bearing the aforementioned developments in mind, it can be ex-
pected that nacelle test benches with advance HiL systems will con-
tribute significantly towards the electrical certification of wind turbines
in the near future.
6.5. Advances in grid compliance testing
Grid compliance testing has seen significant developments in recent
years with sophisticated grid emulators that allow the possibility of
emulating a variety of grid connection types and grid events on a test
bench. The HiL-GridCoP project [169,170] is aiming to reduce test costs
further and shorten the time to market via the approach of minimal
system testing. The project features a wind turbine generator-inverter
test stand with a 9 MW (13 MW overload) drive unit to reproduce
realistic generator moments, a virtual rotor to account for the dynamics
of the missing wind turbine rotor, and a grid simulator to reproduce the
different grid states to be tested. The methodology of minimal system
testing implemented in the project includes only the components that
define wind turbine electrical behavior. These include the generator,
converter, and transformer. It is believed that this minimal testing
approach not only offers economic advantages linked to testing costs
but also permits improved testing quality and higher accuracy when
reproducing the design load cases.
Grid compliance testing is conventionally performed at dedicated
sites as part of the electrical certification of wind turbine systems. In the
Mobil-Grid-CoP project [171], mobile grid stations are being developed
that can be transported to various field test sites and installed between
the grid connection point and the wind turbine to emulate an electrical
grid and, thus, provide a high degree of flexibility in grid compliance
testing.
In a joint research project called PQ4Wind [172], a component-
level converter test bench of 8 MW power capacity is being developed
with a focus on examining the high-frequency harmonic and impedance
behavior of wind turbine converters up to 10 kHz. The project further
aims for component-based certification of the electrical characteristics
of power generation systems.
The successful completion and demonstrations of the aforemen-
tioned projects will increase the available options for the OEMs to
perform grid compliance testing and, quite possibly, help reduce the
testing costs and shorten the time to market.
6.6. Scaled model testing
Scaled testing has seen a variety of applications in wind turbine
research. Scaled wind tunnel tests have demonstrated the possibility
of testing and developing blade pitch and torque controllers [173].
The usefulness of scaled tests for pitch bearings was also demonstrated
in [174], where scaled test specimens showed similar wear behavior
to the actual pitch bearing. For offshore wind turbines, the downscaled
wind turbine floating platform structures are tested to understand their
dynamic behavior and validate simulation models that could be used
to analyze the full-scale structure. These scaled models can be tested
either in the field [175] or in a wave tank testing facility [176]. In
fact, wave tank testing using scaled models has been a standard practice
during the conceptual design development phase and for structure
dynamic validation [177].
In the area related to wind turbine drivetrains, efforts are being
made to explore the prospects of scaled testing. One such example is
the research work conducted in the LastVal [178] and VirtGondel [179]
M.O. Siddiqui et al.
projects, where a scaled-down version of the nacelle test bench load
application system is being used to optimize the existing methods of
nacelle testing as well as to develop and evaluate new possible test
methods. This scaled-down approach provides a low-cost system for test
method development compared with the full-scale system.
To elaborate the scaled testing for nacelle drivetrain systems fur-
ther, a design concept for a scaled testing facility as well as scaling
methodology is presented in [180]. This research work identifies scal-
ing of a system in terms of similarities in the geometric, kinematic
and dynamic characteristics with respective to the original system. A
method for downscaling for dynamics is proposed by using a scaling
factor that relates the dynamic response of the full-scale system and the
downscaled system. While still in a concept phase, the work outlines
the fundamental principles of scaled-down testing for wind turbine
drivetrain systems. Although this testing platform currently applies
non-torque loads in 5 degrees of freedom, it could subsequently be
modified with a drivetrain system for application of loads in all 6
degrees of freedom.
A step-by-step procedure to downscale a wind turbine gearbox was
proposed in [181] and analyzed using the 5 MW NREL reference wind
turbine model. The results showed the possibility to downscaling a
gearbox to 0.01% of its rated power with under 10% relative deviation
of its pitting safety factor. Further improvement of such approaches
can help in developing downscaled testing methods for drivetrains with
lower testing costs.
Adaptation of scaled testing can be learned from the experiences
of other industries such as the automotive industry [182–186] and the
railway industry [187–191], as they have seen a much higher use of
scaled testing methods involving rotating machine elements.
6.7. Virtual testing
The advancements achieved in simulation technology in recent
years have enabled the modeling of entire test setups in a virtual
environment. This has allowed engineers to simulate the majority of
the standard tests and corresponding system responses in great detail
and with great accuracy. Virtual testing can be defined as a method
that simulates the complete lab testing using analysis software [72].
The concept of virtual nacelle testing began with the early work
at Clemson University, which established the modeling framework for
developing a virtual nacelle test bench [192]. This was followed by
further published work giving detailed insights into the modeling of
the test bench’s hydraulically actuated load application system with a
focus on controller development, performance assessment, and evalu-
ation of the static load uncertainty of the test bench load application
unit [193–195].
Since then, significant advances have been made in the area of
virtual nacelle testing. In [196,197], a detailed approach for developing
the virtual model of the 1 MW CWD test bench is described with
the focus on developing the test bench controller and comparison
of the test bench response with the full wind turbine response. The
modeling approach of the load application system of the Dynalab test
bench is described in [198] with a demonstration of the use of modal
strain recovery as a method for model validation. The modeling of
the Dynalab test bench drive system model is described in [199] for
replicating HiL tests. In [159], further analyses were performed to
identify and quantify the differences in the dynamic response of the
DUT when on the nacelle test bench compared to when in the full wind
turbine.
With special focus on the gearbox, virtual testing demonstrated the
capability to replicate various standard nacelle tests fully in [200], with
subsequent validation studies for examining the gearbox response un-
der parasitic loads in [201] and planetary bearings in [202]. In [203],
the virtual testing was used to study the influence of grid-loss events
on nacelle components and to quantify test bench damping. In [162–
165], a series of experimental studies combined with virtual testing
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were performed to investigate the test bench capabilities in terms of
replicating loads as per the design load cases required for certification.
In [204–206], virtual testing was used extensively to investigate the
dynamic loads caused by the grid-side faults and their influence on the
gearbox, specifically the high-speed shaft bearings.
Most of the aforementioned virtual test benches are similar in terms
of not only the modeling depth but also the method of operation. This
means that the same load setpoints that are given to the actual test
bench during physical testing can also be given to the virtual test bench
model as inputs. This allows comparison of the measured response and
simulated response on a one-to-one basis. Further advantages of virtual
testing include:
• Identification of hazardous load cases
• Preparation of load cases prior to actual testing
• A platform for model validation
• Distinguishing of the test bench dynamics from the wind turbine
drivetrain dynamics
• Determination of quantities of interest that are difficult to mea-
sure otherwise
• A platform for test bench controller development
• A platform for developing new testing methods
The latest upcoming edition of the IEC 61400-4 standard provides alter-
natives for verification through comparison with previous designs and
simulation in addition to physical testing [104]. It allows verification
and validation by simulation based on models specific to the identified
failure modes and risks, as long as the system operates within the
defined boundary conditions of the models. These developments can
give virtual testing a whole new meaning as some physical testing may
be carried out virtually using suitable simulation models, which can
result in cost savings.
7. Challenges in nacelle testing
7.1. Operational complexity
Nacelle test benches represent an alternative for performing cer-
tification relevant tests, which may help reduce the required number
of field tests. However, being complex systems, they come with their
own set of operational challenges. Nacelle test commissioning involves
intricate configuration and calibration of various components such
as sensors, actuators, control systems, and data acquisition systems.
Comprehensive safety protocols during the commissioning phase are re-
quired to protect the nacelle device, test bench, and personnel involved.
Ensuring that safety procedures are in place and adhered to can be chal-
lenging, particularly in high-risk test scenarios. The test bench control
systems also often require tuning and optimizing for the specific nacelle
DUT and finding the right balance between stability, responsiveness,
and accuracy requires expertise and iterative adjustments. Moreover,
ensuring the accuracy and consistency of the instrumentation and
measurement devices used in nacelle testing is crucial for accurate data
acquisition, which often requires several checks during the commission-
ing phase. Furthermore, nacelle test bench require several tests with
in-depth analysis to understand their own dynamic behavior (which is
crucial for isolation from the dynamics of the nacelle test specimen).
Seamless integration of all systems during commissioning is chal-
lenging and often time consuming and any delays during commis-
sioning can impact the overall project schedule and budget. These
challenges can be resolved by establishing systematic procedures dur-
ing commissioning phase. The overview of the systematic sequence
of activities for projecting nacelle testing presented in [207] and the
commissioning challenges encountered during the testing of the 8MW
wind turbine nacelle prototype discussed in [208] can provide mean-
ingful insights and some guidance to the nacelle test operators during
the commissioning phase. The experimental vibration testing approach
M.O. Siddiqui et al.
demonstrated in [209] can help in understanding the structural dynam-
ics of a nacelle test bench. The test method explained in [210] can
be utilized to distinguish the control bandwidth of the drive system
as well as identify possible sources of excitation arising from the drive
motors, which may possibly excite the DUT during testing. Such test
methods, combined with detailed virtual models of the test bench load
application system as described in [193–196,198,199] can assist in
identifying and isolating the test bench dynamics from the dynamics
of the nacelle DUT. Virtual testing can also play an important role
in allowing controller tuning and the assessment of test profiles prior
to commissioning. Developing standardized commissioning test proce-
dures from these methods combined with the experience of test bench
operators can not only avoid additional costs due to unwanted delays
during commissioning phase, but will also provide the OEMs a method
of evaluating the test setup for performing the desired nacelle testing.
7.2. Dynamic load simulation
HiL testing of wind turbine drivetrains offers great potential to
transfer different test and validation requirements from the field to
the laboratory. With this approach, testing and certification can be
accelerated and test costs potentially reduced, with the added benefit
of the repeatability of the conducted tests. The electrical certification
tests on nacelle test benches with grid simulation and HiL capabilities
are now accepted in the IEC standard. However, ensuring stable and
reliable model execution in real time to be able to provide setpoints
for the physical system at all times during HiL testing has its own sets
of challenges.
Moreover, the achievable bandwidth for virtual rotor emulation in
HiL tests is often limited. For reproduction of torsional dynamics in the
order of up to 30 Hz, a simulation sampling frequency of at least 100 Hz
has to be achieved, preferably even 200 Hz or higher. Typical aeroelastic
simulation models are solved in this range of sampling frequencies, but
they are often not reliably faster than real time with a sufficient safety
margin. Therefore, the implemented aeroelastic wind turbine model to
be simulated often requires some simplification in order to speed up
the simulation time. Promising approaches to do so are a reduction
of the number of wind field grid points, a coarser discretization of
the aerodynamic load distribution along the blade, and the selection
of simpler aerodynamic or structural models, such as the use of a
modal-reduced structural blade and tower representation instead of
a multi-DOF FE beam. Consequently, such implemented virtual wind
turbine models might limit the scope of the tests to be conducted in
HiL operation mode, since a simplification of reality is inherent to all
simulation models, particularly if they are required to run in real time.
For the current testing requirements, however, this has not yet shown
itself to be problematic.
The test bench’s ability to apply dynamic non-torque loads also has
its limitations, which can be influenced by several factors, such as the
dynamic load application limit of the actuators, possible crosstalk, and
the stiffness of the nacelle DUT. The methods described in [164,165,
194,195] can be used to identify the influence of such factors on the
accuracy of the applied dynamic non-torque loads. Detailed virtual test
bench models can also assist in evaluating and optimizing the actuator
controllers to obtain the maximum performance of the non-torque load
application system prior to testing, as demonstrated in [196].
7.3. Replicating field conditions
In a nacelle test bench environment, accurately replicating the
diverse operating conditions that wind turbines experience in the real
world poses significant challenges. These conditions include variable
temperatures, humidity levels, and exposure to complex wind condi-
tions (and wave loads for offshore wind turbines), which contribute
to complex structural dynamics of the blades and tower. While the
rotational degree of freedom can be emulated with realistic feedback
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in a HiL test setup, a fully-coupled load application of parasitic hub
loads such as thrust or bending moments is currently not possible
since tower movements and/or loads cannot be emulated on existing
nacelle test benches (as this would require a type of active load actuator
at the tower interface). Only one-way coupling of the rotor loads at
the hub-mainshaft interface exists in the current state of the art of
HiL testing, without any coupling at the tower nacelle-tower interface.
Furthermore, as discussed earlier, the extent to which the rotor loads
can be applied to the nacelle DUT is limited by the dynamic range of
the nacelle test bench.
The simulation-based studies carried out at [159] utilizing a de-
tailed multibody model based on a GE 1.6-100 wind turbine nacelle
have demonstrated that the system modes can be altered as compared
to the field setting due to the nacelle test bench setup. Furthermore,
the results showed that for some load cases, the resulting internal
drivetrain loads can deviate from in-field behavior due to the absence
of a (flexible) tower at the test bench. The investigations performed
in [158] compared the experimentally measured vibration response of
the AD8-180 drivetrain in a nacelle testing setup against the measured
response of the same drivetrain in field operation. It was found that
the dominant gearbox-related vibrations and resonance zones that were
observed in the field testing were also reproduced in the nacelle test-
ing environment. However, some additional vibrations were observed
in the nacelle test bench measurements due to certain excitations
originating from the test bench drive system. The influence of the
missing blades and tower related oscillations on the drivetrain vibration
response was found to be negligible. The results also showed several
drivetrain modes that appeared due to the nacelle test rig setup but
were absent in the field setup.
However, the aforementioned studies were carried out for a par-
ticular type of wind turbine drivetrain topology, and their findings
might not be applicable for all types of wind turbine drivetrain systems.
Further investigations are necessary to assess the impact of the absence
of tower and rotor dynamics on the critical response of the nacelle
system, encompassing both geared and direct drivetrain systems as well
as onshore and offshore wind turbines. Gaining a deeper understanding
through such research will enable meaningful progress in developing
solutions to incorporate the absent tower and rotor dynamics within
a nacelle test bench environment. Although there are a few concepts
for nacelle test benches that incorporate tower motions using multiple
hydraulic actuators [80], their realization is yet to be seen.
7.4. Durability testing
Tests for assessing the durability of drivetrain components are typ-
ically performed at subsystem level. However, some of the nacelle test
benches listed in Table 2 aim to perform accelerated lifetime testing by
using specially designed test cycles to generate as many stresses and
strains in six months as drivetrain components are subjected to over
their entire 25-year service life. It is desirable to perform accelerated
lifetime testing to not only shorten the required testing time but also
lower test costs as compared to conventional methods of perform-
ing fatigue testing. However, assessing the long-term durability and
reliability of wind turbine components and systems through nacelle
testing can be challenging. Simulating the cumulative effects of years
of operation within a shorter testing period while maintaining accuracy
and validity is a complex task. It is possible for some test bench
components to undergo fatigue load damage during accelerated fatigue
testing and fail before the anticipated failure of the DUT. Moreover,
using nacelle test bench for performing fatigue tests that require very
long and continuous type of testing might not be financially viable due
to high operating costs.
Although nacelle test benches give the advantage of increasing the
realism of load and load effects of the nacelle drivetrain components
which might not have been realistically applied during subs-system and
component level testing, developing the correct type of test profiles and
M.O. Siddiqui et al.
Fig. 10. Development trend of the nacelle testing facilities over the years (excluding the nacelle test benches of wind turbine OEMs such as Vestas, Goldwind, etc.).
load cases that can lead to the desired type of fatigue failure mode is
still a challenge. Several types of gear and bearing failure modes can
occur in a wind turbine gearbox, and there is a lack of knowledge about
developing specialized tests concerning these failure modes on a nacelle
test rig. However, the innovative approach presented in [138,139] for
conducting gearbox robustness tests might help in developing suitable
strategies for durability tests for wind turbine drivetrains on a nacelle
test bench.
7.5. Increasing demands and limited resources
Successful and rapid prototype testing plays a crucial role in the
competitive wind industry, as wind turbine manufacturers aim to
launch their product on the market in the shortest time possible. Due
to the limited number of available field testing sites, it is often the
case that the testing facilities are fully booked in advance, leaving
the wind turbine manufacturers with no other ways of testing their
new prototypes and limiting the time to market [211]. The fast-
growing trend of wind turbine size and operational capacity, as shown
in Figs. 1 and 2, has increased the demands on the existing nacelle
testing facilities. Many of them are already (or will soon be) too
small for the growing testing demands of larger wind turbines. As
a consequence, the widely practiced V-model product development
approach might become difficult to realize, as several testing facilities
are or will be unable to provide the required testing capacity. There
has been a trend for establishing bigger test benches to accommodate
the demands of larger wind turbines as evident in Fig. 10. However,
this continuous trend of constructing bigger nacelle test benches for
larger wind turbines might not be a sustainable solution. Some of the
foreseeable challenges for future nacelle test benches include:
• Maintaining lower testing costs
• Application of highly dynamic loads and torque in the range of
several MN m with high accuracy and controllable bandwidth
• Maintaining stability between mechanical components and the
complex electrical controller system during HiL testing
Furthermore, accessing the established nacelle test facilities is already
financially difficult for smaller manufacturers of wind turbine, and is
only possible for the bigger ones at the moment [211]. Constructing
14
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 188 (2023) 113767
even larger test benches with possibly higher test costs may leave very
few wind turbine manufacturers with the financial strength to utilize
these facilities in their development process.
Smart solutions are therefore required to enhance the capabilities
of existing nacelle test benches and maximize their use. Learning from
other industrial sectors and experimenting with the combined use of
physical and simulative testing methods might help to discover solu-
tions to some of the aforementioned challenges of nacelle testing. The
application of virtual testing has been witnessed in almost every major
industrial sector including the automotive [212–215], railway [216–
218], and aerospace [72,219] industries. In most cases, these methods
form a fundamental part of the development process with the aim of ei-
ther reducing the number of physical tests or pushing past the limits of
physical testing. Compared with other industrial sectors, virtual testing
of wind turbine drivetrains is rather new. Nevertheless, it has already
demonstrated promising potential in several validation research studies
mentioned above. By further improving and establishing reliable simu-
lation approaches, virtual testing has the potential to replicate physical
tests with a high degree of confidence, which can possibly reduce the
amount of physical testing required, leading to a lower test cost.
Hybrid testing is another rapidly evolving technology which com-
bines simulation models and physical laboratory testing [220–222].
Hybrid test methods have been successfully implemented for pseudo-
dynamic testing of structures for many years and have been contin-
uously improved over the years for real-time capabilities [223–226].
Further examples of hybrid testing in the automotive and aerospace
industries are presented in [221,227]. The major challenge for the
hybrid testing approach is to obtain accurate simulation results in real
time and to apply the loads while covering all of the frequencies of
interest. Although the hybrid testing approach has seen some level
of application in the area of nacelle testing in the form of HiL tests,
the full potential of hybrid testing for nacelle drivetrains is yet to be
witnessed. If implemented successfully, it offers the ability to combine
the advantages of both physical testing and simulations, which might
offer solutions to some of the aforementioned challenges in nacelle
testing.
8. Summary and concluding remarks
This paper presented the state of the art of wind turbine nacelle
system testing and highlighted the recent developments in this field.
M.O. Siddiqui et al.
A nacelle, comprising several subsystems and components, requires
different levels of testing in the development process. The existing
reliability issues concerning wind turbine drivetrain systems has driven
the constant improvement of testing practices and mandatory require-
ments for obtaining certification. Despite reasonable adherence to the
established guidelines and mandatory procedures, wind turbine system
reliability is still a major issue, as drivetrain related failures still occur
even in modern wind turbines.
Several research activities were conducted for resolving drivetrain
reliability issues which steered the drivetrain development and testing
process towards a system-level approach. Consequently, this led to
the establishment of several nacelle test benches around the world in
recent years offering system-level testing capability of wind turbine
nacelles for realistic assessment of the system performance. Although
the existing nacelle test benches cannot fully replace field testing, they
do offer a cost-effective alternative for system-level assessment and
reducing the amount of field tests required for certification.
Nacelle test benches have demonstrated their applicability for test-
ing drivetrain systems and subsystems, evaluating new technology,
and developing new measurement concepts. They do not represent a
mandatory requirement for certification in the existing state of the art.
However, they are being accepted as an alternative option for obtaining
electrical certifications in the latest IEC standards and are expected
to see increasing use for certification-relevant activities in the coming
years.
While nacelle test benches aid the development of more reliable
drivetrain systems, they come with their own set of challenges. These
include comprehending and addressing the operational challenges of
the test bench itself, the complexities and limitations of applying the
required dynamic loads, reproducing the relevant field-like response,
and being able to successfully perform durability tests for all key
failure modes of interest. Furthermore, newer turbines require larger
test benches, and several existing nacelle testing facilities are not
large enough to be able to deliver the test requirements. This also
leaves very few testing facilities that are capable of testing newer wind
turbine prototypes leading to the issue of not being available for all
potential customers. On the other hand, the trend of developing larger
nacelle test benches to meet the growing demands of modern wind
turbines might not be a sustainable one. Nacelle testing facilities have
to maintain lower testing costs, as they can translate into the product
development costs.
The recent advances in simulation technology allow the possibility
to perform virtual nacelle testing and have proven great potential in
several validation research studies. By learning from other industrial
sectors and combining the use of physical and virtual testing methods,
there is a high chance to resolve many of the discussed challenges that
nacelle test benches are afflicted with today.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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