Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 53 (2022) 102731

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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/seta

Getting more from the wind: Recent advancements and challenges in

generators development for wind turbines
Clifford Choe Wei Chang a, Tan Jian Ding b, *, Tan Jian Ping a, Kang Chia Chao b,
Mohammad Arif Sobhan Bhuiyan b
a
School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University Malaysia, 43900 Sepang, Selangor, Malaysia
b
School of Electrical Engineering and Artificial Intelligence, Xiamen University Malaysia, 43900 Sepang, Selangor, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The deployments of on-shore and off-shore wind turbines have been found to be one of the most feasible methods
Generator to promote renewable energy generation in today’s modern era. Advancements and improvements in generators
Wind Turbine have very fundamental impacts not only on wind energy conversion alone, but on all turbine-based energy
Drivetrain
conversion systems as well. This review paper vividly captures recent advancements in wind turbine generators
and related enabling technologies, together with the tangible benefits and impacts across the fields in renewable
energy sector that come along. Technological advantages and drawbacks of various types of generator tech­
nologies are presented in detail. Latest research articles and state-of-the-art techniques are categorized and
reviewed based on the mechanisms presented. A comprehensive study is carried out to reveal the improvement
claims, outcomes, discoveries, and trade-offs of the techniques found in the literature, and a comprehensive
conclusion is drawn at the end of the article. This paper aims to shed new lights for policy makers, researchers,
and other stake holders on various recent advancements in wind turbine generator related techniques, tech­
nologies, and the potential future options in the design of wind turbine generators.

Introduction
The past few decades have witnessed rapid growths in research and
studies on varieties of renewable energy enabling technologies and ways
to improve them. In support of the seventh Sustainable Development
Goals (SDG 7) call by the United Nations (UN) on affordable and clean
energy, policies makers around the world are channelling more funds
and resources into renewable energy related technologies in the effort to
mitigate global energy and climate issues [1–2]. Among the varieties of
green energy sources, the wind energy is considered to be one of the
most attractive sources to generate clean electrical energy as it is
deemed to be the least-costly option [3]. In order to meet the ever-
growing demand for power consumption, many researchers and stack-
holders have been proposing various methods to upscale the wind tur­
bines, as larger wind turbines result in higher net power rating and lower
levelized cost of energy (LCOE) [4]. However, upscaling as such can lead
to heavier mass, larger volume and higher construction cost [5]. Thus, it
has always been a challenge to develop large scale wind turbines with
optimized ratio in weight, volume and mass [6]. Controlled by power
electronics and transformers, the generated electrical energy is then fed
into the utility grid.
In general, the drivetrains employed in wind turbines can be cate­
gorized into three categories, namely direct drivetrain, indirect drive­
train and semi-direct drivetrain [7]. The former is also referred as a
gearless drivetrain as there is no gearbox built-in since the rotor is
directly fixed to the low-speed synchronous generators. The other
category is known as a geared drivetrain as it consists of three-stage
gearbox and combined with an integration system to drive a high-
speed induction generator. The latter is also identified as a hybrid
drivetrain with at least one and not more than two-stage gearbox to push
a medium speed synchronous generator. The early structures of WECSs
were designed with constant speed induction generator and has small
capacities which resulted in passive output limitations [8]. Therefore,
this model was rejected and replaced with pole changing generators.
This type of generator allows the turbine to operate at slower speed due
to the introduction of active stall control [9]. However, this alternative

* Corresponding author at: School of Electrical Engineering and Artificial Intelligence, Xiamen University Malaysia, Jalan Sunsuria, Bandar Sunsuria, 43900
Sepang, Selangor, Malaysia.
E-mail address: jianding.tan@xmu.edu.my (T. Jian Ding).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2022.102731
Received 19 April 2022; Received in revised form 27 August 2022; Accepted 29 August 2022
Available online 6 September 2022
2213-1388/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Choe Wei Chang et al.
was not practical and feasible because this technology could cause
damage to the generators as it permits the high wind speed to permeate
through the drivetrain [10]. In order to solve this dilemma, current
controlled induction generators with wound rotor were introduced.
However, this technology was not favoured as induction generators are
much heavier due to the inclusion of gearbox and bearing, even though
it is considered to be robust, economical, reliable and simple. A rela­
tively satisfactory solution named Doubly Fed Induction Generator
(DFIG) was proposed few years later [11]. The DFIG is built at low cost,
has smaller structures, houses larger capacities and able to achieve
variable speed. Nevertheless, it is important to note that the DFIG are not
commonly used in wind turbine systems at scales larger than 6 MW.
Far along, the gearless (direct) drivetrain is preferred over geared
(indirect) drivetrain, which gained popularity in multi-megawatts wind
turbines, such as the Siemens Gamesa SG 8.0–167 DD, XEMC Darwind
XE128-5.0 MW, Haliade 150–6 MW and Vestas V164-8.0 MW. Besides,
the employment of synchronous generators increases the energy yield
due to the increase in availability and reliability of the WECS. The
generator is directly integrated into the rotor hub in the case of Direct
Drive Wind Turbines (DDWTs), which results in low rotating speed
operation. The gearless (direct) drivetrain tends to offer ample of ad­
vantages over the geared (indirect) drivetrain [12]. First and foremost,
the elimination of the gearbox results in a significant increase of overall
efficiency, as the costly periodic and ad-hoc maintenance can be
reduced, ensuring lesser downtime. Besides, the lifetime of entire WECS
can be expanded, since the occurrence of premature failure of the
gearboxes can be avoided in a gearless system. This, in turn, increase the
robustness of the overall wind turbine system. The weight of the entire
system can also be reduced, given that there are lesser moving parts with
the absence of the mechanical gear system. Further, only 20 % of future
wind turbines production will include rare-earth materials in the
manufacturing process of permanent magnets, while the remaining 80 %
will either adopt ferrite permanent magnets or conventional electro­
magnets, which do not contain rare-earth elements [13]. The gearless
wind turbines, however, impose several drawbacks including higher
cost, heavier weight and economically inviable due to the fluctuation of
permanent magnet price. With that, the hybrid (semi-direct) drivetrain
has been introduced to consolidate the advantages of both the direct and
indirect drivetrains, and curb the drawbacks. The hybrid drivetrain is
developed by coupling permanent magnet machine with the gearbox in
order to reduce the transmission ratio, increase the efficiency and reduce
the overall mass.
This paper intends to provide a board overview pertaining to the
recent advancements in generator technologies of wind turbines. This
paper is structured as follows; Section 2 offers compact explanations on
the basic characteristics of the electrical generator of the wind turbine.
In Section 3, discussions pertaining to the generators employed in the
indirect drive wind turbines, including the single fed induction gener­
ator (SFIG) and DFIG, are provided. Section 4 is dedicated to presenting
the generators employed in the DDWTs, which include the electrically
excited synchronous generator (EESG), permanent magnet synchronous
generator (PMSG) and high temperature superconducting generator
(HTSG). In Section 5, a summary of the related works discussed and
elaborated in-depth in the previous Sections is provided. Section 6 is
dedicated to presenting the future developments regarding the gener­
ator technologies of wind turbines. Finally, some conclusions and per­
spectives are drawn in Section 7.
Electrical generator basic characteristics
Broadly speaking, a generator is made up of two major components,
namely the rotor and the stator. The space present between these two
main components is labelled as the air gap, in which the three-phase
alternating current (AC) produce a rotating electromagnetic (EM) field
by flowing the current in the machine windings. The AC terminal
voltage frequency and the pole pair number in the generator show im­
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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 53 (2022) 102731
pacts the overall synchronous speed, ns which in turn affect the rotating
speed of the magnetic field [14]. The synchronous speed, ns can be
obtained by applying equation (1).
60fac
ns = (1)
pp
where fac represents the AC system frequency in the unit Hz, while pp
represents the number of pole pairs.
Generators can be categorized into two main categories, which are
synchronous generator and synchronous generator, which is also
referred to as an induction generator. The difference between both these
types of generators is the speed. The synchronous generator rotates at a
synchronous speed. The asynchronous generator, on the other hand, is
capable to operate at varying speed, which is different compared to the
synchronous speed [15]. In the case of synchronous generator, external
direct current (DC) or permanent magnets can be applied to excite the
generators. This type of generator is constructed with many pole pairs to
yield a synchronous speed to match the low rotor speed of the wind
turbine. This scenario permits the omission of the gearbox. Besides,
many authors proposed the use of multi-pole synchronous generator.
Multi-pole synchronous generators operate with either permanent
magnets or external electrical excitation. These generators are usually
employed in wind turbines with low ratio gearbox, or no gearbox in
some cases. Therefore, the wind power fluctuations possess a tendency
to lead to relatively heavier fluctuations in the torque. This, in turn,
causes higher peak loads in the drivetrain. In applications like this, the
wind-turbine-powered synchronous generators are usually not hooked
directly to the grid as there is a lack of damping [16].
In the case of an induction generator, the slip, s can be determined by
applying equation (2):
s=
(ns − nr )
(2)
ns
where nr represents the speed of the generator in terms of revolutions
per minute (rpm). Since the operation of an induction generator results
in power balance, the power losses can be neglected with reference to
equations (3) and (4):
Pm = Ps + Pr (3)
Pr = sPs (4)
where Pm denotes the overall mechanical power, Ps refers to the stator
power of the stator. While Pr indicates the power of the rotor. The slip, s
is the domain in the function of the torque of the asynchronous gener­
ator, which results in a negative value when the machine is in super
synchronous speed. The slip yields a positive value the rotor circuit has
high enough amount of electrical energy. The slip yields a small value in
the case of a short-circuited rotor with limited speed variation. This
small speed variation characteristic of the induction generator is a good
fit for WECs application.
It is worth noticing that the efficiency of the induction generator
decreases with the increment in the pole pairs number. The optimal pole
pairs number used in an induction generator for wind turbine applica­
tions is found to be around two or three, which leads to resolution rates
of around 1,500 rpm or 1,000 rpm, respectively.
Indirect drive wind turbine (High-Speed Generator)
As the name suggests, indirect drive wind turbines transfer the me­
chanical energy to the generator through a series of gears instead of a
direct rotor-to-generator drive. With the aid of gears, this drive mech­
anism provides faster speeds at the generator end, enabling the use of
relatively smaller generators. SFIG and DFIG are two commonly
employed generators for indirect drive wind turbines.
C. Choe Wei Chang et al.
Single fed induction generators
There are generally-two types of SFIG commonly found in the current
industry, namely squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG) and wound
rotor induction generator (WRIG). The SCIG which requires a three-
stage gearbox in the drivetrain is the most employed generators for
wind turbines in the early decades. The Danish wind turbine manufac­
turers applied the conventional concept of connecting the generator to
the grid via a transformer in the 1980s and 1990s [17]. The concept of a
stall regulated, three-bladed, upwind wind turbine with a SCIG is
referred as the “Danish Concept”. This control scheme is normally
implemented together with fixed speed SCIGs [18]. In order to limit the
rotor power output, pitch controls or active stall controls can be applied.
The induction generator is known as a fixed speed turbine, since the
speed range of it is extremely small (1 %) [19]. This technology is widely
preferred as it is robust, simple and does not require synchronous device.
However, there are some challenges pertaining to this concept: the
wind turbine is required to function at consistent speeds. Besides, a stiff
power grid is required in order to ensure stable operation, and high
mechanical construction cost could be imposed to absorb high me­
chanical stress as torque pulsations caused by wind gusts could occur on
the drivetrain. Further, the aerodynamic efficiency could be disrupted if
the entire system is rotating at fixed speed under all wind speed con­
ditions. Noise pollution could occur from the rotor blades at low wind
speeds.
Transients with extremely high inrush currents will be produced
when the induction generators are connected to the power system,
which results in disorders to the grid and torque spikes in the drivetrain
of the turbines. Thus, the number of wind turbines are limited as the
transient disturbs the grid [19]. In order to control the root mean square
(RMS) value of the high starting currents to under two times of the
generator rated current, the soft-starter or current limiter based on
thyristor technology are usually applied. Beside limiting the starting
current, this approach also dampens the torque peaks, which in turn
reduce the loads on the gearbox and eventually reduce the impact on the
grid as well.
To compensate for the consumption of reactive power, given that the
SCIG usually draws reactive power from the grid, capacitors are ar­
ranged and connected in parallel to the generator [20]. However, at
times, the induction generators could suffer from voltage instability is­
sues, as self-excitation could be caused by the capacitor bank when the
connection to the network is lost. Thus, the reactive power or terminal
voltage could no longer be in control. This situation is a serious dilemma
for large-scale wind power penetration. In order to curb this issue, the
number of pole pairs could be altered to achieve some improvements,
but this solution also impose that a better solution would be switching to
another generator. In practical situations, for a single generator, the
connection to the stator windings is switched between low and high
wind speed. At low wind speed, the generator functions with relatively
more pole pairs, usually capped at 3. During high wind speed, the
generator operates with lower number of pole pairs, usually fixed at 2.
Yaramasu et al. proposed two novel control methods known as the
modulated model predictive torque control (M2PTC) and the modulated
model predictive current control (M2PCC). These two methodologies are
proposed for the SCIG based variable speed wind power generation
system composed of back-to-back connected two-level voltage source
converters (VSCs) [21]. M2PTC functions by controlling the generator
EM torque and stator flux effectively. M2PCC, on the other hand, con­
trols the grid currents in the stationary reference frame of the grid-side
converter. The M2PTC is developed based on the operating principles of
space vector modulation, direct torque control and predictive torque
control, to effectively control the SCIG. This mechanism achieved low
steady-state errors during a wide-dynamic range operation, fast dynamic
response and duty-cycle optimized cost functions for fixed switching
frequency operation. The M2PTC is responsible to track the maximum
power point of the flux control and torque.
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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 53 (2022) 102731
Ahuja et al. propose the employment of back-to-back connected
pulse width modulation (PWM) converter, which is also referred as VSC
at the machine side in order to control the SCIG speed [22]. At an
increased converter rating, the SCIG can be supplied with magnetizing
current by the VSC, which means that the excitation capacitors can be
eliminated. In order to ensure efficient controllable variable speed
operation, the vector control technique may be applied to the VSC.
Therefore, the generator cum power device could experience lesser
stress and considerably reduced losses when a sinusoidal current is
drawn. Besides, the issue regarding poor voltage regulation could also be
resolved. The efficiency of the generator will increase and the losses will
decrease when the magnetizing current is controlled. Referring to the
results reported in [22], the proposed method is able to deliver best
possible amount of power output with acceptable power quality at a
maximum range of wind speed. Fig. 1 (a) shows that there is loss in
excitation due to low speed of rotation when the wind velocity de­
creases, while Fig. 1 (b) illustrates the ability of the generator in tracking
varying wind speed in order to maintain optimum tip speed ratio.
The stator of the WRIG is built similarly as the construction of the
stator of the SCIG, but the difference between both of the generators falls
in terms of the rotor, where it is equipped with a three-phase winding
[23]. The rotor of the WRIG is usually connected to the power electronic
system or to a resistor. It exchanges the power between the machine and
the AC grid. A small percentage of power is consumed in the slip and
generator speed changing, respectively. The former connection is also
referred and labelled as a DFIG.
Fig. 2 illustrates the torque characteristics of an induction generator
connected and not connected to an external rotor resistor. Under similar
torque level, a higher rotor windings resistance leads to a higher slip.
Changing the rotor resistance varies the slip. The idea behind is to obtain
control on the rotor resistance by employing an adjustable external rotor
resistor [24]. For the generator to operate, the torque-speed has to be
greater than the synchronous speed. Notice that the rotor power is not
fed back into the grid. The WRIG is an SFIG that possesses same char­
acteristics as the SCIG. Upon controlling the energy extracted from the
WRIG, a variable speed operation can be achieved, but this power must
be dissipated in the rotor resistor [25]. The rotor will consume more
power with higher slip due to the increase of variable speed. Besides, the
efficiency of the generator will also be lowered. Thus, the resistor rating
must be relatively higher. In other words, the variable rotor resistor size
shows impacts on the range of the dynamic speed control. The limited
variable speed range is usually less than 10 % above the synchronous
speed [26]. The connection is constructed with brushes and slip rings,
which is actually an additional cost to the entire operation and main­
tenance system. This is seen as a drawback when compared to the simple
technical design of a SCIG [27]. However, it is important to focus on the
wider speed variation range, which is an advantage.
Karam et al. proposed the implementation of rotor circuit dummy
loads. Besides, the paper also suggests to use a voltage rectifier and a
chopper circuit to control the generator speed with wound rotor [28]. It
is important to monitor the efficiency of the system as the active power
may be absorbed by the added resistance. Besides, this approach could
also increase the overall cost and requires regular maintenance. How­
ever, the authors in [28] stated that the increase in power is influence by
the increase in added resistance, but the added resistive value must not
exceed the generator capacity rating. The results in [28] showed that the
absence of load (0 Ω) resulted in 0 W of measured power output, while
the inclusion of 400 Ω, 300 Ω, 200 Ω and 100 Ω, resulted in 550 W, 600
W, 750 W and 800 W of measured power output. The slip rings could be
eliminated since the control signal is transmitted optically and the
additional resistance is attached to the shaft. There is a rotor drag
controller that is similar looking to a blade controller in an induction
generator wind turbine with a wound rotor, but are independent of each
other. The rotor drag controller is able to respond to changes in output
power caused by the fluctuation of wind speed quickly, while the blade
orientation requires more time to response due to actuator and
C. Choe Wei Chang et al.
Fig. 1. (a) Diode rectifier and (b) PWM converter at machine side [21].
Fig. 2. Torque characteristic of asynchronous generator connected and not
connected to an external rotor resistor [2].
mechanical lags. Therefore, the addition resistance could lead to power
loss.
Exchanging energy between the rotor and the grid is another
approach to dissipate the energy in the generator’s rotor. In the case of
WRIG with power electronic converters, which is commonly known as
DFIG, the stator is directly hooked to the grid while the rotor of the
generator is integrated to the grid using electronic converters via slip
rings [29]. The rotor speed is controlled by the power converter by
adjusting the rotor active power flow. Referring to the size of the fre­
quency converter, the idea is able to support an operation with wide
speed range [30]. The generator is capable to operate in super-
synchronous speed (s < 0) and sub-synchronous speed (s > 0) [31].
Manale et al. proposed the implementation of direct field orientation
control (DFOC) and indirect field orientation control (IFOC) in the WRIG
with power electronic converters [32]. The former approach is able to
regulate the active and reactive stator powers of the generator inde­
pendently, via the employment of a proportional-integral (PI) controller
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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 53 (2022) 102731
on each axis. This method also neglects the coupling terms between two
axes. This method allows the PI controller to act on the voltages directly.
On the other hand, the latter approach is different from the former
approach as this method place together the two PI controllers on each
axis as it takes into consideration regarding the coupling terms. In that
particular study [32], the stator is hooked to the grid directly, while the
rotor is integrated using power electronics. Besides, the authors in [32]
stated that the generator is applied with the EM torque that was
extracted from the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control in
order to allow the generator to operate at optimal speed. This approach
allows the mechanical speed of the generator to continuously adapt itself
to the varying wind speed, and this will increase the energy recovery
rate from the wind turbine.
Amira et al. proposed the implementation of sliding mode control
(SMC) in the WRIG with power electronic converters as the rotor speed
controller scheme [33]. The stator is directly connected to the three-
phase grid with constant frequency, while the generator is connected
to the grid via a bidirectional back-to-back insulated gate bipolar tran­
sistor converter. Electrical energy is produced through the control of the
machine via rotor voltages. Thus, keeping the frequency at a constant
value of 50 Hz on the network, still allows power to be generated. Be­
sides, the active and reactive powers of the generator is controlled
separately using the duplicate order power supply. The designed
mechanism is tested in simulations under different wind profiles to
investigate the overall performance of the system. In the first profile, the
wind varies in stages, while in the second profile, the wind speed varies
in a random manner. The results showed that the power coefficient has
been set at optimal settings in both the wind profiles. This proves that
the modified mechanism resulted in promising outcomes under various
wind speed.
The DFIG
DFIG is well known for modern wind turbine applications. The
generator is capable to function under super-synchronous speed (s < 0)
and sub-synchronous speed (s > 0), in delivering energy to the grid [34].
The construction of the DFIG successfully consolidate the factors of
variable speed in sufficient range and lower converter cost. Unlike the
OptiSlip method, the rotor energy in this mechanism is fed into the
utility grid instead of dissipated in the power electronic converter. The
C. Choe Wei Chang et al.
nominal power in the power electronic converter system can be lesser
compared to the wind turbine nominal power. Typically, the converter
nominal power is approximately 30 % of the wind turbine nominal
power. The grants the rotor speed to vary in a range of approximately ±
30 % of the synchronous speed [35]. The variation of the generator
rotational speed is highly dependent on the controllable active power of
the converter.
A back-to-back converter is generally used in the rotor circuit of the
DFIG. The converter consists of two bidirectional converters, sharing a
common DC-link, whereby-one of the connections is linked to the rotor
and the other is linked to the power grid. Further, special operation
strategies are applicable to the DFIG system which could improve the
supplied power quality to the grid [36]. Under low wind profiles, the
entire system is capable to operate at low speed as well, which effec­
tively reduce the acoustical noise produced from the wind turbine. The
DFIG does not require a soft-starter or reactive power compensator.
Despite the many advantages DFIG has to offer, there are also a
number of challenges faced in the actual applications of this generator
[37]. Firstly, a gearbox that could possibly dissipate heat due to friction
and requires regular maintenance is required in the drivetrain as the
speed range of the DFIG is nowhere near a multi-megawatt turbine speed
(10 to 25 rpm). Secondly, additional cost and regular maintenance are
required due to the use of carbon brushes pressing onto the slip rings
which are required to allow electricity flow between the stationary and
the rotating systems in order to control the rotor power. Also, the
generator lifespan could be reduced when there is a temporary drop in
the voltage magnitude in the power grid, which causes the rotor and
stator currents to dramatically increase for a short period of time
(approximately 100 ms), which causes high torque loads on the
drivetrain.
Othmane et al. proposed an improved adaptive sliding mode
controller (ASMC) to enhance the overall efficiency of the DFIG under
varying wind speed conditions [38]. The control scheme is designed to
react base on the active and reactive powers of the generator stator. The
ASMC was developed by adding two integral terms which could further
improve the basic SMC efficiency in wide external disturbances range.
The general goal of this research is to adjust the power flow of the DFIG
based turbine under dynamically changing wind profiles. To ensure that
the active and reactive powers are fully optimized, the rotor voltage
references are calculated by implementing the Lyapunov stability the­
orem which is able to ensure stability and search for the optimal state
variable trajectory. The stator flux linkage is lined up with the axis of
park transformation, in order to successfully control reactive powers and
stator active of the generator separately. Typically, the stator flux vector
is used to control DFIG applications, even though there are other
alignment possibilities such as applying the rotor flux linkage or stator
voltage vector. The authors in [38] stated the importance of estimating
the relationship between the stator active, reactive powers and rotor
currents, in order to express the rotor voltages in terms of reactive
powers and stator active. The results proved that the power coefficient is
successfully maintained near optimal value and does not exceed 0.45
when the wind speed changed rapidly.
Mazouz et al. proposed an adaptive direct power control (ADPC) for
the DFIG of 1.5 MW [39]. The idea behind is to replace the fixed
switching table with an adaptive version. The changes in reactive power
and previous control sequences show impacts on the online update of
the adaptive switching table. The ADPC is an enhancement from the
direct power control (DPC) that functions by directly adjusting the
active and reactive power of the generator. However, the drawbacks that
the DPC has to offer are the presence of power ripples that causes stress
to the shaft of the turbine and produces effects on the gird. This could
cause destruction to the wind turbine. With that, the authors in [39]
proposed an ADPC strategy to reduce these ripples. It is worth noting
that the generator tends to consume more power when the torque is
increased at constant speed. The machine in motor mode will absorb
positive power, and it will absorb negative power in generator mode. In
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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 53 (2022) 102731
the attempt to prove the influence of the DFIG varying parameters on the
performance of the modified ADPC, three schemes including the pro­
posed idea, DPC and direct torque control (DTC) were developed to test
the rotor resistance parameter sensitivity with 150 % variations in the
rotor resistance and inductance. The results indicate that the ADPC
successfully rejected the influences of uncertainty in system parameters.
The proposed ADPC is a successful and well-developed solution to
control the DFIG.
Direct drive wind turbine (Low-Speed Generator)
The turbine and the generator in a DDWT system have a relatively
more compact and structurally integrated setup, which in turn offers
immediate benefits such as robustness, longer lifespan, ease of instal­
lation and lower maintenance costs. The generators commonly used in
the DDWT can be generally categorized into three separate categorises,
namely EESG, PMSG and HTSG.
Electrically excited synchronous generator
In order to achieve a DC excitation, the EESG is typically constructed
with a rotor carrying the field system [40]. Approximately similar to
induction machines, the stator in the generator carries a three-phase
winding and the rotor may have salient or cylindrical poles. Neverthe­
less, salient poles are usually adopted in low-speed machine and it is
proven to be the most useful version for applying in DDWT [41]. The
advantage that the EESG has to offer is the ability to control the flux with
minimal loss in different power ranges, since the excitation current is
controllable by adjusting the DC supply, slip rings and brushes, or
employing a rotating rectifier. The only downside to this advantage is
the inevitable field losses. Seeing that the EESG does not employ any
permanent magnets, the system will not suffer from performance loss in
harsh atmospheric situations. However, the EESG usually requires
heavier weight and larger volume in order to reach the flux density
levels as the PMSG [42] due to the need of a pitch pole large enough to
allow the arrangement of excitation windings (EWs). Thus, short pitch
pole will not be able to deliver the expected flux density if implemented
in the EESG of the wind turbine.
Zhang et al. proposed a novel brushless electrically excited syn­
chronous reluctance generator (BEESRG) in the attempt to remove the
need of slip rings and brushes altogether. The study also aims to elimi­
nate the use of expensive permanent magnets and improve the reliability
of the system and ensure maintenance-free operation [43]. The BEESRG
is developed with reference to the conventional EESG and brushless
DFIG (BDFIG). The BEESRG is able to reduce the drivetrain downtime
significantly by eliminating the need for regular brush replacements and
servicing. Better low voltage ride through (LVRT) performance and
controllability are achieved by the BEESRG compared to the BDFIG and
DFIG due to the fully-rated power electronics converter hooked to the
utility grid. As compared to the EESG, the excitation winding of the
BEESRG is located on the stator instead of the rotor, which allows the
omission of the brushes and slip rings. Unlike conventional EESGs, two
sets of stator windings and a brushless rotor used in the design of the
proposed BEESRG. The armature winding (AW) is applied for power
generation, while the excitation winding is DC fed from the excitation
system. The authors in [43] stated that lower EW is suited for magne­
tization purpose, while higher AW is responsible for power production.
Therefore, the arrangement of 6/2 pole and 8/4 pole wound stators and
4 or 6 pole rotors offers better magnetic coupling and desirable har­
monic content.
Zhao et al. developed a variable speed constant frequency (VSCF)
approach for the generator of WECS, known as the six-phase electrically
excitation synchronous wind generator (SP-EESWG) [44]. The simpli­
fied dynamic SP-EESWG model is developed by ignoring the rectifying
and inverting harmonics that exist within the AC to DC to AC converters,
selecting the ideal base value and fitting the steady active and reactive
C. Choe Wei Chang et al.
power relationship of uncontrollable rectifiers in order to achieve
transient stability simulation. The authors in [44] referred the SP-
EESWG as either a dual stator winding or a double Y-windings syn­
chronous generator that employs a 30-degree angle difference in the two
sets of three-phase winding. The experiment sample system is based on
the 850 kW grid in Wulong, Chongqing, China. The results stated that
the grid bus active power and rotational speed of wind turbine are
capable to detect the changes in wind profiles. Besides, the unity power
factor control is achieved when the reactive power output of the grid bus
is approximately equalled to 0.
Permanent magnet synchronous generator
In today’s era, the permanent magnet synchronous generator is
deemed to be more popular amongst manufacturers compared to the
electrical excited synchronous generator (EESG), which results in the
PMSGs being widely used in large DDWTs [45]. The PMSG poses many
advantages in DDWT. Firstly, the reduction of mechanical components
such as slip rings increases the reliability of the PMSG as compared to
generators that uses current carrying coils (electrical excitation).
Further, the reduction of copper induces a slot space in stator which
could reduce the weight of the machine. This scenario increases the
power to weight ratio of the PMSGs with lower active materials that are
responsible for the production of torque. Besides, since the PMSG rotor
provide the flux density with the absence of current flow, there are no
copper losses. However, it is important to note that there are still min­
imal losses induced by the permanent magnet due to the circulation of
eddy currents, as compared to copper losses. Lastly, the machine pos­
sesses higher flexibility as the permanent magnet on the rotor can be
placed in various ways. Recently, many of the new designs of gearless
drivetrain in large scale and ultra-large scale wind turbines adopt the
PMSG, including the generators manufactured by Siemens Gamesa;
SWT-7.0–154 (7.0 MW), SWT-6.0–154 (6.0 MW), SG 8.0–167 DD (8.0
MW), Adwen; AD 8–180 (8.0 MW), Senvion; 6.3 M152 (6.3 MW) and GE
Energy; HALIADE150-6 MW (6 MW).
Similar to the wound field synchronous machine, the three-phase
sinusoidal permanent magnet machine also employs the same stator
winding, but the rotor is substitute with permanent magnets [46].
Adopting high-energy density rare-earth permanent magnets presents
various benefits, including the reduction of generator weight, elimina­
tion of issues in wear and tear, and also reducing unnecessary power
losses. However, the cooling system of the generator requires proper
design to hinder from permanent degradation of magnetic field strength
of the rare-earth elements. As compared to EESG, the PMSG presents
several technical and economic advantages, including robustness,
higher energy yield and efficiency rate, reduced losses, and optimized
torque density. Based on the flux penetration direction, permanent
magnet machines can be categorized into three categories, namely
radial flux, axial flux and transversal flux permanent magnet (TFPM)
machines [47].
In a radial flux machine, the permanent magnets are arranged in
radially orientation. Attaching permanent magnets onto the rotor sur­
face is a simple alternative in constructing the radial flux machine with
many numbers of pole pairs. Radial flux permanent magnet (RFPM)
machines possess better torque density compared to the EESG. The
overall machine length and the air gap diameter of the RFPM machine
do not influence and affect the measurement selection of one another.
Unlike radial flux machines, the magnetic flux of the axial flux perma­
nent magnet (AFPM) machine is in the axial direction instead. AFPM
machines may consist of slotted or slot-less surface mounted permanent
magnets. The AFPM machine presents several advantages and disad­
vantages compared to the RFPM machine. The plus points of AFPM
machines include low cogging torque, easier winding, higher torque
ratio and short axial length, while the downsides are structural insta­
bility caused by large number of permanent magnets for slot-less ma­
chines and difficulty to maintain air gap in large diameter for slotted
6
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 53 (2022) 102731
machine.
The TFPM machine has a magnetic flux that is perpendicular (90
degrees) to the rotational direction. The TFPM machine functions
similarly as the PMSG, and there are multiple rotor structures, including
the rotor with single-sided flux concentration, double-sided flux con­
centration and single-sided surface magnets. TFPM machines enable
larger spaces for simple windings without jeopardizing the space for the
main flux. This, in turn, results in low copper losses compared to the
RFPM and AFPM machines. TFPM machines can be developed with
relatively much smaller pole pitch, but will lead to more complex
structure. Among the three types of permanent magnet machines dis­
cussed above, the RFPM machine is most widely applied in direct drive
permanent magnet generators as it offers the highest cost to torque ratio.
Goncalves et al. designed a six-phase PMSG by analyzing the ge­
ometry of the permanent magnets and the winding configuration in
order to boost the overall efficiency of the generator [48]. As the pro­
totype has a high rated speed, a distributed winding is employed instead
of a concentrated winding configuration. The total number of stator slots
selected is 48 to ensure the number of slots per phase per pole that is
greater than 1. Besides, the prototype is designed to perform well in
fault-tolerant mode even when the power grid is only connected to one
set of windings. Thus, the PMSG will operate as a three-phase generator,
and the magnetomotive force (MMF) harmonics of order five and seven
caused the PMSG to be subjected to the sixth harmonic of the torque. The
PMSG is designed with the settings of the air gap flux density at 0.9 T,
the rotor and stator flux density at 1.4 T, the tooth flux density at 1.6 T
and the current density at 4 A/mm2. Fig. 3 depicts the stator slot ge­
ometry that was developed in the research.
Solomon proposed the implementation of interior permanent magnet
synchronous generator (IPMSG) that has a simpler and robust structure
yet efficient in performance [49]. This concept provides a higher reli­
ability in operation since the high-energy permanent magnets are
designed to be inside the rotor part, compared to the surface permanent
magnet synchronous machine. Besides, the IPMSG is compact in size
which could reduce the system weight and the construction cost is
lower. However, it is worth noticing that the speed range for operation
of the machine is limited to the rated base speed. In order to examine the
dynamics of the machine, the authors in [49] applied an approximated
d-q model with considerations on the effect of core losses. The positive
stator current direction is directed out of the machine terminal, when
the machine is under operation as a generator. The load angle needs to
be set accurately set to the equivalent angle when modelling the core
loss resistance of the IPMSG, which is equal to the shunt resistance that
has a different magnitude compared to the electrical speed of the rotor.
Besides, the authors also designed two machines with dissimilar magnet
pole arc angles. The performance of the machines is judged based on the
back electromotive force (EMF), current harmonics and total electro­
magnetic torque. It was found that the higher pole arc angle machine
demonstrated excellent output characteristics. The IPMSG has 24 slots
and 8 poles.
The authors in [50] presented a methodology to solve large multi-
disciplinary design optimization of the PMSG of wind turbine. The
main optimization goal is to maximize the nett earnings. Multiple wind
speed operating points were considered for the optimization as neither
Fig. 3. Stator slot geometry [48].
C. Choe Wei Chang et al.
estimation of energy yield nor balance in between energy production
and device cost could be done if only rated operating point is used. The
optimization problem is turned into a multi-objective optimization
problem to find the balance in between device cost and energy pro­
duction. Mechanical power available in the wind turbine is calculated
based on typical yearly wind profile with the assumption that the WECS
is constantly operating under MPPT schemes. The constraints, input, and
outputs variable are too large to be mentioned here, neither the authors
have listed in their paper. As such, Sequence Quadratic Programming
(SQP) is selected to deal with the large optimization problem. No
comparison has been made with any other papers. This major output of
this research is on the proposed mechanism to deal with large optimi­
zation of wind turbine PMSG that consider wind profile and multidis­
ciplinary model.
The authors in [51] introduced a double-stator PMSG which is
designed to generate an output power of 660 kW. The authors have only
shown several equations for the generator configuration as there were
no extensive mathematical modelling details provided. There are two
objective functions set as the goals of the optimization. The first goal is
to minimize the generator weight, while the second goal aims to reduce
the electrical losses. The Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) algorithm
was adopted in this study. The AHP generates necessary parameters to
fulfil the objectives. Then, the optimized results of the double-stator
PMSG is verified by the two-dimensional Finite Element Analysis
(FEA) which shows low error in between calculated (or analytical) re­
sults and simulated results. The comparison in between Ander’s PMSG
[52] and the optimized double-stator PMSG is shown in Table 1. The
results clearly depicted that the double-stator PMSG has lower electrical
losses, is lighter in weight and smaller in overall size, but yet produces
higher power when compared to the general PMSG.
The authors in [53] proposed a Taguchi Method in to optimize the
magnet shape design of a medium-speed PMSG. The goal behind the
study is to reduce the cogging torque of the PMSG by changing the shape
of the permanent magnet. The authors adopted three different ap­
proaches in cutting the magnet. Fig. 4 illustrates the original shape of the
magnet where Ψ0 is the angle of the pole. Table 2 shows the cutting
methods and their respective variables and effects. Changing the shape
of the magnet can reduce cogging torque and air gap flux density. The
objective function of the optimization mechanism is to reduce cogging
torque to the minimum while maintaining the air gap flux density at a
highest possible level. FEM is used with the Taguchi method applied,
where Ψ, d1, and ΔR are the variables to be optimized. At last, the au­
thors use FEM to analyze the original magnet and optimize magnet. The
results show that the optimized magnet has 77.9 % lower in cogging
torque compared with the original magnet, and yet, managed to reduce
the density of the air gap flux by only 0.02 T.
The authors in [55] proposed a methodology to optimize the design
of 1.5 MW PMSG for grid-connected wind application. The authors
claimed that the proposed methodology is quick and accurate. The
optimization is a multi-objective problem where the objectives are to
reduce the overall losses and mass of the PMSG. The mathematical
model is multi-physics which consists of magnetic model and electric
model. Magnetic model is used to determine the no-load per phase flux
linkage and the flux density of the PMSG. Electric model is used to
compute the EM parameters and performances. The authors adopted
Table 1
Final parameters of Ander’s PMSG versus Double-Stator PMSG reported in [51].
Parameter PMSG Double-Stator PMSG
Power (kW) 500 660
Inner Diameter (m) 2.15 1.1473
Losses (kW) 25.5 23.24
Weight (kg) 2690 2447
Length (m) 0.55 0.318
Air Gap Flux Density (T) 0.77 0.85
Teeth Flux Density (T) 1.64 2
7
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 53 (2022) 102731
Fig. 4. Original magnet shape [54].
multi-objective PSO for the design optimization. The optimization var­
iables include the magnet sizes, air gap distances, stator slots parame­
ters, shaft radius, rotor external radius, and turns per coil. The
constraints are maximum current density, maximum DC-bus voltage,
and maximum flux density. Output-Space Mapping is used for the design
strategy. This strategy can be considered as a hybrid of analytical and
numerical method. This technique uses minimum resources that can
shorten computational time while maintaining the precision of the re­
sults. There is no justification on which generator is better than the other
as they all give similar results.
High temperature superconducting generator
In comparison to wound copper and permanent magnet machines,
the HTSG has proven to boost the power density significantly [56].
There are various rotating machine models that employ high tempera­
ture superconducting (HTS), such as homopolar, induction and syn­
chronous machines. However, large wind turbine projects tend to
implement HTS synchronous machines with DC field winding on the
rotor. The current densities of the synchronous machine can achieve up
to 100 A/mm2 when employing HTS wires in the field winding,
compared to the current densities achieved by conventional wound field
synchronous generators that approximately equal to 5 A/mm2 [57].
Thus, a very compact and dense rotating machine can be produced when
high current densities is achieved by employing HTS materials. HTS
generator presents several advantages compared to conventional gen­
erators, including the ability to operate with relatively higher harmonic
currents due to the attenuation of harmonic field, improve the efficiency
by eliminating the rotor losses and reduce vibration and noises [58].
Therefore, this generator technology is the pathway in improving direct
drive generators in large turbines.
Bergen et al. designed and built a full-scale synchronous HTS
generator with 40 superconducting coils of 1.4 m in length, in order to
demonstrate the readiness level of 6 to 7 for HTS technology being
employed in a 3.6 MW wind generator [59]. Fig. 5 depicts the proposed
generator with stator and its copper coils. The length of the coated
conductor required for this experiment exceeds 20 km, and all the coils
undergone a testing phase prior to assembly with more than 90 % of the
coils performing as expected. The generator was implemented in an
existing wind turbine in Thyboron, Denmark, after conducting ground-
based testing at Germany. With that, the generator successfully
generate power for more than 650 h of grid operation, and achieved the
targeted power range. In order to achieve the desired power, the HTS
coils were co-wound with a thin insulation foil and HTS tape. The
conduction cooling of the winding pack was carried out by copper plates
on the bottom and the top of the winding pack. In order to improve the
mechanical strength of the pole, stainless steel plates were attached on
the sides, bottom and top of the winding pack. The poles are assembled
with an iron-nickel core for magnetic field guidance. That research
proved that superconductive generator technology is compatible with
practical impacts that exist in operational environment, including EM
harmonics, variable speeds, vibrations and power grid faults.
Liu et al. proposed the implementation of multi-phase AWs for the
HTS generators which could promote the reduction of air gaps length in
C. Choe Wei Chang et al.
Table 2
Cutting methods [53].
Cutting Graphical Illustration of the Description on the Cutting Method
Method Cutting Method
Controlled Variable
1 Angle of the upper edge
of the near stator (Ψ)
2 Length of edge on both
sides (d1)
3 Length from the top
edge vertex to the
center (ΔR)
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of the proposed generator [59].
the HTS generator without deteriorating the overall performance of the
generator [60]. The study showed that it is possible to cut down the
additional eddy current losses in the rotor even when the air gap is
reduced from 16 mm to 11 mm for nine-phase winding and from 16 mm
to 9 mm for six and 12-phase winding, by employing the multi-phase
AWs. Besides, this approach increased the torque production by 9.1 %
and reduce the alternating magnetic field reaching the HTS field wind­
ing, which resulted in lower cooling costs and AC losses. Each set of
three phases along with the neighbouring set is shifted by an angle in the
phase current, in order to promote the reduction of harmonic contents in
the MMF of the winding. The advisable angles are 30 degrees for six
phases, 20 degrees for nine phases and 15 degrees for 12 phases. The EM
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of HTSG [60].
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 53 (2022) 102731
Effect
Fixed Variable Dependent Variable
Angle of the Permanent magnet edge Can reduce cogging torque and air gap flux
lower edge thickness. Reduce Ψ will reduce density. Has greater effect on air gap flux
the thickness density compared to d1 and ΔR
Length in the Permanent magnet edge Can reduce cogging torque and air gap flux
middle thickness. Reduce d1 will reduce density. Has greater effect on cogging torque
the thickness density compared to Ψ
Thickness of Curvature at the middle of the Can reduce cogging torque and air gap flux
permanent upper edge. Changing ΔR will density. Has greater effect on cogging torque
magnet change curvature density compared to Ψ
shield and cryostat are employed to enclose the rotor iron core and the
entire HTS field winding, as illustrated in Fig. 6. The generator’s HTS
field winding used the second generation HTS wire (GdBCO) that
operates at 30 K. The cross-sectional setting of the HTS field coils can
accommodate 124 turns per pole with a fill factor of 0.7, and the current
density is set at 120 A/mm2 in order to create a 30 % safety margin.
Summary of the improvements in generators designs for wind
turbines
Table 3 presents a summary of the related works discussed and
elaborated in-depth in Section 3 and Section 4. The information is
summarized with respect to the types of drivetrains, types of generators,
respective strengths and weaknesses, and the recent advancements of
the generators.
The next steps
With fossil fuel sources diminishing and climate issues getting more
and more serious each year, researchers around the world have been
turning their attention to more sustainable and environmentally friendly
energy sources and related enabling technologies [61–63]. While many
new renewable energy sources emerge, the wind energy remains as one
of the most popular rapidly researched energy sources. The main focus
of wind energy related industries is to identity efficient yet reliable so­
lutions to lower the cost of energy conversions [64]. In recent years, the
advancements and enhancements of wind turbine generators managed
to increase the power ratings [65]. However, there are a few points to
look out for. The employment of multi-stage gearbox in induction (in­
direct drive) generators lowers the system lifespan and increases the
overall installation and maintenance costs, given that the use of slip
rings and brushes require regular (2 to 6 months) maintenance [66].
Nevertheless, this issue is curbed by introducing synchronous (direct
drive) generators that eliminate the employment of slip rings, brushes
and gearbox. However, the main drawback to this solution is the
involvement of permanent magnets for the generation of magnetic flux
of the rotor, which causes the weight and the volume of the system to
increase significantly. This, in turn, leads to higher overall investment
cost as rare-earth elements are required to construct the permanent
magnet generators. Therefore, the future development of wind turbine
generators should avoid the use of slip rings and rare-earth elements in
8
C. Choe Wei Chang et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 53 (2022) 102731

Table 3
Recent challenges and advancements in generator designs for WECSs.
Drivetrain Generator Type Division Strengths Challenges Faced Recent Advancements

Indirect Squirrel cage None • Robust and simple • Wind turbine is required to • M2PTC and M2PCC that are composed
induction generator • Does not require synchronous operate at nearly constant of back-to-back connected two-level
(SCIG) –SFIG device speed voltage source converters
• Stiff power grid is required in • Employment of back-to-back connected
order to ensure stable PWM converter, which is also referred
operation as VSC at the machine side
• High mechanical
construction cost
• Aerodynamic efficiency could
be disrupted
• Noise pollution could occur
from the rotor blades at low
wind speeds
Wound rotor • Rotor resistance • A variable speed operation can • Rotor consumes more power • Implementation of additional
induction generator control be achieved with higher slip resistance in the rotor circuit and the
(WRIG) –SFIG • Efficiency of the generator employment of a voltage rectifier and a
will be lowered chopper
• Limited variable speed range,
usually less than 10 % above
the synchronous speed
• Power electronic • Able to support an operation • Not possible to consolidate • Implementation of DFOC and IFOC in
converter with wide speed range the factor of low cost and the WRIG with power electronic
wide speed range converters
• Implementation of SMC in the WRIG
with power electronic converters
DFIG None • Special operation strategies is • A gearbox that requires • A robust ASMC to improve the dynamic
applicable regular maintenance performance
• Entire system is capable to • Use of carbon brushes • ADPC for the DFIG of 1.5 MW
operate at low speed pressing onto the slip rings
• Effectively reduce the acoustical • Lifetime of the generator
noise could be reduced when there
• Does not require a soft-starter or is a temporary drop in the
reactive power compensator voltage magnitude in the
power grid
Direct Electrically excited None • Ability to control the flux with • Inevitable field losses • Novel BEESRG in order to eliminate the
synchronous minimal loss in different power • Results in heavier weight and employment of slip rings and brushes
generator (EESG) ranges larger volume • A VSCF wind generator identified as the
• Does not suffer from • Short pitch pole will not be SP-EESWG
performance loss in harsh able to deliver the expected
atmospheric situations flux density
Permanent magnet • Radial flux • Possesses better torque density • Higher copper losses • A six-phase PMSG by analysing the ge­
synchronous permanent compared to the EESG compared to TFPM ometry of the permanent magnets and
generator (PMSG) magnet (RFPM) • Length of the machine and the the winding configuration
air gap diameter of the RFPM • implementation of IPMSG that has a
machine do not influence and simpler and robust structure yet
affect the measurement selection efficient in performance
of one another
• Axial flux • Low cogging torque • Structural instability caused
permanent • Simple winding by large amount of
magnet (AFPM) • Higher torque ratio permanent magnets
• Short axial length • Difficulty to maintain air gap
in large diameter
• Transversal flux • Increase the space for simple • More complex structure
permanent windings without reducing the
magnet (TFPM) space for the main flux
• Can be constructed with very
small pole pitch
• Offers the highest cost to torque
ratio
High temperature None • Increase the power density None • A full-scale synchronous HTS generator
superconducting significantly that has 40 superconducting coils of
(HTS) generator • Current densities of the 1.4 m in length, in order to demonstrate
synchronous machine can the readiness level of 6 to 7 for HTS
achieve up to 100 A/mm2 technology
• A compact and dense rotating • Implementation of multi-phase AWs for
machine can be produced the HTS generators
• Ability to handle larger
harmonic currents
• Higher efficiency by eliminating
the rotor losses
• Reduction in vibration and
noises

9
C. Choe Wei Chang et al.
order to improve the robustness and efficiency, while reducing the cost
and weight of the system at the same time.
In order to enhance the reliability of the turbine powertrain, a
medium-speed synchronous reluctance generator up to 2.0 MW can be
developed by employing a single-stage gearbox rather than a multi-stage
gearbox, as this could reduce the chances of gearbox failure which af­
fects the downtime and the operating cost of the overall system [67].
Wind turbine generators that employ gearboxes tend to encounter
serious problems like torque ripples [68]. Most researchers proposed the
skewing approach to reduce the torque ripple, but this method is found
to be effective only up to a certain skewing angle. The design of the rotor
can be modified into an asymmetrical setting to reduce the harmonic
content of the air gap flux density. This will reduce the torque ripple and
the pulsating component of the electromagnetic torque. Since the use of
three-level neutral-point-clamped voltage source converter (3L-NPC
VSC) is a standard technology in the industry, it is possible to implement
this technology in the medium-speed synchronous reluctance generator.
Low speed wind turbines are worth better attentions and studies
[69]. In order to achieve highest possible power output, the current has
to be boosted [70]. Besides, the saturation value will rise when the
machine loading increases, thus the current angle needs to be adjusted in
order to ensure the desired torque is produced. The adjustment can be
conducted via the generator control unit. When there is a full load
operation, the current angle has to be increased due to cross-saturation.
Therefore, it can be said that the value of the current angle affects the
performance of the synchronous reluctance generator, since the power
factor and the electromagnetic torque are influenced.
Moreover, in certain cases, it is possible to develop a PMSG with a
single-stage gearbox in order to solve the issues regarding overall system
weight and flux density [71]. When the rotating velocity in the direct
drive permanent magnet generators is decreased at high power level, the
torque will increase. This is due to the torque being directly proportional
to the square of the air gap diameter and to the tangential force density
[72]. Therefore, DDWTs are constructed with large diameters and bigger
tangential force, and more pole pairs employed. However, this will
induce more weight on the entire system and higher construction cost.
Besides, in order to maximise the flux, a reduces air gap is needed which
involves a heavy rotor support. Thus, these issues can be solved by
employing a single level gearbox and a PMSG. The use of ironless per­
manent magnet generators can significantly reduce the system mass by
approximately 20 to 30 percent as compared to iron cored permanent
magnet generators, with the efficiency level maintained. Further, the
mass of the generators can be reduced by decreasing the stiffness re­
quirements of the stator and the rotor by placing the bearings adjacent to
the air gap and using rails to support them. It is important to note that
the large diameter of the structure will affect the aerodynamic efficiency
of the system.
Conclusion
The ever increasing demand of energy due to the rise in population,
industrial development and suburbanization urges many policy makers
and stake-holders to shift their focuses in the development of enabling
technologies for renewable energy harvesting systems. More often than
not, the performances of renewable energy conversion systems such as
wind energy and other turbine-based conversion systems rely heavily on
the efficiency of the generators. This paper reviews the various types of
generator technologies employed in WECSs, including SCIG, sound rotor
induction generator, DFIG, EESG, PMSG and HTSG. In today’s era, the
industry tends to favour direct drive generators as the technology pre­
sents high reliability, high efficiency and lower maintenance cost. The
deciding factors for investors to proceed with an investment, includes
the performance, advantages and drawbacks of the generators. It can be
observed that among the many generator technologies presented, the
HTS generator outshines them all, as the boons of the HTS generator
outweigh the banes, as the technology increases the power density
10
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 53 (2022) 102731
significantly, the current densities of the synchronous machine can
achieve up to 100 A/mm2, a compact and dense rotating machine can be
produced, possesses the ability to handle larger harmonic currents, re­
sults in higher efficiency by eliminating the rotor losses and promotes
reduction in vibration and noises. Besides, various recent, up-to-date
and state-of-the-art advancements and enhancements pertaining to the
generator technologies are presented in this review paper. Moreover,
this paper also suggests the development of a medium-speed synchro­
nous reluctance generator by employing a single level gear system rather
than a multi-stage gearbox in order to increase the wind turbine pow­
ertrain reliability, as this could reduce the chances of gearbox failure
which affects the downtime and the operating cost of the overall system.
Seeing how advance the wind turbine generator technologies have
developed into in the recent years, there are still much more rooms for
improvement in the upcoming future in further developing this tech­
nology in the field of sustainable energy.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Clifford Choe Wei Chang: Conceptualization, Methodology. Tan
Jian Ding: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft. Tan Jian Ping:
Visualization, Investigation. Kang Chia Chao: Resources, Validation.
Mohammad Arif Sobhan Bhuiyan: Resources, Writing – review &
editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to extend heartfelt gratitude to Malaysian
Ministry of Higher Education for supporting this study under Funda­
mental Research Grant Scheme: FRGS/1/2021/TK0/XMU/02/9.
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