Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies

https://doi.org/10.1007/s42417-022-00504-0

ORIGINAL PAPER

Comparison of Monopole and Hybrid Wind Turbine Tower Response

for Seismic Loading Under Operational Conditions
Hemal J. Shah1   · Atul K. Desai2

Received: 28 December 2021 / Revised: 24 March 2022 / Accepted: 2 April 2022

© Krishtel eMaging Solutions Private Limited 2022

Abstract
Aim  The wind turbine supporting tower experiences time-varying cyclic loading of rotor and nonlinear seismic loading
during its life span that has potential to magnify dynamic response of conventional monopole tower. Structural system com-
posed of hollow circular section known as monopole structural system is commonly used to support wind turbine generators,
but this structural configuration encounters technical limitations due to slenderness effect for elevated hub height of tower.
Challange  In recent years, various attempts have been made by researchers to increase the height of wind turbine tower to
harvest more energy for this conventional monopole configuration, but as load is resisted by bending stiffness of the structure
under the influence of rotor cyclic loading, this conventional monopole tower becomes uneconomical.
Method  In the present research, to reduce dynamic magnification in tall wind turbine towers, a new hybrid structural sys-
tem, which is a combination of mono and lattice system, is proposed and 1:40 scaled model, comprising nacelle and rotor of
78 m high prototype monopole tower, was prepared in the laboratory. An appropriate model of hybrid tower was therefore
prepared in the laboratory.
Conclusions  This research summarizes the results of laboratory shake table tests conducted on scaled model of both towers
to evaluate seismic response under four ground acceleration time history and cyclic loading of wind turbine rotor. Three-
dimensional numerical simulations are presented, and the results showed that the predicted values of simulation are in good
agreement with the measured experimental results on shake table. The dynamic response of both towers is examined in the
form of displacement in time domain and base shear under rotor cyclic loading. From experimental results and its numerical
simulations, it can be concluded that the hybrid structural system can be embraced to construct tall wind turbine towers in
seismically active regions.

Keywords  Hybrid wind turbine · Shake table study · Dynamic response · Base shear

Introduction several factors have led to growing concern about these

Fossil fuels are used as a source of power to complete
society’s basic tasks worldwide for 100 years. The abun-
dant supply of these sources in the world allowed prices to
remain low and stable; nonetheless, over the last few years
* Hemal J. Shah
hemal3007@gmail.com
Atul K. Desai
atuldesai61@gmail.com
1
Applied Mechanics Department, Government Engineering
College, Bharuch, Opp. Government Guest House, Old
National Highway 8, Bholav, Bharuch, Gujarat, India
2
Civil Engineering Department, Sardar Vallabhbhai National
Institute of Technology, Ichhanath, Surat, Gujarat, India
sources of energy. The use of fossil fuels has led to carbon
emissions and other greenhouse gasses in the environment
which affects the carbon credit of the country. To reduce
carbon emission and carbon footprint of the country, many
countries have initiated the use of alternative energy such
as wind energy, solar energy, and tidal energy. The shift
of conventional sources of energy to alternative sources of
energy has been gradual and looking at data, alternative
sources are growing more worldwide in recent years. Due
to various advantages, such as lower power generation cost,
lack of pollution and easy construction in existing farms,
wind energy source has become more popular than other
alternative sources of energy. It has also been found that, in
2018, a total of 51.8 GW of new wind energy was installed
in the world, which shows a slight 4 percentage decrease in

13
Vol.:(0123456789)

comparison with the wind energy installation of year 2017.
Considering the installation up to year 2018, it can be noted
that the total cumulative installation of wind power in the
world is 591 GW and a developing country like India has
also procured 2.2 GW capacity in the year 2018 [1].
The power produced by wind energy is proportional to the
second power of wind velocity; therefore, to increase power
production, the height of the wind turbine tower must be ele-
vated. In addition to this, at higher elevation higher and stable
wind velocities are available; consequently, by increasing the
hub height of the wind turbine tower greater wind power can
be generated at given locations. The variation of wind velocity
is very less at higher elevations, and a larger amount of wind
is also available for longer durations, which results in greater
power generation, proving to be an economical solution to
the problem. In normal cases, the supporting tower of wind
turbine is constructed with conventional monopole system,
which consists of a hollow circular section having large diam-
eter and thickness at the base and the diameter is reduced at
higher elevations. Owing to the tower having elevated hub
height, with conventional mono system less thickness of wall
and greater height of the tower results in a greater slenderness
ratio. The other supporting system for tall wind turbine is
the lattice type system which consists of angle and channel-
shaped axial members joined together by welding or riveting
with each other. This system resists forces by axial stiffness
of the members. To increase the height of wind turbine tower
and diminish the slenderness effect of the conventional wind
turbine tower, a combination of mono and lattice structural
systems known as hybrid structural system is proposed and
the dynamic response of both wind turbines are studied in the
present investigation.
In the past few years, many efforts have been made by
mechanical engineers and researchers to modify the wind-
mill generator design to harvest more wind power, but by
elevating the position of the wind turbine generator above
ground level, more energy can be harvested. To find an
innovative solution for a wind turbine-supporting structure,
researchers have proposed hexagonal columns with post-
tensioning and rectangular or tapered shape panels as brac-
ing elements [2]. By modifying the properties of concrete,
it can be used in tall towers; therefore, high-strength or
ultrahigh-strength concrete was used for fabricating panels
and a100 m-high tower was designed using this hexacrete
method. The height of the tower can be increased by using
two different materials: so steel and concrete were used to
increase the height of the wind turbine tower. In the lower
portion, ultrahigh-performance concrete was used to resist
higher bending moments and in the upper portion steel was
proposed and designed to resist dynamic forces [3]. To avoid
the turbulence of wind due to trees in forest areas, the height
of the tower is increased by designing a hybrid tower with a
lower concrete part and an upper part with conventional steel
13
Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies
shell [4]. It was shown that the steel concrete hybrid tower
can be an economical solution for greater heights.
A major problem in a tall windmill tower are the vibra-
tions due to rotor, and these can be reduced by the use of a
pendulum tuned mass damper; unlike in the conventional
design approach, innovative mass tuned dampers strive
to reduce the vibration of the tower structure under rotor
dynamic loading [5] . Mass tuned damper works as a passive
control device and absorbs energy added to the structure by
dynamic loading of the wind turbine rotor. Finite element
analysis with mass tuned damper was performed and it was
recognized that mass tuned damper reduced displacement at
the top of the tower due to rotor cyclic loading [6]. The steel
concrete 120 m-high hybrid tower was designed with ultra-
high-performance cementitious composites with compres-
sive strength 200 MPa. This design includes a top steel tower
and the middle and bottom parts consist of a prefabricated
UHPCC segment [7]. The small wind turbine can be used in
the residential area and the Persian wind turbine design was
the oldest wind turbine system used to harvest wind energy
on a small-scale basis. The design of these small wind
turbine is modified by providing a movable outer shroud
for vertical axis wind turbine, resulting in an efficiency of
0.4–0.5 which was 0.15–0.20 before modification [8].
It is always not possible to perform full-scale testing on
structures, as it proves very expensive, and more resources
are required. One of the methods to predict the behavior of
the structure under dynamic loading is scaling down of the
prototype structure using established scaling-down relation-
ships. The scale-down model of wind turbine tower prepared
considering three different scales of wind turbine tower and
response was investigated for three different foundations.
This experimental investigation concluded that the symmet-
ric foundation is desirable and prudent for rotor cyclic load-
ing for long life span of wind turbine towers [9]. To prepare
a scale-down model of the prototype structure, similitude
relationships are required; therefore, an overview of the scal-
ing relationship for various physical quantities are presented
based on the relationship experimental tests carried out on
physical models of wind turbine [10]. The long-term cyclic
rotor loading plays an important role in the design of the
tower; therefore, to study the effect of long-term rotor cyclic
loading, a scale-down model of wind turbine was prepared
and subjected to 172,000 cycles of 3P loading. The change
in the natural frequency of the tower was studied [3]. Instead
of modeling the blades of the wind turbine tower, the blade
masses can be applied at the center of mass and transferred
to the nacelle. The rotor of the wind turbine tower was simu-
lated using electric motor and cyclic loading of rotor applied
on the experimental model considering the soil below the
foundation and the significance of the modeling soil below
the foundation was emphasized in the research. Results
showed that the fundamental frequency of the wind turbine
Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies
structure increases with the number of cyclic rotor load-
ings [11]. The similitude relationships to prepare the scaled
down model of wind mill tower in laboratory is derived and
presented by the researcher [12].
In addition to wind turbine towers, various building mod-
els were prepared and tested in the laboratory on a shake
table. Researchers prepared 1/50 scaled model of hybrid
building structure in the laboratory and obtained the funda-
mental frequencies of the experimental model by performing
testing on the shake table [13]. Shaking table tests were also
used to study the dynamic behavior of the building by prepar-
ing a 1:30 scaled model [14]. The experimental test model
was tested for near-field and far-field seismic excitation and
the effect of pile soil interaction was studied. To study the
effect of pile foundations, experimental models of building
were excited by different seismic excitations on the shake
table [15]. The shake table test results suggest that the pile
foundation reduces displacement at the top of structure under
severe seismic excitation. Various similitude relationships
were used to prepare 1/25 scaled model of 33 story build-
ing and tested for severe seismic acceleration loading on the
shake table [16], and the design of the existing structure was
found to be satisfactory under the applied dynamic loading.
Experimental shake table testing executed on shake table on
1/30 scaled building model and the detailed procedure to
scale down seismic acceleration time history were carried
out and applied on the shake table [17]. The relation between
dynamic behavior of full-scale prototype and small-scale
model of building was studied in the laboratory and showed
that strong correlation existed between full-scale and scale-
down models prepared using appropriate scaling laws [18].
The finite element simulation of 5 MW NREL wind tur-
bine tower was carried out, and the effect of different wind
velocity and different seismic forces considering different
operational conditions was studied. It was shown that seis-
mic loads play an important role in the design of wind tur-
bine structures [19]. The finite element simulation of wind
turbine was studied and showed that selection of appropriate
foundation plays an important role to avoid resonance condi-
tions [20]. The research investigated the effect of different
foundations by finite element simulation for three different
capacity turbines and recommended appropriate foundations
[21]. The effect of severe seismic excitation on wind turbine
of heights ranging between 50 and 88.5 m were studied by
numerical simulation and forces. Moments and displace-
ments were compared. From research, it is noticed that the
displacement increases by 231% if the height is increased by
177 percentage. The numerical simulation of a 38-m-high
450 KW capacity wind turbine was achieved and subjected
to static and dynamic forces considering soil structure inter-
action. Refined finite element modes are required because
a higher accuracy in modeling and analysis is required at
critical locations of the tower [9].
Long-term cyclic load creates significant effect on wind
turbine, so turbine with monopile foundation was simulated
considering the soil pile model and it was observed that the
mean and variance increased by increasing the number of
cycles. The investigation also suggests that bending moment
also increases with increase in the number of cycles [22]. In
another research the longtime behavior of wind mill turbine
was studied considering effect of soil and change in natural
frequency of wind mill tower was presented under long term
cyclic loading [23]. In case of tall structures like the wind tur-
bine, effect of soil stiffening plays a significant role and the
natural frequency of tower can be altered considering the soil
stiffness below the foundation. Tuned mass dampers are effec-
tive tools to reduce magnification in the response of a tower
under dynamic forces of rotor [24]. The natural frequency of
the tower in the first and second mode was governed by the
stiffness of the soil, and the structural design of the wind tower
was also governed by the soil stiffness for softer soil conditions
[25]. More recently, a seismic investigation of 1.65 MW Ves-
tas turbine performed by simulation in finite element software
ANSYS [26] resulted in the development of fragility curves
by incremental dynamic analysis. Finite element simulation
can be used to investigate the effect of the soil below the foun-
dation on the dynamic properties of the wind turbine tower
considering the soil strata below the foundation;, therefore,
soil strata modeled using spring elements and the effect of soil
stiffness on wind turbine was investigated [11].
The wind mill tower natural frequencies must be kept away
from wind turbine operating frequencies; otherwise, it results
in the resonance of the tower. THE CBO algorithm is an
effective tool used to optimize the natural frequencies of the
tower for jacket supporting wind mill tower structures [27].
The mathematical tool MATLAB can be used to optimize the
various parameters of wind mill tower in frequency domain;
therefore, all these parameters were coded in MATLAB and
the optimized solution was obtained in terms of reduction of
total weight of the wind mill tower [28]. In the other research,
the OCS reference jacket design was performed using CBO
and ECBO algorithm by considering various operational loads
such as hydrodynamic and dynamic loads and the design of
the wind mill towers was optimized [29]. The data of Horns
Rev I offshore wind farm located in the coastlines of Denmark
in North Sea showed that the total weight of offshore wind
mill structure was optimized considering various structural
constraints, environmental constraints and frequency con-
straints [30]. The detailed foundation design was performed
by finite element simulation of various wind turbine towers
located in Alaska and optimized design of tower with founda-
tion to avoid resonance under operational condition of wind
turbine rotor [31]. The design of wind turbine tower located
is Alaska was carried out considering soil and two different
types of foundation and researcher had optimized the design
of wind mill tower [32].
13
 Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies

In India, states like Gujarat have 1600 km-long coastal area The scaling laws to prepare a scaled model in the labora-
which can be effectively utilized for wind power generation. tory based on the prototype structure is discussed as follows.
Research shows that, in the Gujarat region, 25% higher wind In literature, it has been shown that for 1 g scale mod-
velocities are available at 110 m elevation compared to 80 m eling, geometrical scaling factor λ is defined as the ratio of
elevation [33]. The tall windmill towers constructed in Gujarat geometric dimension of the prototype structure to model in
region may also be subjected to strong seismic excitation dur- the laboratory. The following relationships are used in the
ing their life span. The windmills constructed in this region present research to prepare a scaled model in the laboratory
of the country was subjected to one of the most severe earth- [17].
quakes having magnitude 7.7 in the year 2001. During strong
seismic shaking, it may be possible that wind turbines may be (a) Mass density is scaled by factor 1. In the present
in parked condition or in operating condition. Therefore, before research, material for scaling-down model and proto-
designing tall wind turbine structures, it is required to study type structure is the same.
the seismic response of these structures under strong shaking (b) The masses and forces to be applied on scale-down
with rotor operational frequencies. In the present research, the model are required to be decreased by the cube of
main objective is to compare the seismic performance of con- scaling factor λ.
ventional monopole with innovative hybrid structural system (c) The acceleration to be applied in scale-down model
of wind turbine under operational conditions. The investigation is same as the prototype structure, so scaling factor is
was carried out by preparing a 1:40 scale-down model of pro- one.
totype structure in laboratory and tested on shake table under (d) The time of scale-down model is required to decrease
four severe seismic excitations under operational frequencies by square root of the scale-down factor λ.
of wind turbine. The response of both systems is presented in (e) The frequency of the scale-down model is decreased
the forms of various parameters such as base shear and varia- by λ −0.5.
tion of displacement in the time domain at the top of the tower.
The prototype wind turbine tower selected in the present
experimental research work is a 78 m-high wind turbine
Preparation of the Scaled Model tower with 1.65 MW capacity wind turbine at the top of the
tower [26]. The height available above the shake table in
As discussed earlier, the tall wind turbine towers are subjected to earthquake laboratory is 2.2 m. Therefore, depending on the
operational dynamic loads and seismic forces, so it is required to height of the prototype tower and height in the laboratory, a
evaluate the response of the tower under strong shaking. One of geometrical scaling factor (λ) of 40 is decided and a scaled-
the methods to study seismic response is full-scale test at the site. down model (1:40) of wind turbine tower is prepared in the
The 65 KW wind turbine is tested at the site by applying seismic laboratory. At the top of the tower, nacelle and rotor are
excitations [25]. This test is performed under actual site condi- installed. Depending on the scaling factor of 40 and scaling
tions and gives accurate results. The major disadvantage is that laws, the mass of the nacelle and rotor in the scaled-down
as full-size structures are used, large capacity shake tables are model is reduced by λ3. The dimensions of the prototype
required which is not cost effective. In addition to this, due to dif- structure and the scaled-down model prepared in the labora-
ferent boundary conditions, it is not possible to perform shaking tory are presented in Table 1.
table test easily. To overcome this difficulty, another alternative
is to prepare a scaled-down model and simulate realistic condi-
tions in the laboratory and study the response of structures on Table 1  Details of (1:40) scale-down model
the shake table. The preparation of the scaled-down model is a
more economical alternative compared to full-scale tests [17]. Sr. no. Parameter Prototype 1:40
structure scale-down
Looking at available literature, many researchers have per- [26] model
formed shake table testing on wind turbine and buildings by
preparing a scaled model. However, any researcher has not tried 1 Height 78 m 1.95 m
to test the scaled-down model of wind turbine under seismic 2 Diameter at the bottom 3650 mm 90 mm
loading and operational loads of rotor on wind turbine. To study 3 Diameter at the top 2282 mm 60 mm
the seismic response of wind turbine under various operating 4 Eccentricity of rotor from tower 3447 mm 87 mm
top (e)
conditions, the scaled model is subjected to different seismic
5 Height of nacelle from tower top 1800 mm 45 mm
excitations on the shake table with different scaled operational
6 Mass of nacelle 52,000 kg 0.8125 kg
frequencies. Various researchers have suggested scaling factors
7 Mass of rotor 43,000 kg 0.671 kg
to scale down the prototype structure in the laboratory.
8 Material Mild Steel Mild Steel

13
Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies
Preparation of Hybrid Tower
As the height of wind turbines are increased, the support-
ing tower constructed by a hollow circular section becomes
slenderer due to greater height and lesser thickness. To resist
the forces and moments more efficiently for tall wind turbine
structure, new innovative hybrid structural system with lat-
tice configuration at the bottom and monopole supporting
system at the top is proposed in this research. By chang-
ing the geometrical shape of the tower, the load-resisting
mechanism in the bottom part of the tower is converted to
axial load-resisting system from conventional-bending load
resistance system. To compare different structural systems,
one criterion should be kept identical: the dimensions and
arrangement of various structural members, such as main
leg member, and bracing in hybrid tower are adapted in such
a way that the mass of the monopole and hybrid system
remains identical.
In hybrid configuration, the total 1.95 m height is divided
into two parts: bottom 1 m and top 0.95 m. The lower por-
tion of the tower consists of the lattice system made up of the
main leg member and bracing system using 4 mm diameter
M.S. bar. In the lower 1 m portion, five cross bracings with
0.2 m height are provided to resist forces by axial stiffness.
To secure a physical model of tower on the shake table, a
0.3 m-wide base plate is provided at the base and the width
of the tower is reduced to 0.15 m at 1 m height. Holes are
drilled at predefined location in base plates to connect the
tower securely with the shake table. To design the connec-
tion between the top monopole and the bottom lattice por-
tion, adequate rigidity is provided at 1 m level using gus-
set plate to join the monopole and the lattice portion of the
hybrid tower. In the top lattice portion of the tower, 950
mm hollow circular section of mild steel material is pro-
vided. The schematic diagram of the experimental model
and details of the physical model prepared in the laboratory
is presented in Fig. 1.
Scaling of Earthquake Time Histories and Operating
Frequencies
To study the seismic response of both wind turbines under
operational conditions, four acceleration time histories of
Kobe, Landers, New Zealand and Uttarkashi were selected
for experimental shake table testing. In the present study,
both models were excited by the horizontal component of
this seismic time history and the vertical component of seis-
mic acceleration was neglected. Table 2 shows the details of
seismic acceleration time history considered in the present
analysis. In any seismic excitation, an important parameter is
acceleration observed at the ground, which is known as peak
ground acceleration (PGA). The data of variation of accel-
eration in the time domain recorded at the ground during
severe shaking were collected from data for the strong
motion center [34]. In the present research, the acceleration
data applied on the shake table consists of one near-field
and three far-field earthquakes with peak ground accelera-
tion ranging from 3 to 8 m/s2. The peak ground acceleration
recorded in New Zealand earthquake is 11.68 m/s2 having
value more than gravitational acceleration value (g).
The windmill towers are subjected to different seismic
excitations during their life span. In the state of Gujarat,
most of windmills are constructed in high seismically active
region. This seismically active region were triggered by
earthquake of magnitude 7.1 in 2001. To simulate this earth-
quake, records having Richter magnitude 6.8 to 7.8 were
selected. In Gujarat, some windmill towers are constructed
near the epicenter, so to investigate the effect of near-field
and far-field earthquakes both types of seismic excitations
were selected in the present study. To study the effect of the
data of acceleration in the time domain shown in Table 2
can be directly applied to prototype structure in filed, but
in the present investigation scale-down model of prototype
structure is prepared to evaluate the dynamic response in
the laboratory. The experimental testing is to be performed
on scale-down model, so it is also required to scale down
acceleration time history. The scaling-down factor for accel-
eration is 1, but scale-down factor for time is square root of
λ [17]; therefore, the time step is reduced by square root of λ
and based on this scale-down acceleration time history of all
four seismic excitation is derived. The variation of accelera-
tion in the time domain for Kobe earthquake before scaling
and after scaling is presented in Fig. 2. The acceleration time
history of all seismic excitations is modified before applying
to shake table according to the above scaling criteria.
The shake table input unit is shown in Fig. 4c. This con-
trol unit consists of the monitor to display the time and
acceleration value, start and stop button and emergency stop
button on it. To apply this acceleration time history to shake
table, all values of time v/s acceleration are inputted from
the computer in the shake table. After inputting all values
in the control unit of the shake table, it is once checked and
the platform of the shake table is kept in the central position.
To apply the seismic excitation, the shake table was started
and the inputted acceleration time history was applied by the
control unit of the shake table on the tower base.
The wind turbine tower is subjected to dynamic loading
of rotor and heavy static loading of nacelle is provided at
the top of the tower. Due to rotation of blades of wind tur-
bine, dynamic loads are generated and transferred on the
tower structure. The rotor of wind turbine rotates at vary-
ing speed depending on the velocity and amount of wind
available at given location. The rotors are designed in such
a way that, they are operational at lower and higher range
of wind velocity. This revolution per unit time (RPM) has
lower range and higher range depending on the design
13
 Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies

Fig. 1  a Schematic diagram of

the monopole tower. b Sche-
matic diagram of the hybrid
tower. c Physical model of the
monopole tower. d Physical
model of the hybrid tower

of the rotor and generator of the wind turbine. The lower causing dynamic loads on tower such as rotor unbal-
range and higher range of this frequency is known as ances, shear generated due to wind and shadowing effect
1P frequency. In addition to this, there are other factors on tower. The frequency associated with these effects are

13
Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies
Table 2  Details of utilized ground motions [34]
Ground Country Year Richter Type
motion magni-
tude
Kobe Japan 1995 6.9 Near Field 8.04
Landers USA 1992 7.3 Far Field 7.98
New Zea- New Zea- 2016 7.8 Far Field 11.68
land land
Uttarkashi India 1991 6.8 Far Field
termed as 3P frequency in three-bladed wind turbine and
it is three times the 1P frequency of turbine.
In the present research 1P frequency of Vestas 1.65 MW
wind turbine is 10.8–14.4 RPM (0.18 to 0.24 Hz) [35].
The scaling relationship between frequency of model and
prototype structure is λ −0.5.To obtain the frequency to be
applied on the experimental model, the frequency of the
prototype structure is to be reduced by λ −0.5; therefore, by
applying this scaling factor the rotational 1P frequency
to be applied on the experimental model is 1.14–1.52 Hz
(70 to 95 RPM).To obtain 3P frequency of the prototype
structure, the 1P frequency is multiplied by three, which
results in 0.54–0.72 Hz, and from the above relationship
the scaled 3P frequency to be applied on the experimen-
tal model is 3.41 Hz–4.55 Hz (205 RPM to 275RPM). In
the present research, lower and higher range of 1P and
3P frequency, namely 70 RPM, 90 RPM, 205 RPM and
275 RPM, is selected as the excitation frequency on scale-
down model during experimental work.
The prototype wind turbine structure is provided with
nacelle having heavy mass at the top in which the machine
parts of the generator are installed; in addition to this, rotat-
ing blades are connected with this nacelle at the specified
eccentricity. The blades are very long in prototype struc-
ture and rotate at the designed RPM depending on the wind
velocity at the given location. In scale-down testing in the
Fig. 2  Original and scaled time
history of acceleration records
for kobe earthquake
laboratory, due to insufficient headroom above the shake
PGA m/s 2 table, modeling of the blade is not possible.
Instead of modeling blades, the mass of the blade along
with the cyclic loading device can be provided at the top
of the wind turbine tower [36]. In the present research, to
simulate the nacelle of the prototype structure, AC motor
having mass identical to scaled mass of nacelle is installed at
the top of the tower. To apply cyclic loading of rotor on the
3.04 experimental model, scale-down mass of rotor is connected
with the axis of the AC motor at an eccentric distance using
Allen key bolts joining mechanism.
To apply variable rotational frequency on the tower struc-
ture using cyclic loading mechanism, special electric con-
troller is installed to control the rotational frequencies of
the rotating mass connected with nacelle. The details of the
nacelle and rotor mass are presented in Fig. 3.
Before performing the experiment, it is required to cali-
brate the rotational frequency to be applied to the wind-
mill tower. The nacelle mass is fixed on the motor and the
tachometer is attached to the nacelle mass as shown in
Fig. 3c and d. The rotational frequency is changed with the
controller and measured with the tachometer. The percent-
age required on the controller is noted down for 70 RPM, 90
RPMM, 205 RPM and 275 RPM, and during experimental
work this percentages is set to apply the required rotational
frequency of the windmill blade.
Experimental Setup and Data Acquisition System
The experimental shaking test was conducted at earthquake
laboratory in Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Tech-
nology, Surat. The shaking table is uniaxial and electrically
operated, consisting of a hydraulic actuator with shaking
platform of 2 m × 1 m size. The maximum payload capacity
of the shake table is 1000 kg with ± 50 mm displacement.
The maximum shaking frequency to be applied on table is
5.5 Hz.
13

Fig. 3  Experiential setup details
for a nacelle and rotor in scale-
down model, b details of the
controller to change the rotor
frequency used in experimental
studies (c). d Calibration for 70
and 205 RPM
Shake table testing on scale-down model is an effective
tool to evaluate the dynamic response of various structures.
In the present research, scale-down model of the monopole
tower and hybrid tower was secured to the shake table using
bolts at appropriate locations and the effect of different tower
geometries for the wind turbine tower were investigated. In
addition to seismic loading, the actuator to apply cyclic load-
ing of rotor mass was installed on top of the tower rigidly to
transfer the dynamic loads generated due to rotation of the
blades of wind turbine tower.
During testing, firstly the monopole tower is secured on
a shake table firmly using base plate and bolts at appropri-
ate locations to transfer shaking of the table to the model.
The vertical position of the model is checked to avoid any
eccentric loading on the tower model during the experi-
mental work. To apply dynamic loading of rotor during
shaking on the shake table, the nacelle is installed on top
of the tower at scaled CG distance from the top of the
tower. The mass of the rotor is fixed with the axle of the
nacelle by using Allen key bolting. The details of nacelle
and rotor mass secured on top of the tower is presented
in Fig. 3.
13
Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies
The results are recorded during experimental testing at
some critical locations of the tower. The response quantity
under dynamic loading of the rotor and seismic force is
variation in the acceleration and displacement in the time
domain and peak displacements at the top of the tower.
The accelerometers having model number NI cDAQ-9174
of National Instruments Corporation were installed on the
tower to monitor dynamic response and variation of accel-
eration in the time domain under the given loading. The
variation of acceleration is used to obtain displacement
by double integration in the time domain using LabView
software. The final setup of fixation of accelerometer at the
top of the tower, data acquisition system and recording of
data in the computer are shown in Fig. 4.
Shaking Table Test Under Operational Loading
Conditions
Time history analysis was conducted on scale-down experi-
mental model of monopole tower on shake table consider-
ing cyclic loading due to rotation of blades for a specified
number of cycles. The experimental models were excited
Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies
Fig. 4  Final setup of shaking
table tests on a monopole tower
with nacelle and rotor mass b
hybrid tower with nacelle and
rotor mass. c Data acquisi-
tion system. d Fixation of
accelerometer to record lateral
displacement
on the shake table by four unidirectional earthquake ground
motion with cyclic loading of four different scaled rotational
frequencies at the top of the tower. Looking at seismic time
history details, it can be noticed that the longest time dura-
tion is for New Zealand earthquake, so the number of cycles
is selected such that the total time duration is 30 s for rotor
cyclic loading.
To control the rotational frequency of cyclic loading
applied by the rotor and actuator, it is connected to a fre-
quency controller as shown in Fig. 4 with AC electric supply.
A trial run is performed on the model to check the effect of
rotor harmonic loading on the tower structure and after the
trial run, the experimental setup was found to be satisfac-
tory. In the present work, a series of experimental tests was
conducted as per the following procedure.
(1) The scale-down model of monopole tower is secured
in the proper position on the shake table. The bolts are
used to connect the base plate of the model with the
shake table platform at appropriate locations. The true
vertical position of the tower is checked with leveling
instruments.
(2) The actuator installed at the top of the tower at scale-
down CG distance as presented in Table 1 in such a
way that dynamic loads are transferred to the tower
model. The scaled mass of the rotor is attached with
actuator using Allen key arrangement. The detailed
experimental setup of the monopole tower on the
shake table with actuator, rotor and controller is pre-
sented in Fig. 4.
(3) To control the rotational frequency of the actuator,
the special controller is connected with the actuator.
The controller shows the percentage to be applied,
so the relationship between percentage and rotational
frequency is established in the laboratory to apply the
required rotational frequency of the rotor.
(4) The experimental model is instrumented with accel-
erometer at the top of the tower as presented in Fig. 4.
The node located at the top of the tower is selected,
because under dynamic loading the acceleration is
13
 Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies

maximum at the top of the tower structure. This accel-

erometer is connected to a data acquisition system and
computer to record the variation of acceleration in the
time domain during experiments.
(5) The variation of acceleration in the time domain of all
four seismic excitations is inputted to the control panel
of the shake table. The rotational frequency of the
actuator is set to 70 RPM using a controller attached
to the system. In addition, cyclic loading of rotor and
seismic loading of Kobe excitation are applied from
the control panel of the shake table; thus, the experi-
mental model is subjected to 70 RPM harmonic load-
ing and Kobe seismic loading. The acceleration in the
time domain is recorded by a data acquisition system
and converted into displacement in the time domain
using LabView software.
(6) After applying Kobe seismic loading and cyclic rotor
loading, the forcing regime on the shake table and
rotor is stopped and the monopole model is subjected
to Landers, New Zealand and Uttarkashi seismic exci-
tation on the shake table considering 70 RPM cyclic
loading at the top of the tower.
(7) The rotational frequency on the controller is changed
to 90 RPM and the tower is subjected to four seis-
mic excitations of Kobe, Landers, New Zealand and
Uttarkashi earthquake. The experimental procedure is
repeated by setting the controller of harmonic loading
to 205 RPM and 275 RPM with four selected seismic
excitations on the shake table. All the above loading
was applied on the experimental model for a set time
period.
(8) After completing detailed experimental work on the
monopole tower, the physical model of the hybrid
tower is secured on the shake table and the actuator,
rotor and controller are secured on top of the tower as
presented in Fig. 4b.
(9) The hybrid model is tested for 70 RPM rotor fre-
quency and four different seismic excitations. This
Fig. 5  Variation of displacement in the time domain recorded at the
procedure is repeated for a number of different rota- top of the monopole tower model under the influence of 70 RPM
tional frequencies of 90 RPM, 205 RPM and 275 cyclic loading for a Kobe earthquake, b Landers earthquake, c New
RPM for four different seismic acceleration loadings. Zealand earthquake, d Uttarkashi earthquake

Experimental Test Result and Discussion
Response of Monopole Tower Under Seismic
and Operational Loading
To study the dynamic response of the monopole tower 1:40
scaled-down model is subjected to experimental testing in
laboratory under cyclic loading of rotor and seismic accel-
eration loading. Figure 5 shows the variation of displace-
ment in the time domain observed at the top node of the
tower under 70 RPM cyclic loading and various seismic
loadings. As expected, the highest displacement of 40 mm
is recorded at the top of the tower in New Zealand seismic
acceleration, because in case of New Zealand the seismic
loading PGA value of excitation is more than the g value.
Looking at the obtained experimental results, it can be noted
that the number of cycles and displacement under 70 RPM
cyclic loading of rotor are identical in all seismic excitation.
From the obtained results, it can be noted that the varia-
tion of displacement under cyclic loading is independent of

13
Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies
seismic loading and gives identical values of 2.5 mm under
all applied seismic excitations.
Considering the 90 RPM cyclic loading of rotor under
various seismic accelerations, variation of displacement in
the time domain are presented in Fig. 6. The peak displace-
ment under seismic excitation is 35 mm, 25 mm 44 mm and
30 mm for Kobe, Landers, New Zealand and Uttarkashi
excitation, respectively. Further comparison of displacement
due to cyclic loading of rotor shows that peak displacement
observed is 5.2 mm, which is higher than 70 RPM cyclic
loading. The displacement due to cyclic loading of rotor
Fig. 6  Variation of displacement in the time domain recorded at the
top of a monopole tower model under the influence of 90 RPM cyclic
loading for a Kobe earthquake, b Landers earthquake, c New Zealand
earthquake d Uttarkashi earthquake
is increased because 70 RPM frequency is adjacent to the
natural frequency of the tower which results in the frequency
ratio near the unit value. By observing Fig. 6, it is evident
that by increasing the rotating frequency of cyclic loading,
the number of displacement cycles observed as response of
the structure is also increased in experimental testing and
this output number of cycles due to dynamic loading is iden-
tical to the cycles of inputted frequency.
Further comparison of peak displacements at the tower
top under 205 RPM cyclic loading under four seismic exci-
tations are illustrated in Fig. 7. As shown, the displacement
response at the top of the tower under cyclic loading is mag-
nified and the peak displacement is 7.2 mm which is identi-
cal under all seismic excitations applied in 205 RPM experi-
mental testing. From the obtained result, it can be inferred
that the value of the peak displacement under cyclic loading
205 RPM is highest among all applied cyclic loadings. The
reason for obtaining the highest displacement in cyclic load-
ing is that the applied frequency of cyclic loading is near the
natural frequency of the tower which results in resonance
condition during experiments on scale-down model.
Figure 8 represents the variation of displacement in the
time domain for 275 RPM cyclic loading of rotor under var-
ious seismic excitations for monopole configuration. The
cyclic loading frequency increased to the highest value of 3P
rotor loading; therefore, the number of displacement cycles
also increased at the top of the tower as presented in Fig. 8.
The displacement observed under cyclic loading of rotor
is only 1.2 mm, which is less in all cases of rotor cyclic
loading, because the frequency of cyclic loading is far away
from the natural frequency of the tower which averts reso-
nance condition during cyclic lading. As observed during
earlier cyclic loading, New ZealandNew Zealand earthquake
derived the highest displacement value among all seismic
loadings under consideration.
Response of Hybrid Tower Under Seismic
and Operational Loading
Experimental dynamic testing was accomplished in labora-
tory on scaled-down model of monopole and appropriate
model of hybrid tower to study the behavior of the mono-
pole and hybrid system under seismic loading and cyclic
loading of rotor. To study the effect of axial stiffness over
bending stiffnesses, the response of both structural systems
is presented in the form of displacement in the time domain.
Figure 9 displays the displacement variation under 70 RPM
cyclic loading of rotor and four different seismic time histo-
ries for hybrid tower.
The gathered results from experimental testing of hybrid
tower indicates that the hybrid system delivers peak dis-
placement of 1.05 mm that is half of conventional monopole
structural system under the same rotor cyclic loading. The
13

Fig. 7  Variation of displacement in the time domain recorded at the
top of the monopole tower model under the influence of 205 RPM
cyclic loading for a Kobe earthquake, b Landers earthquake, c New
Zealand earthquake, d Uttarkashi earthquake
displacement from seismic excitation exhibited that axial
stiffness reduces the response of the tower and it can be
noticed that peak displacement in New Zealand excitation is
reduced to 35 mm from 44 mm in the monopole tower; how-
ever, it is detected that in the hybrid system, this reduction is
11 mm, 9 mm and 16 mm in Kobe, Landers and Uttarkashi
acceleration time history, respectively. The number of cycles
under cyclic loading of 70 RPM is identical to each other in
all seismic excitations.
Figure 10 indicates the time history of displacement in
the time domain achieved from experimental testing for 90
13
Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies
Fig. 8  Variation of displacement in the time domain recorded at the
top of the monopole tower model under the influence of 275 RPM
cyclic loading for a Kobe earthquake, b Landers earthquake, c New
Zealand earthquake, d Uttarkashi earthquake
RPM cyclic loading under different seismic excitations for
the hybrid tower.
The peak displacement was found to be 2.5  mm for
90 rpm cyclic loading which was 5.2 mm in monopole
tower during experimental testing in laboratory. In addi-
tion to this, displacements under four different seismic
excitations were recorded as 24 mm, 35 mm,16 mm and
17 mm for Kobe, New Zealand, Landers and Uttarkashi
seismic excitation, respectively. This experimental result
shows that displacement at the top of the tower is reduced
by 95 percentage for 90 RPM cyclic loading in the hybrid
tower compared to the monopole tower.
Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies
Fig. 9  Variation of displacement in the time domain recorded at the
top of the hybrid tower model under the influence of 70 RPM cyclic
loading for a Kobe earthquake, b Landers earthquake, c New Zealand
earthquake, d Uttarkashi earthquake
The variation of displacement of hybrid structural con-
figuration under 205 RPM rotor cyclic loading with dif-
ferent seismic excitations for hybrid configuration is pre-
sented in Fig. 11. As the cyclic loading frequency changes,
the peak displacement at the top of the tower under cyclic
loading also changes. From displacement variation, it can
be noticed that peak displacement under 205 RPM cyclic
loading is 3.3 mm, which is reduced compared to mono-
pole configuration for identical frequencies. The change in
cyclic loading frequency is reflected in the form of increase
Fig. 10  Variation of displacement in the time domain recorded at the
top of the hybrid tower model under the influence of 90 RPM cyclic
loading for a Kobe earthquake, b Landers earthquake, c New Zealand
earthquake, d Uttarkashi earthquake
in top displacement, because 205 rpm operational frequency
is adjacent to the natural frequency of the hybrid tower. The
peak ground acceleration of Uttarkashi seismic excitation is
less compared to other acceleration, so displacement noticed
at the top of tower in experimental testing is less and it is
almost similar to rotor cyclic loading.
The experimental model of hybrid tower is subjected to
275 RPM cyclic frequency and four different seismic excita-
tions and measured variation in displacement is presented
in Fig. 12. It is noticed that displacement under rotor cyclic
13

Fig. 11  Variation of displacement in the time domain recorded at the
top of the hybrid tower model under the influence of 205 RPM cyclic
loading for a Kobe earthquake, b Landers earthquake, c New Zealand
earthquake, d Uttarkashi earthquake
loading of 275 RPM is reduced compared to other cyclic
frequencies. The reason for this observation is that the fre-
quency ratio is very less in the given loading condition and
resonance will not play a significant role at this stage. Fig-
ure 12 shows that as the input cyclic frequency increases, the
number of cycles in the displacement output also increases.
As observed in earlier loading case of 205 RPM frequency,
the value of displacement under Uttarkashi excitation is less
and less variation in displacement is observed during seis-
mic excitation at the base of the experimental model.
13
Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies
Fig. 12  Variation of displacement in the time domain recorded at the
top of the hybrid tower model under the influence of 275 RPM cyclic
loading for a Kobe earthquake b Landers earthquake c New Zealand
earthquake d Uttarkashi earthquake
Three‑Dimensional Numerical Analysis
The realistic dynamic behavior of monopole and hybrid
wind turbine tower were simulated in 3D numerical mod-
eling using finite element software SAP 2000. These mod-
els consist of study on dynamic behavior of tower structure
under cyclic and seismic loading. Shell element was used
to model the wall and base plate of the tower, the lower
portion of the hybrid tower was modeled using the frame
element and cross bracing of the hybrid tower was mod-
eled as frame element and connected with the main leg
Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies

element. To simulate truss behavior of axial elements, the

moments in the frame element were released. In hybrid
tower, simulation of the connection between lower lattice
and top monopole portion is important to transfer loads
and moments of monopole portion to the bottom portion,
so they were connected through rigid link elements. The
nacelle and rotor used in experimental testing were mod-
eled by applying joint mass at CG distances above the top
of the tower. It is required to transfer these masses to the
windmill tower. Finite element software has given body
constraint for nodes. Therefore, to transfer loads, all top
nodes of tower and CG of nacelle and rotor are connected
using joint constraints. This body constraints transfer loads
and moments of nacelle and rotor to the tower body.
To simulate correct boundary condition at the bottom of
the tower in simulation, the location of bolts in the physi-
cal model is identified and restrained against displacement
in all directions at the identified nodes. The detailed 3D
numerical model of monopole and hybrid tower is pre-
sented in Fig. 13.
The major loads acting on the tower were cyclic loading
of wind turbine rotor which produces dynamic loads on the
tower. Sine functions given in finite element simulation
were used to simulate cyclic loading of blades. In sine
loading, the rotational frequency, total number of steps
and appropriate size of time step were defined, and the
total number of cycles and total duration of cyclic load-
ing selected in such a way that during this cyclic loading
and seismic excitation can be applied simultaneously. The
nonlinear time history case was defined and in load case
sine loading of rotor and seismic acceleration loading were
applied at the base of the tower. The number of steps is
decided in nonlinear time history loading such that total
duration of cyclic rotor loading is 40 s. The tower models
were excited considering four different rotor cyclic load-
ings at CG of rotor and four ground motion applied at the
base of the tower. The used ground motions are scaled
according to scale-down criteria discussed and applied at
the base of the tower.
It is required to evaluate and validate first the natural
frequency of scaled-down model with prototype structure.
To achieve first the natural frequency of the experimental
model of the monopole tower in the laboratory, the fre-
quency of the shaking table was changed gradually from 1
to 3 Hz. During testing, the first resonance condition was
observed at 2.1 Hz frequency. This frequency denotes the
first natural frequency of the system. The test was repeated
Fig. 13  Three-dimensional numerical model of a monopole and b
serval times to ensure the accuracy of the observed fre- hybrid tower including nacelle and rotor mass applied at the top of
quencies. The time period for the first model is 3.17 s the tower. c First mode of vibration. d Third mode of vibration
[26], which gives first model frequency as 0.322 Hz. The
frequency of the experimental model obtained by apply-
ing scaling relationship λ −0.5 is 2.04 Hz. The first natural
frequency evaluated from experimental testing is 2.1 Hz.

13

Comparing the results of the conducted experimental
testing and scale-down frequency of prototype model
as per scaling criteria, it is observed that the values of
experimental results are in good agreement with scaled
frequencies of prototype structure. The first mode of vibra-
tion obtained from finite element simulation is presented
in Fig. 13c and the hird mode of vibration of the scaled
model is presented in Fig. 13d.
Comparison of Dynamic Response
by Experimental and Numerical Analysis
The primary purpose of the present research is compar-
ing dynamic response of both structural system under
rotor loading and seismic loading on a tall tower structure.
The response quantity of interest in research is base shear
at the base of the tower, variation of displacement in the
time domain and peak displacement at the top of the tower
under cyclic and seismic loading. Moreover, the effect of
axial stiffness in the bottom of the hybrid tower on dynamic
response of both towers is investigated by evaluating base
shear under cyclic loading.
Fig. 14  Comparison of lateral
deformation by 3D numerical
predictions and experimental
observations under the influence
of a earthquake loading, b rotor
cyclic loading
13
Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies
In seismic excitation, base shear develops at the base of the
tower owing to the effect of ground acceleration. This base
shear directly depends on the peak ground acceleration, mass
and stiffness of the structure. The forces and moments are
higher at the base of the tower and lattice portion resists forces
by axial stiffness, consequently, decreasing the base shear at
the bottom and displacement response at the top of the tower.
Results of conducted dynamic shaking test with rotor cyclic
loading and three-dimensional numerical predictions of maxi-
mum lateral displacement at the top of the tower are presented
in Fig. 14. Moreover, results of base shear obtained from simula-
tion of both tower structures are presented in Fig. 15. Comparing
the results of conducted experimental testing and predictions of
three-dimensional numerical modeling under cyclic loading of
rotor, it is observed that the values of numerical prediction are in
good agreement with experimental dynamic testing.
To compare displacement responses of monopole and
hybrid structural system, the peak displacement values of
3D numerical prediction and experimental testing for each
dynamic load cases were determined and plotted in Fig. 14. In
comparison to monopole tower, hybrid tower reduces maxi-
mum lateral displacement by 25% and 45% in New Zealand
and Kobe earthquake based on experimental and 3D numerical
Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies
Fig. 15  Base shear of the wind
turbine tower structure obtained
from 3D numerical analysis
for monopole tower and hybrid
tower under rotor cyclic loading
analysis, respectively, However, the displacement response is
maximum in New Zealand seismic excitation for monopole
and hybrid tower among all seismic acceleration shown herein
because it has PGA of 11.68 m/s2 more than gravitational
acceleration. In case of less severe seismic excitations, the
reduction in lateral displacement is 36% and 43% in Landers
and Uttarkashi seismic excitation, respectively.
The peak displacement response of monopole and hybrid
structural system under cyclic loading of rotor evaluated by
experimental results and numerical simulations are shown
in Fig. 14. By studying the results obtained from experi-
mental work and its numerical predictions, it can be noticed
that displacement increases with increase in frequency up
to 205 RPM frequency and reduces for 275 RPM. This is
due to the fact that the natural frequency of the tower lies
near the range of operating cyclic frequency which results
in frequency ratio near to one, consequently displacement
increases up to 205 RPM. At 275 RPM operating frequency,
the frequency ratio changes, and lateral displacement tends
to decrease. From experimental and numerical results, it can
be noticed that hybrid tower reduces lateral displacement at
the top of the tower by 60%, 52%, 57% and 50% for 70 RPM,
90 RPM, 205 RPM and 275 RPM frequency, respectively.
In case of conventional monopole structure, the forces are
resisted by bending stiffness of structure, while in the hybrid
structural system forces are resisted by axial stiffness, which
results due to truss action of members in the bottom lattice
portion of the tower, and it reduces displacement signifi-
cantly compared to monopole tower that resists the lateral
forces by the bending action of the tower.
The comparison of base shear under four operational
conditions of both structural system by numerical predic-
tions and experimental work is presented in Fig. 15. The
base shear obtained by experimental work for all operating
frequencies is identical to results of numerical predictions
with acceptable accuracies. Under operating conditions of
tower at various frequencies, it can be noticed that base
shear is maximum for 205 RPM cyclic loading. There is
27% increase in base shear for 205 RPM frequency com-
pared to 90 RPM frequency, because it lies near the natural
frequency of the tower, The significance of axial stiffness
can be seen in base shear comparison under various cyclic
loadings, and it is noticed that base shear reduces by 108%
and 118% for 90 RPM and 205 RPM frequency, respec-
tively, in hybrid configuration compared to conventional
monopole tower. This is due to the fact that by changing
stiffness of load-resisting system of tower from bending to
axial, the dynamic magnification due to cyclic and seismic
loading reduces; consequently, the hybrid configuration
results in effective solution to resist dynamic forces com-
pared to conventional monopole structural system of tall
wind turbine tower.
Conclusion
In this paper, the dynamic response of 78 m-high mono-
pole having 1.6 MW wind turbine at the top and hybrid
tower was compared under four seismic excitations con-
sidering four operational frequencies of wind turbine rotor.
The 1/40 scaled model of monopole tower prepared in the
laboratory by applying scale-down relationships including
modeling nacelle at the top and rotor as joint mass at CG
of rotor at the top of the tower. In addition to this appro-
priate model of hybrid tower which is a combination of
monopole in the upper portion and lattice structure in the
lower portion is prepared. A series of four shaking table
tests have been performed by applying scaled time history
at the base of the tower considering four different scaled
frequency of cyclic rotor loading at the top of the tower.
Employing SAP-2000, a fully three-dimensional numerical
model was adopted and sine loading was inputted to simu-
late rotor cyclic loading with seismic time history loading
at the base of the tower. Boundary conditions according
13

to experimental model assigned in numerical 3D model
and nonlinear dynamic analysis were performed. By com-
paring the obtained experimental results with predicted
numerical simulation, it can be concluded that finite ele-
ment simulation in SAP-000 is appropriate for monopole
and hybrid tower under applied dynamic loading.
It is observed that lateral displacement reduces by
25–45 percentage in new hybrid structural configura-
tion compared to monopole tower under seismic loading
applied at the base of the tower. Nonetheless, the experi-
mental measurements and its numerical simulation con-
clude that lateral displacement is reduced by 50–57 per-
centage in hybrid tower compared to hollow monopole
tower under 1P and 3P operational frequencies of rotor at
the top of the tower. Base shear developed in the structure
depends on the stiffness of the structure and the dynamic
properties of the structure under operational loading. From
the present research, it is noticed that base shear reduces
by 108–118 percentage in hybrid tower compared to con-
ventional tower.
Consequently, the axial stiffness of the structure in the
form of frame elements provided in the lower portion of
the hybrid tower has been proved to be a more efficient
structural system compared to conventional monopole
structural system and it reduces the effect of dynamic
loads acting in the form of rotor and seismic loading
effects. Hence, the new hybrid structural system which
is a combination of lattice and monopole tower is recom-
mended to construct wind turbine supporting structures of
higher hub height to harvest more wind energy.
Acknowledgements  The author would like to show their appreciation
to the Civil Engineering Department of Sardar Vallabhbhai National
Institute of Technology, Surat, India, for providing laboratory facilities
and other instruments for this research.
Funding  This study has not been funded from any funding agencies.
Declarations  18. Ziemian C, Ziemian R, Barker E (2010) Shake table simula-
Conflict of Interest  The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
References
1. Global wind power report (2018) Global Wind Energy Council
2. Sritharan S (2015) Wind turbine towers precast concrete Hex-
crete may help increase renewable energy capacity with taller
hub heights. PCI J 2015:33–38
3. Lanier MW (2005) Conceptual design study evaluation of
design and construction approaches for economical hybrid steel
concrete wind turbine towers. Technical Report. January 2005
4. Lyrner T, Hassanzadeh M, Stalin T, Johansson J (2010) Tall
towers for large wind turbines. Technical Report July 2010
13
Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies
5. Morais MVGD, Avila S (2015) Finite element analysis of a
wind turbine tower with a pendulum tuned mass damper. In
Proceedings of the XVII International Symposium on Dynamic
Problems of Mechanics, Number February, Brazil, pp 1–16
6. Wu X-g, Yang J, Chen S-y, Yu Q (2012) Structural behavior
analysis of UHPCC hybrid tower for MW super high wind tur-
bine under rated wind load. In: World congress on Advances in
Civil, Environmental, and Materials Research, pp 147–164
7. Yang J, Wu XG, Mpalla IB (2013) Innovative post tensioned
hybrid wind turbine tower made of ultra high-performance
cementitious composites segment. In: World Congress on
Advances in structural eng. and mechanics, pp 744–758
8. Chavushoglu M, Kerri M, Tsuzaki T, Chavushoglu M, Kerri M,
Tsuzaki T (2017) A resistance type vertical axis wind turbine
for building integration. Renewable Energy. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​renene.​2017.​05.​017
9. Bazeos N, Hatzigeorgiou G, Hondros I, Beskos D, Karamaneas
H, Karabalis D (2002) Static seismic and stability analyses of a
prototype wind turbine steel tower. Eng Struct 24:1015–1025
10. Bhattacharya S, Nikitas N, Garnsey J, Alexander NA, Cox J,
Lombardi D, Muir Wood D, Nash DF (2013) Observed dynamic
soil structure interaction in scale testing of offshore wind tur-
bine foundations. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 54:47–60
11. Zhao X, Maiber P (2006) Seismic response analysis of wind
turbine towers including soil structure interaction. Mech E.
Multi-body Dyn 220:53–61. https://​d oi.​o rg/​1 0.​1 243/​1 4644​
1905X​73691
12. Bhattacharya S, Lombardi D, Muir Wood D (2011) Similitude
relationships for physical modelling of monopile supported off-
shore wind turbines. Int J Phys Model Geotech 11(2):58–68
13. Cheng M, Lu X (2010) Study on seismic behaviour of a new
hybrid structure with shaking table test and numerical analysis.
Struct Des Tall Special Build 19(7):750–760
14. Hokmabadi AS, Fatahi B, Samali B (2014) Assessment of soil-
pile-structure interaction influencing seismic response of mid-rise
buildings sitting on floating pile foundations. Comput Geotech
55:172–186
15. Kumar M, Mishra SS (2019) Study of seismic response charac-
teristics of building frame models using shake table test and con-
sidering soil structure interaction. Asian J Civil Eng. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​1007/​s42107-​018-​00114-w
16. Lu X, Fu G, Shi W, Lu W (2008) Shake table model testing and
its application. Struct Des Tall Special Build 17(1):181–201
17. Tabatabaiefar HR, Mansoury B (2016) Detail design building and
commissioning of tall building structural models for experimental
shaking table tests. Struct Design Tall Spec Build 25:357–374
tion study of small-scale layered models. Rapid Prototyping J
16(1):4–11
19. Asareh MA, Schonberg W, Volz J (2015) Effects of seismic and
aerodynamic load interaction on structural dynamic response of
multi megawatt utility scale horizontal axis wind turbines. Renew-
able Energy 86:49–58
20. Austin S, Jerath S (2017) Effect of soil foundation structure inter-
action on the seismic response of wind turbines. Ain Shams Eng
J 8(3):323–331
21. Song B, Yi Y, Wul JC (2010) Comparative analysis on dynamic
response of wind turbine tower in different sites. Int Efforts Life-
line Earthquake Eng 1(2):97–104
22. Depina I, Minh T, Le H, Eiksund G, Benz T (2015) Behavior of
cyclically loaded monopile foundations for offshore wind turbines
in heterogeneous sands. Comput Geotech 65:266–277
23. Lombardi D, Bhattacharya S, Muir D (2013) Dynamic soil struc-
ture interaction of monopile supported wind turbines in cohesive
soil. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 49:165–180
Journal of Vibration Engineering & Technologies
24. Fitzgerald B, Basu B (2016) Structural control of wind turbines
with soil structure interaction included. Eng Struct 111:131–151
25. Prowell I, Elgamal A, Lu J, Luco JE (2009) Modal properties of
a modern wind turbine including SSI. In: Proceedings of the 17th
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering, pp 1989–1992
26. Nuta E, Christopoulos C, Packer JA (2011) Methodology for
seismic risk assessment for tubular steel wind turbine towers
application to Canadian Seismic Environment. Can J Civ Eng
38:293–304
27. Kaveh A, Sabeti S (2018) Optimal design of jacket supporting
structures for offshore wind turbines using CBO and ECBO algo-
rithms. Periodica Polytech 3:62545–62554
28. Kaveh A, Sabeti S (2018) Structural optimization of jacket sup-
porting structures for offshore wind turbines using colliding bod-
ies optimization algorithm. Tall Build Special Struct 13:27
29. Kaveh VRM, Kamalinejad M (2017) Optimal design of the mon-
opole structures using CBO and ECBO algorithms. Periodica
Polytechnica-Civil Eng 1(61):110–116
30. Kaveh A, Sabeti S (2018) Optimal design of monopile offshore
wind turbine structures using CBO, ECBO, and VPS algorithms.
Scientia Iranica https://​doi.​org/​10.​24200/​sci.​2018.​20090
31. Kaveh A, Sabeti S (2019) Optimal design of jacket supporting
structures for offshore wind turbines using enhanced colliding
bodies optimization. Int J Optimiz Civil Eng 1(9):129–145
32. Alhamaydeh M, Hussain SH (2011) Optimized frequency-based
foundation design for wind turbine towers utilizing soil structure
Interaction. J Franklin Inst 348(7):1470–1487
33. Draxl C, Purkayastha A, Parker Z, Draxl C, Purkayastha A, Parker
Z (2014) Wind Resource Assessment of Gujarat India. Technical
Report July 2014
34. Strong motion center (2020) www.​stron​g moti​o ncen​t re.​o rg.
Accessed 20 Jan 2019
35. Specification for 1.65 MW wind turbine “Vestas International
Limited
36. Yu L, Wang LZ, Guo Z, Bhattacharya S, Nikitas G, Li LL (2015)
Long term dynamic behavior of monopile supported offshore
wind turbines in sand. Theor Appl Mech Lett 1:1–5
Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
13