IAL BIOLOGY REVISION

unit 2
N. Ali
 3A

1- observing cells

2- eukaryotic cells

3- eukaryotic protein transport

4- prokaryotic cells

5- cell organization
 3A.1

Microscopes are used to understand

the functioning of cells and their
organelles.

The microscope you typically find

in school is a light microscope.
light microscopes can barely make
out organelles as they have a low
magnification - the degree which an
imagine of an object is enlarged-
and low resolution- degree which it
is possible to distinguish between
2 points that are close together.
 3A.1
Electron microscopes are used by scanning transmission
scientists to observe organelles of electron electron
microscope microscope
cells.

There are 2 types of electronic

Image nature 3D 2D
microscopes a scanning electron
microscope SEM and a transmission
electron microscope TEM
magnification Maximum of 2 Maximum of 50
Stains and dyes are applied to million million
tissue samples and bind to magnification magnification
organelles making them easier to
view and also increases contrast in Resolution Lower Higher
image formed making it easier to resolution resolution
see 2 objects apart increasing
resolution.
 3A.2
• Nucleus-surrounded by an envelope/double
membrane containing pores which enable
molecules to enter and leave the nucleus.
Also contains chromatin and a nucleolus
which is the site of ribosome production.
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) - a
series of flattened sacs enclosed by a
membrane with ribosomes on the surface. RER
folds and processes proteins made on the
ribosomes.
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - a system
of membrane bound sacs. SER produces and
processes lipids.
• Golgi apparatus - a series of fluid
filled, flattened & curved sacs with
vesicles surrounding the edges. Golgi
apparatus processes and packages proteins
and lipids.
 3A.2
● Mitochondria usually oval shaped, bound by a
double membrane called the envelope. The inner
membrane is folded to form projections called
cristae with a matrix on the inside, containing all the
enzymes needed for respiration.

● Centrioles hollow cylinders ontaining a ring of

microtubules rranged at right angles to each ther.
Centrioles are involved in rell division.

● Ribosomes-these are composed of two subunits and

are the site of protein production.

● Lysosome-a vesicle containing digestive enzymes

bound by a single membrane.
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 3A.3

Extracellular enzymes are enzymes secreted by cells into their

external environment; enzymes are proteins so are synthesised
in ribosomes free in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough
endoplasmic reticulum. The polypeptide gets sent to the Golgi
apparatus, where it is folded into its 3D shape, it is then
packaged in a Golgi vesicle which can then fuse with the cell
surface membrane to release the enzymes outside of the cell.
These vesicles are important to ensuring the enzymes only
catalyse reactions, such as the breakdown of biological
molecules, where required, in this case outside of the cell.
 3A.4

● Cell wall-Rigid outer covering

made of peptidoglycan
● Capsule-Protective slimy layer
which helps the cell to retain
moisture and adhere to surfaces
● Plasmid-Circular piece of extra
DNA
● Flagellum- a tail like structure
which rotates to move the cell
● Pili- Hair-like structures which
attach to other bacterial cells
● Ribosomes- Site of protein
production
● Mesosomes- Infoldings of the inner
membrane which contain enzymes
required for respiration
 3A.5

Groups of cells that carry out a common function are known as a tissue, groups of
tissues that work together to carry out a common function form an organ and groups
of organs that carry out a common function form an organ system.
For example, groups of cells in the stomach make up the muscular tissue, this tissue
along with the epithelium tissue make up the stomach organ, and the stomach and
various other organs, such as the pancreas and small intestines make up the
digestive system. Many organs are part of more than one organ system, like the
pancreas which carries out various functions for both the endocrine system and the
digestive system.
3A
 3B

1. Cell cycle

2. Mitosis

3. Meiosis, sexual reproduction

4. Gametes

5. Fertilization
 3B.1

A cell cycle is a series of events that takes place

in a cell as it grows and divides/ between cell
divisions. The cell spends most of its life time in
interphase. This includes G1, S and G2 phases.
During interphase the cell is carrying out
functions of that specific cell type. The M stage
is mitosis followed by cytokinesis.
G1- organelles replicated
S- DNA semi conservative replication
G2- centrioles replicated, grows more, dna
checked for errors
 3B.2
Function of cell cycle?
Mitosis functions (1,3,5)
1. Control the growth of organism/ repair damaged tissue / replace a dead cell /
Increase number of cells due to cell divisions
2. Increase in size of cells during G1 , G2 phases
3. Asexual reproduction / production of clones .
4. Replication of DNA and new cell organelles and formation of new cytoplasm
5. Produce genetically identical cells ( in mitosis )
6. Specialization of cells take place after cell division
Eg. Give two roles of the cell cycle. Growth, asexual reproduction.
 3B.2
Explain why the mitochondria replicate during early stages of cell cycle ?
1. As the number of mitochondria will later be halved by the end of the cell
divisions .
2. To provide energy for mitosis / growth
Define chromatid.
Chromatid: one of the 2 identical DNA molecules that make up a chromosome
Dna is replicated in S phase.
Why cells with damaged dna not replicated?
Checkpoints mechanism stop cells with damaged DNA from dividing as they will
produce genetically identical cells by mitosis with damaged dna leading to faulty
/no proteins being transcribed.
 3B.2
Explain why the mitochondria replicate during early stages of cell cycle ?
1. As the number of mitochondria will later be halved by the end of the cell
divisions .
2. To provide energy for mitosis / growth
Define chromatid.
Chromatid: one of the 2 identical DNA molecules that make up a chromosome
Dna is replicated in S phase.
Why cells with damaged dna not replicated?
Checkpoints mechanism stop cells with damaged DNA from dividing as they will
produce genetically identical cells by mitosis with damaged dna leading to faulty
/no proteins being transcribed.
 3B.2

Mitosis is the process by which somatic cells divide to produce new cells so
that organisms can grow and repair and replace damage cell. Mitosis ends
after one division so that 2 resulting daughter cells are diploid. Since the
resulting cells have no mixing or combining of genetic information, they are
genetically identical to each other and parent cell, making mitosis the ideal
process for normal growth and organisms.
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June 19 3B.2
 3B.3

● Meiosis gives rise to cells that are genetically

different from each other and is the type of cell
division used to produce haploid gametes so
chromosome number is not doubled with each
fertilisation
● During meiosis, the nucleus of the original
'parent' cell undergoes two rounds of
division;Meiosis I and Meiosis II
● Meiosis I involves the replication of diploid (2n)
chromosomes, which are then split into two haploid
(n) nuclei. Each chromosome consists of two
chromatids. In meiosis II, the chromatids
separate, producing four haploid (n) nuclei, each
containing a single chromatid.
3B.3
 3B.3
Meiosis 1 Meiosis 2

Prophase 1 - Each chromosome duplicates and Prophase 2 - DNA does not replicate.
remains closely associated. These are called sister
chromatids.

Metaphase 1 - Chromosomes align at the center of Metaphase 2 - Chromosomes line up at the center
the cell. of the cell.

Anaphase 1 - Chromosome pairs separate with Anaphase 2 - Centromeres divide and sister
sister chromatids remaining together. chromatids move separately to each pole.

Telophase 1 - Two daughter cells are formed with Telophase 2- cell division is complete
each daughter containing only one chromosome of
the chromosome pair.
 3B.3

Mitosis Meiosis

Asexual reproduction, growth Sexual reproduction- gametes

One cell division 2 cell divisions

2 daughter cells 4 haploid daughter cells

Genetically identical Genetically different

Crossing over and independent
assortment
 3B.3
Two features of meiosis contribute to genetic variation in addition to the variation
created by random fertilisation of two unique gametes from different parents.

Independent assortment - occurs during metaphase I the order the chromosomes line up
in (i.e. which side the maternal and paternal chromosomes line up in) in their pairs is
random, meaning the combinations of chromosomes going into the daughter cells is
random.

Crossing over - occurs during prophase I - The relatively rare process whereby
homologous chromosomes swap portions of their chromatids, which results in mixing of
the parental genetic information in offspring chromosomes and new allele combinations.
The structure formed by the homologous chromosomes formed during crossing over is
known as a bivalent.

Independent assortment and crossing over result in

different combinations of alleles in gametes
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 3B.4
Mammalian gametes- egg cell and sperm cell . Plant gametes- pollen and ovule.

Similarities: both have haploid nuclei formed by meiosis.

 3B.4
Mammalian gametes adaptations
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 3B.5
The acrosome reaction To allow sperm to fuse
When a sperm reaches the egg cell, it binds to
its outer layer (the zona pellucida) through
attachment to sperm-binding proteins. Once bound,
it releases the digestive enzymes that are
contained in the acrosome. These enzymes digest a
tunnel through the zona pellucida so that the
sperm can reach the plasma membrane of the egg
cell. The plasma membranes of the sperm cell and
the egg cell fuse and the sperm releases its
nucleus into the egg cell cytoplasm. The nuclei
of the sperm and egg fuse - fertilisation has
taken place and a zygote is formed.
 3B.5
The cortical reaction Prevent polyspermy
The fusion of the sperm cell and egg cell membranes
triggers the release of calcium ions which stimulates
vesicles containing cortical granules to move and fuse
with the egg cell membrane. The cortical granules are
released into the zona pellucida, which continue
breaking down the zona pellucida, removing the remaining
sperm-binding proteins so that no further sperm can
bind. Other substances within the cortical granules
produce a new outer layer which is thick and
impenetrable to sperm cells. This process prevents
multiple sperm cells from fertilising the egg, which
would result in the zygote having an abnormal number of
chromosomes.
 3B.5
Fertilization in flowering plants:

● pollination - transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma.

● mature pollen grains have a tube nucleus and a generative nucleus
● The tube cell of the pollen grain grows pollen tube down the style
to the ovary -release hydrolytic enzymes to digest style using it
as a nutrient source.
● Generative nucleus divides by mitosis to form 2 male gametes,
tube nucleus breaks down when reaching the ovule
● 1 fertilises the egg to form a zygote, the other joins with 2 polar
nuclei form triploid endosperm nucleus which will form
endosperm (food supply for germinating seed)

Hence DOUBLE fertilisation

Double fertilization: one male nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei
to form the triploid endosperm nucleus and the other fuses with the
egg cell to form the diploid zygote
 Stigma

Anther

Style Ovary
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3B
 3C

1- cell differentiation

2- interaction of genes & env

3- controlling gene expression

4- stem cells

5- using stem cells

 3C.1
● Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that divide to give rise to other cell types
by specialisation through control of gene expression;
● All cells have the same genetic material but during development stem cells only
translate part of their dna to express it and synthesize proteins of active
genes, controlling cell function and structure, resulting in specialised cells.
● A locus is the location of a gene on a chromosome.
● When genes for 2 different characteristics are found on the same chromosome
and are close together- They are linked and inherited together. For example,
freckles and red hair.
● Polygenic inheritance is when a trait is coded for by multiple genes on different
loci. This causes continuous variation. An example is skin colour.
● Phenotype is the result of environmental and genetic factors.
 3C.1
Dihybrid cross show the inheritance of 2 separate genes on different chromosomes
at once of contrasting characteristics.
Heterozygous parents result in 9 3 3 1 ratio of paternal phenotypes and
recombinant phenotypes.
Ratios might be wrong due to a small sample size or Experimental errors.
3C.1
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 3C.3

1. Certain genes within the genome are activated under the correct
conditions - when certain proteins and chemicals are present.
2. Other genes are unactivated.
3. The genes activated are transcribed to form mRNA which moves to the
ribosome to be translated into polypeptides.
4. The proteins produced change the cell; changing its structure and
controlling its processes.
5. These changes and protein production are what makes the cell
specialised. The changes are virtually irreversible - a specialised cell can
not revert back to a stem cell
3C
 3C.3
Cell specialisation is done through differential gene expression.All cells have the same
genome. epigenetics is the turning on and off of genes.This happens by transcription
factors by binding to specific regions of dna. A transcription factors can either be an
activator or a repressor. the activator helps RNA polymerase to bind.

Epigenetic modification -aka the turning on and off of genes- is

done by DNA methylation and histone protein modification.
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Rna Splicing- post transcriptional changes
● RNA splicing is a process by which non-coding regions of a pre-mRNA molecule, called
introns, are removed and the remaining coding regions, called exons, are joined
together to produce a mature mRNA molecule that can be translated into protein.
The splicing process occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
● The process of RNA splicing is carried out by a large protein-RNA complex called the
spliceosome, which recognizes specific sequences at the ends of the introns and
cleaves the pre-mRNA at these sites. The introns are then removed and the ends of
the adjacent exons are joined together by the spliceosome to produce a continuous
mRNA molecule.
● RNA splicing can generate different mRNA isoforms from a single pre-mRNA
molecule, depending on which exons are included or excluded from the final mRNA
molecule. This process, known as alternative splicing, can greatly increase the
diversity of protein products that can be generated from a limited number of genes.
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● Stem cells: cells that divide repeatedly by mitosis, and differentiate into specialized cells or
remain as stem cells. There are three different kinds:
● Totipotent: cells that can divide repeatedly to form any other cell in the body, e.g. zygote
● Pluripotent: embryonic stem cells that lead to development of the embryo and later the adult.
They can not be specialized into placenta.
● Multipotent: Adult stem cells that are only able to produce a few types of cells e.g. stem cells in
bone marrow.
● Blastocyst: An early embryo made of a hollow ball of cells with pluripotent cells on the inside,
forming an organism
● Morula: An early staged embryo of 16 cells
3C.3
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 3c.5 using stem cells - sources and uses
Stem cells can be used in multiple medical fields, such as organ transplants and genetic diseases e.g.
Parkinson’s.

Therapeutic Cloning: The nucleus of a human ovum is removed and replaced with a patient’s cell. Forming
cells with the same genetic information as the patient’s.

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells: Transcription factors are carried using a virus to a patient’s skin cell for
example. It is them able to become a stem cell. Although this method eliminates ethical issues, they do
tend to become cancerous cells.

Stem cells can be obtained in two main ways: Through Adult Stem Cells

Multipotent stem cells are extracted from parts of the body like the bone marrow but can only
differentiate into a few types of cells only. Using this method significantly reduces the chance of
rejection from the body when it is used.

Through Embryonic Stem Cells

Embryonic stem cells, which are pluripotent, are extracted from blastocyst. Extraction of any amount
embryonic stem cells causes its destruction.
 3c.5 using stem cells - ethical issues
There are many ethical issues related to the use of
stem cells, stem cells could save many lives and
improve the quality of life of many people, however
many people believe it's unethical as embryos are
killed in the process of stem cell extraction.
Moreover, there's a risk of Infection when cells are
transplanted and they could also become cancerous.

Regulatory authorities have been established around

stem cells to make sure scientists who experiment
with it are acting in the most ethical way possible.
The regulatory authorities write and publish
guidelines on how to do research in this field, so that
resources like embryos are not wasted and that all
the techniques done are at an acceptable manner. The
regulatory authorities also provide certain research
the required license and trained scientists who
understand the field very well conduct stem cell
research to ensure proper procedures are followed.
Totipotency
Sources:
Student book 1 IAS
Savemyexams diagrams
Znotes u2 notes
Pmt topic 3 notes
Studymind classified
Amoeba sisters videos
Snaprevise-gene regulation
Nihal gabr notes