UNIT 27 NON-LITERAL MEANING: IDIOMS, METAPHOR, AND METONYMY

STUDY GUIDE AND EXERCISES

Directions After you have read Unit 27 you should be able to tackle the following questions to
test your understanding of the main ideas raised in the unit.
1. You should understand these terms and concepts from this unit:

 literal vs non-literal language

LITERAL LANGUAGE is the actual meaning of a word or phrase, based on the dictionary
meaning of the word.
NON-LITERAL LANGUAGE is also called figurative language because it is often silly or
unrealistic. It goes beyond the dictionary meaning of the words or phrase and often has a
different meaning altogether.

( Source: https://www.gynzy.com/en-us/library/items/literal-and-non-literal-meanings-of-words-
and-phrases-in-context#:~:text=Literal%20language%20is%20the%20actual,has%20a
%20different%20meaning%20altogether. )

Example:

Literal: “The cat is black”

Non-literal: “Bite the bullet” (Face a difficult situation)

 idiom (idiomatic or ‘fixed’ expression)

IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS (IDIOMS) are multi-word phrases whose overall meanings are
idiosyncratic and largely unpredictable, reflecting speaker meanings that are not derivable by
combining the literal senses of the individual words in each phrase according to the regular
semantic rules of the language.

( Source: Semantics: A Coursebook )

Example: “Barking up the wrong tree” (Looking in the wrong place)

 compositional vs non-compositional expressions

COMPOSITIONALITY is a concept in the philosophy of language. A symbolic system is

compositional if the meaning of every complex expression E in that system depends on, and
depends only on, (i) E’s syntactic structure and (ii) the meanings of E’s simple parts.
( Source: Compositionality in Language | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (utm.edu) )

An idiom is defined as a NON-COMPOSITIONAL multiword expression, one whose meaning

cannot be deduced from the definitions of the component words. This definition does not
explicitly define the compositionality of an idiom’s sentiment; this paper aims to determine
whether the sentiment of the component words of an idiom is related to the sentiment of that
idiom.

( Source: Confirming the Non-compositionality of Idioms for Sentiment Analysis - ACL

Anthology )

Example:

Compositional: “Blue sky” (The meaning can be derived from the meanings of its parts.)

Non-compositional: “Barking up the wrong tree” (The meaning cannot be derived from the
meanings of its parts.)

 metaphor

METAPHORS are conceptual (mental) operations reflected in human language that enable
speakers to structure and construe abstract areas of knowledge and experience in more concrete
experiential terms.

( Source: Semantics: A Coursebook )

Example: “She is a shining star”

 isolated metaphor

An ISOLATED METAPHOR could be interpreted as a metaphor that stands alone or is used

only once within a text, rather than being part of a recurring theme or extended metaphor. In the
case of an isolated metaphor, the pertinent semantic field may be underdetermined by the
context. The more extended the discourse, the more evident are the semantic fields relevant to an
understanding of the metaphor.

( Source: Semantic Fields and the Structure of Metaphor | Metaphor: Its Cognitive Force and
Linguistic Structure | Oxford Academic (oup.com) )

Example: “He has a heart of gold”

 structural metaphor
STRUCTURAL METAPHORS are abstract metaphorical systems in which an entire (typically
abstract) complex mental concept is structured in terms of some other (usually more concrete)
concept. They typically involve multiple individual linguistic expressions that evoke some aspect
of the metaphor (as opposed to more restricted frozen metaphors which usually occur in only one
expression). Another way of thinking about structural metaphors is that ‘they allow us . . . to use
one highly structured and clearly delineated concept to structure another’ (LJ 1980: 61).

( Source: Semantics: A Coursebook )

Example: “Life is a journey”

 orientational metaphor

ORIENTATIONAL METAPHORS give concepts spatial orientation by associating an abstract

knowledge area with some aspect of experiential knowledge grounded in how human beings
understand their orientation in physical space, i.e. up vs down, front vs back, etc.

( Source: Semantics: A Coursebook )

Example: “Future is ahead; past is behind”

 ontological metaphor

ONTOLOGICAL METAPHORS help structure our understanding of abstract concepts and

experiences, such as events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., in terms of our experience with
actual physical objects and substances in the real world. (The term ontological is derived from
the Greek root onta ‘the things which exist’!-logy ‘the science of’.)

( Source: Semantics: A Coursebook )

Example: “Inflation is an enemy”

 entity and substance metaphors

An ENTITY METAPHOR is an ontological metaphor in which an abstraction is represented as

a concrete physical object.

( Source: https://glossary.sil.org/term/entity-metaphor#:~:text=Definition%3A,as%20a
%20concrete%20physical%20object. )

A SUBSTANCE METAPHOR is an ontological metaphor in which an abstraction, such as an

event, activity, emotion, or idea, is represented as material.
( Source: https://glossary.sil.org/term/substance-metaphor )

Example:

Entity metaphor : “Success is a ladder.”

- Success, an abstract concept, is treated as an entity (a ladder) that can be climbed.

Substance metaphor: “Their friendship is a solid rock.”

- Friendship, a relationship, is treated as a substance (a rock) that has a particular characteristic

(solid).

 container metaphors

A container metaphor describes when one of the concepts is shown as having an inside and an
outside or being capable of holding another item

( Source: 14 Common Types Of Metaphors With Examples (becomeawritertoday.com) )

Example: “She’s out of danger”

 personification

PERSONIFICATION is a particular subtype of ontological metaphor in which an abstract

entity is construed as though it were a physical object which is then further specified as being a
person.

( Source: Semantics: A Coursebook )

Example: “The wind whispered through the trees”

 metonymy (and its various subtypes)

METONYMY is a kind of non-literal language in which one entity is used to refer to another
entity that is associated with it in some way. In other words, metonymic concepts ‘allow us to
conceptualize one thing by means of its relation to something else’ (LJ 1980: 39).

Subtypes of metonymy: THE PART FOR THE WHOLE, THE FACE FOR THE PERSON,
PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT, OBJECT USED FOR USER,CONTROLLER FOR
CONTROLLED, INSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE RESPONSIBLE, THE PLACE FOR THE
INSTITUTION, THE PLACE FOR THE EVENT.

( Source: Semantics: A Coursebook )

Example: “Hollywood is known for its movies” (Hollywood is used to refer to the American
film industry.)

2. Idioms as isolated metaphors. This exercise is a variation on an earlier one in this unit.
Each of the following sentences contains an italicized idiomatic expression that would make
it anomalous if it were interpreted literally (i.e., compositionally). Briefly explain this
anomaly for each sentence, and then describe what kind of intended non-literal meaning
the sentence typically conveys. Finally, if possible, try to suggest what kind of isolated
metaphor each sentence might be an example of. If it’s not possible to formulate an
appropriate metaphor in simple terms, try at least to explain to what extent the expression
might be partially analyzable (i.e., compositional). The first item, repeated from an earlier
practice, is done for you.
A/ Frank is a snake in the grass.

 Anomaly: Frank is being equated with (or classified as) being a particular kind of
animal (a snake), which is literally untrue.
 Non-literal meaning: Something about Frank’s behavior is untrustworthy.
 Metaphor: PEOPLE ARE ANIMALS. (Note that this is not completely isolated,
since we do have such expressions as Frank is a tiger, Mary is a lamb, etc.) In this
case, Frank’s apparent identification as a snake is meant to associate him with the
popular idea that snakes are sneaky and underhanded.
B/ Jack pulled my leg when he told me that story.

 Anomaly: Jack is trying to pull his friend’s leg while telling him a story.
 Non-literal meaning: Jack is trying to make up a story.
 Metaphor: STORY IS UNTRUE.

C/ Jim painted the town red when he returned from college.

 Anomaly: Jim painted the whole town red when he returned from college.
 Non-literal meaning: Jim was enjoying himself by drinking alcohol, dancing, etc.
 Metaphor: This phrase employs a metaphor where "painted the town red"
figuratively represents celebrating or fully enjoying oneself. The metaphor doesn't
directly translate word-for-word but relies on shared cultural understanding for its
meaning.
D/ The old horse finally kicked the bucket.

 Anomaly: The old horse kicked the bucket.

 Non-literal meaning: The old horse died.
 Metaphor: The idiom is a metaphorical expression where "kicking the bucket" serves
as a figurative representation for the act of dying. The metaphor is not directly
 compositional; instead, it relies on cultural and linguistic conventions to convey the
intended meaning. In this case, the metaphor plays on the idea of an old horse
reaching the end of its life journey.
E/ When we tried to solve that math problem, we discovered that we were up the creek (without
a paddle).

 Anomaly: They tried to solve that math problem on a boat then they realized that
they don’t have a paddle to help move or run.
 Non-literal meaning: They realized that they were in a difficult situation when they
tried to solve that math problem.
 Metaphor: This idiom is a metaphor where "up the creek without a paddle" serves as
a figurative representation for being in trouble or facing a daunting challenge. The
metaphor conveys a sense of being stuck or helpless in a situation without the
essential tools or resources. It's not directly compositional but relies on shared
cultural understanding to convey its intended meaning.
F/ The suggestion made by Mary makes me think that she has a bee in her bonnet.

 Anomaly: I think Marry keeps a bee in her bonnet when hearing her suggestion.
 Non-literal meaning: The suggestion made by Marry makes me think that it’s very
important because she keeps talking about it again and again.
 Metaphor: This idiom is a metaphor where "has a bee in her bonnet" serves as a
figurative representation for someone being preoccupied or obsessed with a particular
idea or notion. The metaphor conveys the notion of an incessant buzzing or nagging
thought, akin to the persistence of a bee. It is not directly compositional but relies on
shared cultural understanding for its intended meaning.
G/ Jerry sold me down the river.

 Anomaly: Jerry sold me somewhere down the river.

 Non-literal meaning: Jerry acted differently and put me in a dangerous situation.
 Metaphor: This phrase employs a metaphor where "sold me down the river"
figuratively represents betrayal, evoking the historical association of rivers with paths
of transportation. The metaphor doesn't directly translate word-for-word but relies on
shared cultural understanding for its meaning.
H/ If you can figure out how to do that, I’ll eat my hat.

 Anomaly: I will eat a real hat if you can figure out how to do that.
 Non-literal meaning: I want to emphasize that you can’t figure out how to do that
because I’m sure it won’t happen.
 Metaphor: This phrase employs a metaphor where "I’ll eat my hat" serves as an
exaggerated expression to convey strong disbelief or skepticism. The metaphor
 doesn't directly translate word-for-word but relies on shared cultural understanding
for its meaning.
I/ Fred always tried to throw his weight around.

 Anomaly: Fred wanted to throw his weight around as it’s a holdable object.
 Non-literal meaning: Fred wanted to use his position of authority to tell people what
to do in an unreasonable way.
 Metaphor: This phrase employs a metaphor where "throw his weight around"
figuratively represents using influence or authority in a forceful manner. The
metaphor doesn't directly translate word-for-word but relies on shared cultural
understanding for its meaning.
J/ Don’t say a word! Bite your tongue!

 Anomaly: Bite your tongue instead of saying out a word.

 Non-literal meaning: Stay quiet!
 Metaphor: This phrase employs a metaphor where "Bite your tongue!" figuratively
represents the act of keeping silent or not expressing one's thoughts verbally. The
metaphor doesn't directly translate word-for-word but relies on shared cultural
understanding for its meaning.
K/ I gave them a piece of my mind.

 Anomaly: Cut or separate a piece of my mind (brain or inside my head) and give it to
you.
 Non-literal meaning: I spoke angrily to them about things they have done wrong.
 Metaphor: This phrase employs a metaphor where "a piece of my mind" figuratively
represents expressing one's thoughts, usually in a direct or assertive way. The
metaphor doesn't directly translate word-for-word but relies on shared cultural
understanding for its meaning.
L/ Mary and John seem to have hit it off with each other.

 Anomaly: Mary and John are fighting with each other.

 Non-literal meaning: Mary and John fall in love with each other.
 Metaphor: LOVE IS WAR.

M/ Eat your heart out: I just won the lottery.

 Anomaly: Eat your heart because I just won the lottery.

 Non-literal meaning: you should feel jealous of me because I just won the lottery.
 Metaphor: This phrase employs a metaphor where "Eat your heart out" figuratively
represents an invitation for someone to experience jealousy or regret upon hearing
 about the speaker's success. The metaphor doesn't directly translate word-for-word
but relies on shared cultural understanding for its meaning.
N/ Jack is a pig.

 Anomaly: Jack is equated with a pig => untrue.

 Non-literal meaning: Jack is fat.
 Metaphor: PEOPLE ARE ANIMALS.

O/ Mary let the cat out of the bag when she told me about Jane’s marriage to Jake.

 Anomaly: Mary kept her cat in the bag then let it out when she told me about Jane’s
marriage to Jake.
 Non-literal meaning: Mary carelessly reveals a secret when she told me about Jane’s
marriage to Jake.
 Metaphor: This phrase employs a metaphor where "let the cat out of the bag"
figuratively represents disclosing a secret or revealing information that was meant to
be kept hidden. The metaphor doesn't directly translate word-for-word but relies on
shared cultural understanding for its meaning.
P/ Jim took the bull by the horns when he decided to deal with the problem.

 Anomaly: Jim took the bull’s horns when he decided to deal with the problem which
made no sense at all.
 Non-literal meaning: Jim decided to deal with the problem in a direct way although
it was a difficult situation.
 Metaphor: This phrase employs a metaphor where "took the bull by the horns"
figuratively represents tackling a problem or challenge directly and assertively. The
metaphor doesn't directly translate word-for-word but relies on shared cultural
understanding for its meaning.
Q/ Mary spilled the beans when I asked her about the secret.

 Anomaly: Mary spilled the beans out while I was asking her about the secret. Mary
action didn’t match the context we were in.
 Non-literal meaning: Mary unintentionally reveals her secret information when I
asked her about it.
 Metaphor: This phrase employs a metaphor where "spilled the beans" figuratively
represents revealing a secret or disclosing information unintentionally. The metaphor
doesn't directly translate word-for-word but relies on shared cultural understanding
for its meaning.
3. Each of the following sets of sentences exemplifies a particular structural metaphor in
English. Identify the particular words or phrases in each sentence that evoke the metaphor
and then identify the metaphor itself. Then see if you can provide one or two (or possibly
more) additional examples of the metaphor in English.
A
a. What is the foundation for your theory?
Metaphor: Theory as a building or structure
b. I think your theory needs more support
Metaphor: Theory as something that requires support to sustain or strengthen it
c. If that's all your theory consists of, it'll fall apart
Metaphor: Theory as a physical object that can collapse
d. His idea collapsed because it didn't have enough support
Metaphor: Idea as a structure or object that can collapse without sufficient support
e. Every theory or idea needs a firm foundation
Metaphor: Theory or idea as a building or structure that requires a solid base to be stable
f. Her ideas are soaring
Metaphor: Ideas as objects or entities that are rising or reaching great heights, suggesting that
her ideas are ambitious, inspiring, or achieving success
B
a. His comments left a bad taste in my mouth
Metaphor: It compares the negative impression left by the comments to the unpleasant taste that
remains in one's mouth after consuming something distasteful.
b. Her suggestion was nothing but a half-baked idea
Metaphor: Her suggestion is not fully developed or well-formed, similar to a dish that is not
fully cooked and therefore unsatisfactory.
c. There was a lot to digest in the professor's new theory
Metaphor: Theory as something complex or extensive that requires mental processing or
understanding, similar to the process of digesting food.
d. The class stewed over what the lecturer said for a while
Metaphor: Class members spent a significant amount of time and mental energy deeply
contemplating or thinking about what the lecturer said, just like food that is slowly cooked in
liquid
e. You can really sink your teeth into that writer's ideas
Metaphor: It conveys the idea that the writer's ideas are provide a satisfying experience, similar
to the physical sensation of sinking your teeth into a delicious and satisfying meal
f. She devoured the book in one sitting.
Metaphor: The metaphor conveys the idea that the person read the book eagerly, voraciously,
and without pause, similar to how one might consume a delicious meal with great appetite

C
a. She was crazy about him
Metaphor: The metaphor conveys the idea that her feelings for him are so strong and consuming
that they can be equated to a form of madness or irrationality.
b. He nearly drove her out of her mind
Metaphor: The metaphor conveys the idea that the person's actions were so overwhelming or
disruptive that they had a profound impact on her mental well-being, pushing her to the brink of
losing control or sanity.
c. Jack went mad over Mary when he first saw her
Metaphor: It conveys the idea that his attraction to her was so powerful that it had a profound
impact on his emotions and state of mind
d. She's just wild about Fred
Metaphor: The metaphor conveys the idea that her emotions are unrestrained, intense, and
characterized by excitement and enthusiasm
e. Fred nearly drove Mary insane
Metaphor: Fred's actions or behavior had a significant negative impact on Mary's mental state,
causing her distress or extreme frustration
f. Her relentless pursuit of perfection drove him to the brink of madness.
Metaphor: This metaphor suggests that her relentless pursuit of perfection had a significant
negative impact on him, pushing him to the edge of his sanity or emotional stability
D
 a. The odds are against me, but I'll take my chances with this project
Metaphor: Situation as a game of chance or probability, where the person is willing to take risks
despite unfavorable odds.
b. If I play my cards right, I may be able to succeed in life
Metaphor: Situation as a strategic game, where the person's success depends on making wise
decisions or taking appropriate actions
c. Jack is a real loser. He's never around when the chips are down
Metaphor: It implies that Jack is seen as someone who cannot be relied upon or counted on
when faced with difficulties.
d. My ace in the hole is that I know something they don't know
Metaphor: Situation as a game , where the person possesses a hidden advantage or secret
knowledge that gives them an edge over other people
e. It's a toss up whether John is bluffing or not
Metaphor: Situation as a game, where the outcome or truthfulness of John's actions is uncertain
or unpredictable
f. I may be swimming against the current, but I'll dive headfirst into this venture
Metaphor: Situation as a river or body of water, where the person is facing challenges or
opposition but remains determined to fully immerse themselves in the venture
4. Now try to do the opposite of what you did in exercise 3.For each structural metaphor
given below supply as many sentences as you can which evoke the metaphor.
A THE MIND IS A MACHINE
1. His mind worked like a machine, solving problems with ease.
2. Faced with challenges, she felt a temporary mental glitch, needing a moment to reset.
3. His memory functioned smoothly, retrieving information like a well-tuned machine.
4. At night, his mind processed the day's events, organizing them like a mental archive.
5. The ticking mental clock mirrored the systematic workings of a precise machine, measuring
each moment.
B LOVE IS A PHYSICAL FORCE
1. Their love pulled them together like a strong magnetic force.
2. In their embrace, it felt like an unbreakable dance of gravitational forces.
3. Every touch sparked an electric charge, as if their love had a tangible energy.
4. When their eyes met, a powerful wave of warmth and attraction surged through them.
5. The intensity of their connection created a gravitational pull, guiding them in a shared
emotional orbit.
C LOVE IS A (MEDICAL) PATIENT
1. Love, like a patient recovering from an ailment, slowly healed the wounds of past heartbreaks
with time and care.
2. Their relationship needed tender attention, like a patient requiring constant monitoring and
nurturing to thrive.
3. Just as a patient undergoes therapy to strengthen, their love requires communication and
understanding to grow resilient.
4. The fragility of their newfound affection was akin to a patient in the early stages of recovery,
demanding patience, and support.
5. In the face of challenges, their love persevered, as if a determined patient overcoming
obstacles on the path to well-being.
D LOVE IS WAR
1. Their love faced ups and downs, like a passionate emotional battlefield.
2. They tackled love's challenges like seasoned warriors, finding strength in victories.
3. Laughter and tears echoed like battle cries, each moment a skirmish in the war of affection.
4. Disagreements were like small battles, with compromises as strategic moves for harmony.
5. Love was a fierce battleground for them, with scars telling stories of shared battles.
E. LIFE IS A CONTAINER.
1. Each day, life holds a mix of joy and challenges.
2. Over time, life's container fills with memories and experiences.
3. Adversity tests life's container, challenging its resilience and hope.
4. Relationships and connections fill life's container, creating a tapestry of shared moments.
5. Life, like a vessel, holds the potential for growth and learning through encounters and
obstacles.

5. We have already seen that an important abstract concept, such as IDEA, can be
structured by means of multiple metaphors, each of which gives a slightly different
perspective on how the concept can be understood. This range of metaphors allows us to
understand the concept better. The metaphors already illustrated structure the domain of
IDEAS in terms of the more concrete source domains MONEY, PEOPLE, and PLANTS.
Try to find one or two additional metaphors for structuring the abstract IDEA domain
using other source domains and give several English examples for each.
IDEA as LIGHT:

She had a bright idea.

His ideas shed light on the problem.

That’s an illuminating thought.

IDEA as FOOD:

That’s some food for thought.

Her ideas are always so refreshing.

His theory is difficult to digest.

6. We have seen that orientational metaphors are externally systematic. LJ note that they
are also ‘internally systematic’ in that each metaphor ‘defines a coherent system rather
than a number of isolated and random cases’. In other words, all expressions involving UP
evoke the same kind of experience. For example, I’m feeling up is another example of the
HAPPY IS UP metaphor, but the metaphor would be incoherent if saying My spirits rose
meant ‘I became sadder.’ In an earlier practice you categorized several isolated sentences
according to the particular kind of UP orientational metaphor they reflected. See if you can
come up with some additional examples that are internally systematic with the examples
already given for some of the UP metaphors mentioned earlier.

a. HEALTH IS UP

He’s at the peak of health.

Her health is rising.

b. HAVING CONTROL/FORCE IS UP

He has the upper hand in this situation.

She rose to power.

c. MORE IS UP

The prices have gone up.

The temperature is rising.

d. HAPPY IS UP

She’s in high spirits.

His mood has lifted.

e. GOOD IS UP

Things are looking up.

He’s on the up and up.

f. VIRTUE IS UP

She takes the high road.

He has high moral standards.

g. HIGH STATUS IS UP

He has risen in the ranks.

She’s at the top of her class.

7. The opposite of UP is DOWN. For each of the UP metaphors in exercise 6 find one or two
examples of the corresponding DOWN metaphor (if it exists) and name the metaphor. Here's an
example: John came down with the flu (SICKNESS IS DOWN). (Note how odd it sounds to say
that someone came up with the flu.)
7. The opposite of UP is DOWN. For each of the UP metaphors in exercise 6 find one or two
examples of the corresponding DOWN metaphor (if it exists) and name the metaphor.
Here's an example: John came down with the flu (SICKNESS IS DOWN). (Note how odd it
sounds to say that someone came up with the flu.)
a. SICKNESS IS DOWN

She has a disease.

Food poisoning was the most common ailment.

b. LACK OF CONTROL IS DOWN

He is under his parental control.

c. LESS IS DOWN

Fewer people write their left hand than with their right.

d. SAD IS DOWN

He's in the state of depression.

I feel bitter about my childhood and all that I went through.

e. BAD IS DOWN

Never in all my life have I seen such a horrible thing.

The weather was awful.

f. VICE IS DOWN

Gambling is always coupled with degradation.

g. LOW STATUS IS DOWN

Failure induces a total sense of inferiority.

8. We did not discuss the specific physical or experiential reasons why the language would
have so many orientational metaphors in which UP is associated with positive notions such
as being healthy, being good, having more of something, having higher status, etc. Can you
explain why these positive notions are associated with UP instead of some other orientation
(such as DOWN)?
HEALTH IS UP/ SICKNESS IS DOWN: good health associated with ‘up’, because when we
are well we are on our feet, and when we are ill we more likely to be lying down.
HAVING CONTROL IS UP/ LACK OF CONTROL IS DOWN: the domain of control is
conceptualized on a vertical axis, in such a way that powerful entities are conceptualized as
being higher up than less powerful ones, which are construed as being down.
MORE IS UP/ LESS IS DOWN: adding more entities to a pile makes the stack go up in
height, taking things away makes the stack go down in height.
 HAPPY IS UP/ SAD IS DOWN: upright posture is associated with positive emotional states,
drooping posture with sadness.
GOOD IS UP/ BAD IS DOWN: most things associated with well-being (happiness, health,
control, etc.) are up, and so then is good in general.
VIRTUE IS UP/ VICE IS DOWN: virtues are the true inherent qualities of the self, vices are
accumulated due to external influences or due to ignorance.
HIGH STATUS IS UP/ LOW STATUS IS DOWN: high status is associated with power in
our society and power is up.

9. Although most of the orientational metaphors involving UP are coherent with each other
in evoking meanings that are positive in some way, there are occasional expressions
involving UP which appear not to be coherent with metaphors such as those listed in
exercise 6. An example is the expression The answer to that question is up in the air, in
which the UP orientation might be argued to be negative in some way. Can you propose the
different metaphor that underlies this expression and suggest what experiential basis it
has?
Lakoff and Johnson suggest that the experiential basis for this expression is different from that
for the other UP metaphors and evokes the metaphor UNKNOWN IS UP: things that are not
within easy reach or low enough to see clearly are more likely to be unknown, as opposed to
things that are lower and easier to see and reach. They make the point that even though this UP
metaphor is not coherent with the others, it is still principled and not arbitrary, since it is based
on experience.
10. Try to identify in what particular way the additional ontological metaphors in each
sentence below treat an abstract concept as though it were a physical object. Choose from
among the following options: referring, quantifying, identifying aspects, identifying causes,
setting goals and/or motivating actions.

a. I could see the intensity with which she worked.

=> Referring or possibly identifying aspects

b. They did that out of compassion for the poor.

=> Identifying causes

c. There is too much hatred in the world.

=> Quantifying

d. I'm looking forward to finding a solution to this problem.

=> Setting goals and motivating actions
e. The brutality of aggression is a major factor in many conflicts.
=> Identifying aspects

f. They are working toward peace in the world.

=> Setting goals and motivating actions

11. In an earlier practice you matched an example sentence with the kind of metonymy it
represented. For each kind of metonymy below give at least three additional sentences that
represent it.

a. THE PLACE FOR THE EVENT

 Many people visit Ground Zero every year to pay their respects to the victims of 9/11.
 The world was shocked by the news of Chernobyl, the worst nuclear disaster in history.
 The students protested against the government’s decision to ban Tiananmen Square, the
symbol of democracy and freedom in China.

b. THE PART FOR THE WHOLE

 The captain ordered all hands on deck. (= sailors).
 She showed off her new wheels. (= cars)
 The suits were busy in the boardroom. (= businessmen)

c. OBJECT USED FOR USER

 The press is not happy with the new law. (= the journalists or the media)
 The brush painted a masterpiece that sold for millions. (= the painter)
 The sword defeated the enemy army with his courage and skill. (= the warrior)

d. THE PLACE FOR THE INSTITUTION

 Hollywood has been releasing a surprising amount of sci-fi movies lately. (= the entire
film industry, from producers and filmmakers to actors and other professionals)
 The White House announced a new policy on immigration. (= the President or
Presidential administration of the US)
 Silicon Valley is constantly pushing the boundaries in innovation. (= the global center for
technological innovation)

e. PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT

 We bought a new Ford. (= Ford car)
 She loves reading Shakespeare (= Shakespeare’s works)
 I got some new Nike's (= Nike’s shoes)
f. CONTROLLER FOR CONTROLLED
 Napoleon lost at Waterloo. (= Napoleon’s army)
 George Bush attacked Saddam. (= George Bush’s army)
 A Ford rear-ended me. (= my car)

g. INSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE RESPONSIBLE

 The university announced several new programs. (= the teachers or administrators)
 Exxon has raised its prices again. (= the leaders of the Exxon)
 The museum praised the artist for his innovative work. (= the curator or the director)

12.What kind of metonymy is reflected in the following sets of sentences?

A
a. I have to fill the car with gas (Hint: what is literally being filled here?)
The metonymy reflected in the sentence "I have to fill the car with gas" is "container for
contents." Here, "car" represents the container, and "gas" represents its contents.
b. I need to use the bathroom
The metonymy in "I need to use the bathroom" is "place for activity." Here, "bathroom" is used
to represent the place where the activity of using the bathroom takes place.
c. China won the championship
The metonymy in "China won the championship" is "country for government or people." Here,
"China" is used to represent the country's government, people, or team that won the
championship.

B
a. The pot is boiling (Hint: what is literally boiling here?)
The metonymy reflected in "The pot is boiling" is "container for contents." Here, "pot"
represents the container, and what is literally boiling is the contents inside the pot.
b. Room 44 needs more towels
The metonymy in "Room 44 needs more towels" is "place for people." Here, "Room 44" is used
to represent the place where people are staying, and the need for more towels indicates the needs
of the people in that room.
c. The bus in front of us decided to turn left
The metonymy in "The bus in front of us decided to turn left" is "vehicle for occupants." Here,
"bus" represents the vehicle, and the action of deciding to turn left pertains to the occupants or
the driver of the bus.

Group 10:
1. Trần Thanh Tuyền_3122380330
2. Phạm Nguyễn Đăng Hoà_3122380083
3. Lý Gia Quyền_3122380224
4. Trần Trung Kiên_3122380112
5. Trương Thiện Phúc_3122380211
6. Vương Chấn Hưng_3122380096