Care maintenance of lead-acid batteries—max life

1.Keep the top of battery clean and dry— corrosion &leakage of current. Checking the tightness of terminal
connections. corrosion started-add petroleum jelly
2.Keep the electrolyte at the proper level— evaporation &gassing--checked –at regular intervals—decay of
separators. Add water free from impurities.
3.Take frequent hydrometer readings— if remain in a low charged condition— excess of lead sulphate—reduce life of
battery.
4.Do not charge the battery at a high rate –cause excessive heat & gassing— not exceed temp 40 degree
5.Do not leave the battery in a discharged condition for a long period—coating of hard lead sulphate.
6.If a lead-acid battery is to be stored— level of electrolyte, checked periodically and the battery should be given a
freshening charge(trickle charge or float charge)
7.Do not short circuit the battery-low internal resistance—short circuit current – high. Use insulated spanners for use
on cell connections
8.Acid cells must never be placed near alkaline cells—electrolytic corrosion
9.Never use lead acid battery maintenance gear on an alkaline installation

Safeties to be observed while operation & maintenance

• use hand gloves & safety goggles while adding distilled water , shifting of battery or checking sp. gravity
• use insulated spanners to tighten terminals(no sparking , short circuiting takes place)
• use plastic bottle or jar to add distilled water
• should not left in discharged condition for long periods
• If adding acid ,first put little acid , then add water & do the same process
• no naked lights to be taken inside
• no smoking inside battery room.
•Ensure good ventilation

o Hazards associated with lead-acid batteries

• Lead exposure: Toxic heavy metal.
• Acid exposure: Sulfuric acid is corrosive.
• Explosion/fire risk: Hydrogen gas buildup.
• Environmental pollution: Contamination from improper disposal.
• Electrical Shock: Mishandling or accidental contact with exposed terminals can lead to
electric shock, which can cause injuries or fatalities.
• Battery Leakage: Damage to the battery casing or seals can result in electrolyte leakage,
leading to corrosion of nearby materials and potential environmental contamination.
• Weight and Handling: Lead-acid batteries are heavy and can cause injuries if lifted
improperly or dropped.
• Maintenance Risks: Performing maintenance tasks such as adding water or checking
electrolyte levels without proper precautions can expose individuals to acid splashes or other
hazards.

Intrinsically safe equipment refers to electrical or electronic devices that are specifically designed to operate
safely in hazardous environments

Zoning Applied to ship

Zone 0—interior spaces of oil cargo tanks, pipes, pumps etc
Zone 1—enclosed or semi-enclosed spaces on the deck of a tanker, the boiler firing area on a gas carrier using
methane boil-off as a fuel & battery rooms
Zone 2—open spaces on the deck of a tanker
Exd Flame proof enclosure
Exi Intrinsicsafety
Exe Increasedsafety
Exn Non-sparking
Exq Powderfilled(not applicable to ship)
Exo Oil immersed(not applicable toship)
Exp pressurisation
Exs Special protection

➢ Voltage Limiting: In intrinsically safe circuits, it's crucial to limit voltage levels to prevent sparking or ignition
in potentially hazardous environments. Zener diodes can be used as voltage-limiting devices to ensure that
the voltage across critical components remains within safe limits. If the voltage exceeds a certain threshold
(the Zener voltage), the diode starts conducting, effectively limiting the voltage to that level.

➢ Current Limiting: Zener diodes can also be employed in conjunction with other components to limit current
in intrinsically safe circuits. By combining Zener diodes with resistors, for instance, it's possible to create
circuits that limit current to safe levels, reducing the risk of sparks or excessive heating.

➢ Overvoltage Protection: Zener diodes can serve as components in overvoltage protection circuits within
intrinsically safe equipment. In hazardous environments, there may be voltage spikes or surges that could
damage sensitive electronics. Zener diodes can be used to shunt excess voltage away from sensitive
components, protecting them from damage.

➢ Voltage Regulation: In some cases, intrinsically safe equipment may require precise voltage regulation to
ensure proper operation. Zener diodes, with their ability to maintain a constant voltage across a load, can be
integrated into voltage regulation circuits to provide stable power to critical components.

Trickle charging is a method of slowly and continuously charging a rechargeable battery at a low rate to maintain its
charge level over an extended period. It involves supplying a low and constant current to the battery to prevent
overcharging while keeping the battery topped up and ready for use. Trickle chargers often incorporate voltage
regulation circuitry to prevent overcharging and can be left connected to the battery for long periods without causing
damage. This method is commonly used in applications where batteries are used intermittently or need to be kept in
a fully charged state to prolong battery life and ensure reliable performance.

A HAZARDOUS AREA on board a ship refers to locations where the presence of flammable gases, vapour, or
combustible dusts poses a risk of explosion or fire. These areas are classified according to the likelihood of hazardous
atmospheres being present, and special electrical equipment and installation practices are required to minimize the
risk.
Standby emergency battery circuit

o The power triangle is a concept in electrical engineering that helps to visualize the relationships
between Active power , reactive power , and apparent power in an AC circuit.

➢ Active Power (Real Power):

Active power, often referred to as real power, is the actual power consumed or dissipated by an
electrical circuit. It represents the component of power that performs useful work in the circuit, such
as generating heat, light, or mechanical work. Active power is measured in watts (W).
➢ Reactive Power:
Reactive power arises due to the presence of inductive or capacitive elements (such as inductors or
capacitors) in an AC circuit. It represents the power that oscillates back and forth between the source
and load without performing any useful work. Reactive power is necessary for the establishment of
magnetic or electric fields in the circuit, but it does not contribute to useful work. Reactive power is
measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAR).
 ➢ Apparent power
Apparent power is the total power consumed by an electrical circuit, considering both the active
power and reactive power components. It represents the vector sum of active power and reactive
power. it is measured in volt-amperes (VA).
➢ Power factor is a measure of how efficiently electrical power is being consumed or utilized in an
alternating current (AC) circuit. It is defined as the ratio of the real power (active power) to the
apparent power in the circuit. Mathematically, the power factor (PF) is expressed as:

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Power Factor (PF) =
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

➢ Purely Inductive Circuit: Power factor = 0 (lagging current).

➢ Purely Capacitive Circuit: Power factor = 0 (leading current).
➢ Purely Resistive Circuit: Power factor = 1 (in-phase).
➢ Reactive Circuit (Inductive or Capacitive): Power factor varies between 0 and 1, depending on the balance
between reactive and real power.

• DOL Starter – 3 phase induction motor

The operation of the direct-on-line starter :

1)When the circuit breaker 52 is switched on, electrical power is supplied to the transformer and the lamp WL will
light up.
2)When start push button S1 is pressed, contactor coil 88 is energised. Main contact 88 closes and the motor runs.
Holding contact 88a is also closed to keep the motor running continuously. Auxiliary contact 88a closes and this lights
up indicator lamp GL.
3)To stop the motor, press push button S2. This will de-energize contractor coil 88 which causes main contact 88 to
open thus stopping the motor. Also holding contact 88a will open and lamp GL goes off as contact 88a opens.
4)S5 and S4 are remote start / stop buttons.
5)Thermal overload relay 51 protects the motor from overloading.
Direct-on-line starters is the most commonly used, the most usual consideration being whether the generator and
the distribution system can withstand the starting current. In the case of loads with high inertia (eg. oil separators)
the starting time may also be a factor. A long starting period may result in overheating.

DOL Protection

1. Under Voltage Protection:

The under-voltage release (UVR) mechanism detects when the supply voltage drops below a certain threshold or
suddenly the power supply goes ,it prevents the starter from engaging and thus protecting the motor from damage
due to insufficient voltage.
 2. Short Circuit Protection:
Short circuit protection safeguards the motor and the electrical system from excessive currents caused by a short
circuit, which can lead to overheating, damage, or fire hazards. In a DOL starter, short circuit protection can be
provided by a fuse. The fuse detects the excessive current flow during a short circuit and interrupts the circuit to
prevent damage to the motor and other components. After the short circuit is cleared, the fuse can be replaced

3. Overload Protection:
Overload protection is usually provided by thermal overload relays integrated into the starter. These relays monitor
the motor's current flow and respond if the current exceeds a preset threshold for an extended period, indicating an
overload condition. When an overload is detected, the overload relay trips, disconnecting power to the motor and
preventing overheating and damage to the motor windings.

Constructional Details of 3-Phase Induction Motor:

1. Stator:
The stator is the stationary part of the motor and consists of a laminated steel core with evenly spaced slots to hold
the stator windings.
Stator windings are typically made of copper or aluminum conductors and are wound in a specific pattern to create a
rotating magnetic field when energized with three-phase AC voltage.
The stator core is usually constructed from stacked laminations to reduce eddy current losses and improve efficiency.
2. Rotor:
The rotor is the rotating part of the motor and can be classified into different types: squirrel-cage rotor and wound
rotor.
i. Squirrel-Cage Rotor: Consists of a cylindrical laminated core with conductive bars (usually made of aluminum
or copper) placed in the rotor slots and short-circuited at both ends by end rings. This design resembles a
squirrel cage, hence the name.
ii. Wound Rotor: Consists of a laminated core with three-phase winding similar to the stator windings. The rotor
winding terminals are brought out through slip rings to connect external resistors for rotor resistance control.

3. Air gap– 0.4mm to 4mm , Kept as small as possible

4. Required flux produced with min exciting current
5. leakage reactance as small as possible , To get better power factor

Principle of Operation of Induction Motor:

When three-phase AC voltage is applied to the stator windings, a rotating magnetic field is generated due to the
phase difference between the currents in the windings.
The rotating magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) in the rotor windings, causing current to flow.
In a squirrel-cage rotor, the interaction between the rotating magnetic field and the rotor bars induces currents,
producing a magnetic field that interacts with the stator field, resulting in torque generation and rotor rotation.
In a wound rotor, the external resistors control the rotor current, affecting the rotor magnetic field and allowing
control of motor speed and torque.
The rotor tries to catch up with the rotating magnetic field but always lags slightly behind, creating a relative motion
that induces voltage in the rotor conductors and produces torque, causing the rotor to rotate.

1. Generation of Rotating Magnetic Field: Three-phase AC voltage applied to the stator windings creates a
rotating magnetic field due to the phase difference between the currents in the windings. This phenomenon
 is explained by Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, which states that a changing magnetic field
induces an electromotive force (EMF) in a conductor.

2. Induction of EMF in Rotor Windings: The rotating magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) in the
rotor windings, causing current to flow. This is also governed by Faraday's law, as the changing magnetic field
produced by the rotating stator field induces a voltage in the rotor conductors.

3. Rotor Interaction in Squirrel-Cage Rotor: In a squirrel-cage rotor, the interaction between the rotating
magnetic field and the rotor bars induces currents, which generate a magnetic field. This magnetic field
interacts with the stator field, producing torque and rotor rotation. Lenz's law states that the direction of the
induced current in a conductor opposes the change in magnetic flux that produces it. Therefore, the induced
currents in the rotor conductors create a magnetic field that opposes the change in the stator magnetic field,
resulting in torque generation.

4. Rotor Control in Wound Rotor: In a wound rotor, external resistors control the rotor current, affecting the
rotor magnetic field and enabling control of motor speed and torque. This control mechanism is based on
Lenz's law, as the resistance in the rotor circuit influences the strength of the induced currents and,
consequently, the interaction between the rotor and stator magnetic fields.

5. Creation of Relative Motion and Torque: The rotor tries to catch up with the rotating magnetic field but lags
slightly behind, creating relative motion. This induces voltage in the rotor conductors, producing torque and
driving rotor rotation. Faraday's law explains the induction of voltage in the rotor conductors due to the
changing magnetic field, while Lenz's law describes how the induced currents oppose the change in the
stator magnetic field, leading to torque production.

Types of Stator:

The stator in an induction motor is typically wound with either concentrated windings or distributed windings.
➢ Concentrated Windings: Each stator slot contains all the coils of one phase of the winding. This design is
simpler but can lead to higher harmonic content in the magnetic field.
➢ Distributed Windings: The coils of each phase are distributed across multiple slots, resulting in a more
sinusoidal distribution of the magnetic field and reducing harmonic content.

The differences between slip ring (wound rotor) and squirrel cage induction motors :
Rotor construction, starting characteristics, and speed control methods.

➢ Rotor Construction:
• Squirrel Cage Induction Motor: In a squirrel cage motor, the rotor consists of solid bars or conductors
arranged in a cage-like structure. These bars are short-circuited at both ends by end rings, giving the rotor its
characteristic appearance.
• Slip Ring (Wound Rotor) Induction Motor: A slip ring motor has a wound rotor with multiple coils wound
around laminated iron core. The rotor winding is brought out through slip rings and brushes, allowing
external resistance to be connected to the rotor circuit.

➢ Starting Characteristics:
• Squirrel Cage Induction Motor: Squirrel cage motors have self-starting characteristics. When connected to a
three-phase power supply, they start by themselves and accelerate to synchronous speed. They are simple
and rugged but have limited control over starting torque.
• Slip Ring (Wound Rotor) Induction Motor: Slip ring motors offer better starting characteristics, especially
under heavy loads. By connecting external resistance to the rotor circuit through slip rings, the starting
torque and current can be controlled. This allows for smoother starting and reduced mechanical stress on the
motor and driven load.

➢ Speed Control:
 • Squirrel Cage Induction Motor: Squirrel cage motors have fixed speed characteristics determined by the
frequency of the power supply. They operate at or near synchronous speed and have limited speed control
capabilities.
• Slip Ring (Wound Rotor) Induction Motor: Slip ring motors offer greater flexibility in speed control. By
adjusting the external resistance connected to the rotor circuit, the speed-torque characteristics of the motor
can be modified. This allows for speed regulation over a wider range compared to squirrel cage motors.

➢ Applications:

• Squirrel Cage Induction Motor: Squirrel cage motors are commonly used in applications where simple,
robust, and low-cost motors are required, such as pumps, fans, and compressors.
• Slip Ring (Wound Rotor) Induction Motor: Slip ring motors are preferred for applications requiring adjustable
starting torque, smooth acceleration, and precise speed control, such as conveyors, cranes, and large
industrial machinery.

Single Phasing occurs when one of the phases in a three-phase electrical system becomes disconnected or
fails. This imbalance can lead to uneven power distribution, overloading of remaining phases, reduced
motor performance, potential equipment damage, and voltage fluctuations.
• During Running Condition of motor:
Reduced torque and uneven performance.
Increased current in remaining phases, risking overloading and overheating.
Potential motor damage and reduced efficiency.

• During Stationary Condition motor:

Inability to start or difficulty starting.
Risk of overheating and equipment damage.
Increased downtime and production losses.

STALLING CONDITION refers to a situation where an electric motor is unable to turn its load and comes to a stop
despite power being supplied to it. This condition can occur due to various reasons, including:

1. Overloading: When the load on the motor exceeds its rated capacity, the motor may stall as it cannot
generate enough torque to overcome the resistance.
2. Blocked or Jammed Load: If the load becomes blocked or jammed, the motor may stall as it cannot overcome
the resistance to turn the load.
3. Mechanical Issues: Problems with the motor's bearings, shaft, or other mechanical components can cause
stalling.
4. Electrical Issues: Faulty wiring, damaged insulation, or issues with the power supply can also lead to stalling.
5. Overheating: Excessive heat buildup in the motor due to prolonged operation or inadequate ventilation can
cause the motor to stall.

PHASE:
A phase refers to one of the multiple alternating currents (AC) or voltages that are generated in a multi-phase
electrical system. Each phase is produced by separate windings in a generator or by separate transformers in a power
distribution system.

PHASE DIFFERENCE:
Phase difference refers to the angular difference in the timing of two alternating quantities, such as voltage or
current waveforms. It indicates how much one waveform leads or lags behind another waveform in time. Phase
difference is measured in degrees or radians.

PHASE SEQUENCE:
Phase Sequence refers to the order in which the phases of a multi-phase system reach their peak values or zero
crossings over one cycle of the AC waveform. In a balanced system, the phases are typically labeled in sequence as A-
B-C or R-Y-B (for red, yellow, blue phases).

➢ CONTACTOR
A contactor is an electromechanical switch used to control the flow of current in a circuit. It is designed to
handle high currents and voltages. A contactor consists of a coil, which when energized, creates a magnetic
field that attracts a movable armature. This movement causes a set of contacts to close, allowing electrical
current to flow through the device. When the coil is de-energized, the magnetic field dissipates, and the
contacts open, interrupting the flow of current.
➢ COMMUTATOR

The commutator is a rotary switch-like device mounted on the armature shaft of a motor. It consists of
multiple copper segments insulated from each other and connected to the ends of the armature coils.
As the motor rotates, the commutator rotates along with the armature. Each segment of the commutator
comes into contact with stationary carbon brushes, which are connected to the external circuit.
The commutator segments reverse the direction of current flow in the armature windings at specific points
during each revolution, ensuring continuous rotation of the motor in the same direction.

➢ COMMUTATION:
Commutation is the process of reversing the direction of current flow in the armature windings of a motor to
maintain a constant direction of torque production.
In DC motors, commutation is achieved by the action of the commutator. As the armature rotates, the
commutator segments come into contact with the brushes, which switch the direction of current flow in the
armature coils at the appropriate times. Proper commutation ensures that the magnetic field produced by
the armature windings interacts effectively with the field produced by the stator magnets or field windings,
resulting in continuous rotation of the motor shaft.

➢ In a DC motor, torque is produced by the interaction between the magnetic fields generated by the stator
(field windings) and the armature (coil windings). When a current flows through the field windings, they
create a magnetic field in the stator. Similarly, when a current is passed through the armature windings, a
magnetic field is generated in the armature. The interaction between these two magnetic fields produces a
force, known as electromagnetic force, which causes the armature to rotate. The direction of the
electromagnetic force is determined by the direction of the current flowing through the armature windings
relative to the magnetic field produced by the field windings. This force creates torque, causing the armature
to rotate. The greater the current flowing through the armature windings or the stronger the magnetic field
produced by the field windings, the greater the torque generated by the motor.

➢ DC MACHINE - GENERATOR
1. Yoke: The yoke serves as the outer frame of the generator, providing mechanical support and
protection for the internal components. It is usually made of cast iron or steel and forms the
stationary part of the generator.
2. Pole Cores and Pole Shoes: Pole cores are cylindrical or rectangular pieces of magnetic material
attached to the yoke. They provide a path for the magnetic flux produced by the field windings. Pole
shoes are shaped pieces of magnetic material that extend outward from the pole cores,
concentrating the magnetic field and reducing losses.
3. Field Windings: Field windings are coils of wire wound around the pole cores. When a current passes
through these windings, they generate a magnetic field within the generator. The strength of the
magnetic field can be controlled by adjusting the current flowing through the field windings.
4. Armature: The armature is the rotating part of the generator and is mounted on a shaft. It consists of
a cylindrical core made of soft iron laminations, around which armature coils are wound. The
armature coils are connected to the commutator segments.
5. Commutator: The commutator is a cylindrical assembly mounted on the armature shaft and consists
of multiple copper segments insulated from each other. Each segment is connected to one end of an
armature coil. The commutator reverses the direction of current flow in the armature coils as they
rotate, ensuring that the generated voltage remains unidirectional.
6. Brushes: Brushes are conductive contacts made of carbon or graphite that press against the
commutator segments. They transfer electrical current from the armature coils to the external
circuit. Brushes are usually mounted on stationary structures called brush holders and are held in
place by tension springs.