ECE 43200/53201/Fall2020

Power Quality - Part II (continued)

Table 1 IEEE Std 519-1992 Harmonic Current Limits

Current Distortion Limits for General Distribution Systems (120V through 69000V)
Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of IL

Individual Harmonic Order (Odd Harmonics)

𝑰𝑺𝑪 /𝑰𝑳 < 11 11 ≤ h < 17 17 ≤ h < 23 23 ≤ h < 35 35 ≤ h TDD

< 20* 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20 < 50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50 < 100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100 < 1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd harmonic limits above.
Current distortions that result in a dc offset, e.g. half-wave converters, are not allowed.
* All power generation equipment is limited to these values of current distortion, regardless of actual 𝐼𝑆𝐶 /𝐼𝐿
Where
/SC = maximum short-circuit current at PCC.
/L = maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency component) at PCC.
TDD = Total demand distortion (RSS), harmonic current distortion in % of maximum demand load
current (15 or 30 min demand).
PCC = Point of common coupling.

Table 1 shows the IEEE 519 recommended harmonic current limits while Table 2 shows the harmonic
voltage limits.

Table 2 IEEE Std 519-1992 Harmonic Voltage Limits

Voltage Distortion Limits
Individual Voltage Total Voltage Distortion
Bus Voltage at PCC
Distortion (%) THD (%)
Below 69 kV 3.0 5.0
69 kV to 161 1.5 2.5
kV 161 kV 1.0 1.5
and above systems can have up to 2.0% THD where the cause is an HVDC terminal that will attenuate
NOTE: High-voltage
by the time it is tapped for a user.

In IEEE 519 it is presented the philosophy of developing harmonic limits in the recommended practice:

▪ Limit the harmonic injection from individual customers so that they will not cause unacceptable
voltage distortion levels for normal system characteristics
▪ Limit the overall harmonic distortion of the system voltage supplied by the utility

These limits are intended to be applied at the point of common coupling (PCC) (see the definition in the
next section). between the customer and the utility.

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3.7.1 Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

A revised IEEE 519 standard has defined the PCC as follows:

The Point of Common Coupling (PCC) with the consumer/utility interface is the closest point on the
utility side of the customer's service where another utility customer is or could be supplied.
Within an industrial plant, the PCC is the point between the nonlinear load and other loads. Some people
prefer to define the PCC (or multiple PCCs) at a point (or points) internal to the customer's system. Only
if a customer has multiple feeds from the utility would have multiple PCCs. The PCC is the only point
where a customer must meet the IEEE 519 limits, with the goal to prevent one customer from causing
harmonic problems for another customer or for the utility [6].

In practice the true PCC will most often be at the medium voltage primary of the transformer serving the
customer. In the real world, it is often only practical to perform measurements on the transformer
secondary.

3.7.2 𝐈𝐒𝐂 /𝐈𝐋 Ratio

As shown in Table 1, the harmonic limits that apply to a particular customer depend on the ISC/IL ratio at
that customer's point of common coupling with the utility.
As defined in IEEE 519, Isc is the "maximum short-circuit current at PCC." This should be a three-phase
fault current. IL is the "maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency component) at PCC." This
is a current calculated from the maximum billing (e.g. 15 or 30 minute) demand and not an instantaneous
peak [6].
A customer with a small demand relative to the short circuit current available cannot cause much
disruption to the utility system. Conversely, a large customer (high IL) relative to the available fault
current faces stricter harmonic current limits.

Sometimes there is not enough specific information available about a utility's system Isc, in order to
calculate the ISC/IL ratio and then use Table 1 to determine the harmonic current limits. In this case it may
be more convenient to calculate the SSC/SL ratio (or MVASC/MVAL) whose value is the same as the ISC/IL
ratio. The three-phase short circuit SSC (or MVASC) should be provided by the utility.

3.7.3 Total Demand Distortion (TDD)

Another misunderstood part of the IEEE 519 standard is the term total demand distortion, or TDD. From
Table 1, above, this term is explained as "Total demand distortion (RSS), harmonic current distortion in
% of maximum demand load current (15 or 30 min demand)", where RSS is the root-sum-square, or
square root of the sum of individual harmonic components square.

The term TDD is very much like the total harmonic distortion THD defined in Eq.(8). For example, THD
and TDD are calculated in terms of current as follows

∞
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 √∑2 I2h √I22 +I23 +I24 +I25 +⋯
𝑇𝐻𝐷𝐼 = 𝐼1
= 𝐼1
= 𝐼1
, (17)

√I22 +I23 +I24 +I25 +⋯

𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑻𝑫𝑫𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿
= 𝐼𝐿
. (18)

In Equations (17) and (18), I1, I2, I3, I4, I5, etc. are harmonic currents in amperes, I1 refers to the
fundamental frequency current (60 Hz in United States), and IL is defined as "maximum demand load

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current (fundamental frequency component) at PCC". This IL would be the maximum current averaged
over a demand interval (e.g. 15 or 30 minutes) for a given customer [6].

The only difference between the THD and TDD definitions is the denominator. The THD calculation
compares the momentary measured harmonics with the momentary measured fundamental current. The
TDD calculation compares the steady-state measured harmonics with the maximum demand current,
which is not a momentary number at all.

The individual harmonic current limits in Table 1 are not given in terms of percent of fundamental (as is
typical of most harmonic analyses) at a given point of time. The current limits are given in terms of,
"Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of IL."
By definition IL will always be greater than I1, therefore, the TDD and percent of IL measurements will
always be less than the THD and percent of I1 measurements.
In the cases when the demand current is not known (a new installation, or an addition of a new load), it is
common to use the transformer full load current as an estimate of the maximum demand current.
The difference between THD and TDD (and between harmonics as a percent of I1 and IL) is important
because it prevents a user from being unfairly penalized for harmonics during periods of light load.
During periods of light load it can appear that harmonic levels have increased in terms of percent even
though the actual harmonic currents in amperes have stayed the same or decreased.
Let us look at a numerical example to illustrate this difference.

_________________________________________________________________________________

Example 1
A plant has two distinct manufacturing areas, one with some harmonic load and another with only linear
load. The portion of the plant with only linear load draws 100 A at 60 Hz (I1), and the portion of the plant
with the harmonic load draws 100 A at 60 Hz (I1), 14 A at 300 Hz (I5), and 7 A at 420 Hz (I7).
(PCC) 1 12.47 kV
5 MVAsc

2
480 V

I1 = 100 A I1 = 100 A
I5 = 14 A
I7 = 7 A

Fig.8 Power system with linear and harmonic loads

In Fig.8 it is shown a one line diagram of this power system example. Let us assume that these currents
are on the secondary of a 12470 / 480 V transformer. The (PCC) is on the primary of the transformer, and
the three-phase short circuit SSC (or MVASC) on the primary is 5 MVA (information provided by the
utility). In this case is more convenient to determine the ISC/IL ratio by calculating the SSC/SL ratio (or
MVASC/MVAL). The two ratios are the same and determining the apparent powers ratio is often a bit
easier.
5
In this case the load SL (or MVAL) is 0.166MVA (or 166 kVA), yielding a SSC/SL ratio of 0.166 = 30.12.
This means that in Table 1, the second row of harmonic current limits apply, limiting TDD to 8% and
individual harmonics below the 11th to 7% or less).

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Example 1(A): Plant at Full Load

Let us also assume that currents at the same frequency may be simply added (no cancellation due to phase
angle/power factor differences).
With both portions of the plant running we would have a total of 200 A at 60 Hz (I1), 14 A at 300 Hz (I5),
and 7 A at 420 Hz (I7). Assuming this is the plant's maximum load (averaged over the demand interval),
we would calculate the demand current, IL, to be 200 A (maximum demand, fundamental frequency
component).
This would result in the following THD and TDD:

√I25 +I27
√ 14 2 +72
%𝑇𝐻𝐷𝐼 = 100 × = 100 × = 7.83% < 8%
𝐼1 200

√I25 +I27
√ 142 +72
%𝑇𝐷𝐷𝐼 = 100 × 𝐼𝐿
= 100 × 200
= 7.83% < 8%

The individual harmonics are calculated as a percent of IL. The harmonic current I5 as a percent of IL
would be
𝐼5 14
𝐼
× 100 = 200 × 100 = 7%.
𝐿
In this case, the harmonic current limits for both TDD and individual harmonics as a percent of IL are
barely met.

The limits would also be met if we were using THD and individual harmonics as a percent of I 1, which
are what harmonic measurement instruments commonly report. In this last case, I5 as a percent of I1would
be 14/200, or 7.0%.

Example 1(B): Plant at Partial Load

In this case, only the harmonic portion of the plant is running. We therefore only have 100 A at 60 Hz.
However, the demand current, IL, previously calculated does not change.
This would result in the following calculations:

√I25 +I27
√ 14 2 +72
%𝑇𝐻𝐷𝐼 = 100 × 𝐼1
= 100 × 100
= 15.65% > 8%

√I25 +I27
√ 142 +72
%𝑇𝐷𝐷𝐼 = 100 × 𝐼𝐿
= 100 × 200
= 7.83% < 8%

The harmonic current I5 as a percent of IL would be 14/200, or 7.0%, but I5 as a percent of I1 would be
14/100, or 14.0%. In this case, the harmonic current limits for both TDD and individual harmonics as a
percent of IL are barely met. However, the limits would not be met if we were using THD and individual
harmonics as a percent of I1.
The numbers as a percent of I1, rather than IL, can go up rather dramatically depending on which loads
within a plant are on at any given time. But the plant should not be penalized in this case because it is not
injecting any more harmonic current into the utility system in Measurement (B) than it is during
Measurement (A).

3.7.4 TDD Application Conclusion

In most cases when we compare measured harmonic current data (THD, not TDD; individual harmonics
in percent of I1, not in percent of IL) to IEEE 519 limits we are not doing an apples-to-apples comparison.

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To ensure that we have valid harmonic measurements we want to make sure that all harmonic loads are
operating normally during the measurements. In addition to that, to ensure that the THD measurements
(and all individual harmonic measurements calculated as a percent of I1) closely match the TDD
measurements (and all individual harmonic measurements calculated as a percent of IL) we also want to
make sure that our measurements are taken at a time when all of the linear loads are operating normally.

As with the PCC discussion, there is what you would want to do in an ideal world and what you can
actually do in the real world. In the real world we do not often need to convert the THD and percent of I 1
measurements to TDD and percent of IL measurements. The majority of the time, the THD and percent of
I1 measurements are sufficient.
If the THD and percent of I1 measurements meet the IEEE 519 limits then the TDD and percent of IL
measurements will, by definition, also meet the limits (since IL is greater than I1 the TDD and percent of
IL measurements will always be less than or equal to the THD and percent of I1 measurements). If the
limits are greatly exceeded when the measurements are taken at or near full load, then there is also no
need to convert to TDD. If the numbers are close, you probably want to reduce the harmonics anyway.
Like the PCC, we should keep in mind that we are simply doing what we can out of convenience (THD,
percent of I1), not what we would do in a perfect world (TDD, percent of IL) if we had the time to do post
processing of measurement data.
_________________________________________________________________________________

Discussing harmonics in terms of percent of fundamental is useful to understand relative harmonic levels.
When doing harmonic measurements, studies, and limit assessments it is more useful to talk in terms of
actual quantities: volts and amperes at each harmonic frequency of interest.
One example that illustrates this difference is the operation of a variable frequency drive (VFD).

Example 2: Variable Frequency Drive [6]

VFDs produce current harmonics due to the way they draw current from the source. Common six-pulse
drives produce 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, 17th, 19th harmonics, and so forth. 12-pulse and 18-pulse drives
incorporate designs that largely cancel certain lower order characteristic harmonics.
In the case of a pumping station, reducing the load means reducing the output frequency of the drive. The
thinking behind this is that as the drive load decreases, the harmonics increase.

Table 3 shows measurements on an 18-pulse drive during a verification measurement (done to ensure that
the drive is working as expected). The drive was operated at various output frequencies and the harmonics
were measured. We are not comparing these measurements with any harmonic limits because this drive is
just one part of a larger system. These measurements are presented to show how the drive harmonics vary
with drive output frequency.

The data show that while the 60 Hz source current goes down significantly with output frequency the
harmonic currents are not reduced that much.

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Table 3. 18-Pulse Clean Power Drive Current Measurements, Various Speeds (All
Values in Amperes Except as Specified in Percent, Nominal IL = 225 A)
HARMONIC 30 Hz 40 Hz 50 Hz 60 Hz

THD (% of I1) 26.7 % 14.1 % 9.1 % 5.9 %

TDD (% of IL) 3.6 % 4.1 % 4.5 % 4.8 %
All Harmonics 8.2 9.2 10.1 10.8
RMS 31.9 65.8 110.7 183.1
1 (fundamental) 30.8 65.2 110.3 1823

2 0.1 0.4 1.2 0.9

3 3.1 3.8 3.9 3.9

5 5.4 6.1 6.8 8.3

7 5.1 5.1 4.9 4.3
11 0.2 0.2 0.5 1.2
13 0.4 0.8 1.0 1.2
17 1.5 2.0 2.1 2.1
19 0.8 1.7 2.5 2.5
23 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.3
25 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.7
29 0.0 0.1 0.1 03
31 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3
35 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
37 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

This makes it appear as though the drives are injecting more harmonics if one only looks at the harmonics
as a percentage of 60 Hz current (THD, rather than TDD). Harmonics, in amperes, actually decrease as
the output frequency is reduced, but one would not know that by only looking at the THD or individual
harmonics that are calculated as a percent of decreasing fundamental current (I1).

This is why the harmonic current limits are written in terms of percent of full load current, IL (TDD), not
percent of momentary fundamental current, I1 (THD). Setting limits as a percent of fundamental would
mean that the harmonic limits get more strict at periods of light load, even though less harmonic current is
being injected.
These limits also show that, in general, full load drive operation is the worst case condition to analyze in
harmonic studies and measurements. Studies and measurements at partial load are usually not worth the
effort.

_________________________________________________________________________________

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3.7.5 Short Circuit Calculation

In order to determine the harmonic limits that apply to a particular customer the ISC/IL ratio, at that
customer's point of common coupling (PCC) with the utility, must be calculated (see subsection 3.7.2).
Then, based on the ISC/IL ratio, the Table 1 (from IEEE Standard 519-1992) it is used to determine the
harmonic current limits.
The three steps for the short circuit calculations based on transformer impedance (nameplate data) and
source impedance (information provided by the utility company) are shown next.

(1) In the first step, the equivalent source impedance and transformer impedance are calculated.
The actual short circuit current ISC available at a transformer's secondary terminals depends on
transformer and the source impedances (for an infinite bus assumption the source impedance can be
ignored):
𝐼𝐿 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 = (19)
(𝑍𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 +𝑍𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑢 )
𝑝𝑢

where, 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 is the three-phase short circuit current at the secondary bus, 𝐼𝐿 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 is the
secondary full load current, 𝑍𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑢 is the transformer per unit impedance, 𝑍𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑢 is the
source impedance in ohms divided by the transformer base impedance in ohms.

▪ Note: If on the nameplate of the transformer the impedance is given in percents, %Ztransformer, then
𝑍𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 = %𝑍𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 /100.
𝑝𝑢
A transformer connected to a strong source such as close to a major utility substation, will have a greater
secondary short circuit current than if the same transformer was connected to a weak source such as a
long distribution line in a rural area [8].

In Eq.(19) the source impedance is calculated as follows

𝑍𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝑍𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑢 = 𝑍 , (20)
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒

where:
2 2
𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑍𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 = , and 𝑍𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑆 , (21a,b)
𝑆𝑠𝑐 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟

so that Eq.(20) becomes:

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟
𝑍𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑢 = (22)
𝑆𝑠𝑐

Note that, if the secondary line to line voltage 𝑉𝐿𝐿 , in Eqs.(21), is given in kV, then the apparent powers
must be in MVA units.

In Eq.(22) the short circuit power SSC is

𝑆𝑆𝐶 = √3𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 (23)

Finally, the calculation of 𝑍𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑢 seems to be simple enough if the information regarding the three
phase short circuit current at the primary bus, 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 , is available.

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But where to obtain this 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 ? The answer to this question is that the utility company is usually the
source of this information, if the transformer is going to be connected to the utility system.

(b) In the second step, the secondary full load current rating of the transformer, 𝐼𝐿 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 , is
calculated as:
S3ϕ
𝐼𝐿 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 = (24)
√3𝑉𝐿𝐿

where S3ϕ is the transformer three phase total apparent power (usually in MVA).

(c) In the last third step, the short circuit current on the transformer secondary bus is calculated
based on the transformer and the source impedances (see Eq.(19)):
𝐼𝐿 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 = × 100 (25)
(%𝑍𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 +%𝑍𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 )

Example 3 - Short Circuit Numerical Calculation

Given a transformer rated 1200/1600 kVA with a Y connected secondary voltage of 480/277V, a
primary line to line voltage of 12 kV and an impedance of 5%. The base rating is 1200 kVA and the
fan cooled rating is 1600 kVA. The short circuit current is 10,000 A at 12 kV, provided by the utility
company in the upstream part of the system, and available at the transformer's primary.
Calculate the short circuit current that is needed to evaluate the harmonics limits caused by a power
electronics based dc load in the downstream part of the system.

(a) In the first step calculate the source impedance:

𝑆𝑆𝐶 = √3𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 = √3 × (12 × 103 ) × 10,000 = √3 × 120,000 𝑘𝑉𝐴 = 207, 846 𝑘𝑉𝐴

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 1,200 𝑘𝑉𝐴

𝑍𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑢 = 𝑆𝑠𝑐
= 207,846 𝑘𝑉𝐴 = 0.0058,
or
%𝑍𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 0.58%

(b) In the second step, calculate the secondary full load current rating of the transformer:

S3ϕ 1200 𝑘𝑉𝐴

𝐼𝐿 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 = = = 1,443 𝐴
√3𝑉𝐿𝐿 √3(0.48 kV)

(c) In the last third step, calculate the short circuit current on the transformer secondary bus.
𝐼𝐿 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 1,443 𝐴
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 = × 100 = (5%+0.58%) × 100 = 25,860 𝐴
(%𝑍𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 +%𝑍𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 )

▪ Note: For the case of an infinite bus assumption, the source impedance can be ignored, and the
short circuit current at the secondary would be
𝐼𝐿 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 1,443 𝐴
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 = × 100 = (5%)
× 100 = 28,860 𝐴,
(%𝑍𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 )

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so when the effect of the source (impedance) is taken into account the short circuit current ,
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 , drops from 28,860 𝐴 to 25,860 𝐴. It can be seen that the source impedance (source
strength) has a significant effect on the magnitude of short circuit current at the transformer secondary
terminals.

▪ For circuit protection devices, a more precision of the above calculations is needed when the
calculated short circuit is close to a device's interrupting rating, [8]. The X/R which is the ratio of the
reactance to resistance in the supply should be taken into account. The X/R ratio may need to be
derived from other data, such as the available power factor PF. For example, when PF is known, the
𝑋
ratio 𝑅 = tan (𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑃𝐹). For more precision of the short circuit current estimation, the contribution
of motors, generators, and cables should be introduced into the calculations.

_________________________________________________________________________________

Example 4
A Small Typical Distribution System - Use of IEEE Std 519-1992 Harmonic Current Limits

Fig.9 represents a one line diagram representation of a typical small distribution system. The utility
distributes power at 69 kV, and feeds a distribution line with 13,200 V 3-phase 60 Hz power through an
8% impedance and 15 MVA transformer, TR1. The plant uses a 1500 kVA, 6% impedance service
transformer, TR2, to step the 13,200 volts down to 480 volts, which is bused throughout the factory.

Fig.9 Small distribution system

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The columns of Table 1, based on IEEE Std 519-1992 Harmonic Current Limits, which should be used to
determine harmonic limits will depend on the location of the point of common coupling (PCC).
PCC1 is the primary of the service transformer, and often when the customer owns the service
transformer, the utility will meter the medium voltage (in this case, 13,200 volts) at this point. If the
utility meters the 480 volt bus, PCC2 is the interface, [9]. As we shall see, the allowable harmonic
distortion depends on the defined PCC.

The IEEE 519-1992 Standard is meant to apply to system harmonic distortion, rather than to individual
load distortion, so that unnecessary expense can be avoided. The proper use of the data in Table 1 is
illustrated next with calculations based on the system outlined in Fig.9.

Data available:
TR1: 15,000 kVA, 8% impedance, 69 kV / 13,200 kV
TR2: 1,500 kVA, 6% impedance, 13,200 V / 480 V
Measured load current IL: 1,000 A
Measured current distortion: 95 A 5th harmonic, and 50 A 7th harmonic.

(a) The actual short circuit current ISC available at PCC1 of the TR1 transformer's secondary terminals:
𝐼
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑃𝐶𝐶1 = 𝑍 𝐿 𝑇𝑅1 ,
𝑇𝑅1 𝑝𝑢

where note that the utility source impedance is unknown (Eq.(19)).

The full load current of TR1 is

15,000 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝐼𝐿 𝑇𝑅1 = × 103 = 656 𝐴
√3(13,200)

656 𝐴
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑃𝐶𝐶1 = = 8,200 A.
0.08

(b) Similar calculations are done for the actual short circuit current ISC available at PCC2 of the TR2
transformer's secondary terminals:
𝐼
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑃𝐶𝐶2 = 𝑍 𝐿 𝑇𝑅2 ,
𝑇𝑅2 𝑝𝑢

The full load current of TR2 is

1,500 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝐼𝐿 𝑇𝑅2 = × 103 = 1,804 𝐴
√3(480)

1,804 𝐴
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑃𝐶𝐶2 = 0.06
= 30,067 A.

(c) The rms value of the load current, IRMS:

IRMS of the load is the load current carried by TR2 and the wiring. The higher the harmonic currents, the
more the system capacity is used up carrying non-productive currents, [9]:

∞
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √∑h=1 Ih2 = √I12 + I52 + I72 = √10002 + 952 + 502 = 1,006 A.

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(d) Total Demand Distortion (TDD) and

Individual (of each) Harmonic %Distortion:

TDD stands for Total Demand Distortion, based on the maximum demand load current (fundamental
frequency component). It is a measure of the Total Harmonic current distortion at the PCC for the total
connected load. TDD is not intended to be the limits for any individual load within the distribution
system, [9].
From Eq.(18)
√I22 +I23 +I24 +I25 +⋯
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑻𝑫𝑫𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿
= 𝐼𝐿
or
√I25 +I27
√ 952 +502
%𝑇𝐷𝐷 = 100 × = 100 × = 10.7%
𝐼𝐿 1,000

I 95
For the 5th harmonic, the individual distortion in percent is: 100 × 𝐼5 = 100 × 1,000 = 9.5%.
𝐿

I 50
For the 7th harmonic, the individual distortion in percent is: 100 × 𝐼7 = 100 × 1,000 = 5%.
𝐿

(e) The 𝐈𝐒𝐂 /𝐈𝐋 Ratio at PCC1:

The load current is referred to the primary of TR2 using the transformer ratio

480V 480V
𝐼𝐿,(13,200𝑉) = 𝐼𝐿,(480𝑉) (13,200V) = (1,000A) (13,200V) = 36.4 A

𝐈𝐒𝐂 8,200𝐴
| = = 𝟐𝟐𝟓
𝐈𝐋 𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝐶𝐶1 36.4𝐴

The columns of the Table 1 (h<11, 11<h<17, etc.) indicate the limits for any individual harmonic current
at the PCC, expressed as a percentage of the fundamental frequency portion of the maximum demand
load current.
If PCC1 is the measuring point, the data from Table 1 show that TDD permitted for an 𝐈𝐒𝐂 /𝐈𝐋 ratio of 225
is 15%. The 5th and 7th harmonics are each permitted to be 12%. The values measured, 10.7% TDD,
9.5% 5th harmonic, and 5% 7th harmonic, are within the permitted limits and no further action is required.
This should be expected, since a relatively small (1000 A) load is being fed by a relatively stiff (15 MVA)
system transformer, [9].

(f) The 𝐈𝐒𝐂 /𝐈𝐋 Ratio at PCC2:

The load current at PCC2 is the TR2 transformer's secondary current, which in this case is 1,000 A, so

𝐈𝐒𝐂 30,067𝐴
|
𝐈𝐋 𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝐶𝐶2
= 1,000𝐴
= 𝟑𝟎

If PCC2 is the measuring point, the data from Table 1 show that TDD permitted for an 𝐈𝐒𝐂 /𝐈𝐋 ratio of 30 is
8%. The 5th and 7th harmonics are each permitted to be 7%. The values measured are greater than the
permitted limits for the 5th harmonic (9.5%) and this system would need the elimination of this 5th
harmonic to meet the requirements of IEEE 519-1992.
_________________________________________________________________________________

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ECE 43200/53201/Fall2020

Increasing the Ratio to Meet Harmonic Limits

One way to meet harmonic limits is to increase the "stiffness" of the system, thereby moving into a new
row on Table 1 and increasing the permitted harmonic level. This can be done by installing a larger service
transformer (in effect "de-rating" the transformer) or by installing a special "K" rated transformer which
has a lower impedance. Suppose, in the previous Example 4, TR2 is replaced with a 2500 kVA "K" rated
transformer of 3.7% impedance. ISC /IL ratio is now 81.
With the new transformer, and PCC2 as the measuring point, the data from Table 1 show that TDD permitted
for an ISC /IL ratio of 81 is 12%. The 5th and 7th harmonics are each permitted to be 10%. The values
measured are all within the permitted limit and no further action is required.
Replacing the transformer, however, is expensive, and the transformer is now oversized for the load. The
larger transformer has a high magnetizing current and, because it is lightly loaded, a lower (worse) power
factor exists.

More practical solutions include the use of line reactors and passive harmonic filters. For the cases in which
more than 20% of the load is non-linear, adding series line reactors cannot reduce the current distortion to the
IEEE 519-1992 recommended levels. Instead series reactors can be extremely beneficial in eliminating bus
overvoltage tripping and improving power factor, [9].
Next the solution of harmonic filters is considered to maintain harmonic current distortion within the limits
recommended by IEEE 519-1992 standard.

3.8 Harmonic Trap Filters

3.8.1 Purpose of Harmonic Filters

The primary goal of a harmonic filter installation is to reduce the amplitude of one or more fixed
frequency currents or voltages, [10].
In the case of non-linear loads supplied by power converters, when these make up more than 20% of the
electrical load on a distribution system, harmonic filtering is required to prevent the harmonic currents
from entering the rest of the system by providing a shunt path of low impedance to the harmonic
frequencies.

3.8.2 Definitions and Adding Trap Filters

The shunt filter is said to be tuned to the frequency that makes its inductive and capacitive reactances
equal.
The quality factor of a filter, Q, determines the sharpness of tuning and in this respect filters may be either
of the high Q type or they may be of the low Q type. The high Q filter is sharply tuned to one of the lower
harmonic frequencies (e.g. the fifth) and a typical value is between 30 and 60. The low Q filter, typically
in the region of 0.5-5, has a low impedance over a wide range of frequencies.

Fig.10 (a) Single tuned shunt filter series RLC circuit

(b) Single tuned shunt filter impedance versus frequency [10]

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ECE 43200/53201/Fall2020

When used to eliminate the higher order harmonics (e.g. 17th up) it is also referred to as a high pass filter.

A typical example of filter circuit and its impedance variation with frequency is illustrated in Fig.10.
In the case of an RLC series tuned filter, Q is defined as the ratio of the inductive (or the capacitive)
reactance at resonant frequency, 𝜔𝑛 , to resistance:
𝑋0 𝜔𝑛 L 1
𝑄= 𝑅
= 𝑅
=𝜔 (26)
𝑛 CR

In Fig.10(b) the filter pass band (PB) is defined as being bounded by the frequencies at which the filter
reactance equals its resistance, i.e. the impedance angle is 45° and the impedance module √2𝑅. The
quality factor and pass band (bandwidth) are related by the expression
𝜔𝑛
𝑄= (27)
𝑃𝐵

where 𝜔𝑛 is the nominal tuned (resonant) angular frequency in radians per second.

The extent of filter detuning from the nominal tuned frequency is represented by a factor 𝛿. This factor
includes various effects, such as (1) variations in the fundamental (supply) frequency; (2) variations in the
filter capacitance and inductance caused by ageing and temperature; (3) initial off-tuning caused by
manufacturing tolerances and finite size of tuning steps, [10].

The overall de-tuning, in per unit of the nominal tuned frequency, is

(𝜔−𝜔𝑛 )
𝛿= (28)
𝜔𝑛

Moreover, a change of L or C of say 2% causes the same detuning as a change of system frequency of
1%, [10]. Therefore 𝛿 is often expressed as

Δf 1 ΔL ΔC
𝛿= + ( + ) (29)
𝑓𝑛 2 𝐿𝑛 𝐶𝑛

3.8.3 Filter Design Criteria

The ideal criterion of filter design is the elimination of all detrimental effects caused by waveform
distortion. However, this is unrealistic both for technical and economical reasons. From the technical
point of view, it is very difficult to estimate in advance the distribution of harmonics throughout the ac
network. The reduction of harmonics effects can normally be achieved more economically by taking
some of the preventive measures in the power system.

A more practical criterion suggests reducing the problem to an acceptable level at the point of common
coupling with other consumers, the problem being expressed in terms of harmonic current, harmonic
voltage, or both. A criterion based on harmonic voltage is more convenient for filter design, because it is
easier to guarantee staying within a reasonable voltage limit than to limit the current level as the ac
network impedance changes.

The size of a filter is defined as the reactive power that the filter supplies at fundamental frequency, and
this equals the fundamental reactive power supplied by the capacitors.

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ECE 43200/53201/Fall2020

Fig.11 Voltage harmonic distortion computation circuit [10]

In order to comply with the required harmonic limitations the design of filters involves the following
steps:

a) The harmonic current spectrum produced by the non-linear load is injected into a circuit
consisting of filters in parallel with the ac system (Fig.11) at the relevant frequencies and the
harmonic voltages are calculated.

b) The results of (a) are used to determine the specified indices, such as voltage distortion THD.

c) The ratings and losses of the filter components, i.e. capacitors, inductors and resistors are then
calculated.

In filter design the three components that require consideration are the current source, filter admittance
and system admittance. The current source content should be varied through the range of load and firing
angle conditions in the case of power converters. Regarding the filter and system admittances, it is
essential to calculate the minimum total equivalent admittance at each harmonic frequency, which will
result in maximum waveform distortion.
The loci of filter impedance as a function of frequency is obtained once a particular filter configuration
has been designed. Source impedance loci are more difficult to determine with any degree of accuracy.

An ideal filter design is a single broad band-pass configuration capable of attenuating the whole spectrum
of injected harmonics (e.g. from the fifth up in the case of a six-pulse convertor). However, the
capacitance required to achieve such target is too large, and it is usually more economical to attenuate the
lower harmonics by means of single tuned filters, [10].

3.8.4 Harmonic Tuned Filters

A simple passive single tuned filter is a series RLC circuit (see Fig.10(a)) tuned to the frequency of one
harmonic (generally a lower characteristic harmonic).
The impedance of RLC series filter is given by the known expression

1
𝑍𝐹 = 𝑅 + 𝑗 (𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶 ), (30)

which at the resonant frequency 𝜔𝑛 = 2π𝑓𝑛 reduces to its minimum value, R.

The quality factor Q and the relative frequency deviation 𝛿, that were defined in Eqs.(26) and (29), are the
two basic design parameters to be considered prior to the selection of the filter components R, L and C.

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ECE 43200/53201/Fall2020

The following expressions apply for the tuned (resonant) angular frequency (𝜔𝑛 ), and for the inductor or
capacitor reactances (𝑋0 ) at the tuned frequency, in order to express the filter impedance (ZF) in terms of
Q and δ:

𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛 (1 + δ) (31)
1
𝜔𝑛 = (32)
√𝐿𝐶

1 L
𝑋0 = 𝜔𝑛 L = 𝜔 = √C (33)
𝑛C

Based on quality factor defined in Eq.(26), the inductance and capacitance of the filter are calculated as
1 1
𝐶=𝜔 =𝜔 (34)
𝑛 𝑋0 𝑛 RQ
and
𝑋 RQ
𝐿 = 𝜔0 = 𝜔 (35)
𝑛 𝑛

Substituting Equations (31), (34), and (35) in Eq.(30) yields

RQ 2+𝛿
𝑍𝐹 = 𝑅 + 𝑗 [𝑅𝑄(1 + δ) − (1+δ)] = 𝑅 [1 + 𝑗𝑄𝛿 ( )], (36)
1+𝛿

or considering that δ is small as compared to unity

1
𝑍𝐹 ≅ 𝑅[1 + 𝑗2𝑄𝛿] = 𝑋0 (Q + j2δ) (37)

From Eq.(37) the calculated impedance value in ohms is

|𝑍𝐹 | ≅ 𝑅√1 + 4𝛿 2 𝑄2 (38)

In the filter design generally is more convenient to use admittances rather than impedances.
Thus,
1
𝑌𝐹 ≅ 𝑅[1+𝑗2𝑄𝛿] = 𝐺𝐹 + j𝐵𝐹 (39)

The harmonic voltage at the filter bus is

𝐼 𝐼𝑛
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑌𝑛 = 𝑌 , (40)
𝑛 𝐹𝑛 +𝑌𝑠𝑛

where, 𝑌𝑠𝑛 is the network admittance, and 𝑌𝑛𝐹 the filter admittance.

Therefore to minimize the voltage distortion it is necessary to increase the overall admittance of the filter
in parallel with the ac system. In order to predict the largest Vn, the variables that are not accurately
known have to be chosen pessimistically; these are the frequency largest expected deviation 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 and the
network lowest admittance 𝑌𝑠𝑛 . Within certain limits the designer can decide on the values of Q and filter
size determined by the VA ratings at fundamental frequency, [10].

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ECE 43200/53201/Fall2020

One of the characteristics of a series L-C filter is that its impedance is extremely low at the tuning, or
resonant, frequency, and here is how it works:

If the tuning frequency is selected to be a major harmonic drawn by a non-linear load, the load will draw
only its fundamental frequency current from the distribution system. Most of the selected harmonic
current will be drawn from the trap filter. Since much of the harmonic current demanded by the non-linear
load now comes from the trap filter and less harmonic current is drawn through the distribution system,
the harmonic current distortion at the PCC (Point of Common Coupling) will be reduced.

A series line reactor (or an isolation transformer) placed ahead of the trap filter increases the impedance
toward the system to harmonic frequencies. Thus, a greater portion of harmonic current is diverted to the
trap filter, the harmonic currents in the system are further reduced, and the added impedance prevents
other harmonic producing loads from overloading the trap filter.

Fig.12 Harmonic filter in parallel with a non-linear load (see Fig.11)

Fig.12 shows a simplified diagram of a harmonic trap filter and demonstrates how it is connected to
provide harmonic reduction for a solid state non-linear load. (While filters can be located on a bus or at
the service transformer to reduce harmonics for the entire load, the most effective filtering occurs when a
filter is placed at each individual non-linear load, [9].)

Practical Tuning
The trap filter is always tuned just below the lowest harmonic present in the electrical system. In a typical
3-phase, 6-pulse rectifier, the 5th harmonic (300 Hz) is the lowest harmonic, so the trap filter is tuned, for
example, to 282 Hz which theoretically corresponds to 4.7th.
The largest component of distortion (the 5th) will be diverted into the trap filter, and because the filters are
broad bandwidth, a 5th harmonic tuned filter will absorb significant amounts of 7th harmonic current as
well. The series impedance will significantly attenuate the higher harmonic frequencies. Thus a single 5 th
harmonic tuned trap filter can reduce the harmonic currents at the PCC to within IEEE 519-1992 limit
specifications in most cases. If further filtering is required, a multiple frequency trap filter (11 th, 13th, etc.)
can also be installed, [9], for any required voltage level.

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ECE 43200/53201/Fall2020

3.8.5 Filter Component Properties

The current and voltage ratings of the capacitors, inductors and resistors can be calculated (and with them
the active and reactive powers and losses) based on knowledge of the fundamental and harmonic voltages
at the relevant bus. For the filter design, in order to prevent damage of these components their ratings
must be based on the worst conditions expected, i.e. the highest fundamental voltage, highest effective
frequency deviation, harmonic currents from other sources and from possible resonances between the
filter and ac system.

Capacitors
The main properties of capacitors are (a) temperature coefficient of capacitance, (b) reactive power per
unit volume, (c) power loss, (d) reliability, and (e) cost, [10]. Capacitors are composed of standard units
which are connected in series and/or parallel for obtaining the desired overall voltage and kVA rating.

A very low temperature coefficient of capacitance is desirable for tuned filters in order to avoid de-tuning
caused by change of capacitance with ambient temperature or with self-heating of the capacitors.
Capacitors obtain their high reactive power per unit volume by having low losses and by operating at very
high voltage stresses. For this reason, prolonged operation at moderate over-voltage must be avoided to
prevent thermal destruction of the dielectric.
The required reactive-power rating of the capacitor is the sum of the reactive powers at each of the
frequencies to which it is subjected.

Inductors
The design of the inductors used in filter circuits should take into account the high frequencies involved
( i.e. skin-effect and hysteresis losses must be included in the power loss calculation). Also the effect of
the flux level in the iron, i.e. the detuning caused by magnetic non-linearity, must therefore be considered.
This normally leads to the use of low flux densities when using iron cores. Alternatively, filter inductors
are better designed with non-magnetic cores.
The Q at the predominant harmonic frequency may be selected for lowest cost and is usually between 50
and 150. However, lower Q values are normally required and these are derived by using a series resistor.
Inductor ratings depend mainly on the maximum rms current and on the insulation level required to
withstand switching surges. Normally the R and L form the ground side of a tuned filter.

Filter Costs
An effective filter adequately suppresses harmonics at the least cost and supplies some reactive power,
but perhaps not all that is required.
The following assumptions are usually made in the cost analysis of filter components [10]:
(a) In a typical installation, a capacitor bank consists of a 'matrix' of capacitor units, each having a
nominal rating at the prescribed operating voltage and protected by an external fuse.
The situation is complicated by the availability of standard units with different nominal ratings (50, 100,
150 kVAr, etc.) and the incremental cost varies for different capacitor bank sizes. Here, we are assuming
that the capacitors' cost is proportional to their ratings.
(b) Although the cost of filter inductors depends greatly on the method of construction (oil
insulated/cooled units, natural air-cooled reactors of open construction, etc.), their cost does not vary
greatly for units of different rating.
(c) The power rating of the resistor necessary for Q-adjustment in each filter branch will doubtless affect
the cost to some extent. The nominal resistance of the unit is difficult to predict, however, in a general
analysis, because it obviously depends on the natural Q-factor of the inductor. For this reason and also
because the cost of an air-cooled resistor is small compared with that of the other components, a constant
cost per resistor is allocated in the analysis. If an oil-cooled unit is used, the cost would be more
significant but it would, in fact, become virtually independent of power rating.

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ECE 43200/53201/Fall2020

3.8.6 Voltage Distortion

Voltage distortion is created when harmonic currents flow across circuit reactances and resistances,
creating voltage drops at the harmonic frequencies. These harmonic voltages add to and distort the
fundamental source voltage. These harmonic voltages add to the fundamental voltage and cause high total
harmonic voltage distortion over the permitted limits. The previous Table 2 shows the voltage distortion
limits for most industrial distribution systems recommended by IEEE 519-1992 standard.

References

[1] N. Mohan, Electric Power Systems - A First Course, 2012, WILEY.

[2] George G. Karady and Keith E. Holbert, Electrical Energy Conversion and Transportation - An
Interactive Computer-Based Approach, IEEE Press, Wiley-Interscience, 2005

[3] Ch.K.Alexander, M. Sadiku, Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,McGraw Hill, 4thed., 2009,

ISBN 978-0-07-352955-4

[4] CIGRE, Rapports et discussions sur la puissance reactive, Pt.III, pp.117-218, Paris, 1929

[5] IEEE Standard 519-1992, IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control
in Electric Power System, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. 1993

[6] Th.M. Blooming, D.J.Carnovale, Application of IEEE Std 519-1992 Harmonic Limits, Eaton
Electrical

[7] IEEE Std 1100-1992 IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Sensitive Electronic
Equipment (The IEEE Emerald Book)

[8] J. Phillips, Short Circuit Calculations - Transformer and Source Impedance, T2G Technical Taining
Group

[9] J.F. Hibbard, M.Z. Lowenstein, Meeting IEEE 519-1992 Harmonic Limits, TCI Trans-Coil, Inc,
Milwaukee, WI

[10] J. Arrillaga, D.A. Bradley, P.S. Bodger, Power System Harmonics, John Wiley & Sons, 1985

18