ECE43200/53201/Fall2020

Distribution System, Loads and Power Quality

The distribution system, the nature of important types of power loads and the power quality
considerations will be discussed.

1. Distribution System

The existent centralized electric power is remotely generated and transported at long distances to load
centers through transmission lines at high (115 kV to 230 kV), extra-high (345 kV to 765 kV) and even at
ultra-high voltages. The rms line-to-line voltage of the transmission system in the USA is between 115
kV and 765 kV, [1].

Electricity from this transmission system is passed on to the sub-transmission network at voltages from
230 kV down to 35 kV. Some utilities consider this sub-transmission network to be part of the
distribution system, while others consider only the network below 35 kV to be the distribution system
(see Fig.1).

Fig.1 Transmission and distribution system, [2]

Most industrial, commercial and residential loads are supplied at much lower voltages than 35 kV, with
the primary voltages in a range of 34.5 kV (19.92 kV per-phase) down to 12 kV (6.93 kV per-phase), and
the secondary voltages at 480/277 V, three-phase, four-wire, and 120/240-V single-phase. Other
secondary voltages are at 208/120 V, 480 V and 600 V, [1].

For residential loads, distribution substations supply single-phase distribution lines for various
communities at voltages such as 13.8 kV. These voltages are stepped down locally to supply a set of
houses at ±120V. At the entrance of a house, the neutral is grounded, and from the central breaker, a set
of circuits, each with its own circuit breaker, are supplied by the +120V line conductor and the neutral,
whereas the other set is supplied by the -120V line conductor and the neutral.
To eliminate the shock hazard, the ground conductor is carried along with each circuit to three-
prong outlets, and is connected to the chassis of the load (there is no current flow through ground
conductors in normal operation).

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2. Loads in Power System

Power systems are designed to serve industrial, commercial and residential loads.
The power demand on a utility can be plotted as a function of the time-of-day for example as shown in
Fig.2a. The area underneath the power demand plot versus time represents the energy that the utility must
supply in the same time period.

Fig.2 Load curve of a utility power demand, [1]

The ratio between the energy in kilowatt-hours represented underneath the load curve in Fig.2a and the
energy in kilowatt-hours that would be necessary to generate if the load were constant at its peak value
over the entire time period is called the load factor. The annual load-duration curve of Fig.2b shows that
the load is at or 90% above its peak value for only a small percentage of the time in a year.

Because the peak power is expensive to be generated or to be purchased, utilities would desire load
factor to be unity but in reality it is far less than that. Some utilities have been very successful in
increasing the load factor on their system by giving incentives to customers to shift their loads to off-
peak periods by offering lower electricity rates at off-peak periods. Others have used forms of energy
storage, such as pumped water during off-peak periods from a lower reservoir up to a higher reservoir to
generate electricity during peak periods.

Most utilities serve a variety of such loads such as industrial, commercial and residential loads.
Generally the residential loads consist of the following:

▪ Lighting
▪ Motor loads to drive compressors for heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
(HVAC) systems
▪ Electrical heating
▪ Power electronics based compressor loads and compact fluorescent lighting
(CFL)

The frequency does not vary appreciably in a large interconnected system, however the voltage
sensitivity of loads must be included in calculating the stability and power flow (see [1] for a summary
of various loads voltage sensitivities).

2.1 Power-Electronics Based Loads

There is an increasing trend in power system loads that are supplied through a power electronics interface
to improve the overall system efficiency.
Generally, these loads are supplied by a voltage-link system as shown in Fig.3.

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Fig.3 Voltage-link-system for a back-to-back

power-converters supplied loads [1]

Some examples are the following:

▪ compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs), where a power-electronics interface (Fig.3) is needed to

produce a high-frequency ac voltage in the range of 30 kHz to 40 kHz at which these lamps
operate most efficiently. CFLs, compared to incandescent lamps are approximately 4 times more
efficient.
▪ three-phase induction motors, where the speed is controlled by a power electronics interface
(Fig.3) that produces three-phase output voltages whose amplitude and frequency can be varied
independent of each other
▪ applications where a regulated dc power supply is needed, the voltage link system of Fig.3 is
used as shown in Fig.4, to produce high-frequency ac, which is stepped down in voltage by a
high-frequency transformer and then rectified to produce a regulated dc output. The transformer
operates at a high frequency in a range of 200 kHz to 300 kHz and hence can be made much
smaller than a line-frequency transformer of the similar VA rating. Efficiency of such switch-
mode dc power supplies approach 90% which is almost double of those associated with linear
power supplies.

Fig.4 Switch mode dc power supply application, [1]

▪ compressor-loads such as air-conditioners and heat pumps that are supplied through the power
electronics interface of Fig.3, where by adjusting the compressor speed to match the thermal
load, as much as 30% savings in electricity can be achieved, as compared to the conventional
on/off cycling approach.
▪ pump-driven systems with adjusted flow-rate by using the power-electronics interface of Fig.3,
where considerable improvement in the overall system efficiency is obtained as compared to the
conventional use of throttling valve.

Power electronics based loads are nonlinear loads that draw harmonic (distorted) currents from the utility
source and hence degrade the quality of power as discussed in the next section.

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However, it is possible to design power electronics interface of Fig.3 with current shaping circuits,
often called power-factor-correction (PFC) circuits [1], so that the current drawn from the utility is
sinusoidal and close to unity power factor.
To be able to evaluate the power quality due to current and voltage distortion a set of indices are defined
next.

3. Power Quality

The following considerations should be taken into account regarding the quality of the power that the
customers receive from their utility

▪ Continuity of service
▪ Voltage magnitude
▪ Frequency of the voltage
▪ Voltage waveform

An well interconnected power system, such as that in North America, has two important benefits:
(a) the frequency of voltage supply that is constant and seldom of concern, and (b) continuity of the
service improved by the chances of supplying power through alternative routes if the power goes down
for various reasons.

The voltage magnitude it is maintained by utilities within a range of ±5% of the requested nominal value.
Different methods and control equipments (will be studied later in this course) are used to maintain the
voltage magnitude, such as: Dynamic Voltage Restorers (DVR), load-tap changing (LTC) transformers,
shunt capacitors, distribution line voltage regulators, or Static Compensators (STATCOM), [1].

3.1 Voltage Waveform

The load equipment in use requires a sinusoidal voltage waveform of the power supply. A distorted
voltage will determine loads to draw distorted non-sinusoidal currents. As an example, in the case of
induction motors these currents result in overheating, noise, loss of efficiency, and even motor failing.
A power-electronics based load drawing distorted currents would cause the supply voltage to become
distorted and, hence, would produce problems to other connected loads.

The evaluation of the harmonic currents produced by power electronics converters requires accurate
information of the ac voltage waveforms at the converter terminals. Beyond this, other factors such as
converter configuration, type of control, ac system impedance and dc circuit parameters, are also required.
A review of the concept of non-sinusoidal periodic functions and their harmonics will be discussed next.

3.2 Harmonic Components by Fourier Analysis

Any periodic non-sinusoidal (distorted) waveform g(t) can be expressed as an infinite sum of pure
sinusoidal components (waves), in which the frequency of each sinusoid is an integer multiple (harmonic)
of the fundamental frequency of the distorted wave [3]:

𝑔(𝑡) = 𝐺0 + ∑∞
ℎ=1 𝑔ℎ (𝑡) = 𝐺 ∑∞
⏟0 + ⏟ℎ=1[𝑎ℎ cos(ℎ𝜔0 𝑡) + 𝑏ℎ sin(ℎ𝜔0 𝑡)], (1)
dc 𝑎𝑐

where 𝜔0 = 2π/T is called the fundamental frequency in radians per second, h is an integer and T is the

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period of the waveform g(t). The sinusoid 𝑎ℎ sin(ℎ𝜔0 𝑡) or 𝑏ℎ cos(ℎ𝜔0 𝑡) is called the hth harmonic of g(t).

Equation (1) is called the trigonometric Fourier series of g(t). The term 𝐺0 is the dc component or the
average value of g(t), and is given by Eq.(2). The constants 𝑎ℎ and 𝑏ℎ , in Eq.(3), are the Fourier
coefficients and (for n≠0) represent the amplitudes of the sinusoids in the ac component of the Fourier
series. The Fourier analysis consist of calculating the following
1 𝑇
𝐺0 = 𝑇 ∫0 𝑔(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (2)

2 𝑇
𝑎ℎ = ∫0 𝑔(𝑡) cos(ℎ𝜔0 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡, (3a)
𝑇

2 𝑇
𝑏ℎ = 𝑇 ∫0 𝑔(𝑡) sin(ℎ𝜔0 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡, (3b)

where h = 1, 2, 3, ...

A compact way of expressing the Fourier series in Eq. (1) is based on using Euler's identities for the sine
and cosine components above. This form is known as the exponential Fourier series of g(t) and is given
by
𝑔(𝑡) = ∑∞
ℎ=−∞ 𝐺ℎ 𝑒
𝑗ℎ𝜔0 𝑡
, (4)

where the complex coefficients Gh can be obtained directly from g(t) as given in Eq. (5), or they can be
obtained from 𝑎ℎ and 𝑏ℎ as shown in polar form in Eq. (6)
1 𝑇
𝐺ℎ = ∫0 𝑔(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗ℎ𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡, (5)
𝑇
or
2 +𝑏 2
√𝑎ℎ ℎ 𝑏ℎ
𝐺ℎ = |𝐺ℎ |∠θℎ = ∠𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (− ). (6)
2 𝑎ℎ

Note that the Fourier analysis is greatly simplified by recognizing the existence of any type of symmetry
in the original distorted waveform making zero many of the Fourier coefficients in equations (3), [3].

The Fourier series concept is universally applied in analyzing harmonic problems. The system can be
analyzed separately at each applied harmonic, and then the outputs at each frequency are combined to
compute the output waveform as desired. In the Fourier analysis often only the magnitudes of the
harmonics are of interest.

3.3 Power System Harmonics Sources

There are many sources of harmonics on the electrical power system, and in general, equipment with
nonlinear operating characteristics including:

▪ electric machines
▪ semiconductor controlled power devices such as rectifiers, inverters, cyclo-converters, static
VAR systems, ac voltage controllers
▪ transformers
▪ arc furnaces and arc welding equipment

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In electric machines, harmonics are produced mainly by the magnetic reluctance variation caused by
stator and rotor slots. Other causes of harmonics are the saturation in main flux circuits and leakage flux
paths, the shape of the magnetic field produced (in synchronous machines for example), etc.

In transformers, due to the magnetic saturation a non-sinusoidal exciting current is produced by a

sinusoidal applied voltage. If the voltage supplied is above the transformer rated voltage the harmonic
components of the exciting current can increase significantly.

Arc furnaces and arc welding equipment generate harmonics caused by their nonlinear voltage-current
characteristic of power arcs. An arc furnace voltage harmonics is highly variable, and the harmonics of
concern are usually the 5th which may reach 20% of the fundamental, and the 7th may be of 8% of
fundamental voltage.

Harmonics occur frequently when there are personal computers in large numbers (as single phase loads),
or uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), adjustable frequency drives, or in general any device using
power electronics switching supplies to convert AC to DC.

All variable frequency drives produce current harmonics because of the nature of the ac line side
rectifier design. The standard power circuit configuration for most PWM variable frequency drives with
diode bridge rectifiers is the typical 6-pulse (full-wave) rectifier. In Fig.5 it is shown the application of
the six pulse rectifier for a brushless exciter of a synchronous motor.
Rf

Motor
50% armature

3-phase Exciter 3-phase AC

low power field main power
input input

SCR1
If
Exciter FDR
armature
ROTATING
COMPONENTS Control Motor
Unit field

SCR2

EXCITER SIX-PULSE FIELD APPLICATION SYNCHRONOUS

RECTIFIER CIRCUIT MOTOR

Fig.5 A brushless exciter circuit diagram of the synchronous motor.

3.4 Harmonic Order and Phase Sequences

Under balanced system operation conditions, harmonic components of voltages and currents are classified
as positive, negative, or zero sequence:

Positive Sequence = Harmonic order → h = 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, ...

Negative Sequence = Harmonic order → h = 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, ...
Zero Sequence = Harmonic order → h = 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ...

During unbalanced conditions each harmonic can occur in each of the three sequences.

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When both the positive and negative half cycles of a distorted waveform have identical shapes, the
Fourier series contains only odd harmonics (h =1, 3, 5, ...). This offers a further simplification for most
power system studies because most common harmonic-producing devices look the same with respect to
both polarities.
In fact, the presence of even harmonics is often a clue that there is something wrong either with the load
equipment or with the transducer used to make the measurement. (Note: There are exceptions to this such
as half-wave rectifiers and arc furnaces when the arc is random.)

Since a distorted waveform in power systems contains only odd-harmonics components, a summary of
their phase sequence is the following:

Positive Sequence = Harmonic order → h = 1, 7, 13, ...

Negative Sequence = Harmonic order → h = 5, 11, 17, ...
Triplens = Harmonic order → h = 3, 9, 15, ...

The order of harmonics, or the characteristic harmonics, can be determined by the following equation
based on the number of pulses for the case of power electronics converters:

𝒉 = (𝒌 × 𝒑) ± 𝟏

where: k = an integer (1,2,3,4,5,...)

p = number of pulses.

Power Converters Example

In the standard case of a full wave six pulse rectifier (Fig.5), the characteristic harmonics are:

ℎ = (1 × 6) ± 1 ⇒ 𝟓𝒕𝒉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝟕𝒕𝒉

ℎ = (2 × 6) ± 1 ⇒ 𝟏𝟏𝒕𝒉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝟏𝟑𝒕𝒉
ℎ = (3 × 6) ± 1 ⇒ 𝟏𝟕𝒕𝒉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝟏𝟗𝒕𝒉
ℎ = (4 × 6) ± 1 ⇒ 𝟐𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝟐𝟓𝒕𝒉

Note: the 12-pulse converter configuration used in large power applications (i.e., HVDC) offer a design
advantage eliminating the 5th and 7th harmonics, but these converters still create harmonics such as 11 th
and 13th, 23rd and 25th.

Transformer Example
Let us consider a 208/120V, Δ − 𝑌, transformer which is commonly used to feed receptacles in
commercial buildings. The single-phase non-linear loads connected to these receptacles produce triplen
harmonics (odd multiples of the 3rd harmonic) which are zero sequence type of harmonics. The principal
harmonic of concern is the 3rd, which will add arithmetically in the neutral. When this neutral current
reaches the transformer, it is reflected into the delta primary winding where is trapped and circulates.
The good news is that the delta connection tends to isolate the rest of the system from the 3 rd harmonic
(but not the 5th, 7th, or other non-triplen harmonics). The bad news is that the trapped 3rd harmonic causes
overheating and sometimes transformer failures. Higher frequency harmonic currents cause increased
conductors impedance due to the skin effect, and cause increased core loss due to the eddy currents and
hysteresis, resulting in additional heating.

In industry, two solutions are applied to handle the effects of harmonics on transformers:
▪ install a K-factor rated transformer
▪ derate a standard transformer

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Underwriters Laboratory (UL) developed a rating system to indicate the capability of a transformer to
handle harmonic loads. The ratings are described in UL 1561 and are known as transformer K-factors.
The advantage of using a K-factor transformer is that it is usually more economical than using a derated,
oversized transformer. There are different rules in derating a standard transformer, and details can be
found in IEEE Std 1100-1992 IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Sensitive
Electronic Equipment (The IEEE Emerald Book, [7].

Some facilities use a 50% derating as a rule-of-thumb for their transformers serving single-phase
predominantly non-linear loads. For example, this means that a 200 kVA transformer would only supply
100 kVA of load.

Usually, the higher-order harmonics (above the range of the 25th to 50) are negligible for power system
analysis. A common exception to this occurs when there are system resonances in the range of
frequencies. These resonances generally occur on systems with underground cable but without power
factor correction capacitors.

In a power system represented by series and shunt elements, the vast majority of the nonlinearities in
the system are found in shunt elements (i.e., loads). The series impedance of the power delivery system
(i.e., the short-circuit impedance between the source and the load) is remarkably linear.
In transformers, the source of harmonics is also the shunt branch (magnetizing impedance) of the
common T model; the series leakage impedance is linear.

Thus, the main sources of harmonic distortion will ultimately be some end-user loads.

3.5 RMS Value and Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

The total harmonic content, of either voltage or current, is expressed either as rms (root mean square)
value, or as total harmonic distortion (THD).

The rms value is calculated for a signal u(t), that is a voltage or current, as

∞
𝑈𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √∑1 Uh2, (7)

where 𝑈ℎ is the rms value of the harmonic component "h" of the signal.

The THD is defined by

∞
𝑈𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 √∑𝟐 U2h
𝑇𝐻𝐷 = 𝑈1
= 𝑈1
, (8)

where 𝑈𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 is the distortion component of the signal (based on harmonics less the fundamental
component), and 𝑈1 is the fundamental frequency component of the signal.

THD and rms values of a distorted waveform (Eq.(7) and (8)) are related as follows

𝑈𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑈1 √1 + 𝑇𝐻𝐷2 (9)

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3.6 Effect of Harmonics on Power Factor

In the nonsinusoidal case the distorted instantaneous values of the voltage v(t) and current i(t) can be
expressed using their Fourier series given in Eq.(1), but the power factor pf cannot be defined in the
traditional way as the cosine of the phase angle between the voltage and the current.

The power factor that takes into account the contribution of both the fundamental and all harmonic
frequencies is known as the true power factor, pf. The true power factor is simply the ratio of total
average (active) power for all frequencies to the apparent power delivered by the utility as shown in
Eq.(10).
1 𝑇
𝑃 ∫0 𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑡 ∑ℎ
1 𝑉ℎ 𝐼ℎ cos 𝜑ℎ
𝑝𝑓 = 𝑆
= 𝑉𝑇 = (10)
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 h h
√∑ V2h √∑ I2h
1 1

The true power factor indicates how large the power delivery system must be built to supply a given load.
A low value of pf indicates poor utilization of the source-power capacity needed by the load.

In the sinusoidal case there is only one phase angle between the voltage and the current since only the
fundamental frequency is present. In this case the power factor is commonly referred as the Displacement
Power Factor (DPF).
It is reasonable to assume that the utility-supplied voltage is sinusoidal (containing only the fundamental
frequency component), while a nonlinear load draws power with a distorted current. In this case, Eq.(10)
reduces to
𝑉1 𝐼1 cos 𝜑1 𝐼1 𝐼1
𝑝𝑓 = 𝑉1 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
=𝐼 cos 𝜑1 = 𝐼 (𝑫𝑷𝑭) (11)
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑟𝑚𝑠

where cos 𝜑1 is the displacement power factor (DPF) calculated between the fundamental components of
𝐼
voltage and current, and 𝐼 1 is a current distortion factor (ratio).
𝑟𝑚𝑠

The DPF is improved by capacitor compensation if the voltage is sinusoidal. Improvement of the
𝐼
distortion factor, 1 , is done by filters (discussed later one in this course), by higher pulse numbers in
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
power electronics converters, or by current waveform modification. For linear loads that draw sinusoidal
𝐼
currents, the current ratio 1 = 1, hence 𝑝𝑓 = 𝐷𝑃𝐹 = cos 𝜑1 . Eq.(11) shows that a high distorted
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
current waveform leads to a low pf even if the DPF is high.
The current distortion ratio in Eq.(11) can be expressed in terms of the total harmonic distortion using
Eq.(9) as
𝐼1 1
= (12)
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 √1+𝑇𝐻𝐷2

Therefore, in Eq.(11), the pf, DPF and THD are related as follows
𝐷𝑃𝐹
𝑝𝑓 = (13)
√1+𝑇𝐻𝐷 2

The effect of THD on the power factor is shown in Fig.6 where the ratio (pf/DPF) is plotted versus THD.

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Fig.6 Effect of THD on the power factor [1]

Note in Fig.6 that even if DPF is unity, a THD of 100% (which is encountered in power electronics loads
without corrective measures taken) can reduce the power factor to 1/√2 =0.707 which is unacceptably
low, [1].

The reactive power in the presence of voltage and current harmonics is defined as:

𝑄 = ∑ℎ1 𝑉ℎ 𝐼ℎ sin 𝜑ℎ (14)

Power quantities are presumed to flow around the system in a conservative manner. When distortion is
present, the component of apparent power S that remains after the average power P is taken out is not
conserved. This has prompted analysts to propose that Q be used to denote the reactive components that
are conserved and introduce a new quantity for the components that are not [4]. This new quantity is
called D, for distortion power.
In this concept, Q consists of the sum of the traditional reactive power values at each frequency as given
in Eq.(14). Distortion power D represents all cross products of voltage and current at different
frequencies, which yield no average power, so it is the additional contribution to the apparent power by
the harmonics.

P, Q, D, and S are related as follows

𝑆 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 + 𝑫𝟐 (15)

therefore, D can be determined by

𝑫 = √𝑆 2 − 𝑃2 − 𝑄 2 (16)

3.7 Harmonic Standard Limits on Voltage and Current Distortion

Harmonics are associated with the continuous operation of a nonlinear load (current harmonics) or
an utility (voltage harmonics), and occur in steady state. The waveform distortion producing
harmonics is present continually and is different from transient phenomena that usually are damped
within few cycles.
One case in which the distinction between harmonics and transients is blurred is transformer
energization: this is a transient event that can produce important distortion of waveform for many
seconds and can excite system resonances.

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It is known that nonlinear loads such as adjustable-speed drives or induction furnaces cannot
operate properly because of the generated harmonics. Generally that means one of the following:

▪ The control system cannot properly determine the firing angles of the electronic power switches
because of a too distorted voltage (the harmonic voltages are too great)
▪ The drive must be operated at a lower than rated power because the harmonic currents are too
great for the capacity of same device in the power supply system (such as a transformer)
▪ The harmonic voltages become too great for the given system condition because the produced
current harmonics by a device are too great

Fig.7a&b show that the voltage distortion is the result of distorted currents passing through the
linear, series impedance of the power delivery system, assuming that the source is a pure sinusoid,
and there is a nonlinear load that draws a distorted current. Nonlinear loads appear to be sources of
harmonic current in shunt with and injecting harmonic currents into the power system. That is why
for almost all analyses it is sufficient to treat these nonlinear harmonic producing loads simply as
current sources (Fig.7b).

Fig.7(a) Harmonic voltages at the load bus caused by the harmonic

currents flowing through the system impedance

Fig.7(b) Modeling of the power supply, transmission line

and non-linear load shown in Fig.7(a)

The current harmonics passing through the system impedance cause a voltage drop for each
harmonic. This results in voltage harmonics appearing at the load bus. The amount of voltage
distortion depends on the impedance and the current. While the load current harmonics cause the
voltage distortion, it should be noted that the load has no control over the voltage distortion.

The same load put in other locations on the power system will result in different voltage distortion
values. Recognition of this fact is the basis for the division of responsibilities for harmonic control

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that are found in standards such as IEEE Standard 519-1992, Recommended Practices and
Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems [5]:

▪ The control over the amount of harmonic current injected into the system takes place at the
end-use application.
▪ Assuming the harmonic current injection is within reasonable limits, the control over the
voltage distortion is exercised by the entity having control over the system impedance,
which is often the utility.

It is useful to measure and limit harmonics in electric power systems, and IEEE Standard 519-1992
provides a basis for limiting harmonics [6].

Table 1 IEEE Std 519-1992 Harmonic Current Limits

Current Distortion Limits for General Distribution Systems (120V through 69000V)
Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of IL

Individual Harmonic Order (Odd Harmonics)

𝑰𝑺𝑪 /𝑰𝑳 < 11 11 ≤ h < 17 17 ≤ h < 23 23 ≤ h < 35 35 ≤ h TDD

< 20* 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20 < 50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50 < 100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100 < 1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd harmonic limits above.
Current distortions that result in a dc offset, e.g. half-wave converters, are not allowed.
* All power generation equipment is limited to these values of current distortion, regardless of actual 𝐼𝑆𝐶 /𝐼𝐿
Where
/SC = maximum short-circuit current at PCC.
/L = maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency component) at PCC.
TDD = Total demand distortion (RSS), harmonic current distortion in % of maximum demand load
current (15 or 30 min demand).
PCC = Point of common coupling.

Table 1 shows the IEEE 519 recommended harmonic current limits while Table 2 shows the harmonic
voltage limits.

Table 2 IEEE Std 519-1992 Harmonic Voltage Limits

Voltage Distortion Limits
Individual Voltage Total Voltage Distortion
Bus Voltage at PCC Distortion (%) THD (%)
Below 69 kV 3.0 5.0
69 kV to 161 1.5 2.5
kV 161 kV 1.0 1.5
and above systems can have up to 2.0% THD where the cause is an HVDC terminal that will attenuate
NOTE: High-voltage
by the time it is tapped for a user.

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ECE43200/53201/Fall2020

References

[1] N. Mohan, Electric Power Systems - A First Course, 2012, WILEY.

[2] George G. Karady and Keith E. Holbert, Electrical Energy Conversion and Transportation - An
Interactive Computer-Based Approach, IEEE Press, Wiley-Interscience, 2005

[3] Ch.K.Alexander, M. Sadiku, Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,McGraw Hill, 4thed., 2009,

ISBN 978-0-07-352955-4

[4] CIGRE, Rapports et discussions sur la puissance reactive, Pt.III, pp.117-218, Paris, 1929

[5] IEEE Standard 519-1992, IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control
in Electric Power System, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. 1993

[6] Th.M. Blooming, D.J.Carnovale, Application of IEEE Std 519-1992 Harmonic Limits, Eaton
Electrical

[7] IEEE Std 1100-1992 IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Sensitive Electronic
Equipment (The IEEE Emerald Book)

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