KIE 4005

Power Quality

Fourier Series

Dr. Nurulafiqah Nadzirah Mansor

Office : Level 2, Engineering Summit
Email : afiqah.mansor@um.edu.my

Electrical Engineering Department

University of Malaya
 Time & Freq Domain

Any continuous function repetitive in an interval T in the time domain can be

represented by the sum of a fundamental sinusoidal component and a
series of higher order harmonic components at frequencies which are
integral multiples of the fundamental frequency in the frequency domain.

Time Domain

Frequency Domain
Fundamental frequency
Purely fundamental frequency
no harmonics Harmonics

2
 Harmonic Analysis

Complex waveform in
time domain

Fourier Analysis
Fundamental Frequency Harmonic waveforms
waveform 3
 Fourier Series
Fourier Series for repetitive
waveform

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐴0 + 𝐴1 cos 𝑥 + 𝐵1 sin 𝑥 +
+𝐴2 cos 2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 sin 2 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛 cos 𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑛 sin 𝑛 𝑥

Writing in full sine term

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐶0 + 𝐶1 sin( 𝑥 + 𝛼1 ) + 𝐶2 sin( 2𝑥 + 𝛼2 ) + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛 sin( 𝑛𝑥 + 𝛼𝑛 )

where:
1 2𝜋
A0 = average value with 𝐴0 = 2𝜋 න 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
0
A1,B1 = fundamental magnitude
1 2𝜋
An,Bn = harmonic magnitude of nth order with 𝐴𝑛 = න 𝑦(cos 𝑛 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0
𝐵𝑛 1 2𝜋
𝐶𝑛 = 𝐴2𝑛 + 𝐵𝑛2 𝛼𝑛 = tan−1 𝐵𝑛 = න 𝑦(sin 𝑛 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0
𝐴𝑛 4
 Fourier Series

Given a waveform in time domain, how do

we start in establishing its Fourier series in
the frequency domain?

Start by writing down the general

equation of the Fourier series

𝑦 = 𝐴0 + 𝐴1 cos 𝑥 + 𝐵1 sin 𝑥 + 𝐴2 cos 2𝑥 + 𝐵2 sin 2𝑥

+𝐴3 cos 3 𝑥 + 𝐵3 sin 3 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛 cos 𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑛 sin 𝑛 𝑥

Apply RULES OF THUMB

Determine the unknowns

5
 FS : Rules of Thumb
1. If the average value of the wave is 0, then the value of A0 (DC component)
is also 0.

2. If the wave is symmetrical at coordinate x = 0, then only the cosine term

will exists.
3. If the wave is symmetrical but inversed at coordinate x = 0, then only sine
term exists.

4. If the first half value of the wave from 0 to π is symmetrical at the second
half of the wave from π to 2π, then only the even term will exist.
5. If the second term of the wave is symmetrical but
inversed, then only the odd term will exist.

6
 Example 5.1
➢ Trapezoidal waveform is given in Fig below
Im

0  2
  −

➢ Based on the figure,

- The average value of the wave is 0, thus the value of A0 = 0
- The wave is symmetry but inversed at x = 0, thus only the sine
term exists.
- The wave is also inversely repeated at the second half of the
waveform from π to 2π, thus only the odd term exists

➢ Thus the resulting FT general equation is:

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 + 𝑩𝟏 sin 𝑥 + 𝑩𝟑 sin 3 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑩𝒏 sin 𝑛 𝑥 7
 Example 5.1 - Solution
1 2𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐵𝑛 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 𝑦 sin 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 𝑦 sin 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Im
The waveform consists of 3 parts :
𝑥
(1) From 0 to α, y = 𝐼𝑚 𝛼  2
0
(2) From α to π − α, y = 𝐼𝑚   −
𝜋−𝑥
(3) From π − α to π, y = 𝐼𝑚
𝛼

2 α 𝑥 π−α π
𝜋−𝑥
Thus, 𝐵𝑛 = [න 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + න 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + න 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ]
𝜋 0 𝛼 α π−α 𝛼
4.𝐼𝑚 2𝐼𝑚 𝟒𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝜶
= −𝑛𝛼 cos 𝑛𝛼 + sin 𝑛𝛼 + 2 cos 𝑛𝛼 =
𝜋𝛼𝑛2 𝜋𝑛 𝝅𝜶 𝒏𝟐

Thus, the Fourier series for the wave is :

4𝐼𝑚 sin 3𝛼 sin 3𝑥 sin 𝑛𝛼 sin 𝑛𝑥
sin 𝛼 sin 𝑥 + + ⋯+
𝜋𝛼 9 𝑛2
Where angle x is normally written as  = t 8
 Exercise 5.2

Triangular wave

Im
2
0


2 𝜋/2 𝑥 π
𝑥
𝐵𝑛 = [න 2𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + න 2𝐼𝑚 (1 − ) sin 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥]
𝜋 0 𝜋 𝜋/2 𝜋

𝐵1 𝐵1 𝐵1 4
𝑦 = 𝐵1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + sin 3 𝜔𝑡 + sin 5 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 7𝜔𝑡 + ⋯ where 𝐵1 = 𝐼𝑚
3 5 7 𝜋

9
 Exercise 5.3

Square wave
Im

0  2

2 𝜋
𝐵𝑛 = [න 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥]
𝜋 0
𝐵1 𝐵1 𝐵1 8
𝑦 = 𝐵1 sin 𝜔𝑡 − sin 3 𝜔𝑡 + sin 5 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 7𝜔𝑡 + ⋯ where 𝐵1 = 𝐼𝑚
32 52 72 𝜋2

10
Power System Quantities
Under Non-Sinusoidal
Conditions

11
 Root Mean Square (RMS)

➢ RMS value for a complex waveform containing

harmonics is given by the square root of the summation
of the dc component, the fundamental as well as the
harmonic components.

𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐼02 + 𝐼12 + 𝐼22 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛2 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉02 + 𝑉12 + 𝑉22 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛2

➢ I0 is a direct current (DC) component, I1 is fundamental

RMS current and In is the RMS of the harmonic
component where n = 2 to infinity
➢ Harmonics always increase the RMS value of the
complex waveform. Increased RMS value means
2
increased power losses (=𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑅)
12
 Total Harmonic Distortion

➢ Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is a measurement of the harmonic

distortion present in a waveform.
➢ The most commonly used power quality measure.
➢ Defined as the ratio of the root-mean square of the total harmonic
content to either the fundamental value or the RMS value of the
distorted current/voltage waveform, typically expressed in percent.

𝐼22 + 𝐼32 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛2 𝑉22 + 𝑉32 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛2

𝑇𝐻𝐷𝐼 = 𝑇𝐻𝐷𝑉 =
𝐼1 (𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆) 𝑉1 (𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 )

➢ The THD is zero for a perfectly sinusoidal wave. It increases

indefinitely as the waveform distortion increases.

13
 Example 5.4
Measured
Harmonic Order
Dist. Tx Voltage
11/0.433 kV Fundamental 415.0
Impedance
Non-linear 5th harmonic 25.2
Load 7th harmonic 12.5
Load Current 11th harmonic 7.8
Distortion RMS 29.19
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 416.02
✓ RMS Voltage varies
𝑉52 + 𝑉72 + 2
𝑉11 29.19 only by a few percent
𝑇𝐻𝐷𝑉 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = = = 7.0% compared to the
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 416.02
Fundamental voltage
(415V vs. 416.02V)
𝑉52 + 𝑉72 + 𝑉11
2
29.19 ✓ Any reference of
𝑇𝐻𝐷𝑉 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑 = = = 7.0% voltage THD, relative to
𝑉1 415.0
the fundamental is
always a meaningful
number 14
 Example 5.5
Measured
Dist. Tx Harmonic Order
Current
11/0.433 kV
Impedance Fundamental 70
Non-linear 5th harmonic 18
Load
7th harmonic 14
Load Current 11th harmonic 11
Harmonic RMS 25.32
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 74.44

𝐼52 + 𝐼72 + 𝐼11

2
25.32
𝑇𝐻𝐷𝐼 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = = = 34.0%
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 74.44
Total Demand
𝐼52 + 𝐼72 + 𝐼11
2 Distortion, TDD
25.32
𝑇𝐻𝐷𝐼 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑 = = = 36.2%
𝐼1 70

15
 Total Demand Distortion
➢ A small current can have a high THD but not be a significant threat
➔ Many adjustable speed drives exhibit high THD values for the input
current while operating at very light loads.
➔ Should not be a concern, because the magnitude of harmonic
currents would be low in this instance, even though its relative
current distortion is quite high
➢ IEEE 519 guidelines “Recommended Practices and Requirements for
Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems” uses Total Demand
Distortion (TDD), instead of THD as the basis
➢ TDD is defined as the total harmonic distortion in percent to the
maximum demand load current at the fundamental frequency
component measured at the point of common coupling.
Where
σ∞ 𝐼
ℎ=2 ℎ
2
𝐼ℎ = magnitude of individual harmonic current
𝑇𝐷𝐷 = x 100% ℎ = harmonic order
𝐼𝐿
16
 Power Equations

Power equation for complex waveform containing harmonics is

𝑃 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 cos( 𝜑1 − 𝜑1′ ) + 𝑉2 𝐼2 cos( 𝜑2 − 𝜑2′ ) + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛 𝐼𝑛 cos( 𝜑𝑛 − 𝜑𝑛′ )

Where

𝑉1 and 𝐼1 are the fundamental RMS of the voltage and current

𝑉2 and 𝐼2 are the RMS voltage and current of the second harmonics
𝑉𝑛 and 𝐼𝑛 are the RMS voltage and current of the nth harmonics
𝜑𝑛 − 𝜑𝑛′ is the phase difference between voltage and current of the same
order.

Note that RMS value = peak value of the voltage or current signal divide by
square root of 2.
17
 Example 5.6

Case 1
If the voltage and current both contain third harmonic, then P is
non-zero given by

𝑃 = 𝑉3 𝐼3 cos( 𝜑3 − 𝜃3 )

Case 2
If the voltage contains only fundamental frequency while the current
contains the third harmonic, then the average power is zero

18
 Exercise 5.7
Given the following, calculate the average power, 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑣 𝑡 = 1.2 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 0.33 cos 3𝜔𝑡 + 0.2 cos 5𝜔𝑡

𝑖(𝑡) = 0.6 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 30°) + 0.1 cos(5𝜔𝑡 + 45°) + 0.1 cos(7𝜔𝑡 + 60°)

Voltage : 1st, 3rd, and 5th harmonic

Current : 1st, 5th and 7th harmonic

Solution:
1.2(0.6) 0.2(0.1)
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = cos 30° + cos 45°
2 2

= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐

Power : Net energy is

transmitted at fundamental
and 5th harmonic frequencies 19
 Exercise 5.8
Given the following, calculate the value of P, S and Power Factor
𝑣(𝑡) = 100 sin( 𝜔𝑡 + 30°) − 50 sin( 3𝜔𝑡 + 60°) + 25 sin( 5𝜔𝑡 + 90°)
𝑖(𝑡) = 20 sin( 𝜔𝑡 − 30°) + 15 sin( 3𝜔𝑡 + 30°) + 10 sin( 5𝜔𝑡 + 60°)

Solution:
𝑃 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 cos( 𝜑1 − 𝜃1 ) + 𝑉3 𝐼3 cos( 𝜑3 − 𝜃3 ) + 𝑉5 𝐼5 cos( 𝜑5 − 𝜃5 )

100 20 50 15 25 10
= 𝑥 cos 30° − −30° − 𝑥 cos 60° − 30° + 𝑥 cos 90° − 60°
2 2 2 2 2 2

= 500 − 325 + 108 = 𝟐𝟖𝟑 𝑾

𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆

2 2 2 2 2 2
100 50 25 20 15 10
= + + 𝑥 + + = 81𝑥19 = 𝟏𝟓𝟑𝟗 𝑽𝑨
2 2 2 2 2 2

20
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑃ൗ𝑆 = 283ൗ1539 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟒
 Shifting & Distortion Factor
➢ For sinusoidal current 𝐼1 that flows in a circuit supplied by a voltage
source 𝑉1 , the generated power 𝑃1 is
𝑃1 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 cos 𝜑1
𝑃1
where cos 𝜑1 is the pf due to phase shift. Solving for pf, cos 𝜑1 =
𝑉1 𝐼1
➢ Instead, if non-sinusoidal current flows in the circuit, the total power
generated is the power due to fundamental current only as there is no
non-sinusoidal voltage supplied to the system (i.e 𝑉 = 𝑉1 )
𝑃
➢ Therefore, in this case, 𝑃= 𝑉1 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 cos 𝜑. Solving for cos 𝜑 = ,
𝑉1 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆
where φ is the phase angle between voltage source and the fundamental
current. Since the total power generated in both cases is the same;
𝑃 (ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐) 𝑉1 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 cos 𝜑
= =1
𝑃1 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙) 𝑉1 𝐼1 cos 𝜑1
𝐼1 𝐼1
➢ Solving for cos 𝜑 = cos 𝜑1 where is the distortion factor
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆
➢ Thus, pf = shifting factor x distortion factor 21
 Example 5.

Calculate the wave distortion factor, given harmonic current

equation
𝑖 = 100 sin 𝜔 𝑡 + 40 sin 5 𝜔𝑡

Solution
2 2
100 100 40
𝐼1 = = 70.711 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = + = 76.158
2 2 2

𝐼1 70.711
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐𝟖
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 76.158

22
 Exercise 5

Given the harmonic current equation flowing in the system

as below
𝑖 𝑡 = 35 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 20) + 15 sin 5 𝜔𝑡

a) Determine the distortion factor

b) If the circuit is supplied by 𝑣(𝑡) = 150 sin( 𝜔𝑡 + 30°) −
40 sin( 3𝜔𝑡 + 60°), calculate P and S.
c) Determine the displacement factor
d) Calculate the capacitance required to increase the power
factor to unity.

23
 Exercise 5 - Solution
35ൗ
𝐼1 2 24.75
a) 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓
= =
26.93
= 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟗
2 2
35 15
+
2 2

b) 150 35
𝑃 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 cos( 𝜑1 − 𝜃1 ) = 𝑥 cos 30° − 20° = 𝟐𝟓𝟖𝟓 𝐖
2 2

𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆

2 2 2 2
150 40 35 15
= + 𝑥 + = 109.77𝑥26.93 = 𝟐𝟗𝟓𝟔 𝑽𝑨
2 2 2 2
Note that 𝑝𝑓 = 𝑃1ൗ𝑉1 𝐼1cannot
𝑃 2585 be used as 𝑆 ≠ 𝑉1 𝐼1 for non-
c) 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 0.874 sinusoidal waveform.
𝑆 2956
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 0.874
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟏 24
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 0.919
 Exercise 5

d) 𝑄= 𝑆 2 − 𝑃2 = 29562 − 25852 = 1434 𝑉𝑎𝑟

2
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 109.772
𝑋𝐶 = = = 𝑗8.4
𝑄 𝑗1434

106 106
𝐶= = = 𝟑𝟏𝟓. 𝟖 µ𝑭
2π𝑓𝑋𝐶 2π(60)(8.4)

If the waveform is purely sinusoidal, i.e distortion factor =1, then S would
be much lower, a lower Q would be needed to increase the power factor to
unity and thus lower C is needed.

Try to relate this statement with all the equations that you have learned!

25