Zkad 061

Clean Energy, 2023, Vol. 7, No.
6, 1199–1218
https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkad061
Advance access publication 17 November 2023
Review Article
Applications of artificial intelligence in power system

operation, control and planning: a review
Utkarsh Pandey1, Anshumaan Pathak1, Adesh Kumar1 and Surajit Mondal1,*,
1
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, School of Advanced Engineering, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, 248007, India
*
Corresponding author. E-mail: surajitmondalee@gmail.com
Abstract
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ce/article/7/6/1199/7425141 by guest on 11 March 2024

As different artificial intelligence (AI) techniques continue to evolve, power systems are undergoing significant technological changes
with the primary goal of reducing computational time, decreasing utility and consumer costs and ensuring the reliable operation of
an electrical power system. AI techniques compute large amounts of data at a faster speed than numerical optimization methods
with higher processing speeds. With these features, AI techniques can further automate and increase the performance of power sys-
tems. This paper presents a comprehensive overview of diverse AI techniques that can be applied in power system operation, control
and planning, aiming to facilitate their various applications. We explained how AI can be used to resolve system frequency changes,
maintain the voltage profile to minimize transmission losses, reduce the fault rate and minimize reactive current in distributed sys-
tems to increase the power factor and improve the voltage profile.
Graphical Abstract
Artificial neural Improve voltage

Power System
network Domains profile
Adaptive neuro-fuzzy System frequency
interference system changes
Fuzzy logic Power system operation: Minimize
Ant colony ELD, Power flow, unit transmission losses
optimization commitment Reduce fault rate
Artificial bee colony Power system control, Minimize reactive
optimization disturbances, control current
optimization Minimize total
Particle swarm
optimization Power system planning electricity cost
FACTS, demand,
Regression model distribution, capacitors.
Control and planning
Problems
Addressed
AI Techniques
Keywords: artificial neural network; genetic algorithm; fuzzy logic; adaptive neuro-fuzzy interference system; artificial bee colony
optimization; ant colony optimization; particle swarm optimization
Introduction data scattered throughout power systems. AI can handle large

amounts of data and utilize them to make power system oper-
The demand for advanced research and technology has steadily
ations, control and planning more efficient. The use of AI tech-
increased in the sector of electric grids [1]. Automation and in-
nology in power systems has been investigated and debated in
telligent technology have become widely used in response to
related areas and has resulted in more study material and cer-
development demands over time. Traditional research methods
tain outcomes, which are reviewed in this paper. The demand
are quickly becoming insufficient to enable data scientists and
for advanced research and technology has constantly risen in
researchers to keep up with any global challenges that arti-
the sector of electricity grids. The application of AI technology
ficial intelligence (AI) may be able to assist us in solving and
to the automation of power system control can improve the
uncovering important insights among the billions of pieces of
Received: 15 May 2023. Accepted: 21 July 2023

© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of National Institute of Clean-and-Low-Carbon Energy
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1200 | Clean Energy, 2023, Vol. 7, No. 6
efficiency of electrical automation management, mitigate the research. The breadth of ML applications will grow steadily as
risk of accidents and ensure smooth operation of the power ML technology advances and new unique issues emerge in the
system over an extended period [2]. Evaluating the use of AI research of rechargeable battery material [9]. Although ML has
technology in power systems requires a comprehensive analysis shown considerable potential in modelling complex systems, its
of existing research in the field of artificial intelligence and its implementation introduces new challenges. These challenges
related industries. include difficulties associated with accessing relevant and re-
The power system is a network consisting of three compo- liable data sets, and addressing inaccuracies in model predic-
nents: generation, distribution and transmission. In the power tions needs to be addressed before ML can be widely deployed.
system, energy sources (such as coal, sunlight, wind, nuclear To effectively implement ML on a large scale, it is crucial to have
reactions and diesel) are transformed into electrical energy [3]. compelling evidence of its effectiveness in diverse areas such as
There are different power systems, such as solar power systems, manufacturing processes, energy generation, storage and man-
wind power systems, thermal power plants [4], nuclear power agement. Furthermore, the availability of commercial software
plants, geothermal power plants, etc. All power systems have dif- and a skilled workforce specialized in the relevant domains is es-
ferent structures and equipment for the generation of electricity sential [10]. ML has proven to be beneficial in creating data-driven
[5]. The basic structure of a power system includes: models that accurately correlate material properties with cata-

lytic performance, including activity, selectivity and stability. As a
(i) generating substation; result, there have been advancements in the development of ef-
(ii) transmission substation; fective design and screening criteria for solid-state catalysts with
(iii) sub-transmission substation; desired properties [11]. Nevertheless, there are still difficulties in
(iv) distribution substation. applying existing ML algorithms to accurately predict catalyst
performance or devise strategies for designing high-performance
In power system problem-solving, conventional approaches catalysts. The review emphasizes recent advancements in ML ap-
such as practical numerical optimization methods (e.g. lambda plied to solid heterogeneous catalysis, as well as the limitations
iteration and Newton–Rapson methods) have been used. and constraints faced by ML in this field, and also discusses some
Optimization problems are non-linear and, with the various of the prospects for using ML effectively in the design of solid
constraints included, these optimization problems become heterogeneous catalysts. Successful uses of ML in short-term
slow and complex. So, several AI techniques are discussed here hydrothermal scheduling will strengthen the link between real
to solve many optimization issues with less computation time. operations and issue formulation, and prepare the hydropower
Furthermore, experiments were conducted to identify which sector for autonomy by identifying the need for and availability
backpropagation algorithm would give the most efficient and re- of autonomous systems now and in the future. In this research,
liable network training [6]. The systematic approach was intro- a review of the state of the art of ML applications for the hydro-
duced [7] for developing a recurrent neural network (RNN) that electric sector was offered [12]. Digital technologies have a signifi-
could effectively predict the dynamic behaviour of a pilot-scale cant impact on energy market services and the safety of residents
entrained-flow gasifier. The RNN was trained using a data set and energy consumers, particularly in smart homes. Sustainable
consisting of input and output data collected from a dynamic smart home networks can improve energy efficiency, utilize local
read-only memory (ROM) system established in a previous study. renewable energy, decarbonize heating and cooling systems,
To evaluate the accuracy of the RNN, comparisons were made and promote responsible electric vehicle charging [13]. The next
with computational fluid dynamics models and experimental decade is crucial for achieving ambitious global CO2 reduction
data obtained from the pilot-scale gasifier. The findings demon- targets and the decarbonization of buildings is a major challenge.
strated that the RNN surpassed the performance of the dynamic Water-efficient development and resilient homes are essential
ROM model, showing strong predictive capabilities to capture the for coping with impacts of climate change. Research on sustain-
transient behaviour of the gasifier. Additionally, this was achieved ability and energy efficiency is vital to improve the quality of life
while significantly reducing the computational resources re- in the face of climate change [14]. Several important aspects were
quired. Power systems are one of the main study topics for the highlighted [15] with respect to the current state and prospects of
advanced development of AI. The use of AI algorithms in power smart homes. It was recognized that despite the increasing preva-
plants has been under continual investigation since the advent lence of smart homes and the growing familiarity with them,
of the expert system technique [8]. However, in most situations, there were still significant obstacles that researchers must ad-
issues such as long cycle times, complex computation and diffi- dress to achieve widespread adoption [16].
culty in learning arise with classic AI methods. In recent years, One of the technical hurdles highlighted is the diversity of
efficiency has increased significantly with the continued advance- manufacturers and devices, each with varying charging systems,
ment of AI algorithms. The multi-source model of heterogeneous frequencies and communication methods [17]. This fragmen-
large data has gradually developed, the data volume continues to tation can hinder interoperability and compatibility between
grow, and new possibilities and problems are being created with devices and systems. The greater acceptance of smart home
the use of AI in power systems. AI encompasses several technolo- technologies poses a significant challenge. This review highlights
gies such as expert systems, pattern recognition, genetic algo- the crucial task of convincing consumers about the safety and
rithms (GAs) and neural networks. By incorporating AI into the reliability of these technologies. An approach [18] was presented
automation of power system control, it has the potential to en- to develop prediction models that were capable of identifying
hance the efficiency of electrical automation management, miti- faults and malfunctions in power equipment, demonstrating
gate the risk of accidents and ensure long-term smooth operation their effectiveness in predicting the progression of degradation
of the power system. Machine learning (ML) has also found exten- phenomena. The challenges were discussed [19] associated with
sive applications in predicting the properties of rechargeable bat- predicting the technical condition index of the equipment and
tery materials, particularly electrolyte and electrode materials, as determining the probability of its current state having defects.
well as the development of novel materials, according to relevant This research contributes significantly to the advancement of
Applications of artificial intelligence in power system operation, control and planning | 1201
predictive analytics tools in the industry, enabling proactive 2 AI techniques

maintenance of equipment. ML and data-driven approaches
exhibit significant promise in the field of predictive analysis
2.1 Artificial neural network
within power systems, especially in the context of smart grids. In AI, a set of inputs is transformed into an output using a network
These methods can efficiently analyse the vast amounts of data of neurons. A neuron produces a single power by simply operating
collected from smart meters and other devices in real time, its input in the same way as a processor [26]. The working group
facilitating optimized energy flow in an increasingly renewable- of neurons and the pattern of their connections may be utilized to
energy-focused landscape [20]. They offer advantages such as build computers with real-world issues in model recognition and
improved accuracy, cost reduction and improved efficiency. pattern categorization. As the human brain processes are repli-
However, certain challenges must be overcome, such as ensuring cated, input signals are processed using mathematical operations
the availability of high-quality data and managing the potential utilizing artificial neurons.
risk of information overload [21]. The network consists of neurons organized in layers and con-
nected to ensure information input–output flows [27]. By using
what is known as the activation function, in layer ‘i’, each neuron
1 Methods and challenges addressed is linked to the ‘i+1’ layer of all neurons. The input signals for a

specific neuron originate from all neurons in the prior layer and
The articles selected for review are based on different param-
their excitation power changes to govern the degree of signal
eters and selection criteria. The shortlist is based on parameters
reaching each neuron [28].
such as duration, analysis, comparison and applications, as listed
In several scientific disciplines, such as medical diagnosis,
in Table 1. The challenges investigated for power system oper-
voice, pattern recognition, etc., artificial neural networks (ANNs)
ations, control and planning in the article are as follows and a
are utilized. The ANN is a computing system partly based on
diagram visualizing the domains of the power sector along with
biological neural networks, expressed by linked nodes (artificial
the AI techniques used and their application is presented as Fig.
neurons), correctly structured in layers that are found in human
1. Power system operation [22] includes the total power require-
or animal brains. All artificial neurons are linked and are able,
ment that must reliably meet the real-time generation, including
employing their connections (synapses) to send signals, generally
transmission losses. The problems involved in this task are eco-
real values, which result in an output computed according to the
nomic load dispatch (ELD), power flow, unit commitment and
original input, depending on the sizes allocated to all neurons
generator maintenance schedule.
[29].
The complex and large design of the power system is presented
ANNs are recognized as data-mining approaches capable of
[23] and interferences in the power system are a problem. When
modelling several independent characteristics with dependent
a large interference occurs, control tasks are needed to find the
functions in non-linear functions. ANNs may predict a future
disturbed area, control the impact caused and bring the process
value of a dependent variable after training with a comparable
to normal form. Heuristic solutions are non-linear and hence are
sample, replicating the learning process of a human brain [30].
not designed to deal with fast-occurring disturbances. Therefore,
In turn, a difference in signal strength affects the activation of
many control optimization techniques such as voltage control
the neuron and, as a result, signals that are transmitted to other
(VC), power system stability control and load frequency control
neurons as shown in Fig. 2.
are discussed to address this problem.
Input layer—distribute other units but does not process the
Power system planning has an arrangement of a power system
data.
that is complex and large with many parts such as flexible alter-
Hidden layer—the ability to map the non-linear problems is
nating current transmission system (FACTS) devices and distribu-
provided through hidden layers.
tion systems. The major goal of least-cost planning is to optimize
Output later—the output units encode the value to be assigned
the components required to deliver enough power at a minimal
to this instance.
cost. Many factors such as FACTS placement and demand are
given importance in the expansion of power system planning. 2.2 Adaptive neuro-fuzzy interference system
Reactive power optimization, distribution system planning (DSP)
The adaptive neuro-fuzzy interference system (ANFIS) creates
[24] and capacitor placement are the optimization problems con-
an input/output data set whose membership function param-
sidered in this task [25].
eters are modified with the minimum square method type or
Table 1: Selection criteria for shortlisted research papers
Parameters Selection criteria Elimination criteria
Duration Research articles published between 2007 and Research articles published before 2007
2021
Analysis The research includes various artificial intelligence The research includes various operators and modifications
techniques and applications in power systems in artificial intelligence techniques in power systems
Comparison Research concentrates on variations in artificial Research is focused on several metaheuristics variations.
intelligence power system approaches Genetic algorithms were part of some studies
Applications Multimedia research, operational management Research includes engineering, data mining, software and
and wireless networks are included astronomical applications
Study Mathematical foundations and experimental Patents, cases and publications are included in the
results are part of the research research
Domain Power System - Power System - Control Power System -

Operation Planning
Generation
Central
Power Computer
Operations
Services
System
Terminal Transmission
Market
Customers Power Station
Electricity Flow Control Load Distribution
Distribution
Digital Realy
Transmission
Bulk Generation Relay Control Customers
Central Conrol
Applications Economic Load Voltage Control Planning for

Dispatch Power System Stability Distribution
Scheduling for Control Capacitor Placement
Generator Load Frequency Control Optimization for
Maintenance Systems and Services Reactive Power
Power Flow High Penetration

Unit Commitment Photovoltaics
Renewable
Generation
Methodologies
AI Method Particle Swarm Hybrid Networks with PSO
Optimization PSO Fuzzy Logic and PSO
Adaptive Neuro- Artificial Neural MILP with GA
fuzzy Interface Network (ANN) and ANN with GA
System (ANFIS) PSO Ant Colony
Mixed Integer Linear Back Propagation ANN Optimization with
Programming The Neuro-Fuzzy GA
(MILP) System with PSO
Genetic Algorithm Nonlinear control
GA)
Fig. 1: Visual depiction of power sector domains, their application and AI techniques used
X1 1
X2 2
Y(d,h) Output
X3 3 Output Layer
X32 32
Input Layer Middle Layer
Fig. 2: Simplified diagram of the artificial neural network
the backpropagation algorithm by itself, using a fuzzy inter- structed using five layers in its basic form. Each ANFIS layer
ference system [31]. This modification has helped the fuzzy has several nodes defined in the layer specification using the
system learn from the data it models. By applying hybrid node function. The current layer inputs from the preceding
learning, ANFIS utilizes a systematic approach to determine layer nodes are collected. The structure of the ANFIS is shown
the optimal distribution of membership functions, enabling ef- in Fig. 3 [33].
fective mapping of the relationship between input and output The fuzzy-inference method involves organizing empirical in-
data [32]. The ANFIS architecture combines ANNs with fuzzy formation in a professional manner, which presents challenges
logic, making the modelling process more structured and less in quantifying it through membership functions (MFs) and fuzzy
dependent on expert knowledge. This inference system is con- rule bases [34]. Additionally, neural networks possess learning
Input LAYER1 LAYER2 LAYER3 LAYER4 LAYER5 OUTPUT
X Y
A1
x ω1 ∼1
ω
∼ π N
∼
ω1f1
A2
Fout
Σ
B1 ∼ f
ω21 2
y π N
∼
B2 ω2 ∼2
ω X Y

Fig. 3: Simplified diagram of an artificial neuro-fuzzy interference system
capabilities. From top to bottom, they are very adaptable in their

system set-up and have great parallel processing and fault toler- Knowledge
ance. The theories for neural network neuro-fuzzy systems are Base
actively explored in several areas [35].
The utilization of a neuro-fuzzy system, which emulates
human learning and decision-making abilities, can lead to Fuzzification Inference Defuzzification
varying model performances compared with traditional mathem-
atical approaches. The process of rule generation and grouping in
a neuro-fuzzy inference system, adapted to the specific model, Fig. 4: Fuzzy logic system
can be approached through a grid-based methodology, known as
the ANFIS.
consists of four parts: knowledge base, fuzzification, inference
and defuzzification. On the basis of the fuzzy constants pro-
2.3 Fuzzy logic vided, the process converts given inputs to the fuzzification stage.
To identify the fuzzy set from which the value comes and the Based on the knowledge base, the inference is made. Then, in the
degree of membership within that set, fuzzy logic systems base defuzzification stage, every fuzzy output is mapped to complex
their choices on input in terms of variables generated from the output MFs [41, 42].
member functions [36]. The variables are then combined with IF–
THEN language requirements (fuzzy logic rules) and a fluid im-
plication is used to answer each rule [37]. The response of each 2.4 Ant colony optimization
rule is weighted according to the confidence or degree of the in- Ants exhibit a behaviour in which they remember and follow
puts of each rule and the central part of answers is computed to a specific path between their colony and a food source. They
provide a suitable output and achieve the compositional rule of achieve this by leaving pheromone trails during their food search
deference. Now, the design of fuzzy logic systems is not a system- [43]. When other ants come across these pheromone trails, they
atic approach. The easiest way is to subjectively define member start to follow them. Because the increased presence of the chem-
functions and rules with a human-operated system or an existing ical on the path has the effect of attracting more ants to follow
controller and then test the design for the right output. If the de- it, the ants will emphasize the pheromone trail. To find the best
sign fails the testing, the MFs and/or rules should be changed. solution to the problem studied, ant colony optimization (ACO)
Recent investigation directions involve the creation of fuzzy logic builds multiple iterative solutions. The objectives of [44] were to
systems that can learn from experience. evaluate the features of the search area for problems and to use
Currently, only published findings can create and modify this knowledge to address the solution process. The solution–con-
fuzzy control rules based on experience [38]. Among them can struction process is a sequential decision-making process due to
be Scharf’s self-organizing robotic control system [39] by using a parametric stochastic decisions. An ACO algorithm depends on a
performance matrix to change the rule matrix and alter the rules sequence of learning of the parameters used in decision-making
that constitute the management strategy. Another intriguing ex- to reach a global policy that provides optimum solutions for a
ample is the Sugeno fuzzy vehicle, which can be trained to turn particular situation [45]. The parameters of the learning object
and park itself. Instead of a membership function, the effect of a are considered pheromones and are called variables of the phero-
rule is viewed as a linear equation of the process state variables. mones.
Through optimization of least-squares performance indices using An ACO method contains a stochastic local search technique
a weighted linear regression system, the challenge is simplified to to organize the routing pathways that artificial ants can deter-
a parameter estimate. Although these approaches provide prom- mine. These ants co-operate together through indirect informa-
ising outcomes, they are subjective, somewhat heuristic and de- tion exchange to create the best and shortest route. The concept
pend on trial and error for the choice of MFs. Thus, the ability to of the ACO is taken from the food search characteristic of the
learn neural networks can offer a more promising approach to true colony in an intelligent optimization algorithm and how the
fuzzy logic systems [40]. As shown in Fig. 4, the fuzzy logic system ants work together in this difficult job. It can be expected that
the ACO finds the quickest route from nest to food according to currently being used or as many solutions as individuals [49].
the biological study of the ants. The ant pheromone distribution This procedure is continued until the ABC optimization meets
technique is termed staggered, in which information is shared a stop criterion.
with other ants indirectly. Pheromone updates are the basis of the ABC_Optimization (n, m, k)
ACO algorithm. These pheromone updates depend on the phero- population <- initialize (n, m, k)
mone and the number of ants that work best. Natural ants can global_best <- assign_random_food_source(population[m])
determine the quickest route based on their best knowledge and while! stop_criteria_met ()
a strong pheromone trace. The shortest path is inversely propor- for bee in population
tional to the amount of pheromone and length of the path using fitness <- calculate_fitness (bee. food_source)
an ACO method. The following is a step-by-step explanation of if fitness > global_best. fitness
the algorithm replicating these properties [46]. The pseudocode global_best <- bee. food_source
for ACO is shown in Table 2. for the bee in population
bee. update_food_source (global_best, bee. next_partner)
• Set pheromone pathways: The algorithm starts by setting update_food_source (global_best, next_partner)
the initial pheromone pathways in the search space of the prob <- random_probability ()

problem. These pathways act as a guide for ants to navi- if prob < experience
gate and find solutions. food_source <- global_best
• Generate a random ant population: Next, the algorithm else if prob < experience + next_partner. experience
generates a population of random solutions (ants) to start food_source <- next_partner. food_source
searching for the optimal solution. else
• Choose the optimal position: Each ant then uses a combin- food_source <- random_food_source ()
ation of pheromone information and heuristics to deter-
mine the next step (position) to take. The objective is to find Initialization phase:
the position that maximizes the target function. Initialize the xij solution population in the j domain parameter.
• Get the finest search ant: After all ants have completed The exact description may be used for that purpose:
their search, the algorithm selects the best ant, i.e. the one
(1) xij = xmin j + rand (0, 1) ∗ (xmax j − xmin j)
with the highest value of the target function.
• Restore the trail of pheromone: The pheromone trail of the where xmax j is the upper bound of the parameter j and xmin j is
best ant is then updated to reinforce its path, encouraging the lower bound of the parameter j.
other ants to follow it.
• Check the end condition: The algorithm repeats the above Worker bee phase:
steps until a stopping criterion is met. Each worker bee uses a formula to identify and assess a food
• End: The algorithm concludes when it satisfies the stop- source vij representative of a location such as a food source in
ping condition and provides the best solution discovered. her xij memory. Each worker offers information about their food
source to onlookers who select a food source website based on
information collected from their bees while they wait at the hive
according to Equation (2):
2.5 Artificial bee colony optimization vij = xij + ϕij · (xij − xkj )
The artificial bee colony (ABC) optimization imitates bee be- (2)
haviour. A colony of bees is made up of onlookers, scouts and If xk is a randomly picked solution, j is a parameter randomly
worker bees [47]. Artificial bees are flown in this system in a selected and βij is a random integer within the [–a, a] range. A
multidimensional search room and, depending on the experi- greedy selection between vi and xi is applied after the production
ence they have gained and based on their next partner experi- of a new solution vi .
ence, the used bees pick their food sources and bees to change
Onlooker bee phase:
positions. Scout bees pick their food sources at random without
any experience. Each food source avoids the probable solution There is a reference previously to the proportion of the amount of
to the problem under discussion [48]. The number of bees em- a food source to its location in the solution. Onlookers are posi-
ployed is as high as the food sources, each being a site, which is tioned at food sources using a selection strategy based on fitness,
such as the way of selecting the roulettes wheel. New solutions
xi based on pi are picked to assess the new solutions vi and new
Table 2: Pseudocode of the ant colony optimization algorithm solutions vi for spectators are created. The hired bees between vi
and xi receive a greedy selection.
Steps
Start: Scout bee phase:

Set pheromone pathways and parameters in motion; Former workers who lost their resources start scouting ran-
Generate a random m ant (solution) population; domly for food supplies. Every colony of bees has scout bees.
Choose the optimal position according to the target function for The scouts have little instruction when looking for food. They
every individual ant; mostly focus on finding food. Artificial bees can find the avail-
Get the finest search ant; able answers rapidly. ABC decides that the artificial scout is the
Restore the trail of the pheromone; bee whose food supply has been lost or whose profitability has
Check if the end is true; fallen below a specific level of profitability. The control param-
End; eter that decides the class is the withdrawal criterion or the
‘limit’. After a predefined number of attempts, a worker bee
leaves an unimproved solution that is a source of food. The predictors included in the model. εij represents the random error
number of tests necessary to release the answer is determined term.
by ‘limits’. Building on Equation (5), the level 2 model can be formulated
as follows:
2.6 Particle swarm optimization β0j = γ00 + γ01W1j + γ02W2j + u0j (2) β1j =
Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is a population-based evolu- (6) γ10 + γ11W1j + γ12W2j + u1j
tionary computational technique that is employed to address In Equations (5) and (6), u0j,..., u1j represent the random effects.
stochastic troubleshooting. It belongs to the category of swarm in- W1j and W2j correspond to grand-mean centred and uncentred
telligence and is founded on social and psychological principles. variables, respectively.
PSO provides valuable insights into engineering applications These equations are utilized in research to describe the rela-
and contributes to their development [50]. Social impact and so- tionships between the dependent variable, predictors and random
cial learning make cognitive consistency possible for the person. effects. Equation (5) serves as the core model equation, capturing
People may resolve issues by talking to people and by changing the influence of the predictors on the dependent variable while
their ideas, attitudes and behaviour; they can usually be portrayed accounting for random error. Equations (5) and (6) extend the
as people moving in a socio-cognitive space towards one another.

model by specifying the relationships and random effects asso-
But PSO has certain inconveniences such as global convergence; ciated with the intercept and predictor coefficients at the level
unlike some other optimization algorithms, PSO does not have a 2 analysis. Collectively, these equations offer a comprehensive
guarantee of global convergence, which means that it may not find framework to analyse the variables that impact the acceptance
the true optimal solution. To address this drawback, a novel PSO of smart home technology and the adaptability of demand within
and a chaotic PSO are designed to tackle energy-system optimiza- the specific research context.
tion issues efficiently. The analysis of the problem of unit commit-
ment within the regulated system leads to the examination of UCP
(uniform customs and practice for documentary credits) inside the 2.8 Regression and classification problems
deregulated market. The overall profit, execution time and conver- using AI
gence criteria are compared between various approaches. The RNN is a variation of the neural network frequently em-
One element is the current velocity of the particle v(t). Another ployed in the power systems domain to address regression and
is the optimum position Y∗(t) to approach the particle. The third classification problems that involve sequential data. Unlike
factor is that the community or sub-community is optimally indirect neural network models, the structure and operating prin-
formed by Y ∗ ∗(t) [51]. In each iteration step, the particle speed ciple of the RNN differ significantly [54]. In an RNN, the input
is modified to Y∗(t) and Y ∗ ∗(t). Meanwhile, the random weight is data are fed to the model sequentially at each time step (t), as
independently allocated to the Vi, Y∗(t) and Y ∗ ∗(t). The speed and shown in the signal propagation diagram. At each step, the cur-
position are updated following Equations (3) and (4): rent state (output) is calculated by considering the current input
vk+1(i,j) = ωvk(i,j) + C1 rand 1(Pbes tk(i,j) − Yk(i,j) ) + C2 rand 2(Gbes tk − Yk(i,k) ) data and the previously computed state. This iterative process
(3) continues for a fixed number of steps (n) until the desired output
(predicted value) is achieved or until all input data (input) have
(4) Yk + 1ij = Yk + 1ij + Vk + 1ij , (i = 1, 2... Npj = 1, 2...m)
been processed [55].
In the given equation, vk+1(i,j) represents the velocity of the par- The propagation of signals in the RNN model is illustrated by
ticle in the i-th particle and j-th dimension at iteration k + 1. the values assigned to each hidden state (hidden). These hidden
The weight factor ω determines the extent to which the pre- states are calculated using the previous hidden state (hidden − 1)
vious velocity influences the new velocity.
vk(i,j) denotes the velocity of the particle in the i-th particle and
the j-th dimension at iteration k.
Initialize
C1 and C2 are the learning parameters that determine the influ-
ence of the personal best and global best solutions, respectively.
rand1 and rand2 are randomly generated numbers within the Start Particles with velocity vector and random position
range of [0,1].
Pbestk(i,j) represents the personal best position of the i-th particle
Evaluate velocity for each partciles position (x)
in the j-th dimension achieved thus far.
Yk(I,j) represents the current position of the i-th particle in the
j-th dimension. Check if fitness function f(x) is better than fitness,
Check P(best) than P(best) = X
Gbestk signifies the global best position discovered by all par-
ticles up to the present iteration. Loop is Loop
working till Need to select P(best) as G(best) Continue
The flow chart for PSO is shown in Fig. 5. all particles till
are finished maximum
iteration
2.7 Regression model Keep updating the partcile postion and veclicity
The research model [52, 53] can be defined using Equation (5):
(5) Yij = β0j + β1jX1ij + β2jX2ij +... + βnjXnij + εij Obtain best solution for G(best)
where Y represents the dependent variable; this refers to the

indication of respondent i’s willingness to adopt smart home End of execution
technology and their level of flexibility in terms of demand for
technology j. β refers to the intercept. X1ij,..., Xnij are dichotomous
Fig. 5: Flow chart of particle swarm optimization
and current input data (input) [56]. hiddent = 〈w

( hidden, hiddent – 1〉+ been modelled. The authors have performed the simulations with
〈winput, input〉) Here, σ () represents the activation function (such many generation units having ramp rate limits and prohibited
as the sigmoid function, hyperbolic tangent or rectified linear operating zones as constraints and the resultant performance is
unit (ReLU)), while whidden and winput are the weights for the hidden compared with ANN, GA and ACO techniques, but the ABC tech-
and input states, respectively. nique gives better outputs with fast convergence. The greedy se-
The output value at each calculation step output is obtained by lection procedure and the timely abandonment of the used food
taking the dot product of the weights associated with the output sources contained in ABC give it this potential. The basic oper-
state and the values of the hidden state, similar to a regression ations of ABC optimization prevent solutions from stopping and
equation: output =〈woutput, hiddent〉[57]. make the algorithm more exploitative.
During training, the initial stage involves calculating the
output signal, after which the error function is calculated to de-
termine the discrepancy. For regression problems, it is common
3.1.2 Generator maintenance scheduling
to utilize the square root of the standard deviation between the Generator maintenance scheduling (GMS) is a complicated com-
output of the RNN and the values from the response space (yt): binatorial optimization issue for a power provider. Mathematical
approaches include traditional ways to tackle the GMS issue. To
(woutput , whidden , winput ) =

evaluate the needed objective function, a mathematical model
t = 1(outputyt )2n) − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −− → min w approach employs a trial-and-error procedure. Mathematical
(7) approaches even fail to provide viable answers as in some cir-
Applying the chain rule, the gradient of the error functional is cumstances the operator needs to rely on certain assumptions
calculated. The weight coefficients (wij) are adjusted in a manner and models that may not accurately reflect real-world condi-
that reduces the functional, following the direction of decreasing tions. In some cases, operators may need to be involved to pro-
values, until it reaches the minimum value or the training iter- vide additional input and expertise to make informed decisions
ations reach the predetermined limit. It is important to note that about maintenance schedules. In addition, there may be un-
the weights associated with the hidden state of the RNN (whidden) predictable factors, such as equipment failures or changes in
remain unchanged after propagating the error from each output demand, that cannot be accurately accounted for by mathem-
(output). Conversely, the coefficients woutput and winput change at atical models alone. Maintenance is a preventive outage pro-
each step of the gradient [58]. gram for generating units within a certain time horizon in a
power system. In the event of a range of various specification
generating units in the energy system and several limitations to
3 Application of AI in the power sector produce a sustainable and practical solution, maintenance plan-
3.1 Operation of the power system ning becomes a difficult challenge. The maintenance planning
of the generators is done for time horizons of different lengths.
3.1.1 ELD
Short-term maintenance plans from 1 hour to 1 day are crucial
ELD is the process of assigning the generation output to the gen-
to the daily operations, engagement and operational planning of
eration unit to supply the system load fully and economically.
power plants. Medium-term planning is necessary for resource
The whole engaged generating unit produces total electricity
management between 1 day and 1 year. Long-term planning
costs to minimize energy. The main concern of the ELD problem
from 1 to 2 years is crucial for future planning. An examination
is to reduce the overall fuel cost. This is achieved by generating
is being conducted to resolve some AI methods, including simu-
electricity in a way that optimizes the use of resources and re-
lated developments, neural networks and GAs. The application
duces the overall cost of power production in the electricity
of the genetic algorithm through case research shows that suit-
system. Multiple generators provide enough total output to meet
able GA parameters are safeguarded, as well as issue coding and
the consumer requirements in a typical power system. The pro-
development functions. The use of integer encoding decreases
duction costs of each generating unit in the electricity system
the velocity of the genetic search method investigation. By using
are different, as the producing units are not the same distance
integer encoding, the algorithm needs to perform additional op-
from the loading unit. Over the years, several AI approaches have
erations to convert solutions into integers, which can slow down
been created to address this challenge. After simulation, authors
the search process. Planning the generation of power remains
concluded that using the genetic algorithm technique to solve
a barrier to competent solution technology and a difficult opti-
the ELD problem can result in a lower overall cost of electricity
mization problem. The challenge in power generation planning
production, but may also result in higher emissions. However,
lies in finding the optimal balance between cost and efficiency,
choosing a solution with a higher cost may result in minimum
while also considering factors such as environmental impact,
emissions. Transmission losses are usually neglected when they
reliability and security of supply. The answer to the difficulties
are small. However, for long-distance transmission in large and
in generation planning consists of finding the UC (unit com-
interconnected networks, transmission losses become significant
mitment) at every point in the programming period for each
and have an impact on the optimal distribution of power gener-
generator in one power system. An electrical system must be
ation. It is possible to operate the same multitasking system with
defined in each planning interval for each power generator for
a better voltage profile and with evolutionary calculation tech-
the decisions and levels of output. The solution process must
nology, the cost and emission value of the best compromise.
be addressed concurrently for binary decisions and continuous
The proposed results of the simulation of the ANN emphasize
variables. Generation difficulties with scheduling are typically
that the results are indiscernible from conventional methods,
quite narrow and combined. Match swarm optimization ap-
although the time used by neural networks is less than con-
proaches have been used to achieve viable schedules within a
ventional methods. The number of generators increases the pre-
specified time. The study found that an optimization-based ap-
diction error because there is a lot of input and output data to
proach using PSO provided better results than a GA or an evolu-
be learned. To monitor the performance, neural networks have
tionary strategy. Data from the actual power system were used
to evaluate the performance of the different optimization tech- 3.2 Control of the power system
niques. 3.2.1 VC
3.1.3 UC The main objective of a voltage controller power system is to
maintain the voltage profile within a defined limit, thus minim-
UC is properly scheduled for the ON/OFF status and the genuine
izing transmission losses and avoiding cases of voltage instability
generator power outputs of the system. To satisfy a high number
[81]. The VC system consists of three levels of hierarchical con-
of system limitations and decrease the overall fuel cost at every
trol: AVR (automatic voltage regulator), tertiary voltage control
time interval, a spinning reserve is necessary (spinning reserve
(TerVC) and secondary voltage control (SecVC). AVR is aimed at
refers to the additional generation capacity that is available and
controlling the voltage of buses that are equipped with reactive
running but not actively supplying power to the grid). UC meets
power sources (e.g. synchronous, sync, static var compensators
the expected load requirements in advance. To implement UCs,
and STATCOM (static synchronous compensator)). Actions are
medium-term load forecasting using ANN was used. The neural
carried out locally at this control level. SecVC is used to monitor
network structure was trained through learning and parameter
the voltage on a specific bus that controls a cargo bus.
learning. Total operational expenses under 24 hours were used for
In situations in which there is hardware present in the vicinity
the assessment criterion. The study demonstrates the effective-
that modifies the reference point for the AVR, the control level

ness of the proposed approach by comparing the performance of
typically operates at a slower pace compared with the AVR con-
the ANN-based load forecasting model with traditional methods
trol level. SecVC is responsible for identifying VC regions and
such as linear regression and time-series forecasting. The results
their correlation with individual load buses. To accommodate
show that the ANN-based load forecasting model significantly
varying power system conditions, SecVC must demonstrate flexi-
improves the accuracy of load forecasting and reduces the sched-
bility in adjusting the control regions to accommodate all grid
uling cost by reducing the number of units needed for scheduling.
conditions. On the other hand, TerVC determines the optimal ref-
The study also highlights the importance of considering the un-
erence value for voltage grids at each load bus. The objective is
certainty and variability of load demand in UC scheduling and
to minimize power loss, optimize reactive power and maintain a
suggests that ANN-based load forecasting models can be a useful
minimum load release or reservation. TerVC is usually updated
tool for achieving more efficient and reliable scheduling in power
every 30 minutes to 1 hour.
systems. Locational marginal prices have been evaluated through
The backward error propagation algorithm trains the multi-
a trained ANN. The findings show that the current technique gives
layered feedforward perception. The minimum singular value
a different UC mechanism. To develop unit commitment, the PSO
method analyses the static voltage collapse. The procedure uses
technique is used. On implementation, with the increasing size,
a minimum voltage stability evaluation time once the network
the execution time is also increasing. To accelerate the PSO, a con-
training is complete. For monitoring voltage collapse, comple-
vergence repair method is also implemented.
mentary methodologies of neural networks and expert systems
would be combined for use in the application [82].
3.1.4 Optimal power flow GA is an iterative optimization technique with several solutions
Optimal power flow (OPF) is a highly important technique to from the candidates (known as a population). In the case in which
identify the optimum control parameter settings that enhance there is no knowledge of the problem field, then the GA starts
or decrease the intended target function, but also under a var- to look for solutions from a random population. The appropriate
iety of limitations. An essential instrument to design and operate coding (or display) must first be defined to solve the problem. A
a power system is the issue of optimum power flow to identify fitness function should also be defined so that every coding solu-
the best parameter settings that can maximize or minimize the tion is given a figure of merit. If parents are not satisfied with the
intended goal function within specific limitations. Voltage and termination condition, for reproduction, they must be picked [83].
reactive controls, also called OPD, are an OPF sub-problem that They are then joined to generate offspring through reproduction
seeks to reduce overall transmission loss by resuming the reactive and, to refresh the population of candidate solutions, crossover
power flow. Optimal reactive power dispatch is a non-linear solu- and mutation operators are utilized. Typically, in a basic genetic
tion for the issue of blending integers since some control vari- algorithm, three operators are involved: selection, crossover and
ables such as tap ratios for transformers, shunt capacitor outputs mutation. These operations are performed to generate new off-
and reactors are distinct. spring, individuals and subsequent generations. The same pro-
The alternate strategy for mitigating the problem of GA-ANN is cess is repeated with the new generation until the desired criteria
set out in this article. A collection of ANN networks is trained off- are met. The approach of this method is used to teach swarming
line in specified system quantities to work on a general OPF issue. at the beginning of PSO. In this case, 10 control variables are used
To choose the appropriate ANN inputs, the k-mean clustering for the ANN input. The neuron and its prejudice are 11. A hidden
technique is utilized. When learning the functions correctly, ANNs layer consists of this group of neurons and biases. Ten outputs/
can easily estimate the associated results with great precision. goals are available. These objectives are achieved by using the
The ANFIS develops the input/output data set fuzzy-inference optimal value of PSO. The last outputs are the initializations in
system (FIS) that matches the membership (adjustment) param- the time-varying non-linear particle swarm optimization (TVNL-
eters with a backpropagation or minimum square process type. PSO). The steps are as follows:
This update allows you to learn from the fuzzy systems data
IEEE 39 bus system implementations and simulated software • PSO is used to take the ANN input; the weight value is ap-
from the power world are utilized for the formation of the ANFIS. plied at random;
The results indicate that the ANFIS offers solutions as accurate • the ANN input and partition in a cached layer are weighed
as conventional ones. It takes less time, though, and it works and then activated by the sigmoid binary function;
quickly. Some additional papers on the application of AI in the • weighting of the output in the hidden layer and activation
operation of power systems are presented in Table 3. of the linear function;
Table 3: Applications of artificial intelligence in the operation of a power system
Applications Reference Year Objective Technique(s)
Economic load Alquthami et al. [59] 2020 Get the best results for the lowest amount of money and Artificial bee
dispatch in the shortest amount of time compared with previous colony
techniques optimization
Sahay et al. [60] 2018 To reduce fuel costs, transmission costs, labour costs and Genetic algorithm
maintenance costs
Mishra et al. [61] 2015 Better compromised solutions, i.e. cost and emissions, Genetic algorithm
between the two objectives
Dixit et al. [62] 2011 The problem with a single equivalent objective function Artificial bee
to address economic, emission and combination colony
economic and emission dispatch problems optimization
Daniel et al. [63] 2018 The period in which the load shipment is computed Artificial neural
varies dynamically for each selected time interval network
Ruiz-Abellón et al. [64] 2019 The objective is to minimize ELD losses using a GA-based Particle swarm

optimum power flow system optimization
Ali et al. [65] 2020 To start with, ELD is solved by using a genetic algorithm Genetic algorithm
with prevailing constraints, but no line flow constraint
Generator Fu et al. [66] 2020 Performing preventive maintenance on components that FACTS devices
maintenance are at risk helps distribution networks avoid failures by
scheduling preventing them before they occur
Esmaili et al. [67] 2014 A multi-target framework for congestion management is FACTS devices
presented in which three competing target functions
are simultaneously optimized, total operating
expenses, voltage and margins for transient stability
Suresh et al. [68] 2013 For a power system, minimizing annual supply reserve Particle swarm
ratio deviation and reducing loss of load probability optimization
Lakshminarayanan et al. [69] 2018 The aims are to maximize and distribute reserved Genetic algorithm
electricity equally over 52 weeks while fulfilling the
numerous limitations
Scalabrini Sampaio et al. [70] 2019 Data collection for the training and testing of an artificial Artificial neural
neural network to anticipate and identify defects in network
future machinery
Power flow Fikri et al. [71] 2019 Implementation of ANN in the absence of some problem Artificial neural
data and, more importantly, in the absence of network
convergence of numerical methods with high precision
Rahul et al. [72] 2012 The objective is to minimize transmission losses using Genetic algorithm
a GA-based optimum power flow system for the IEEE
30-bus test power system
Nakawiro et al. [73] 2009 Offline neural artificial networks replace the power flow Genetic algorithm
in the OPF, which is a non-linear mixture of integral and artificial
optimization and a network reduction goal neural network
Sumpavakup et al. [74] 2010 This method has been used to identify the optimum Artificial bee
solution for each producing unit and reduce the overall colony
production cost optimization
Abdellah et al. [75] 2015 To be optimum, the standard power flow program must Adaptive
be increased (OPF) neuro-fuzzy
interference
system
Unit Nemati et al. [76] 2018 Modern power systems such as microgrids must face Genetic algorithm
commitment a variety of strict hurdles due to the present energy and mixed-
revolution integer linear
programming
Alshareef et al. [77] 2011 In this study, the cost, emission and both cost and Particle swarm
emission of the system are all minimized optimization
Arora et al. [78] 2016 The use of neural network learning results on medium- Artificial neural
term load forecasting is presented as a method for unit network
commitment
Liu et al. [79] 2008 In this research, a hybrid ANN technique is given to Lagrangian
tackle combinational optimization issues in power relaxation and
systems, including unit commitment artificial neural
network
Kumar et al. [80] 2010 To begin with, unit commitment is solved by using a Genetic algorithm
genetic algorithm with prevailing constraints but
no line flow constraint. In the second phase, using
GA-based OPF, the number of violations in the lines is
minimized for a committed schedule
• to optimize the reactive power and VC by TVNL-PSO, the 3.3 Planning of power system
ANN output is transmitted as a starting initialization 3.3.1 DSP
value.
DSP plays a crucial role in enhancing reliability and minimizing
costs for both utilities and consumers. Electric power distribu-
tion networks are a fundamental component of the electrical
3.2.2 Power system stability control power system. In general, transport networks are denser and
The stability of a power system is a feature that allows it to re- more complex than those that provide transformer stations [110].
main under a balance in normal operating conditions and re- Automating previously manual jobs increases with distribution
trieve an acceptable balance after a change. Margins of stability networks becoming more complex. New tools are known as ad-
can be seen to decline throughout the world [84]. We highlight vanced automation functions that support the operation of such
three of the many reasons for this: networks. These functions enable the network operator to effect-
ively address issues that arise. Furthermore, the reconfiguration
• The inhibition by economic and environmental constraints of distribution networks is essential to identifying optimal solu-
of further transmission or construction. Therefore, power tions that align with the operator’s requirements and constraints,
ensuring a secure and economically optimized electricity supply.

systems must be operated with lower safety margins.
• Restructuring of the electricity industry. The restructuring The optimal design of a distribution network is not a fixed
process reduces the margins of stability, as power systems solution, but rather a process that involves considering various
do not co-operate effectively [85]. technically feasible options and using improvement tools to
• Increased complexity of power systems multiplies the make the best decision based on factors such as demand, reli-
compulsive properties. These include large, non-linear os- ability of power transmission and network structure. All potential
cillations; frequency differences between weakly binding paths are initially identified with uploaded system data and then
energy-system areas; interactions with saturated devices. the energy-loss cost calculation applies for each identified path
forward/backward sweeping load flow technique. For the distri-
Fuzzy logic endeavours to address problems by emulating bution of power, the minimum energy-loss path is chosen. The
human reasoning, allowing optimal decision-making based on optimal selection of the branch conductor of the radial system
available information. It can also be employed to regulate the sta- is done using optimization of PSO. In this case, parameters such
bility of un-modelled systems. To achieve improved performance, as power loss, voltage profile and capital investment depreciation
a fuzzy logic (FL) controller is combined with a PID (proportional– improve optimization. These parameters are used as optimization
integral–derivative) controller. In this particular scenario, the criteria to determine the optimal branch conductor that minim-
fuzzy logic control adjusts the gains of the PID controller based izes power loss, improves the voltage profile and reduces capital
on the power system. investment depreciation. The PSO algorithm iteratively updates
A fuzzy logic controller primarily consists of four major parts: the position of each particle in the search space based on its own
fuzzification, fuzzy rule base, fuzzy inference and defuzzification. experience and the experiences of its neighbours. The algorithm
FACTS have proven to be extremely promising for increasing per- continues until a global optimum is found or a stopping criterion
formance under stable conditions. The most promising FACTS is met. The final solution produced by the PSO algorithm repre-
device is a unified power flow controller (UPFC). Three control sents the optimal branch conductor that meets the optimization
factors can be adjusted: bus voltage, reaction line and phase criteria [111]. The optimization of the PSO results in the optimal
angle between two buses. The power flow should be redistrib- conductor and the best substation, the positioning of the optimal
uted across lines while a stable state is preserved. It can also be conductor is selected and then the optimal substation power dis-
utilized to increase damping when low frequencies are damped tribution is achieved.
temporarily. A multi-target algorithm was proposed that uses a fluid op-
timization technique to handle contradictory targets [112]. The
plan formulation and the algorithm include a multi-target func-
Power system stability control. tion that uses battery energy storage systems (BESSs) and trad-
Load frequency control as defined by the controllable generator itional resources to select the best planning option. The microgrid
power output control in a prescribed area resolves system fre- BESS has been receptive to power management and improvement
quency changes, two-line loadings or interactions to maintain an in power quality. The proposed algorithm is based on the fuse-
interchange with other regions within the fixed limit or sched- based decision-making processes of the Mamdani-type FIS and
uled system frequency [86]. The traditional proportional–integral Bellman–Zadeh approach.
(PI) controller is the most widely used among different types of In this paper [113], two algorithms, namely the mixed-
load frequency controllers. The PI controller can be easily im- integer linear program (MILP) and GA, are compared for the de-
plemented and provides a faster response, but its performance sign of a radial distribution system feeder. The main objective
decreases when unwanted disturbances, such as load change dy- is to minimize total investment and operational outages while
namics, increase the difficulty within the system. In this paper, maximizing system reliability. The study aims to evaluate and
less computing is required for the non-linear autoregressive- compare these two optimization techniques in terms of their op-
moving average-L2 (NARMA-L2) control architecture. Plant timality, complexity and time requirements. A unique aspect of
output, reference and control signals are included. The controller the optimization model is the consideration of operational costs
is therefore taught to monitor the output of the reference model. associated with failures, which are directly linked to the design of
The model network that updates controller settings predicts the the system. The fault rate and defect cost at each loading point
effect of the change in plant performance. Some additional pa- are updated based on the proposed configurations. It is crucial to
pers on the application of AI in the control of power systems are determine which method produces superior results in terms of
presented in Table 4. optimality, complexity and time efficiency.
The GA technique is used to build the algorithm for optimizing improves system performance under stable and dynamic condi-
distribution networks. The fundamental concept is the growth of tions in weak nodes [115]. Because the complexity of power sys-
the genetic operator population (selection, crossover and muta- tems is constantly increasing and the network components are
tion). These are used to generate a fresh population from the pre- constantly being loaded, abnormal operating conditions such as
vious generation throughout each generation procedure. In GA, a voltage can occur more often. Therefore, it is obvious that the
single chromosome shows each person. This chromosome corres- power system needs adequate reactive power and VC.
ponds, according to the graph theory, to a radial distribution net- In pursuit of intelligent theory development, a combination of
work configuration or a particular graph twist. The chromosome fuzzy logic and ANNs is used to determine the control strategy for
group is the population. Randomly, an initial group is created as transformer taps and capacitors. However, due to the increasing
a first step in the implementation of GA. Then the encoding is complexity of control variables, rapid optimization becomes chal-
applied to each chromosome. In this study, only closed branches lenging [116]. To address this issue, a genetic algorithm is utilized,
represent the network topology. A true coding strategy was used which tackles problems associated with incorporating regulatory
to match each gene to the edge of the coagulation tree [114]. time as penalty terms in the objective function and determining
appropriate penalty factors that affect algorithm performance.
3.3.2 Reactive power optimization When regulatory time is a constraint, the optimization objective

focuses on minimizing the total energy loss during the dispatch
As the demand of electricity increases and new lines are built,
period. GAs, inspired by natural selection mechanics and gen-
the environment and the unforeseen power fluid in the lens are
etics, such as inheritance, mutation and recombination, are util-
reduced, it is generated by the current scenario. Effect reactive
ized (also referred to as crossover) to optimize the solution.
compensation control improves voltage, reduces energy loss and
Table 4: Applications of AI in control of a power system
Voltage Kothakotla et al. 2021 Integrated–proportional–derivative controller designed to control the Genetic algorithm
control [87] isolated microgrid grid voltage
Wang et al. [88] 2020 A multi-agent grid control system driven by data using an ANN Artificial neural
method network
Zidani et al. [89] 2018 The voltage and frequency of an automated induction generator are Artificial neural
being manipulated using a novel technique network
Sumathi et al. [90] 2015 The backpropagation feeder for an artificial neural network has Backpropagation
been designed to estimate the UPFC output variables for different feedforward
loading conditions in a 24-bus Indian extra-high-voltage power artificial neural
system network
Kanata et al. [91] 2018 Improving the power system quality to measure the precise control Particle swarm
variable value. Improved power system quality optimization and
hybrid artificial
neural network
Abdalla et al. [92] 2016 Avoiding voltage violations in contingencies of power systems by Genetic algorithm
adjusting coordinated PID controller parameters
Chung et al. [93] 2008 This study provides control systems for coordinating numerous Particle swarm
microgrid generators for grid-connected and autonomous optimization
modding, utilizing interfaces of inverter type
Power Yousuf et al. [94] 2021 The electricity system automation ensures restoration, error Fuzzy logic, genetic
system diagnostic, management and network security algorithm
stability Aakula et al. [95] 2020 This article uses optimization, a heuristic-based swarm intelligence Particle swarm
control method, to obtain enough reactive energy to improve bus voltages optimization
Karthikeyan et al. 2017 In this paper, fuzzy-PID-based STATCOM is proposed to increase the Fuzzy logic
[96] stability of the energy system under failure conditions
Sallama et al. [97] 2014 Here, stability is received in the shortest amount of time and with Neuro-fuzzy
the least amount of disruption system and
particle swarm
optimization
Chen et al. [98] 2018 To enhance the current communication network to meet low Genetic algorithm
latency and high economic requirements, a perfect planning
method is presented
Torkzadeh et al. 2014 The genetic algorithm, the GA-FLC (optimized fuzzy logic controller), Genetic algorithm
[99] is used to damp down low-frequency oscillations and fuzzy logic
Dutta et al. [100] 2017 A common solution required for the power stabilizer to compress Ant colony
low-frequency oscillation (PSS) optimization
Nam et al. [101] 2018 A comparison of different existing simulation models showed Kringing models
that, compared with existing optimization models, the projected
method showed superior results for power system stability control
Miraftabzadeh et 2021 Advance machine learning can make work much easier in power Artificial neural
al. [102] system stability than conventional methods network, genetic
algorithm
Table 4. Continued
Load Safari et al. [103] 2021 A microgrid (MG) is proposed for load frequency control (LFC) on the Particle swarm
frequency island, just like the model eves in this work contributes to the LFC optimization-
control system based artificial
neural network
Joshi et al. [104] 2020 For the first time, a novel control plan for the LFC of a hydro–hydro Fuzzy logic with
vitality framework has been developed based on joint efforts of particle swarm
the fuzzy logic control and PSO algorithm-built design of PID, optimization
resulting in an FLPSO-PID
Nguyen et al. 2018 The suggested constrained particle swarm optimization technique Ant colony
[105] compares ACO with an assessment of its efficiency in the thermal optimization
interconnection system
Balamurugan 2018 Its primary goal is to balance the generation and demand of a power Fuzzy logic
[106] system

Otani et al. [107] 2017 The control of a recurrent neural network is proposed for efficient Artificial neural
use of the introduced storage battery networks
Kuma et al. [108] 2020 The planned solar and wind power is being utilized to analyse load Recurrent neural
frequencies, mitigate frequency changes, guarantee stability in the network
GM power system, to respond to the unexpected surge in demand
for charging power and PI controllers by non-renewable sources
Arora et al. [109] 2020 A comparison of many existing simulation models showed that, Genetic algorithm,
compared with existing optimization models, the projected particle swarm
method showed superior results for smart grid control of optimization
frequency problems
The PSO method can be used for handling FACTS devices in in finding optimal solutions and highlight its superiority in terms
power systems. Various reactive power problem objectives and of solution quality and computational efficiency compared with
different solutions are addressed in the interconnected power other algorithms [122]. Losses occur due to reactive currents in
system. Solutions and comparative analyses using the FACTS de- the distribution system and are therefore minimized in the right
vice, differential evolution (DE) and PSO algorithms are presented places. Shunt capacitors are used, depending on their use. A cap-
under various loading conditions [117]. The algorithm proposed acitor is used to improve the voltage profile, reduce losses and
[118] employs DE to minimize generator fuel costs on FACTS de- increase the power factor [123].
vices. Additionally, the authors discuss the hybridization of DE and Elbaz et al. [124] have been using ANN techniques to control
PSO (DEPSO) to overcome the maximum load limit. The control of both capacitor banks and voltage regulators. The ANN has many
reactive flow is addressed using fuzzy sets and a fuzzy feature input connections and all inputs are combined to determine the
optimization technique is introduced to optimize reactive power. output capacity. The purpose of the capacitor search algorithm
The utilization of fuzzy linear programming offers an effective was to reduce total active losses in the distribution system by util-
approach to calculating reactive power, aiming to minimize active izing the capacitor banking search to address the capacitor place-
power loss and maximize the voltage stability margin. The paper ment problem. The operation of the ant colony was proposed to
[119] explores the combination of fuzzy and GA approaches for address problems related to the installation of the capacitor. The
FACTS shunt controller placement and sizing. Lastly, the focus of fuzzy method uses variables such as angle, current and voltage,
[120] is on the integration of fuzzy systems with GM algorithms etc. A degree for a set and fuzzy variable is determined by MFs.
and the PSO algorithm to tackle the OPF problem and optimize This degree changes from zero to one that takes zero or one as
control variables. In this paper, the authors [121] focus on fluid- opposed to the classical methods [125]. A fuzzy logic-based al-
based reactive and voltage controls to reduce actual loss of power. gorithm is developed to minimize line loss for the placement of
condensers in a radial system. The fuzzy expert system identifies
3.3.3 Capacitor placement the capacitor candidate nodes by compromising the possible re-
There are some advantages if capacitors are placed optimally, duction in loss between the condenser system and the voltage
including various factors, such as maximizing energy and redu- level. This paper [126] presents a fluffy approach to identifying
cing peak power loss through the introduction of a condenser in the appropriate places for capacitor placement. In the design of
an electrical distribution system. In the paper, a novel adaptive a seamless logic to determine the optimal placement of capaci-
modified firefly algorithm is presented to address the optimal tors, two main objectives are taken into account. These object-
capacitor placement problem in power systems. This optimiza- ives include (i) minimizing actual power loss and (ii) maintaining
tion problem involves identifying the best positions and sizes of voltage within acceptable limits. Fuzzy member functions are
capacitors in a power system, in order to enhance voltage sta- used to model voltage and power loss indices for nodes in the
bility, minimize energy losses and improve the power factor. The transmission system [127]. The suitability of capacitor placement
proposed algorithm combines the firefly algorithm with adaptive for each node in the distribution system is then determined. This
parameter settings and introduces a unique crossover operator is achieved using a set of rules within the FIS. Nodes can be fitted
to enhance both convergence speed and solution quality. The au- with capacitors of greatest appropriateness.
thors conduct evaluations on a test system and compare the per- In [128], a method based on GAs is used to identify the optimal
formance of the algorithm with other optimization methods. The locations and sizes of capacitors in the distribution network.
results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach The capacitor sizes are considered discrete and known variables
Table 5: Applications of AI in the planning of a power system
Reference Year Objective Technique(s)

Distribution Kahouli et al. 2021 An ideal approach to increasing the safety of a distribution system and Genetic
system [136] decrease power loss by optimizing the network reconfiguration problem algorithm
planning and particle
swarm
optimization
Žarković et al. 2019 Although the primary goal of a DSP is to minimize the total cost of Mixed-integer
[137] ownership, it also aims to maximize system reliability linear
programming
and genetic
algorithm
Ahmetovic et al. 2021 It is proposed that the Bellman–Zadeh decision-making process shall Fuzzy logic
[138] use the proposed fuzzy-inference system type Mamdani to assess the
Powerline feeder reliability as a planning criterion
Suresh et al. 2017 These studies are crucial to establishing the status of each node or bus and Artificial neural

[139] conditions in the distribution system and these artificial neural networks network
are efficient at describing the relationship between the raw data and
these neural networks
Kumari et al. 2018 This article offers the optimal energy distribution system for routes and Particle swarm
[140] optimal drives with the lowest energy-loss costs optimization
Saha et al. [141] 2021 Solving the optimal problem of diesel generator allocation Genetic
algorithm
Hosseini et al. 2021 Cyber-physical detection, stochastic and cyber security enhancement to Artificial neural
[142] detect and estimate damages network
Lytras et al. [143] 2019 There are different methods suggested to optimize distribution system Particle swarm
planning optimization
Gandhar et al. 2020 Using a proportional–integral (PI) controller and FACTS, the performance of Fuzzy logic
[144] the test system is assessed by the unified power flow controller (UPFC),
which is usually used in traditional energy systems. To investigate the
hybrid microgrid test system, this paper uses UPFC
Tang et al. [145] 2021 Improving the minimum reactive system based on the harmonic analysis Artificial neural
method network,
genetic
algorithm
Harrye et al. 2014 A new three-phase shift algorithm is presented that reduces the total Artificial neural
[146] reactive power of a converter network
Sharma et al. 2012 The method suggested reduces active power loss. All the control variables Particle swarm
[147] are bus generator tensions, tap locations and capacitor banks for shunt optimization
switchable
Wang et al. [148] 2021 To maximize the population’s ability to exploit a new space, the proposed Genetic
algorithm employs a sequential optimization strategy algorithm
Bhattacharyya et 2014 FACTS devices, such as static var compensator and thyristor-controlled Fuzzy logic
al. [149] series compensator (TCSC), are placed at weak nodes in the power system
by using fuzzy membership functions, while the TCSC is placed according
to reactive power flow in lines in this proposed approach to FACTS
Capacitor Bharti et al. [150] 2020 A strategy to optimize the location of shunt capacitor banks in electricity Ant colony
placement distribution systems optimization,
genetic
algorithm
Roy et al. [151] 2020 Reduced power loss through the optimal location of the condenser using AI Artificial neural
techniques network,
fuzzy logic
Pimentel Filho et 2009 The aim is to decrease overall losses by placing capacitor banks in Ant colony
al. [152] distribution networks optimization
Isac et al. [153] 2013 The target function comprises energy loss, energy loss and condenser Fuzzy logic
banks. The placement of the condenser sites is selected based on loss
sensitivity factors
Reddy et al. [154] 2008 A fuzzy and PSO method for placing condensers in the primary suppliers of Fuzzy logic
the radial distribution systems was developed to reduce power losses and and particle
enhance the voltage profile swarm
optimization
Shwehdi et al. 2018 The article focuses on the performance between the stable and the Genetic
[155] transient states in the 380-kV transmission line West–East. To algorithm
dynamically handle the condenser placement problem, the GA technique
is explained and implemented
Mahdavian et al. 2017 The research aims to enhance the voltage profile and activity loss. Loss Fuzzy logic
[156] sensitivity and GA are utilized for the condenser placement and sizing
placed on the buses of the network. Hence, the maximum losses that the GA method can provide a globally optimal solution for
of the distribution system are reduced. GA technology is selected reactive power optimization, particularly when an ample gener-
as the capacitor problem is more accurately addressed in the ation and population size is used. Furthermore, it was found that
power grid. When the search area crosses for an optimal solution, the use of the UPFC resulted in minimized losses compared with
the advantages of GA are multifunctional—that is, when a locally the static var compensator and thyristor-controlled series cap-
optimal solution is found to an engineering goal, GA adapts its acitor. In terms of reactive power planning, a fuzzy membership-
search to find an optimal global solution, subject to predefined based approach is employed in an interconnected power system
search restrictions [129, 130]. The article shows the results of the to identify weak nodes and determine optimal parameter set-
study of the best size and location for a GA-connected system tings for FACTS devices. The feasibility of this strategy is val-
using bays in Saudi Arabia in West–East regions [131, 132]. Two idated through its solutions and compared with other global
formulas are proposed for capacitor positioning: (i) cost balance optimization approaches. The proposed technique is applied to a
condenser/loss principle and (ii) total system performance cost standard system under high load conditions, resulting in a stable
estimates, standard analysis and verification of annual benefits, system with reduced losses and cost savings. This approach has
power loss and operational tension results [133, 134]. AI is applic- the potential to become a novel technology for effectively coord-
able for various aspects of the power system [135]. Some add- inating FACTS devices with other existing generators. Following

itional papers on power system application of AI in planning are the pandemic, it is expected that governments around the world
presented in Table 5. will prioritize energy efficiency in buildings and smart homes. To
support this, the development of open-source protocols and uni-
fied connectivity solutions is crucial. Smart home systems are
4 Conclusions focused on maximizing the energy efficiency of major household
appliances, thereby contributing to overall energy balance. By
Application of AI in various problems of the operation, control
constructing sustainable homes integrated with smart technolo-
and planning of power systems has shown good performance
gies and a combination of energy sources, significant cost sav-
over conventional methods. ABC algorithms function better than
ings and a reduction in carbon footprints can be achieved. While
other AI techniques in the ELD problem, as shown in a com-
smart homes are becoming more common, there are still barriers
parison. The ABC algorithm has the highest-quality solutions,
to widespread adoption that researchers need to address. It em-
consistent convergence and exceptional computing efficiency.
phasizes the potential of smart home companies and highlights
Compared with traditional mathematical models, both GA and
technical challenges such as device compatibility. The review
PSO techniques are superior; the PSO technique is preferable
also discusses the importance of studying consumer attitudes
since GA replaces humans. Unlike GA, PSO models alter humans
and demands, and mentions the limitations of the survey meth-
through time and, in the following generation, all people survive.
odology. Significant scientific results include an algorithm for a
The fate of each person is continually adjusted based on the
modern predictive analytics system, an approach to assess the
global ideal point thus far. The swarming effect in PSO allows the
condition index of the equipment and a method to determine the
population of particles to move collectively in the search space,
probability of defects using ML. The study validated the model
facilitating a more efficient exploration of the solution space and
using data from a hydroelectric power plant, demonstrating its
a faster convergence to optimum search areas compared with GA.
accuracy. Future research can focus on refining the index cal-
PSO is particularly useful for optimization problems with many
culation for equipment with multiple functional units and con-
variables and when the solution space is complex and not well
structing predictive models for specific equipment classes. ML
understood. Additionally, PSO requires minimal computational
and data-driven techniques hold great promise in the field of
resources compared with GA as it does not require the evalu-
power systems, especially in the context of smart grids. These
ation and selection of multiple generations of offspring. In UC,
methods can effectively analyse and process large volumes of
with the increasing time, the execution time is also increasing,
data, resulting in improved accuracy and increased operational
so the combination of many AI techniques can be progressive,
efficiency. However, some challenges need to be addressed, such
as it can potentially increase the efficiency and accuracy of the
as ensuring the quality of the data and interpreting the results
optimization problem. The scalability of any heuristic optimiza-
in a meaningful way. Accurate forecasting plays a vital role in
tion method is a major issue. In the load flow method, the ANFIS
optimizing grid operations, integrating renewable energy sources
and ABC algorithms provide efficient and accurate solutions, and
and achieving cost-effective power generation. ML plays a vital
the implementation of ANNs is fast and can handle missing data
role in transforming traditional grids into smart grids, improving
effectively. In VC, rather than replacing conventional methods,
reliability and safety. It also aids in demand-side management
the focus should be on enhancing their capabilities through the
and enhances cybersecurity.
integration of AI techniques, modern control theory, fuzzy tech-
nology and ANNs, along with adaptive control and expert sys-
tems. This approach, which combines current research trends
with practical experience, has great potential for practical appli-
5 Future scope
cations. In load frequency control, the NARMA-L2 ANN network Evaluating energy costs and making improvements can lead to
architecture provides the best output after some series of trials significant energy savings. Smart technologies have the poten-
and improvements. Under fault conditions, it has been observed. tial to reduce electricity demand and environmental impact.
The fuzzy-PID power output works so that the power systems are Social acceptance of smart home systems needs to be promoted.
fast and stable. Due to the specialization, the fuzzy logic in con- Further research can expand sample sizes, include more diverse
denser placement is better than other approaches. Fuzzy logic countries and explore smart meter readings. Future research
includes the relatively basic technique of calculating the ne- should emphasize the importance of addressing technical, se-
cessary nodes in the distribution system to replace condensers curity and privacy concerns, and call for collaboration between
with approximate reasoning. The results of the study indicate stakeholders to enhance the smart home market. Although the
developed approach offers several benefits, there is still an un- [9] Guan Y, Chaffart D, Liu G, et al. Machine learning in solid het-
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tion index for equipment consisting of multiple functional units. perspectives. Chem Eng Sci, 2022, 248:117224.
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and establishing predictive models to anticipate equipment pilot-scale entrained-flow gasifier using artificial recurrent
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Informatics, 2020, 3:1–59.
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Conflict of interest statement tion with experiences 1 year later. Pers Ubiquitous Comput, 2020,
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan- 24:613–626.
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to influence the work reported in this paper. and ontology-based security service framework for IoT-based
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Clean Energy, 2023, Vol. 7, No.

Applications of artificial intelligence in power system

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Artificial neural Improve voltage

Introduction data scattered throughout power systems. AI can handle large

Received: 15 May 2023. Accepted: 21 July 2023

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predictive analytics tools in the industry, enabling proactive 2 AI techniques

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Table 1: Selection criteria for shortlisted research papers

Parameters Selection criteria Elimination criteria

Domain Power System - Power System - Control Power System -

Applications Economic Load Voltage Control Planning for

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Input Layer Middle Layer

Fig. 2: Simplified diagram of the artificial neural network

Input LAYER1 LAYER2 LAYER3 LAYER4 LAYER5 OUTPUT

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capabilities. From top to bottom, they are very adaptable in their

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Start: Scout bee phase:

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where Y represents the dependent variable; this refers to the

and current input data (input) [56]. hiddent = 〈w

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Table 3: Applications of artificial intelligence in the operation of a power system

Applications Reference Year Objective Technique(s)

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Table 4: Applications of AI in control of a power system

Applications Reference Year Objective Technique(s)

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Table 5: Applications of AI in the planning of a power system

Reference Year Objective Technique(s)

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