CIE Chemistry A-Level

4.2.2 Practical Skills for Paper 3 -

Manipulation, Measurement and
Observation
Notes

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Measurement

Introduction
There are two types of data in chemistry: qualitative and quantitative. ​Quantitative​ data is the kind
of data that can be measured. It is important that these measurements are as accurate and precise
as possible, or the data will be corrupted and may lead to false conclusions to an experiment.
Being ​accurate​ ​and​ ​precise​ will lead to having a good experiment.

Precision
To obtain more precise measurements it is necessary to use equipment that has a high
resolution​, like having a mass balance with more decimal places or a ruler with smaller divisions.
However, having more precise instruments does not mean that data obtained will be closer to the
true value.
Here are some examples of how to take more precise measurements:
● Always take burette readings to the nearest 0.05 cm​3​.
● When using a thermometer of 1ºC resolution, always take measurements to the nearest
0.5ºC.
● Use appropriate measuring instruments, for example do not use a meter rule to measure
the width of a pencil.

Accuracy
Accuracy is the ​closeness​ of the recorded data to the true value. To be more accurate
measurements should be ​repeated​, so it may be necessary to repeat the same experiment several
times to get good data. A student must make a judgement to estimate how long an experiment will
take them, so that they can plan how many times they will repeat their experiment in the time they
are given. Accuracy of an experiment is affected by different types of ​errors​, which all lead to
inaccuracy of the data. Being able to identify possible errors in the experiment and knowing
methods of correcting them is a key skill as a chemist and will definitely be assessed in the
practical part of your course. For example if you have a gas syringe setup in order to collect gas
from a conical flask, one possible error could be that some gas escapes the flask before the bung
is connected. One way to fix this would be to have one of the reagents inside a sample tube upside
down in the conical flask containing the other reagent. The two reagents can then be mixed by
shaking the flask so that the sample tube falls over.

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How to measure different quantities
Burette readings
A titre will be measured by recording the starting volume followed by the final volume, then using:
Titre = Start volume - End volume
Always measure the volume from the bottom of the ​meniscus​, and measure with the level of the
liquid at eye level. This same technique applies to measuring liquids using a graduated cylinder.

PRHaney,​ ​CC BY-SA 3.0​, Image altered from original

Another thing to note about burette readings is that the reading indicates the volume of liquid
‘missing’ from the burette, not the volume of liquid in the burette itself.

Measuring mass
Solids are usually weighed on a weighing boat using a mass balance, this is to prevent
contamination of the pan on the mass balance and contamination of the solid used. Using this
method, however, consistently does not give an accurate value of the mass of solid you are using
in the experiment. This latter reason is why the ‘​weighing-by-difference’ ​method is used: first
weigh the container with the solid in it, then add the solid to the reaction and reweigh the container,
the difference between these two values would be the mass of solid added.

Measuring volume of gas

In some paper 3 experiments it may be
necessary to ​collect a volume of gas​, this
may seem difficult but with the right setup it is
easily achieved using either of the two setups
below. For the setup with the measuring
cylinder, note that the measuring cylinder
must be completely full of water before the
experiment starts. The first diagram shows
the setup using a​ gas syringe​ and the
second diagram shows the setup using an
upside down ​measuring cylinder in a water
trough.

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Once you have set up the apparatus as shown,
you may ​mix the reagents in the conical
flask​ and quickly close the conical flask using
the bung. The gas produced in the reaction will
then collect in the gas syringe or measuring
cylinder.

Measuring pH
A solution’s pH can be measured in two different ways: with a ​pH probe​ or using an ​indicator​ with
a pH scale. Using a pH probe is quite simple, you simply put the probe in the solution you are
testing, wait for a while until the reading is steady and record the pH shown on the digital display.
To get consistent results with a pH probe, the probe must be washed, then ​calibrated​ using buffer
solutions of known pH.

Ildar Sagdejev (Specious)​, ​CC BY-SA 4.0

Using ​pH scales​ to find pH typically has a greater uncertainty and is less precise, but works when
a pH meter is not available or cannot be used. It is suitable for producing ​quick qualitative
results​. To find pH using a scale, add an indicator to the solution (or add solution to paper
containing the indicator), then compare the colour that is produced to a suitable scale. The scale
for universal indicator is shown below. This method is not very accurate as the colour is ​subjective
and people often disagree about which value it matches on the scale.

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 ​Phil Holliday​, ​CC BY-SA 4.0

Measuring colour
Although colour is typically thought of as ​qualitative​ data, colour is a phenomenon that arises due
to the ​absorption of light​, so it can be measured. The colour of a solution of a transition metal ion
typically gives us a good idea of its concentration. First, create a series of solutions of known
concentration with the transition metal ion. Then measure their absorptions using a suitable setup.
Create a ‘​calibration curve​’ which is a graph of the change in absorption with the concentration.
This curve can then be used to identify concentrations of transition metal solutions by their
absorptions.

A way to qualitatively measure colour more effectively is to put a ​white tile​ under the container you
are measuring the colour in, this technique can be used in titrations to better see the endpoint of a
reaction.

Observation
Qualitative​ data is the type that is ​observed​. Things like colour changes or the type of chemical
present cannot be described with a number. In an experiment it is important to write down every
change seen, even if it seems insignificant, it may come into play when you make your conclusions
and analysis. It is also important that everything you do is written down: the changes made to the
experiment should be recorded exactly so that observations and measurements can be repeated.

Anomalous data
A chemistry student should be able to recognise ​anomalous​ data, any data that does not fit the
current ​trend​ is anomalous. If a student is performing a rates of reaction experiment and they
decrease the concentration of a first order reactant by a small amount, we would expect the rate of
reaction to slightly decrease, if instead the rate of reaction recorded shows a large increase the
student should suspect that an error has been made. This data point should be marked as
anomalous.

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 CIE Chemistry A-Level

4.2.2 Practical Skills for Paper 3 -

Presentation of Data and Observations
Notes

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Presentation of data and observations

Data Tables
Tables of data are the most common form of recording observations in chemistry. This type of data
is referred to as ​qualitative data​. A table should be set up before the experiment starts, and
should have the correct rows so that there is enough space to record all of your observations. A
student must therefore have a good idea of how many observations they will make as well as what
they will be observing. Tables can contain ​quantitative​ or qualitative data or both, they help to
organise the data so conclusions can more easily be made. The table below is an example of a
table containing qualitative data.

Solution A Solution B Solution C

Test with AgNO​3 No reaction White Precipitate Yellow Precipitate

Test with Ba(NO​3​)​2 White Precipitate No reaction No reaction

Test with NH​3 Blue precipitate Pink/Buff precipitate Green Precipitate

Using the above table, we can conclude that solution A contains CuSO​4​, solution B contains MnCl​2​,
and solution C contains FeI​2​. Always bring a ruler and pencil to the exam in order to draw these
tables.

Graphs

Introduction
A ​table ​is a good way of ​recording results ​and ​observations​ during the experiment and for
qualitative data​ it is also a good way of ​presenting ​the data. However, for ​quantitative data​, a
graph ​is generally best used to present the data, as it clearly shows patterns and trends and how
the dependent variable varies with the independent variable.

Drawing graphs
You will not only need to be able to​ read and interpret​ graphs given to you in the exam, you may
also be expected to ​draw ​a graph from a set of data given. Here are some important tips for
drawing graphs:
● Always use a ​sharpened pencil​ and ​ruler ​to draw the axis and line of best fit.
● Label ​the ​axis ​with its variable and its ​units.
● Draw your graph a​ sensible size.
○ Use up at least half of the graph paper given.
● Use a sensible ​scale.
● The ​dependent variable​ goes on the ​vertical y axis.
● The ​independent variable​ goes on the ​horizontal x axis.
● Determine the ​ranges ​of the axis so you can include all the data points collected.
● Give the graph an appropriate ​title .
● Indicate any ​anomalies ​but identify them as anomalous.
○ Ignore these when drawing your line of best fit.

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 ● Draw a​ line of best fit​ if possible.
○ The ‘line’ could be ​straight or curved. ​If the line of best fit is not a straight line, a
freehand continuous curve must be drawn.
○ Never ​just connect the points like a dot-to-dot.
○ Bring a long, ​clear ​ruler to the exam so you can see the data points when drawing a
straight line of best fit.

A helpful way to remember which axis the independent and dependent variables go on is to
imagine the letters ‘I’ and ‘D’ sat on their respective axis as shown:

Shown below is an example graph drawn for the following table of results:
Notice that the ​units​ of measurements are only included in the title of each column. Each
measurement of the same type must be given to the same ​degree of accuracy ​- e.g. in the table
below, each weight value is given to three significant figures. The ​graph​ to represent this data:

Length Weight
(cm) (g)

10 35.0

15 38.5

25 50.0

33 58.0

40 65.0

45 100

58 88.0

59 85.0

70 96.0

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An example conclusion:
The data collected shows that as the length of oak leaves increases, the weight of them also
increases linearly. For instance, a leaf which measured 10 cm weighed only 35.0 g whereas a leaf
which measured 59 cm weighed 85.0 g. The explanation for this is that longer leaves have a larger
surface area and, therefore, a greater mass. If I were to repeat this experiment I would measure
longer leaves to investigate whether the trend remains the same and if it remains linear for lengths
past 80 cm.

This conclusion includes:

● The ​pattern/trend
● Data points ​to illustrate the trend
● A ​scientific explanation​ for the trend
● A short ​evaluation

Exam questions
As well as drawing graphs you will need to be able to ​interpret and read graphs​ given to you in
the exam. Possible skills you could be tested on include:
● Reading data points​ off a graph
● Drawing ​an appropriate​ line of best fit
○ Remember it may not be straight!
● Suggesting the​ type of graph​ you would use for a given set of data
○ General rule of thumb - if ​quantitative ​use a​ scatter graph​, if ​qualitative ​use a ​bar
chart.
● Identifying ​patterns ​and ​trends
● Drawing conclusions​ from the graph which must include ​referencing data points
● Comparing ​2 similar graphs
○ For instance, comparing 2 graphs which have the same dependent and independent
variables but a different subject of study (e.g. for the example above, comparing that
graph to another graph which shows the lengths and weights for a different species
of leaf).

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 CIE Chemistry A-Level

4.2.2 Practical Skills for Paper 3 -

Analysis, Conclusions and Evaluation
Notes

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Analysis

Intro
It is necessary to perform analysis of the data after an experiment has been completed so that
conclusions may be drawn from the experiment. We must analyse many aspects of the
experiment, not just the obviously conclusive ones. Some important analyses may include
determining the percentage uncertainty in some of our conclusive values, percentage purity of a
solid, atom economy of a reaction and percentage yield. These latter calculations will not get us
our main conclusive value, but will help us to confirm the validity and efficiency of our experiment.

Calculations
Some general calculations you may need to complete to evaluate an experimental procedure:

Determining percentage uncertainty

The percentage uncertainty is a way to calculate errors in the reaction, and how much they will
affect the final calculated value.

Absolute uncertainty is the ‘​±’ ​range as shown in the examples below:

Example 1:
A 250 cm​3​ volumetric flask has an error of ​±​0.10cm​3​. What is the maximum percentage error of the
volumetric flask?

Example 2:
A burette has a percentage error of ​± 0.05 cm​3​. A titre was calculated to be 28.40 cm​3​. What is the
total percentage error of this measurement?
For this calculation the 0.05 uncertainty has to be doubled as two measurements are taken when a
burette reading is calculated - the volume at the start and the volume at the end.

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Percentage yield
The expected yield can be determined from the initial masses of the reactants and the overall
equation of the reaction. The actual yield is measured by weighing of the final product produced.

Atom economy
To work out the efficiency at which our reaction produces the desired product of the experiment,
we must calculate the atom economy of the reaction, there may be other routes to produce the
desired product that are more efficient.

Example​:
Hydrogen can be produced from methane in the following reaction.
CH​4​ + H​2​O → 3H​2​ + CO
What is the atom economy for the production of hydrogen?

Finding the gradient of a straight line

To find the gradient of a straight line, the coordinates of two points on the line must first be known,
let these two points be: (x​1​ , y​1​) and (x​2​ , y​2​). Thus:

change in y = y​2​ – y​1

change in x = x​2​ – x​1

The gradient of a straight line may need to be found in order to determine the constant of a rate
equation, for example the gradient of a concentration-rate graph would give this value.

Percentage purity
It might be the object of an experiment to find the percentage purity of a given impure mixture, like
an iron tablet, this is normally done by titration to find the actual mass of the desired substance

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present in the impure mixture. Finding the purity of reactants can be done on the side of the main
experiment in order to better estimate the expected yield of the main experiment.

Conclusions and Evaluation

Once all of your data has been collected and you have made your analysis, conclusions can be
made. These may be drawn from the shapes of graphs that may show certain trends, or values
given by the analysis. To make a successful conclusion, the results of the analysis must be looked
at in the context of the experiment as a whole and this conclusion can then be interpreted in the
context of our world. What impact does this conclusion have on our world? Is the experiment
accurate enough for it’s conclusion to be valid? Does the experiment need to be repeated or
improved? These latter questions are asked in the evaluation part of the experiment. It is vitally
important that all observations are written down in the experiment as it makes evaluating the
method much easier.

Conclusion
An experiment is concluded, at A-Level, by comparing against known observations/values or by
making judgements based on calculated results like percentage purity or the equation of a straight
line. A calculated R​f​ value of an organic product from a synthesis would be compared to known R​f
values of the expected product to assess if the correct product was made, this would then lead to
the conclusion that the correct product was made, or that it was not.

Significant figures
It is also important that conclusive values are written to the correct number of significant figures.
This is done by looking at the number that you have used in the calculation that has the least
number of significant figures, this is the maximum number of significant figures you may use when
presenting your conclusive value. Use the following calculation as an example:
n = 0.709 mol
p = 101400 pa
T = 278.9 K
V=?
pV=nRT
101400V = 0.709 × 8.314 × 278.9
V = 0.0162 m3​

Although most of the values used in the equation are to 4 significant figures, the number of moles,
n, is only to 3 significant figures, we must therefore present our final value to 3 significant figures.

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Evaluation
Now it is time to assess our experiment, we must look at the whole of our experiment and identify
any possible errors that have occurred, this may be to fix a particular issue like a very low
percentage yield when synthesising organic solids. One example of an error is the false positive
that may be obtained in ion tests from testing for sulphate ions first, where chloride ions could
create a white precipitate and falsely indicate the presence of sulphate ions.

To fix a low percentage yield we must also balance how pure we would like our sample to be.
Every time a solid is recrystallised it’s purity increases, but some product is lost. The same is true
for washing an organic liquid with water in a separating funnel. Other factors that could affect the
yield would be that not all of the reactants reacted (incomplete reaction) or some product was lost
when transferring between containers. Often, the yield is increased by using a different method
which may involve changing the chemicals used in the reaction.

We must also identify all numerical errors in the experiment, like the error in each burette or
thermometer reading. This value is normally half of the resolution of the instrument, for example a
thermometer of resolution 1ºC would have an uncertainty of ±0.5ºC, or a burette with a resolution
of 0.1 cm​3​ would have an uncertainty ±0.05 cm​3​. The percentage uncertainty of each measurement
could therefore be reduced by increasing the value measured, like using a larger volume in a
titration, or a larger mass in an enthalpy change experiment.

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 CIE Chemistry A-Level
Practicals for Papers 3 and 5
Titrations

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Example Method for an acid-base titration
Method
1. Pour approximately
100cm​3​ of the standard
solution of known
concentration into a
beaker.
2. Fill the burette with the
standard solution of
known​​ concentration.
3. Pour approximately
100cm​3​ of the solution
with unknown
concentration into a
second beaker.
4. Using a pipette filler and
pipette to transfer exactly
25cm​3​ of solution into a
250cm​3​ conical flask.
5. Add two to three drops of
phenolphthalein indicator
to the solution in the
conical flask and note the
initial colour of the
indicator.
6. Record the initial burette
reading.
7. Titrate the contents of the
conical flask by adding
solution to it from the
burette until the indicator
undergoes a definite,
permanent ​colour
change​​. Record the final
burette reading in your
table of results. Calculate
the titre volume (change
in volume in the burette).
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Accuracy
● Use a ​clean​​, ​dry​​ beaker.
● Rinse​​ the burette before
using a small volume of the
solution.
● Make sure the ​jet space​​ in
the burette is ​filled​​ and
doesn’t contain air bubbles.
● Use a clean, dry beaker.
● Rinse the 25cm​3​ pipette with
the solution of ​unknown
concentration.
● The conical flask should
been rinsed with deionised
water.
● Make sure that all your
burette readings are to the
appropriate precision and
are read from the bottom of
the ​meniscus​​.
● Add the solution slowly,
swirling​​ the flask gently to
mix the solution.
● Add the solution dropwise
near the ​end-point​​.
● Use a white tile underneath
the flask to help observe the
colour change.
Explanation
If the jet space is not filled it will
lead to errors if it then fills
during the titration, leading to a
larger than expected titre
reading.
A conical flask is used in
preference to a beaker because
it is easier to swirl the mixture in
a conical flask without spilling
the contents.
Only ​a few​​ drops of indicator is
required. If too much is added it
will affect the titration result.
Distilled water can be used
during a titration to wash the
sides of the flask so that all
reactants are washed into the
mixture. This water does not
affect the titration as it doesn’t
change the number of moles of
each reactant.
8. Repeat​​, calculate and ● You should normally carry
record the volume of out at least ​three​​ titrations.
solution used in the
titration in a table (titre
volume). Repeat until two
concordant results are
obtained. Record all of
the results that you
obtain.

Conical flask/burette:
● If solution A is titrated ​against ​solution B, it means that solution A is in the conical flask and
solution B is in the burette.
● The alkali usually in conical flask.

Titration Tables (Results):

● lf 2 or 3 values are within 0.10cm​3​ and are therefore ​concordant​​, then the results are
accurate and reproducible and the titration technique is good or consistent.
● Results should be clearly recorded in a​ table​​.
● Rows on the table should be: initial burette reading, final burette reading and titre, all in cm​3​.
● Columns on the table should be the different trials labelled numerically.
● Tick the two concordant titres.
● Record titre volumes to ​2dp ​(0.05 cm​3​).
● Only make an average titre volume using the concordant titre results.

Safety precautions:

● Acids and alkalis are corrosive (at low concentrations acids are irritants).
● Wear ​eye protection and gloves​​.
● If spilled immediately wash affected parts after spillage.
● If a substance is unknown, treat it as potentially toxic and wear gloves.

Titrating mixtures:

● If titrating a mixture to work out the concentration of an active ingredient, it is necessary to

consider if the mixture contains other substances that have acid-base properties and could
affect the reaction.
● If they don’t have acid-base properties we can titrate with confidence.

Testing batches:

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 ● In quality control it will be necessary to do titrations or testing on several samples as the
concentration and amount of the chemical being tested may vary between samples.

Uncertainties:

● Uncertainty of a measurement using a burette.

● If the burette used in the titration had an uncertainty for each reading of +/– 0.05 cm​3​ then
during a titration, two readings are taken making the ​overall​​ uncertainty on the titre volume
+/– 0.10 cm​3​​ ​.
● Often, another 0.05 cm​3​ is added on because of uncertainty identifying the end point colour
change.

Reducing uncertainties in a titration:

● Replacing measuring cylinders with pipettes or burettes which have lower apparatus
uncertainty will lower the overall error.
● To ​reduce the uncertainty​​ in a burette reading the titre volume needs to be made ​larger​​.
This could be done by: increasing the volume and concentration of the substance in the
conical flask or by decreasing the concentration of the substance in the burette.
● Leaving NaOH in the burette will cause damage to the apparatus which could lead to
errors.

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 CIE Chemistry A-Level
Practicals for Papers 3 and 5
Enthalpy Change & Measuring Temperature

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Measuring Temperature

In an enthalpy change practical, the temperature change needs to be

accurately measured. This is done by ​minimising heat loss​​ ​or heat gain
from the surroundings. A ​polystyrene cup​​ ​and ​lid​​ is used to insulate the
reaction mixture from surroundings. The stirrer is used to ensure thermal
energy is spread evenly in the reaction mixture. The ​bottom of the
thermometer must be in the reaction mixture​​. An ​electronic
temperature sensor​​ ​and data logging software could be used to plot the
graph accurately. If not, ensure you read the scale carefully.

A flame calorimeter could be used to improve accuracy:

● Spiral chimney is made of copper
● Flame is enclosed
● Fuel burns in pure oxygen rather than air

Example temperature change graph

These graphs are constructed to eliminate the error that
is due to heat loss to the surroundings. This gets a ​more
precise temperature change​​ ​from the cooling curve
(for an exothermic reaction). The horizontal reflection in
of the diagram on the left is the heating curve that
occurs in an endothermic reaction. The same principle
applies.

Enthalpy Change

Note that you make the following ​assumptions​​:

● All solutions have the heat capacity of water.
● Neglect the specific heat capacity of the calorimeter, any heat absorbed by the apparatus is
ignored.
● Reaction or dissolving isn’t incomplete or slow.
● Density of solution is taken to be the same as water.
● None of the water could have evaporated.
● Room temperature is unchanged.
● No incomplete combustion if using a fuel.
Due to these assumptions, the value you calculate (whilst being accurate) ​may vary ​from the data
book value for enthalpy.

Before the practical begins, use the method for ​measuring mass​​, to calculate a ​mass of solid
used. Then calculate the moles from (n = M​r​ X m). The energy change is from Q=mc ΔT) where: Q
is ​energy​​ in J (divide by 1000 to convert to kJ), m is ​mass of water​​ ​in grams, c is specific heat
capacity (4.186 for water) and ΔT is temperature change (from graph). To work out enthalpy
change divides the energy (kJ) by moles. If exothermic add a minus, if endothermic add a plus.
Standard units are kJ mol​-1​.

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Method (example: enthalpy change of hydration of CuSO​​4​​)
Method Accuracy Explanation
1. Weigh out between 3.90-4.10 g of ● Wash the containers
anhydrous copper (II) sulfate in a dry, with the solution to be
stoppered weighing bottle. Keep the used.
stock of solid in a closed container ● Dry the cup after
during weighing. The precise mass washing.
should be recorded.
2. Construct a suitable table of results to
allow you to record temperatures at
minute intervals up to 15 minutes.
3. Using a measuring cylinder, place 25 ● Allow the water to stand This ensures they all
cm​3​ of deionised (or distilled) water into for some time. reach room
a polystyrene cup and record its initial ● Stir the liquid temperature, allowing
temperature (t=0). Start the timer and continuously. a better average
then continue to record the ● Place the polystyrene temperature to be
temperature each minute, for three cup in a beaker for extra obtained.
minutes. insulation and support. Polystyrene beakers
● Clamp thermometer into make good
place ensuring that the calorimeters because
bulb is immersed in they are good
liquid. (see diagram) insulators and have
● If the two reactants are high specific heat
solutions then the capacities.
temperature of both
solutions need to be
measured before
addition and an average
temperature is used.
4. At the fourth minute, add the powdered ● Add the powdered
anhydrous copper (II) sulfate to the anhydrous copper (II)
water in the polystyrene cup and but sulfate rapidly.
do not​​ record the temperature. At the ● Using a lid on the
fifth minute continue the temperature polystyrene cup can
readings at minute intervals, up to help to minimise heat
fifteen minutes. Stir the solution in the loss and maximise
polystyrene cup as this is done. change in temperature.

5. Plot a graph of temperature (on the ● Use a large scale on the

y-axis) against time. Draw two graph.
separate best fit lines; one, which joins
the points before the addition, and one,
which joins the points after the
addition. Extrapolate both lines to the
fourth minute. (see diagram)
6. Use your graph to determine the See example
temperature change at the fourth temperature change
minute, which theoretically should have graph above.
occurred immediately on addition of the
solid.

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 CIE Chemistry A-Level
Practicals for Papers 3 and 5
Gases Evolved

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Qualitative test for a gas

● Bubbles ​are observed

● If you hold a finger above a test tube and see pressure build up in the tube this indicates a
gas
● Note you must wear CLEAPSS approved ​gloves​​ and work in ​fume cupboard​​, if in doubt of
identity of gas, in case gas is harmful or toxic.

Testing for commonly used gases

Hydrogen Oxygen Carbon Ammonia Chlorine
dioxide
Less dense than yes no no yes no
air
More dense no slightly yes no yes
than air
Solubility in very low low low very high moderate
water

Take these data into account when testing gases. For example, ​less​​ dense gases will ​rise ​so must
be sealed in a bun ​upside down​​ or they’re lost and denser gases will sink. Also gases like
ammonia are unlikely to be evolved from a liquid under standard conditions because it’s very
soluble.

Test for Hydrogen (H​​2​)​

A lit wooden splint makes a ​squeaky popping sound​​ in a test tube of hydrogen.

Test for Oxygen (O​​2​)​

A glowing wooden splint ​relights​​ in a test tube of oxygen.

Test for Carbon dioxide (CO​​2​)​

To test the effervescence for carbon dioxide, pass the gas through calcium hydroxide solution
(limewater). Carbon dioxide​ turns limewater cloudy​​ white as solid calcium carbonate precipitates.

Test for Ammonia (NH​​3​)​

Ammonia has a characteristic strong, choking smell. It also makes ​damp red litmus paper turn
blue​​. Ammonia forms a white smoke of ammonium chloride when hydrogen chloride gas, from
concentrated hydrochloric acid, is held near it.
Experimental advice:
● Ensure the litmus paper is ​damp ​and not dry, by adding a bit of distilled water to it.

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 ● Don’t​​ let the litmus paper touch the test tube as alkali on the sides may cause the colour
change to blue, which is a false positive for ammonia gas.
● Keep litmus paper ​1cm away​​ from test tube
● State that ​red​​ litmus paper is being used not just litmus, as blue litmus paper also exists.

Test for Chlorine (Cl​​2​)​

Chlorine has a characteristic strong, ​choking smell​​. It also makes damp blue litmus paper turn
red, and then ​bleaches it white​​. Chlorine makes damp starch-iodide paper turn blue-black.

NaOH heated with Al metal

Ammonia will likely be liberated if nitrate ions are present.

Sulfur dioxide (SO​​2​)​

A qualitative test is the smell of ​rotten eggs​​. Other tests include paper dipped in potassium
dichromate will go from orange to green and damp blue litmus paper will turn red.

NO​​2

If you place a bung on a reaction of acid and nitrate ions test tube, a build-up of NO​2​ will cause the
sides of the test tube to go a pale brown. When the bung is released, a visible (on a white
background) ​pale brown gas​​ is released.

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 CIE Chemistry A-Level
Practicals for Papers 3 and 5
Evaporation & Crystallisation

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What is evaporation and crystallisation?
It is simply heating a hydrous salt and until ​all​​ the water evaporates and then calculating the mass
of water that has evaporated.

Experiment Advice:

● Heat using an electric heater ​gently​​.​ ​This is to ensure that the crystals do not decompose
under heating. (You can use Bunsen burner but adjust heating to ensure boiling isn’t too
vigorous.). For example, compounds such as nitrates will decompose on heating to for a
pale brown gas of nitrogen dioxide. Gentle heating ensures the percentage yield remains
high.
● Heat and weigh mass of solid crystals at ​intervals​​. When the weighed mass becomes
constant​​ you can finish. Mass becomes constant because all the water has evaporated.
● Use ​before and after weighing method​​ - see measuring mass document.

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