CN Unit 1 - 2

Computer Network-Unit 1 2024
INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION

TOPICS:
Data communication and its components, Data Representation, Data Flow, Network Criteria,
Types of Connection, Physical Topology, Categories of Network, Study of OSI Model
1. Data Communication:
 Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.
 For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and
software (programs).
 The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received
by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are
produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This
kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets.
For Example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets
arrive with 30 ms delay and others with 40 ms delay, an even quality in the video is the
result.
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2. Components of Data Communication:

 A data communications system has five components.
a) Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of

information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
b) Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
c) Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
d) Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a
message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
e) Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be
understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.
3. Data Representation:
A network is a collection of different devices connected and capable of communicating. For
example, a company's local network connects employees' computers and devices like
printers and scanners. Employees will be able to share information using the network and
also use the common printer/ scanner via the network. Data to be transferred or
communicated from one device to another comes in various formats like audio, video, etc.
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This tutorial explains how different data types are represented in a computer and
transferred in a network.
Different Data types in a computer network:

1. Texts
2. Numbers
3. Images
4. Videos
5. Audios
1) Textual data:
Data in text format is represented using bit patterns (combinations of two binary bits - 0 and 1).
Textual data is nothing but a string, and a string is a collection of characters. Each character is given
a specific number according to an international standard called Unicode. The process of allocating
numbers to characters is called "Coding," and these numbers are called "codes". Now, these codes are
converted into binary bits to represent the textual data in a pattern of bits, and these bits are
transferred as a stream via the network to other devices.
Unicode:
It is the universal standard of character encoding. It gives a unique code to almost all the characters
in every language spoken in the world. It defines more than 1 40 000 characters. It even defined codes
for emojis. The first 128 characters of Unicode point to ASCII characters. ASCII is yet another
character encoding format, but it has only 128 codes to 128 characters. Hence, ASCII is a subset of
Unicode.
File extensions:
.doc, .docx, .pdf, .txt, etc.
For example:
Word: H
Unicode representation: U+0048
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2. Numerical data
Numbers are directly converted into binary patterns by dividing by 2 without any encoding. The
numbers we want to transfer generally will be of the decimal number system- ( )10. We need to
convert the numbers from ( )10 to a binary number system - ( )2 to get a bit stream.
Number formats:
Integers
Date
Boolean
Decimal
Fixed point
Floating point
Example:
Number: 780
Binary representation: 1100001100
3. Image
Image data is also transferred as a stream of bits like textual data. An image, also called a picture, is
a collection of little elements called "Pixels". A single pixel is the smallest addressable element of a
picture, and it is like a dot with a size of 1/96 inch/ 0.26 mm. The dimensions of an image are given
by the number of pixels along the height of the image X Number of pixels along the width of the
image.
Representation in a computer:
Grayscale images:
A black-and-white/ Grayscale image consists of white, black, and all the shades in between. It can be
considered as just the varying intensity of the White color. The intensity of the white color in a
pixel is given by numbers called "Pixel values". The pixel value in a Grayscale image can be in the
range of 0 to 255, where 0 represents Black and 255 represents White, and all the numbers in the
interval represent different shades. A matrix is created for the image with pixel values of all the pixels
in the image. This matrix is called a "Channel".
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Colored images:
Each pixel comprises three transistors representing three standard colors: Red, Green, and Blue
(RGB), Yellow, Cyan, and Magenta (YCM). Any color known can be generated by using these three
colors. Based on the intensity of a color in the pixel, three matrices/ channels for each color are
generated.
Suppose there is a colored image, and three matrices are created for Red, Green, and Blue colors in
each pixel in the image:
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The first pixel's intensities of Red, Green and Blue colors are [141, 35, 31]. In this way, every pixel is
analyzed and converted into binary bits, and this bit stream is transferred to any other device in the
network to communicate the image. N-bit streams are used to represent 2N possible colors. From 0
to 255, we can represent 256 shades of color with different 8-bit patterns.
For example, an image consists of only either black or white colors, only one bit will be enough to
represent the pixels:
White - 1
Black – 0
File extensions:
.jpg, jpeg, .png, etc.
4. Audios
Transferring an audio signal is different from other formats. Audio is broadcasting recorded sound
or music. An audio signal is generated as an analog wave, converted into digital format to be
stored in a computer by representing the wave amplitude at moments in bits. Another parameter is
the sample rate. It represents the number of samples or, in other words, samples saved.
The audio quality depends on the sampling rate and the bit rate. If more bits are used to represent
the amplitudes in moments and more moments are captured accurately, we can save the audio with
every detail accurately.
File extensions:
.mp3, .m4a, .WAV, .AAC, etc.
5. Videos
A video is a collection of frames; each frame is a picture with the same or different dimensions.
These frames/ images are represented as matrices, as we discussed above. All the frames/ images
are displayed continuously, one after the other, to show a video in movement. To represent a video,
the computer will analyze data about the video like:
1. FPS (Frames per second)
2. Duration of the video
3. Image resolution (Number of pixels Horizontally X Vertically)
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4. Bit depth (Number of bits required to represent a pixel -> number of colors)
A video is mostly combined with an audio component, like a film or a video game.
File extensions:
.mp4, .MOV, .AVI, etc.
4. Data Flow (Communication Modes):

 It defines the direction of data flow between two linked devices.
 The manner or way in which data is transmitted from one place to another is called data
communication mode.
 There are three ways for transmitting data from one location to another. These are
a) Simplex Mode
b) Half-Duplex Mode and
c) Full-Duplex Mode
a) Simplex Mode:
 In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only
one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
 Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard
can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode can
use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
 The other examples of simplex communication modes are Radio and T.V
transmissions.
Advantages:
i. Very simple and easy communication method.

ii. Cheaper in Cost.
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Disadvantages:
I. Only allows for communication in one direction.

II. Simplex transmission is not often used because it is not possible to send back error
to the transmit end.
b) Half Duplex Mode:
 In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
 When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa
 The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions.
 When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait. In a half-
duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the
two devices is transmitting at the time.
 Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.
 The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both
directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each
direction.
Advantages:
i. Enable to two-way communication.
ii. Low cost than full duplex communication mode.
Disadvantages:
i. Only one device can transmit at a time.

ii. High cost than simplex mode.
c) Full Duplex Mode:

 In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
 The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the
same time.
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 In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with signals
going in the other direction.
 One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two
people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
 The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time.
The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Advantages:
i. Enables two way communications simultaneously.

ii. Fastest method of data communication.
Disadvantages:
i. More expensive and complex method.

ii. Two bandwidth channels is required for data transmission.
5. Network Criteria
The major criteria that a Data Communication Network must meet are:
a. Performance
b. Consistency
c. Reliability
d. Recovery
e. Security
a. Performance
Performance is defined as the rate of transferring error free data. It is measured by the Response
Time. Response Time is the elapsed time between the end of an inquiry and the beginning of a
response. Request a file transfer and start the file transfer. Factors that affect Response Time are:
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 Number of Users: More users on a network - slower the network will run
 Transmission Speed: speed that data will be transmitted measured in bits per second
(bps)
 Media Type: Type of physical connection used to connect nodes together
 Hardware Type: Slow computers such as XT or fast such as Pentiums
 Software Program: How well is the network operating system (NOS) written
b. Consistency
Consistency is the predictability of response time and accuracy of data.
 Users prefer to have consistent response times; they develop a feel for normal operating
conditions. For example: if the "normal" response time is 3 sec. for printing to a Network
Printer and a response time of over 30 sec happens, we know that there is a problem in the
system!
 Accuracy of Data determines if the network is reliable! If a system loses data, then the users
will not have confidence in the information and will often not use the system.
c. Reliability
Reliability is the measure of how often a network is useable. MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures)
is a measure of the average time a component is expected to operate between failures. Normally
provided by the manufacturer. A network failure can be: hardware, data carrying medium and
Network Operating System.
d. Recovery
Recovery is the Network's ability to return to a prescribed level of operation after a network
failure. This level is where the amount of lost data is nonexistent or at a minimum. Recovery is
based on having Back-up Files.
e. Security
Security is the protection of Hardware, Software and Data from unauthorized access.
Restricted physical access to computers, password protection, limiting user privileges and
data encryption are common security methods. Anti-Virus monitoring programs to defend
against computer viruses are a security measure.
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6. Types of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications
pathway that transfers data from one device to another. There are two possible types of
connections:
 Point-to-point
 Multipoint.
Point-to-Point
 A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
 The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices.
 Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect
the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also
possible.
 When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are
establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the
television’s control system.
Multipoint
 A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two
specific devices share a single link.
 In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially
or temporally.
 If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
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7. Physical Topology
a. Introduction:
 Network Topology refers to layout of a network. How different nodes in a network are
connected to each other and how they communicate is determined by the network’s
topology.
 Topologies are either physical (the physical layout of devices on a network) or logical (the
way that the signals act on the network media, or the way that the data passes through the
network from one device to the next).
b. Definition:
Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting
various nodes (sender and receiver) through lines of connection.
OR
A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices
are connected to each other.
OR
It is geometric arrangement of computer and its devices in a network.
c. Types of Physical Topology:
Fig: Types of physical (Network) Topology

1. Point to Point (P2P)
 Point-to-point topology is the easiest of all the network topologies.
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 In this method, the network consists of a direct link between two computers.
Fig: P2P Topology

Advantages:
 This is faster and highly reliable than other types of connections since there is a direct
connection.
 No need for a network operating system
 Does not need an expensive server as individual workstations are used to access the files
 No need for any dedicated network technicians because each user sets their permissions
Disadvantages:
 The biggest drawback is that it only be used for small areas where computers are in close
proximity.
 You can’t back up files and folders centrally
 There is no security besides the permissions. Users often do not require to log onto their
workstations.
2. Bus Topology:
 A bus topology is multipoint
 Bus Topology is a network setup in which each computer and network devices are connected
to a single cable or backbone. Bus uses a common backbone to connect all devices.
 Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
 A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable.
 A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a
cable to create a contact with the metallic core.
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 A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast
message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually
accepts and processes the message.
 Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in only one direction
and as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes the data from the line.
Fig: Bus Topology

Advantages of bus topology:
 Low cost
 It works well when you have a small network.
 Easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a linear fashion.
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of bus topology:

 Difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
 It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
 Not great for large networks.
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 Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
 Additional devices slow the network down.
 If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.
 Heavy network traffic slows down the bus speed .In bus topology only one computer can
transmit & other have to wait till their turn comes & there is no co-ordination
between computers for reservation of transmitting time slot.
3. Star Topology:
 In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub.
 The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology
does not allow direct traffic between devices.
 The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the
data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device.
Fig: Star Topology
Advantages of Star topology:

 A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only
one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others.
 Easy to install and reconfigure.
 Robustness, if one link fails; only that link is affected. All other links remain active. This
factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation.
 Highly reliable.
 Adding new node is very easy.
 Failure of any node does not affect the network.
 Troubleshooting is very easy.
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Disadvantages of Star topology:
 One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one
single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
 Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a central
hub. For this reason, often more cabling is required in a star than in some other
topologies (such as ring or bus).
4. Ring Topology:
 In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the
two devices on either side of it.
 A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches
its destination.
 Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended
for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
 In ring topology network arrangement, a signal is transferred sequentially using TOKEN
from one station to another. If station wants to transmit, it “grabs” the token, attaches
data and a destination address to it, and sends it around the ring.
 The TOKEN travels along the ring until it reaches its destination. Once TOKEN reaches
destination, receiving computer acknowledges receipt with a return message to the
sender.
 The sender then releases the token for the token for use by another computer.
 Ring topology is a point to point network.
TOKEN: Token is a special three bytes’ frame that travels around the ring network. It can flow
clockwise or anticlockwise.
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Fig: Ring Topology
Advantages of Ring topology:
 The adding or removing of network nodes is easy, as the process requires changing
only two connections.
 The data being transmitted between two nodes passes through all the intermediate
nodes. A central server is not required for the management of this topology
 Here, since the system provides point to point flow of data i.e. the data is moving in
one direction from one computer to another i.e. active topology, hence no collision
occurs in the system.
 Cable faults are easily identified.
 Packet or data delivery is guaranteed.
 Every computer is having equal priority.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
 Unidirectional traffic
 In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire
network.
 Slow in speed.
 Reconfiguration is needed to add one node; whole network must be down first.
 Difficult for troubleshooting the ring.
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5. Tree Topology:
 As its name implies in this topology devices makes a tree structure.
 Tree topology integrates the characteristics of star and bus topology.
 In this topology, the numbers of star networks are connected using Bus. This main cable
seems like a main stem of a tree, and other star networks as the branches.
 It is also called expanded star topology.
 Tree topology allows for the expansion of an existing network and enables schools to
configure a network to meet their needs.
Fig: Tree Topology
Advantages of Tree Topology:

 Easy to install and configure.
 Fast as compare to other topologies.
 Multiple devices can transfer data without collision.
 It is an extension of Star and bus Topologies, so in networks where these topologies
can’t be implemented individually for reasons related to scalability, tree topology is
the best alternative.
 Expansion of Network is possible and easy.
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 Here, we divide the whole network into segments (star networks), which can be
easily managed and maintained.
 Error detection and correction is easy.
 Each segment is provided with dedicated point-to-point wiring to the central hub. If
one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology:

 Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies heavily on the main bus cable, if it
breaks whole network is shut down.
 As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes difficult.
 Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.
6. Mesh Topology:
 A network setup where each computer and network device is interconnected with
one another, allowing for most transmissions to be distributed even if one of the
connections goes down.
 It is a topology commonly used for wireless networks.
 A mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially connected mesh

topology.
 In a full mesh topology, every computer in the network has a connection to each of
the other computers in that network. The number of connections in this network can
be calculated using the following formula (n is the number of computers in the
network): n(n-1)/2
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 In a partially connected mesh topology, at least two of the computers in the network
have connections to multiple other computers in that network. It is an inexpensive
way to implement redundancy in a network. In the event that one of the primary
computers or connections in the network fails, the rest of the network continues to
operate normally.
Advantages of a mesh topology:
 Manages high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit data
simultaneously.
 A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of data.
 Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other devices.
Disadvantages of a mesh topology:
 The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a less
desirable option.
 Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
 The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs and
potential for reduced efficiency.
7. Hybrid Topology:
 A hybrid topology is a type of network topology that uses two or more differing
network topologies.
 These topologies include a mix of bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology, star
topology, and tree topology.
 In other words, the topology that combines more than two topologies is called as
hybrid topology.
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7.1 Types of Hybrid Network Topologies:

 There are different types of hybrid network topologies depending on the basic
topologies that make up the hybrid and the adjoining topology that interconnects the
basic topologies.
 The following are some of the Hybrid Network Topologies
a) Star-Wired Ring Network Topology:
 In a Star-Wired Ring hybrid topology, a set of Star topologies are connected by a Ring
topology as the adjoining topology.
 Joining each star topology to the ring topology is a wired connection.
A Star-Wired Ring Network Topology
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 In above figure, individual nodes of a given Star topology like Star Topology 1 are
interconnected by a central switch which in turn provides an external connection to
other star topologies through a node A in the main ring topology.
 Information from a given star topology reaching a connecting node in the main ring
topology like A flows either in a bidirectional or unidirectional manner.
 A bidirectional flow will ensure that a failure in one node of the main ring topology
does not lead to the complete breakdown of information flow in the main ring
topology.
b) Star-wired bus Network Topology:
A Star-Wired Bus Network Topology

 A Star-Wired Bus topology is made up of a set of Star topologies interconnected by a
central Bus topology.
 Joining each Star topology to the Bus topology is a wired connection.
 In this setup, the main Bus topology provides a backbone connection that
interconnects the individual Star topologies.
 The backbone in this case is a wired connection.
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Uses of Hybrid Network Topologies:
The decision to use the Hybrid network topology over a basic topology in a network
is mostly based on the organizational needs to be addressed by the network
envisioned. The following are some of the reasons that can make an organization pick
on a hybrid as the preferred network topology.
 Where there is need for Flexibility and Ease of network Growth.
 Network growth is when more network nodes are added to an existing network. A
hybrid network eases addition of new nodes to the network as changes can be done
at the basic network levels as well as on the main network.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology:

1. Reliable: Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting is easy in this
type of topology. The part in which fault is detected can be isolated from the rest of
network and required corrective measures can be taken, WITHOUT affecting the
functioning of rest of the network.
2. Scalable: It’s easy to increase the size of network by adding new components,
without disturbing existing architecture.
3. Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requirements of the
organization and by optimizing the available resources. Special care can be given to
nodes where traffic is high as well as where chances of fault are high
4. Effective: Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more topologies, so we can
design it in such a way that strengths of constituent topologies are maximized while
their weaknesses are neutralized.
Disadvantages of hybrid topology:

1. Complexity of Design: One of the biggest drawbacks of hybrid topology is its
design. It’s not easy to design this type of architecture and it’s a tough job for
designers. Configuration and installation process needs to be very efficient.
2. Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are very expensive.
These hubs are different from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent enough to
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work with different architectures and should be function even if a part of network is
down.
3. Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, they
require a lot of cables; cooling systems, sophisticate network devices, etc.
Selection Criteria:
Network Topology refers to layout of a network. How different nodes in a network are connected
to each other and how they communicate is determined by the networks topology.
Selection criteria for selecting network topology are:

1. Size of the network & number of devices or nodes being connected.
2. Ease of configuration & installing.
3. The ease of adding new device in an existing network.
4. The ease of fault indication & reflection.
5. Number of physical links required to be used for connecting the devices.
6. Need of network connecting devices such as repeaters, switches, hubs etc.
7. Costs involved.
8. Need of security.
9. Need of network administration.
8. Categories of Network:
8.1 Network:
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links.
A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.
8.2 Computer Network:

A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing hardware devices
that are linked together through communication channels to facilitate communication and resource
sharing among a wide range of users.
OR
A computer network is a collection of computer system which can communicate or interact
with each other.
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8.3 Need of Computer Network:

 A computer network, often simply referred as network, is a collection of computers and
devices connected by communication channels that facilitate communication among users
and allow users to share resources with other users.
 We need computer network for following reason:
1. Sharing of information and data over the geographically wide areas.
2. Communication from one computer to the other computer.
3. Sharing the resources such as printer among the network users.
4. Exchange of data and information among the data and users, via the network.
5. Sharing of expensive software and database.
6. For connecting the computers between various buildings of an organization.
7. For educational purposes.
8.4 Application of Computer Network:
 Resource Sharing:
Enable users to share hardware like scanners and printers. This reduces costs by reducing
the number of hardware items bought.
 Information Sharing:
Allow users’ access to data stored on others computers. This keeps everyone up-to-date on
the latest data, since it is all in the same file, rather than having copies of the files, which are
immediately out of date.
 Electronic business:
Users can place orders electronically as needed.
 Interactive entertainment:
Real-time simulation games, like flight simulation, Age of empires etc.
 Transfer of data between various computers.
 Banking
 Video conferencing
 School
 Radio
 Television
 E-mail
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 Financial services
 Marketing and sales
8.5 Categories of Computer Network OR Classification of Computer Network:

Categories of Computer Network are
1. LAN(Local Area Network)
2. MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
3. WAN(Wide Area Network)
4. PAN(Personal Area Network)
1. LAN (Local Area Network):

 LAN is local area network.
 LAN is privately-owned networks covering a small geographic area (less than 1 km), like a
home, office, building or group of buildings.
 LAN transmits data with a speed of several megabits per second.
 They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in company offices
and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.
 LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like printers, shared hard-drive etc.
Characteristics of LAN:
 Every computer has the potential to communicate with any other computers of the network.
 High degree of interconnection between computers.
 Easy physical connection of computer in a network.
 Inexpensive medium of data transmission.
 High data transmission rate.
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Internet
Modem
Switch/Hub
Desktop (Computer 1) Laptop(Computer 2)
Printer
Fig: Local Area Network
Advantages of LAN:
 The reliability of network is high because the failure of the computer in the network does not
affect the functioning for other computers.
 Addition of new computer to network is easy.
 High rate of data transmission is possible.
 Less expensive to install.
Disadvantages:
 Used for small geographical areas (less than 1 KM)

 Limited computers are connected in LAN.
 Special security measures are needed to stop users from using programs and data that they
should have access to network.
 Networks are difficult to setup and need to be maintained by skilled technicians.
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2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):
 A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a large computer network that spans a
metropolitan area or city.
 It was developed in 1980s.It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called MAN and
uses the similar technology as LAN.
 It is smaller than a Wide Area Network (WAN) but larger than a Local Area Network
(LAN).
 A MAN typically covers an area up to 10 km (city).
 The best example of MAN is the cable Television network, available in many cities.
 For an organization, the common use of a MAN is to extend their LAN connectivity
between buildings/offices that are within the same city or urban area (hence the name
Metropolitan Area Network).
Fig: MAN
Characteristics of MAN:
 It generally covers towns and cities.
 Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
Advantages of MAN
 Extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such as fiber
optic cables.
 It provides a good back bone for large network and provides greater access to WANs.
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 MAN spans large geographical area than LAN.
 MAN falls in between the LAN and WAN therefore, increases the efficiency at handling data.
Disadvantages of MAN
 More cable required for a MAN connection from one place to another.
 It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers and industrial espionage (spying)
graphical regions.
3. Wide Area Network (WAN):

 WAN can be private or it can be public leased network.
 WAN is a long-distance communication network that covers a wide geographic area, such as
state or country.
 It is not easy to design and maintain. Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN or
Satellite links.
 WAN operates on low data rates.
 The most common example is internet.
 A WAN provides long-distance transmission of data, voice, image and video information over
larger geographical areas that may comprise a country or even whole world.
Characteristics of WAN
 It generally covers large distances (states, countries, continents).
 Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are connected
by routers.
Advantages of WAN
 Covers a large geographical area so long distance business can connect on the one network.
 Shares software and resources with connecting workstations.
 Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network. These messages can have
picture, sounds or data included with them (called attachments).
 Expensive things (such as printers or phone lines to the internet) can be shared by all the
computers on the network without having to buy a different peripheral for each computer.
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Disadvantages of WAN
 Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the network.
 Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated. The bigger the network the
more expensive it is.
 Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job which requires network supervisors and
technicians to be employed.
 Security is a real issue when many different people have the ability to use information from
other computers. Protection against hackers and viruses adds more complexity and expense.
4. PAN (Personal Area Network):
 It is the smallest network of computers.

 Bluetooth or other infrared-enabled devices could be used to connect devices.
 It has a 10-metre range of connectivity.
 It can cover up to 30 feet in diameter.
 PAN network enables a single person's personal devices to connect with each other.
Fig: PAN (Personal Area Network)
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Compare LAN, MAN and WAN:
Parameter LAN MAN WAN

WAN is Wide area
Stand for LAN is local area network. MAN is Metropolitan
area network network
A Metropolitan Area
LAN is privately-owned WAN is a long-distance
Network (MAN) is a
networks covering a small communication network
large computer
geographic area (less than 1 that covers a wide
Definition network that spans a
km), like a home, office, geographic area, such as
metropolitan area or
building or group of state or country.
city.
buildings
They are widely used to

connect personal
computers and The best example of
The most common
workstations in company MAN is the cable
example is internet.
Used for offices and factories to Television network,
share resources (e.g., available in many
printers) and exchange cities.
information.
Cost Low High Higher
MANs have a lower WANs have a lower data

LANs have a high data
Data Rates data transfer rate transfer rate compared to
transfer rate.
compared to LANs. MANs and LANs.
Speed High Speed Medium Speed Low speed
Bandwidth High Medium Low
Network Size Small Larger Largest
Study of OSI Model:
 The OSI model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization
(ISO) The model is called the ISO-OSI (Open Systems Interconnection).
 Reference Model because it deals with connecting open systems—that is, systems that are
open for communication with other systems.
Page 31
 An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture.
 The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between different
systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.
 The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust and interoperable.
 The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network system that allows
communication between all types of computer system.
 It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the process of
moving information across a network. They are: Application Layer, Presentation Layer,
Session Layer, Transport Layer, Network Layer, Data link Layer and Physical Layer.
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1. Physical Layer:
 Physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI reference model.
 It is responsible for sending bits from one computer to another.
 It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer
contains information in the form of bits.
 It deals with mechanical and electrical specifications of interface and transmission medium.
 For transmission, it defines procedures and functions that devices and transmission medium
has to perform.
Function of Physical Layer:

a) Representation of Bits: Data in this layer consists of stream of bits. The bits must be encoded into
signals for transmission. It defines the type of encoding i.e. how 0’s and 1’s is changed to signal.
b) Data Rate: This layer defines the rate of transmission which is the number of bits per second.
c) Synchronization: It deals with the synchronization of the transmitter and receiver. The sender
and receiver are synchronized at bit level.
d) Interface: The physical layer defines the transmission interface between devices and
transmission medium.
e) Line Configuration: This layer connects devices with the medium: Point to Point configuration
and Multipoint configuration.
f) Topologies: Devices must be connected using the following topologies: Mesh, Star, Ring and Bus.
g) Transmission Modes: Physical Layer defines the direction of transmission between two devices:
Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex.
2. Data Link Layer:

 The second layer of the OSI reference model is Data Link Layer.
 It is responsible for transmitting group of bits between the adjacent nodes. The group of
bits is called as frame.
 Data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one node (hop) to the next.
 The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node
to another, over the physical layer.
Page 33
Functions of data link layer are:
a) Framing: Frames are the streams of bits received from the network layer into manageable
data units. This division of stream of bits is done by Data Link Layer.
b) Physical Addressing: The Data Link layer adds a header to the frame in order to define
physical address of the sender or receiver of the frame, if the frames are to be distributed to
different systems on the network.
c) Flow Control: A flow control mechanism to avoid a fast transmitter from running a slow
receiver by buffering the extra bit is provided by flow control. This prevents traffic jam at the
receiver side.
d) Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a trailer at the end of the frame.
Duplication of frames are also prevented by using this mechanism. Data Link Layers adds
mechanism to prevent duplication of frames.
e) Access Control: Protocols of this layer determine which of the devices has control over the
link at any given time, when two or more devices are connected to the same link.
3. Network Layer:
 It is the third layer of the OSI Reference model.
 It is responsible for routing the packets within the subnet i.e. from source to destination.
 It is responsible for source to destination delivery of individual packets across multiple
networks.
 It ensures that packet is delivered from point of origin to destination
 It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet,
from the number of routes available.
Functions of network layer:

a) Logical addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
b) Routing. The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
c) Congestion control: When more data sent then what can be handled by network, data queues at
routers and switches. This condition on the network is known as congestion. The network layer
provides a mechanism for controlling congestion.
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d) Fragmentation and reassembly: When network layer has big data packet, Network layer must
send big data packets to the data link layer for transmission, but data link layer has limit on the length
of the message size. So network layer split the packet in small segments it called fragmentation and
send small pieces to data link layer. When data link layer sends small pieces of segments to network
layer, network layers assembles all pieces and make big packet is called reassembly.
e) Source host to destination host error free delivery of packet
Transport Layer:
 The fourth and middle layer of the OSI Reference model is transport layer.
 It is responsible for process to process delivery of the entire message.
 The basic function of the Transport layer is to accept data from the layer above, split it up into
smaller units, pass these data units to the Network layer, and ensure that all the pieces arrive
correctly at the other end.
 The services provided by transport layer:
 Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include
 Connection Establishment
 Data Transfer
 Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to
the source after a packet or group of packet is received. This type of transmission is
reliable and secure.
 Connection less service: It is a one phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this
type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This
approach allows for much faster communication between devices. Connection
oriented Service is more reliable than connection less Service.

The functions of the transport layer are:
a) Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, breaks
the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The
transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
b) Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying
this address, transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
c) Flow Control: In this layer, flow control is performed end to end.
d) Error Control: Error Control is performed end to end in this layer to ensure that the complete
message arrives at the receiving transport layer without any error. Error Correction is done through
retransmission.
e) Connection Control: It includes 2 types:
 Connectionless Transport Layer: Each segment is considered as an independent
packet and delivered to the transport layer at the destination machine.
Page 35
 Connection Oriented Transport Layer: Before delivering packets, connection is
made with transport layer at the destination machine.
5. Session Layer:
 The Session Layer allows users on different machines to establish active communication
sessions between them.
 Its main aim is to establish, maintain and synchronize the interaction between
communicating systems.
 This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,
authentication and also ensures security.
Functions of Session Layer

The functions of the session layer are:
a) Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use and terminate a connection.
b) Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered as
synchronization points into stream of data. Example: If a system is sending a file of 800 pages, adding
checkpoints after every 50 pages is recommended. This ensures that 50-page unit is successfully
received and acknowledged. This is beneficial at the time of crash as if a crash happens at page
number 110; there is no need to retransmit 1 to100 pages.
c) Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other
in half-duplex or full-duplex.
6) Presentation Layer:
 It is concerned with syntax, semantics of information exchanged between the two systems.
 It is responsible for data formatting and presenting data for display. It deals with the
presentation of data.
The functions of the presentation layer are:
1. Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
2. Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value
is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
3. Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
7) Application Layer:
 It enables user to access the network. It provides user interfaces and support for services like
email, remote file access.
Functions of Application Layer:

1. Mail Services: This layer provides the basis for E-mail forwarding and storage.
2. Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host. The application creates
software emulation of a terminal at the remote host. User and computer talks to the software
Page 36
terminal which in turn talks to the host and vice versa. Then the remote host believes it is
communicating with one of its own terminals and allows user to log on.
3. Directory Services: This layer provides access for global information about various services.
4. File Transfer, Access and Management (FTAM): It is a standard mechanism to access files and
manages it. Users can access files in a remote computer and manage it. They can also retrieve files
from a remote computer.
Page 37

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Computer Network-Unit 1 2024

INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION

2. Components of Data Communication:

a) Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of

Different Data types in a computer network:

1. FPS (Frames per second)

2. Duration of the video

3. Image resolution (Number of pixels Horizontally X Vertically)

4. Data Flow (Communication Modes):

i. Very simple and easy communication method.

I. Only allows for communication in one direction.

i. Only one device can transmit at a time.

c) Full Duplex Mode:

i. Enables two way communications simultaneously.

i. More expensive and complex method.

c. Types of Physical Topology:

Fig: Types of physical (Network) Topology

Fig: P2P Topology

Fig: Bus Topology

Disadvantages of bus topology:

Fig: Star Topology

Advantages of Star topology:

Fig: Ring Topology

Advantages of Ring topology:

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

Fig: Tree Topology

Advantages of Tree Topology:

Disadvantages of Tree Topology:

 A mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially connected mesh

Advantages of a mesh topology:

Disadvantages of a mesh topology:

7.1 Types of Hybrid Network Topologies:

A Star-Wired Ring Network Topology

A Star-Wired Bus Network Topology

Advantages of Hybrid Topology:

Disadvantages of hybrid topology:

Selection criteria for selecting network topology are:

8.2 Computer Network:

8.3 Need of Computer Network:

8.4 Application of Computer Network:

8.5 Categories of Computer Network OR Classification of Computer Network:

1. LAN (Local Area Network):

Desktop (Computer 1) Laptop(Computer 2)

Fig: Local Area Network

 Used for small geographical areas (less than 1 KM)

3. Wide Area Network (WAN):

 WAN operates on low data rates.

 The most common example is internet.

4. PAN (Personal Area Network):

 It is the smallest network of computers.

Fig: PAN (Personal Area Network)

Parameter LAN MAN WAN

They are widely used to

Cost Low High Higher

MANs have a lower WANs have a lower data

Study of OSI Model:

Function of Physical Layer:

2. Data Link Layer:

Functions of network layer:

Functions of Session Layer

Functions of Application Layer:

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