Object Oriented Programming

Interview Questions Ch-4

1. What are the two types of functions in Python?
There are two types of functions in Python: built-in functions and user-defined functions.
Built-in functions are functions that are already defined in the Python language, such as
the print() function. User-defined functions are functions that are created by the user,
and they can be created to do anything that the user wants them to do.
2. When should you use anonymous functions, and when should
you use regular ones?
This question has no definitive answer, as it depends on the specific situation and your
goal. However, a general rule of thumb is that anonymous functions are best used for
simple tasks that can be easily expressed in a single line of code. On the other hand,
regular functions are better suited for more complex tasks requiring multiple lines of
code.
3. Why does Python support both positional and keyword
arguments to its functions?
Python supports both positional and keyword arguments in order to give developers
more flexibility when designing their functions. Positional arguments are those that are
passed in by position without explicitly specifying the parameter name. Keyword
arguments are those that are passed in by explicitly specifying the parameter name.
Python allows for both types of arguments so that developers can choose the approach
that makes the most sense for their particular function.
4. Is it possible to pass a variable number of arguments to a
function in Python? If yes, then how?
Yes, passing a variable number of arguments to a function in Python is possible. This
can be done using the *args and **kwargs parameters. *args allows for a variable
number of non-keyworded arguments to be passed to a function, while **kwargs allows
for a variable number of keyworded arguments to be passed.
5. Can you explain what recursion is and why it’s useful?
Recursion is a function that calls itself. It’s useful because it allows you to break down a
problem into smaller, more manageable pieces.
6. What is tail recursion?
Tail recursion is a type of recursion where the last statement in the function is a
recursive call. This is important because it allows the interpreter to optimize the function
by not having to keep track of the current state of the function since it can simply jump
to the beginning of the function and start again.
7. Can you explain the difference between named parameters and
keyword parameters in Python?
In Python, named parameters are those that are assigned a name in the function
definition, while keyword parameters are those that are assigned a value when the
function is called. For example, in the following function definition, the parameter x is a
named parameter, while the parameter y is a keyword parameter:
def func(x, y=5):
pass
In this example, the parameter y will always have the value 5 when the function is called
unless a different value is explicitly provided.
8. What’s the difference between positional parameters and
default parameters in Python?
Positional parameters are parameters that are required to be provided in order for the
function to run. Default parameters are parameters that are not required to be provided
but have a default value that will be used if no other value is provided.
9. How do you access the value returned by a function invoked in
another function?
You can access the value returned by a function invoked in another function by using
the return statement. For example, if you have a function that calculates the sum of two
numbers, you can access the value returned by the function by using the return
statement.
10. What is the return statement in a Python user-defined
function, and how does it work? Can you provide an example of a
function that returns a value and explain how to use that value in
other parts of a program?
The return statement in a Python user-defined function specifies the value that the
function should return when it is called. You can use the return statement to provide
output from the function that can be used in other parts of a program. For example, the
following code defines a function that takes two arguments and returns their sum:
def add(num1, num2):
return num1 + num2
To use the value returned by this function in another part of a program, you can assign
the function call to a variable like this:
result = add(3, 5)
print(result) # Output: 8
Here, the add function is called with the arguments 3 and 5, and the value returned by
the function (which is 8) is assigned to the variable result. The print statement then
outputs that value to the console.

11. What is list comprehension in Python, and how is it used?

List comprehension is a concise and expressive way to create new lists based on
existing sequences or iterable objects in Python. List comprehension is written inside
square brackets [] and can contain a for loop, an optional if condition, and
expressions that manipulate and filter the elements of the iterable.
 12. What are the benefits of using list comprehension in Python?
The main benefits of using list comprehension in Python include the following:
• More concise and expressive code compared to traditional for loops.
• More efficient execution of code since it avoids the overhead of calling a function and
saves memory space.
• Easier to read and understand, especially for those familiar with functional programming
paradigms.
13. How do you create a list using list comprehension in Python?
To create a list using list comprehension, you write a single line of code that contains
the elements you want to include in the list and any necessary filters or expressions that
transform the original iterable. For example, the following code creates a list of squares
of even numbers from 0 to 9 using list comprehension:
even_squares = [x**2 for x in range(10) if x % 2 == 0]
This code creates a new list called even_squares that contains the squares of even
numbers from 0 to 9. The for loop iterates over the range of numbers from 0 to 9, and
the if condition filters out odd numbers. The expression x**2 calculates the square of
each even number.
14. Can list comprehension be used for nested loops?
Yes, list comprehension can be used for nested loops to create more complex lists. To
use nested loops in the list comprehension, you can include multiple for loops inside
the square brackets. For example, the following code creates a list of tuples that
combine numbers from two separate lists using nested loops in list comprehension:
list1 = [1, 2, 3]
list2 = ['a', 'b', 'c']
pairs = [(x, y) for x in list1 for y in list2]
This code creates a new list called pairs that contains tuples of each possible
combination of a number from list1 and a letter from list2. The two for loops iterate
over each list and create all possible pairs using the expression (x, y).
15. What is dictionary comprehension in Python?
A dictionary comprehension is a concise and efficient way to create a new dictionary by
transforming and filtering elements from an existing iterable object. It is similar to a list
comprehension, but instead of creating a new list, it creates a new dictionary. The
syntax for dictionary comprehension is {key_expression: value_expression for element
in iterable if condition}.
16. How do you create a dictionary using dictionary
comprehension in Python?
To create a dictionary using dictionary comprehension, you write a single line of code
that contains the key-value pairs you want to include in the dictionary and any
necessary filters or expressions that transform the original iterable. For example, the
following code creates a dictionary that maps the names of fruits to their lengths using
dictionary comprehension:
fruits = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'date']
fruit_lengths = {fruit: len(fruit) for fruit in fruits}
This code creates a new dictionary called fruit_lengths that contains the length of each
fruit name as the value and the fruit name itself as the key. The for loop iterates over
the fruits list and the len() function calculates the length of each fruit name.
17. Can you use conditional statements in dictionary
comprehension?
Yes, you can use conditional statements in dictionary comprehension to filter the
elements of the iterable. The syntax for adding a conditional statement is the same as in
list comprehension: if condition. For example, the following code creates a dictionary
that maps only the names of fruits that start with the letter 'a' to their lengths:
fruits = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'date']
a_fruit_lengths = {fruit: len(fruit) for fruit in fruits if fruit[0] == 'a'}
This code creates a new dictionary called a_fruit_lengths that contains the length of
each fruit name that starts with the letter 'a', and the fruit name itself as the key. The for
loop iterates over the fruits list and the len() function calculates the length of each fruit
name. The if condition filters out any fruit name that doesn't start with the letter 'a'.
18. What is set comprehension in Python?
Set comprehension is a concise and efficient way to create a new set by transforming
and filtering elements from an existing iterable object. It is similar to list and dictionary
comprehension, but instead of creating a new list or dictionary, it creates a new set. The
syntax for set comprehension is {expression for element in iterable if condition}.
19. How do you create a set using set comprehension in Python?
To create a set using set comprehension, you write a single line of code that contains
the elements you want to include in the set and any necessary filters or expressions that
transform the original iterable. For example, the following code creates a set of squares
of even numbers from 0 to 9 using set comprehension:
even_squares = {x**2 for x in range(10) if x % 2 == 0}
This code creates a new set called even_squares that contains the squares of even
numbers from 0 to 9. The for loop iterates over the range of numbers from 0 to 9, and
the if condition filters out odd numbers. The expression x**2 calculates the square of
each even number.
20. Can set comprehension be used for nested loops?
Yes, set comprehension can be used for nested loops. In Python, nested list
comprehensions are used to create lists by iterating over an iterable object. Similarly,
nested set comprehensions can be used to create sets by iterating over an iterable
object. Here is an example of how to use nested set comprehension for creating a set of
tuples:
{(x, y) for x in range(3) for y in range(3)}
This will output the following set of tuples:
{(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 0), (2, 1), (2, 2)}
Here we have two for loops that iterate over the range of values from 0 to 2. The first
loop iterates over the values of x, and the second loop iterates over the values of y. The
resulting set contains all possible combinations of (x, y) tuples.

21. What is a class in Python?

A class is a blueprint for creating objects that have common attributes and methods. It is
a user-defined data type that can encapsulate data and functionality.
22. What is an object in Python?
An object is an instance of a class. It is created from a class definition and has its own
attributes and methods. Objects can interact with other objects and perform various
operations.
23. What are attributes in Python?
Attributes are a class’s data members or variables that store data related to the object.
They can be either instance variables (belonging to a specific instance of a class) or
class variables (shared by all instances of the class).
24. What are methods in Python?
Methods are functions defined inside a class that operates on the data stored in the
object's attributes. They are used to perform specific actions on objects and can be
either instance methods (operate on a specific instance of a class) or class methods
(operate on the entire class).
25. How do you create a class in Python?
To create a class in Python, you use the 'class' keyword followed by the class name and
a colon. Inside the class definition, you can define attributes and methods. Here is an
example:
class Car:
def __init__(self, make, model, year):
self.make = make
self.model = model
self.year = year

def start(self):
print("The car has started.")
26. How do you create an object in Python?
To create an object in Python, you use the class name followed by parentheses. You
can then assign the object to a variable and access its attributes and methods. Here is
an example:
my_car = Car("Toyota", "Corolla", 2022)
print(my_car.make) # output: Toyota
my_car.start() # output: The car has started.
27. What is inheritance in Python?
Inheritance is a mechanism in Python that allows a class to inherit properties (attributes
and methods) from another class. The class that inherits the properties is called the
derived class or subclass, while the class that provides the properties is called the base
class or superclass.
28. What is encapsulation in Python?
Encapsulation is the concept of wrapping data and methods within a single unit called a
class. It allows you to hide the internal details of a class from the outside world and
provides a way to access the data and methods through a public interface.
29. What is polymorphism in Python?
Polymorphism is the ability of objects to take on different forms or behave in different
ways depending on the context in which they are used. In Python, polymorphism is
achieved through method overriding (redefining a method in a subclass) and method
overloading (defining multiple methods with the same name but different parameters).
30. What is data abstraction in Python?
Data abstraction is the process of hiding the implementation details of a class from the
outside world and providing a simplified view of the object's behavior. It involves
defining interfaces (public methods) that expose only the essential features of the class
while hiding the details of how those features are implemented.

31. What is a syntax error in Python, and how can it be

identified?
A syntax error in Python occurs when the code written does not follow the correct
syntax rules of the language. It can be identified by the Python interpreter, which
displays an error message with information about the error's location and type. For
example, if a statement is missing a closing parenthesis, the interpreter will display a
SyntaxError with a message that includes the line number where the error occurred.
32. What is a runtime error in Python, and how can it be
identified?
A runtime error in Python occurs when a program is executed and encounters an error
that prevents it from completing successfully. It can be identified by the Python
interpreter, which displays an error message with information about the error's location
and type. For example, if a program tries to divide by zero, the interpreter will display a
ZeroDivisionError with a message that includes the line number where the error
occurred.
33. How can you handle exceptions in Python?
In Python, exceptions can be handled using a try-except block. The code that might
raise an exception is placed in the try block, while the code that should be executed if
an exception is raised is placed in the except block. For example, if a program tries to
open a file that does not exist, it can handle the exception by using a try-except block to
display an error message to the user.
34. What is a NameError in Python, and how can it be fixed?
A NameError in Python occurs when a variable or function name is used that has not
been defined in the program's scope. It can be fixed by ensuring that the variable or
function is defined before it is used in the program. For example, if a program tries to
use a variable that has not been defined, it can fix the NameError by defining it before it
is used.
35. How can you debug a Python program that is not working
correctly?
Several ways to debug a Python program are not working correctly. One way is to use
print statements to display the value of variables at different points in the program to
identify where the problem is occurring. Another way is to use a debugger, such as the
built-in pdb module, which allows you to step through the program line by line and see
the value of variables at each step. Additionally, several third-party debugging tools are
available that provide more advanced features, such as code profiling and visualization.
36. What is exception handling in Python, and how does it work?
Exception handling in Python refers to the process of detecting and handling errors or
exceptions that occur during program execution. When an exception occurs, Python
generates an object that represents the error and raises it to the calling function. The
calling function can then handle the exception using a try-except block, which allows the
program to continue executing without crashing.
37. What is the purpose of a try-except block in Python, and how
is it used?
A try-except block in Python is used to catch and handle exceptions that may occur
during program execution. The code that might raise an exception is placed in the try
block, and the code that should be executed if an exception is raised is placed in the
except block. If an exception is raised in the try block, Python searches for an except
block that can handle the exception and executes the code in that block.
38. What is the difference between a try-except block and a try-
finally block in Python?
A try-except block is used to catch and handle exceptions that may occur during
program execution, while a try-finally block ensures that a block of code is executed
regardless of whether an exception is raised or not. In a try-finally block, the code in the
finally block is executed after the try block, whether or not an exception is raised.
39. How can you raise an exception in Python, and what is the
purpose of doing so?
You can raise an exception in Python using the raise statement, which generates an
exception object and raises it to the calling function. The purpose of raising an
exception is to signal an error condition or exceptional situation that cannot be handled
by the current function and to allow the calling function to handle the exception and take
appropriate action.
40. What is the difference between a built-in exception and a
custom exception in Python?
A built-in exception in Python is a pre-defined exception class provided by the language,
such as ValueError or TypeError, which is raised when a particular error condition
occurs. On the other hand, a custom exception is a user-defined exception class that
can be created to handle specific error conditions not covered by the built-in exception
classes. Custom exceptions are created by subclassing the built-in Exception class and
adding additional attributes or methods as needed.

41. What is a recursive function in Python? Provide an example.

A: A recursive function is a function that calls itself directly or indirectly. Here's an
example:
def factorial(n):

if n == 0:

return 1

else:
 return n * factorial(n-1)
42. Can you explain the concept of variable scope in Python?
A: Variable scope determines the portion of the program where a variable is accessible.
In Python, variables have local and global scope. Local variables are defined within a
function and can only be accessed within that function. Global variables are defined
outside of any function and can be accessed throughout the program.
43. What is the difference between a for loop and a while loop in
Python?
A: A for loop is used to iterate over a sequence (such as a list, tuple, or string) or other
iterable objects. A while loop, on the other hand, repeats a block of code as long as a
given condition is true.
44. Explain the concept of a nested loop and provide an example
in Python.
A: A nested loop is a loop inside another loop. It allows you to iterate over elements in a
nested structure, such as a list of lists. Here's an example:
matrix = [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]]

for row in matrix:

for element in row:

print(element)

45. What is the difference between a class method and an

instance method in Python?
A: A class method is a method that is bound to the class and not the instance. It can be
called on the class itself and operates on class-level data. An instance method, on the
other hand, is bound to the instance and can access and modify instance-specific data.
46. Explain the concept of inheritance in Python.
A: Inheritance is a mechanism in object-oriented programming that allows a class to
inherit properties and methods from another class. The class being inherited from is
called the base class or superclass, while the class inheriting is called the derived class
or subclass. The derived class can extend or override the behavior of the base class.
47. What is the purpose of the finally block in a try-except-finally
statement?
A: The finally block is used to define a set of statements that are always executed,
regardless of whether an exception occurred or not. It is typically used to release
resources or perform cleanup operations.
48. Can you explain the difference between the "raise" and
"assert" statements in Python?
A: The "raise" statement is used to explicitly raise an exception, allowing you to handle
errors or exceptional situations in your code. The "assert" statement, on the other hand,
is used to test conditions that should always be true. If the condition is false, an
AssertionError is raised.
49. What are lambda functions in Python? Provide an example
and explain their benefits.
A: Lambda functions, also known as anonymous functions, are small, single-line
functions without a name. They are defined using the lambda keyword and can take any
number of arguments but can only have one expression. Here's an example:
double = lambda x: x * 2

print(double(5)) # Output: 10
The benefits of lambda functions include their conciseness, as they allow you to define
a function in a single line, and their usefulness in functional programming paradigms,
such as when passing a function as an argument to another function.
50. Explain the concept of list comprehensions in Python.
Provide an example.
A: List comprehensions are a concise way to create lists based on existing lists or other
iterable objects. They allow you to combine looping and conditional statements in a
single line of code. Here's an example:
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

squares = [x**2 for x in numbers if x % 2 == 0]

print(squares) # Output: [4, 16]

In this example, the list comprehension generates a new list called `squares` by
squaring each even number in the `numbers` list.