Functionalism

 Functionalism is a consensus view of society and has a macro approach. It is believed that society is split into
many social institutions such as the government, religion, family, education and health. If one of the
institutions does not function properly, other institutions may also not function as well. In other words, if a
specific part of society breaks down, all the other parts of society will break down. The institutions of society
must work together in order to create and maintain stability, productivity and a harmonious society.
 Social Order – Functionalists believe that there are four basic needs than an individual requires. They are food,
shelter, money and clothing.
 Without shared norms, values, meanings and beliefs, social order would not be achievable.
 During the first half of the 20th Century, Functionalism was the main perspective of Sociology.
 Social Structure – consists of norms and values passed on through individuals which shape the individual.

Emile Durkheim

 He believed that sociology should be the study of social law such as money, law and language. Social facts
are objective. This means that the facts are not based on emotion. If something is objective, it can be
measured.
 Durkheim believed that harmony defined society.
 Durkheim identified two main concerns in his social research. The first one is that he wanted to ensure
that modern societies were in order and harmonious. The second one is that he wanted to create a science
of society so that there is clear knowledge about bringing in social order.
 Durkheim’s concept of social facts explained how individual’s actions can be shaped wider patterns of
integration.
 Durkheim believed that a social structure existed. The structure that has the norms and values do come
before us. When we are born, the norms and values already existed and we are born into these norms and
values of society. People’s behaviour was shaped by the social system consisting of the norms and values.

Talcott Parsons

 Four Subsystems (as outlined in the introduction)

Parsons identified three similarities between society and an organism (living thing.)

 Society is a functional unit.

 People have the ability to make decisions.
 Core values and norms create social integration.
 System needs – Organisms have needs that must be met in order to survive.
 His view of society is that it is made up of interlinked systems and prerequisites. Parsons suggests that the
systems are interlinked with each other.
 Personality System – concerned with person’s beliefs, goals and values that are internalised (take in
part of someone’s attitudes or beliefs.
 Social System – Institutionalised (placed in a specific institution)
 Cultural System – Core Values and Shared History helps to construct society.

Functional Prerequisites

 Adaptation – Social systems should be adapted to its environment. A system must exist where food and
shelter is obtained. This may involve hunting and gathering. The economic institution should be used for this
prerequisite.
  Goal Attainment – Societies should set goals towards activities directed by institutions and members. There
has to be a legitimate use of power through leadership and direction. The government should be used for this
prerequisite.
 Integration – Societies should work with peer groups, the police and the family so that there is control in the
society.
 Pattern maintenance – In order to maintain a pattern, core values should be reinforced and we should be
constantly socialised. The family, media, religion and education are vital for the socialisation process because
values, meanings and norms are shared within these institutions.

Evaluation

 One strength of the Functionalist argument is that it is evident in the real world. When one of the subsystems
breaks down, it collapses and becomes dysfunctional resulting in anomie a state of chaos. For example, in
2011, the London riots took place. The cause of the riots may be due to a breakdown in one of the
subsystems. MP’s state that the riots took place because families are now fatherless, meaning that in families,
there is not that second role model for the individual. Therefore, this is a strength because the Functionalist
argument is useful to today.
 One strength of the Functionalist argument is that individuals are shaped and programmed by institutions
such as education and religion through socialisation. However, this now applies to contemporary society
because our behaviour is now shaped through the shared norms and values. Some families now only have one
role model and our behaviour can be shaped by the individuals in the social institutions including friends and
teachers. This is a strength because it is useful to today.
 One weakness of the Functionalist argument is that Functionalists ignores conflict in institutions in which our
behaviour is shaped by. For example, in the educational system, teachers choose to go on strike because they
do not agree with plans that have been proposed by local authorities or governments. However, this type of
conflict can be applied today and therefore it is useful.
 Another weakness of the Functionalist argument is that it also fails to recognise conflict within the different
social institutions. For example, in religion, females and males do not agree with each other that the Pope is a
male and therefore religion should be equal. Therefore, this is a weakness because it is not useful in today’s
society.
 Another weakness of the Functionalist argument is that Functionalists fail to recognise the conflict in families.
For example, knife crime is becoming a problem and in single parent families, there is not that second role
model to support the individual. Therefore, this is a weakness because it is not useful to today.

The New Right (Neo-Functionalists)

The New Right believe that the state should only have a little amount of involvement in society.

 They do not wish to use the welfare state to deal with social problems. In their view, state intervention does
not give people the freedom to make their own choices and therefore undermines people’s sense of
responsibility. If people are not able to make their own decisions, this will then lead to social problems such as
crime and unemployment. State intervention means involvement with the government.
 Murray argues that generous benefits and council housing for single parents act as “perverse incentives” and
this weakens self-reliance (the person relying on others). The generous benefits encourage the growth of a
dependency culture. The evaluation for this is that the money has increased for single parent families in which
it has stopped them from choosing to re-marry. The evidence for this is that the divorce rate has increased
because of the growing dependency culture. Therefore, the government is giving people generous benefits for
those who are struggling. Therefore, this is useful to today because the government are still investing into
single parent families.
  The New Right see the sociologists’ role as proposing policies that promote choice and individual
responsibility. Policies aim to restore the responsibilities of individuals for their own and their families’ welfare,
rather than leaving the responsibilities to the government itself.
 The New Right support a strong “Law and Order” policy. For example, the Wilson and Kelling’s Article Broken
Windows that has been influential in the widespread introduction of zero tolerance policies.
 Evaluation - Money from the government is being invested in the single parent families. The evidence for this
is that the investment is leading to high divorce rates.
 One similarity between the Functionalist View and The New Right View is that they both agree with the
Functionalist view that the family helps society to function. However, the New Right argue that single parent
families should not exist and therefore stop giving out generous benefits because the single parents are
“perverse incentives” to stop the adults in the family doing the traditional roles such as the instrumental role
and the expressive role.

Analysis for Functionalism and New Right

- New Right and Functionalists both agree that the family helps society to function. However, the difference is
that New Right argue that single parent families should not exist, nor the generous benefits as this stops roles
in the family.
- Marxists and Functionalists argue that society operates exactly the same way as the human body. The
human body has organs that help the body to function. Society works in the same as the body, relying on
each other to create a harmonious society. Marxists see society as making profit for the ruling class.

Other Analysis

 Functionalism and Feminism both argue that characteristics create society but have different
approaches in this. Functionalists argue that society is characterised by harmony and stability in order
for society to function whereas feminists argue that society is characterised by men and women and
therefore society is patriarchal and men are in control.
 Feminists and Functionalists also do not agree together in terms of value consensus. Feminists argue
that the values are imposed on women.
Marxism

 Marxism is a conflict theory. It has a macro approach because it believes that society shapes the individual.
 Marxists believe that society is split into two classes – the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The bourgeoisie
are the ruling class because they own the means of production and the proletariats are known as the workers,
the working class.
 Bourgeoisies are capitalists. They own the money and they want the maximum profit. However, the workers
want the highest wage for the least work. Capitalists compete to become the richest. The proletariats are
exploited and therefore become poor.
 Karl Marx said that eventually workers will rise up in evolution against the capitalists and a communist
society will be created. Social control in capitalist society is achieved through ruling class ideology (set of
ideas). This means that the ruling ideas are those of the ruling class.
 The working class may suffer from false consciousness, meaning not understanding their actual position in
society

Gramsci - Humanist

 Gramsci’s idea of hegemony (leadership), or ideological and moral leadership, explains how the ruling class
maintains its position in society. There are two ways the ruling class maintains its dominance or leadership:
 Coercion (to force to act to think in a certain way through pressure or threat): public services such as the
police, the army, and other areas such as prison and courts force other classes such as the ruling class to
accept that they are ruling them.
 Consent (hegemony): the bourgeoisie use ideas and values to persuade the lower classes that their rule is
legitimate.
 The leadership of the ruling class is not complete because of the following reasons:
1. The ruling class are a small group and have to make ideological agreements with the other classes.
2. The working class have dual consciousness – this means that when the working class experience
exploitation and poverty, they begin to see through the dominant’s set of ideas.
3. Gramsci rejects economic determinism as an explanation of change. Economic determinism is a
concept that all change, including social and political change is determined by economic forces of
demand and supply. Economic determinism was argued by Karl Marx.
4. Although there is a money crisis in society, it will only lead to revolution (change) if the working class
block what the ruling class are doing in order to win hegemony of society. This is known as counter-
hegemonic bloc.

Althusser – Structuralist

 Althusser said that society is arranged into three levels. Each level is self-governed and connected to other
levels. It is not dependent on other levels or independent of the other levels. These are economic, political
and ideological. The economic level makes up all activities that involve producing something that will meet
and satisfy a need. The political level makes up all forms of organisation and the ideological level, involving
the ways that we see ourselves and their world.
 Althusser argued that contradictions (ideas that are opposed to one another) within the different levels could
bring about change and disorder. To stop the capitalist society collapsing, “conditions of existence” must be
met. For example, children must be socialised with the values of capitalism that are acceptable. The
ideological state apparatus (ISA) performs this function. ISA is about transmitting set of ideas that preserves
the existing social arrangements. These set of ideas that are passed on through the social institutions such as
education ensure that capitalism continues. Capitalism is when the money and profits are owned by the
bourgeoisie.
 The Repressive State Apparatus (RSA) – forces the working class into complying and accepting with the
intentions of the ruling class. This is how Marxists have traditionally seen the state.
  Structural Marxists say that free will, choice and creativity are an illusion. It has been criticised for placing too
much focus on social structure. Individuals are seen as puppets of structuring society through ideology (the
individuals ideas).

Is Marxism Useful For Today???

Support
 Economic Crisis – The capitalists are maximising
profits. Therefore, the working class are
receiving low wages. In some workplaces, there
are zero hour contracts.
 Advanced Technology – For example, self serve
checkouts replace workers. Self serve checkouts
cost less than people.
 Factory Machines – “Scunthorpe” –
Industrialisation
 Globalisation – We as humans are now more
interconnected in the world through the
internet, ships, planes and other transport which
connects us to other countries. For example, call
centres are now based in India. In addition, In
India, there is no minimum wage. Therefore it
benefits them and not the Western World.
Against
 Banks are allowing credit cards, even though the
pay is low for workers. With credit cards,
Capitalists are gaining more profit.
 The ruling class and the working class are now
seen as “blurred”. In today’s society, there are
now seven classes.
 Elite – More privileged.
 Established Middle Class – Second wealthiest –
second highest for cultural capital.
 Technical Middle Class – Small and distinctive
which is prosperous for the future.
 New affluent workers – Young class group that
are socially and culturally active, some economic
capital.
 Traditional working class – Not completely
deprived.
 Emergent service workers – New, young, urban
group – relatively poor – more cultural capital.
 Preciariat/Precarious Proletariat – Poorest,
Most Deprived Class.
 Ignores importance of other social institutions.
E.G. Religion.

Similarities and Differences

 One difference between the Functionalist perspective and the Marxist perspective is that the
Functionalists say that society is split into subsystems whereas the Marxists argue that society is split
into two classes. These theories have different approaches in terms of how society works.
 Marxists and Functionalists argue that society operates exactly the same way as the human body. The
human body has organs that help the body to function. Society works in the same as the body, relying on
each other to create a harmonious society. Marxists see society as making profit for the ruling class.
 Marxist and Feminists both argue that there are dominant groups in society. Marxists argue that the
ruling class are the dominant group whereas feminists argue that the men are the dominant sex in
society. If there is dominance, there is conflict and battle between the dominant group and the
exploited or oppressed group eg. Working Class/Females.
Feminism
Feminists see society as a patriarchal society, where the men dominate society. The theory aims to describe
women’s position in society. In feminism there are several approaches.

Liberal Feminism

Liberalism is the idea that every individual should have equal rights. This includes civil rights and freedom.
Reformism is the idea that progress towards equal rights can be achieved by making changes in society without
revolution.

 Liberal Feminists believe that women can achieve gender equality by making changes and promoting equal
rights. They also demand for change in areas such as equal pay and employment.
 They also want cultural change because there are traditional prejudices (making a prejudgement before the
facts are known) about gender differences in which it is a barrier to equality.
 They also clarify the difference between Sex and Gender. Sex is the biological difference between the two
sexes, male and female whereas gender refers to culturally constructed differences between masculine and
feminine. If something is culturally constructed, like an individual for example, that individual is socially
defined and influenced by social systems and that describes an individual based on physical characteristics,
such as skin colour. The characteristics of an individual are influenced by our own systems, such as economic
and culture.
 The attitudes and beliefs of gender are culturally constructed through socialisation. To change these beliefs
and attitudes towards gender, we must change the socialisation patterns. For example, promoting appropriate
role models in the two main subsystems, education and family. Liberal feminists see men and women as able
to perform the same roles. Traditional roles such as the expressive and instrumental role prevent men and
women leading a fulfilling life.

Radical Feminism

The key concept of radical feminism is PATRIARCHY (Male Domination).

 Women’s main role is to bare and care for infants, since performing this role means they become more
dependent on males.
 Patriarchy is the basic form of social inequality and conflict. Men are the main enemy to women.
 All men oppress all women - Men benefit from patriarchy, especially when women are doing domestic labour
that is unpaid.
 Sexual Politics (relations between male and female) - All relationships involve power. It only becomes
political when an individual tries to dominate another. Men dominate women through them.
 Radical feminists argue that patriarchy socially constructs sexuality. Sexuality may be socially constructed
through norms and values and beliefs. Sexuality is socially constructed to satisfy men’s desires. For example,
how women are portrayed through pornography and that women are seen as sex objects.
 Patriarchy and women’s oppression is reproduced through personal and sexual relationships and this is must
be transformed (go under a dramatic change) if women are to gain freedom in life from men.
  Separatism – the idea of separation. Separating the men and women will create a culture of female
independence.

Marxist Feminism

Marxist feminists say that capitalism is the main cause of many situations.

 Women are a source of cheap labour and are seen as an exploitable workforce. They are also seen as a reserve
army of labour.
 Women produce the workforce through domestic labour that is unpaid.
 Barrett argues that we should focus on women’s consciousness and motivations.

Is the Feminist theory useful?

Support
 Roman Catholic Church does not
allow women to be popes.
 Women graduates are being paid
thousands less than women.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/educa
tion-21698522
Against
 Pat Walters won Headteacher of the Year 2013.
 Leah Totton won The Apprentice in 2013 – However, only 4
women were hired over the nine series.
 In Christianity, there are female leaders.
 More women are enrolling onto university. Increase in age
gap.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/datablog/2013/jan/2
9/how-many-men-and-women-are-studying-at-my-
university

Analysis

 Marxist and Feminists both argue that there are dominant groups in society. Marxists argue that the
ruling class are the dominant group whereas feminists argue that the men are the dominant sex in
society. If there is dominance, there is conflict and battle between the dominant group and the
exploited or oppressed group eg. Working Class/Females. Marxists also disagree that women are on
the rise in society.
 Functionalism and Feminism both argue that characteristics create society but have different
approaches in this. Functionalists argue that society is characterised by harmony and stability in order
for society to function whereas feminists argue that society is characterised by men and women and
therefore society is patriarchal and men are in control.
 Feminists and Functionalists also do not agree together in terms of value consensus. Feminists argue
that the values are imposed on women.
 Feminism believes that women are exploited at home and work. Postmodernists state that women have
opportunities and more access such as trade unions to prevent domestic violence. Women are also on
the rise, being promoted to better jobs.
Social Action Theory

 Action theories are the opposite of the structural theories, such as Functionalism. The Social Action theory
(also known as Interpretivism) has a micro approach.

Max Weber

 Weber outlined four ideal types of action. These four types explain the behaviour of an individual.
 - Traditional Action – This type of action is carried out because of a habit. For example, buying gifts at
Christmas. Those who engage in this action cannot give a reason other than saying it is a tradition.
 - Affective Action – This type of action is influenced by something that is emotional. For example, crying at a
funeral. Weber felt that this action was becoming not so important in today’s society. However, it still applies
to society.
 - Rational Value-Orientated – This type of action is led by a value that is prioritised. For example, if someone
was committed to a specific religion, it would be rational (reasonable) for the individual to prayer.
 - Rational Goal-Orientated – This type of action refers to the people calculating the likely results of
behaviour in order to achieve a given goal. For example, a student may consider the costs and benefits of the
different courses available. Therefore, in order to achieve this, they will put more effort into the work.
 Weber was seen as the founder of sociology. His ideas cover a variety of topics such as power, where
capitalism originated and rationalisation of the modern world. Rationalisation is a process by which the world
is increasingly governed by thought and action that is reasonable, in which the traditional and affective actions
are being replaced by the main rational forms.
 Weber believed that the rational value orientated and the goal-orientated actions are suitable for interpretive
analysis because they are both based on reflective action. These ideal types can be applied to wider groups
not just the actions of an individual. He felt that rationalisation of society has created a disenchanted world.
Disenchanted refers to the freedom from spell and magic.
 Weber’s view has led to an approach known as methodological individualism, which focuses on how people
engage in social interaction. It suggests all explanations can be reduced to the actions of the individual and
that structures do not determine our behaviour. For example, does the educational structure with an exam
system make someone revise, or do they do it so that people can calculate the likely results so that they can
work on it.

Symbolic Interactionism

 Symbolic Interaction focuses on how we create our social world through interaction within us.
 Herbert Blumer identified three assumptions of interactionism:
 - Our actions are based on meanings we give to people or situations. It is not an automatic response to
something.
 - These meanings come from interaction.
 - The meanings we give to situations are mainly the result of taking the role of the other. This means
interpreting other people’s meanings by taking their role. For example, putting ourselves in the
individuals’ position.
 Labelling Theory – Labelling theorists use three key concepts:
 Definition of the situation – If people say that the situation is real, there will be real consequences. This
means if we believe that something is true, it will affect our actions and may affect those who are involved.
 Looking-Glass Self – Cooley argues that our self-concept arises out of our ability to take over the role of
someone. We see ourselves mirrored in how people respond to us. Self-concept refers to what we think of
ourselves.
  Career – Becker and Lemert argue that labelling is a dangerous thing. For example, if a person suffers
something bad, such as a death in the family, they will feel depressed because of the situation. Therefore they
may go to the doctors. The doctor may say to them that they have depression and therefore prescribe them
with anti-depressants. That person has to then believe in the doctor and therefore live up to that label forever.

Evaluation and Analysis

 The labelling theory can be applied to crime. The labelling theory can take us back to why a specific crime
happened. Similarly, Realists can explain why people commit crime.
 Interactionism ignores the wider social structures – class inequality – fails to explain origins of labels and
consistent behaviour patterns. Marxists and feminists argue that roles constructed in the family reflects on
how power is distributed in the family.
 Max Weber’s theory cannot explain shared norms and values that are passed on. There is more emphasis on
the individual than society.
 Functionalism makes values something which exists among groups which is embodied into institutions.
Interactionists argue that values are derived from personal interactions.

Postmodernism

As postmodernists, we live in a new era known as postmodernity. Modernism is a belief in science, rationality and
industrialisation. Postmodernism is a set of theories which suggests that society is going through a series of radical
changes.

This may be because modernity is:

 Coming to an end.
 Being rejected.
 Changing into a new order.

Society is becoming more global through a process called globalisation. This refers to how the world is connected.
Globalisation is occurring because of technology, economic changes, fall of communism and the changes in culture
and identity.

Society is now declining the belief of science, rejection of old moral values and people are more interested in their
personal concerns.

Ideas

 People tend to see the negative side of progress than the positive side. (Giddens)
 We are more influenced by other cultures and belief systems so that we can consume goods.
 If there is more awareness of cultures, there is more significance in our lives and this is happening. The media
cannot control what we think.
 Lifestyle and consumption of goods make up who we are today. It is not about work, income and capitalism.
 Traditionally, we are rejecting politics and therefore we are taking on personal perspectives such as feminism
and pacifism.
 There are no foundations to knowledge and therefore there are no objective criteria we can use to prove
whether a theory is true or false.

Enlightment Project – this refers to discovering true knowledge and progress to a better society.
  The media creates hyper reality – signs appear more real than reality itself, leaving us unable to distinguish
image from reality. If we can’t get a grasp from reality, we lose the power to change society.
 We no longer have a set of shared values as the media produce endless stream of images, leaving culture
unstable.

Evaluation and Analysis

 Postmodernism challenges narratives eg. Functionalism. Postmodernists argue that there is no point in
explaining things such as crime by using narratives. Therefore, postmodernism is in danger of
becoming a new theoretical position.
 Postmodernism fails to recognise constraints on individuals eg. Social inequalities that still exist based
on economics, gender and inequality. Feminists can explain the inequalities of gender eg. Men are
dominating the women in society through patriarchy in the family.
 Postmodernists analysed the growing impact of the mass media on society eg. Media try to portray
what is going on in society but it is not real – soaps – people think its true and people live by what is
being shown on TV eg. Closeness of characters in soaps.
 Postmodernists sees individuals as having the choices to create identities eg. Choice and Technology
such as the internet has enabled us to create many identities for different situations.
 Feminism believes that women are exploited at home and work. Postmodernists state that women have
opportunities and more access such as trade unions to prevent domestic violence. Women are also on
the rise, being promoted to better jobs.
 Modernity – American Culture taking over to be the main culture. However, Postmodernists argue that
there are multi perspectives believing history and the future would be built on various cultures.