CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL THINKERS

FUNCTIONALISM
Functionalism talks about the structure and functions within the society. Different social
institutions have specific functions, which helps maintain harmony in the society. Herbert
Spencer explained functionalism through the organic analogy between society and the human
body. Emile Durkheim also explained functionalism.

Three contemporary thinkers credited with the development of functionalism are Bronislaw
Malinowski, Talcott Parsons and Robert K Merton.

BRONISLAW MALINOWSKI
Malinowski developed biocultural functionalism. He was influenced by Durkheim’s work on
religion. He found out how the collective conciseness emerges and it is the main nerve of the
society and society develops by it only. It is not only true in case of the tribal and village
society. It is even true in the urban societies. He said that social institutions exist to meet the
needs of individuals. He said that there exist three types of needs.
 Primary: Primary needs are biological human needs, which are by virtue of the
individual being a human (food, safety, reproduction, etc.).
 Instrumental: Instrumental needs are those which help in achieving some final
objective, or goal (Economics, social control, education and political organisation).
 Integrated: Integrated needs are those that bring together society and increase
solidarity (religion, magic, etc.).

TALCOTT PARSONS
Parsons developed structural functionalism. Parsons believed that functionalism existed
because individuals acted on the basis of values and norms. These values and norms, formed
through societal consent, are the basis of social order. He also said that individual actions are
based on aspects of gratification and motivation. He incorporating the idea of the role and
status of every individual.

Pattern Variables
When an individual has to perform a role, he is presented with various options. Pattern
variables are the choices available during role performance. These options come from two
domains: the society (universalistic options) or the individual (particularistic options). The
selection of one choice over the other will be based on the individual’s motivation and the
value aspect. Pattern variables are categorized as follows.

1. Universalism and Particularism

Universalism requires uniform application of rules and norms. In this case, reactions are
taken on the basis of a general norm. For example, in bureaucracy, everyone must necessarily
be treated equally. Particularism results in reactions on the basis of someone’s particular
relation with the individual. In this case, an exception may be created to a general norm for a
particular individual, group or entity. For example, in mother-child relations.

2. Collectivity and Self

In collective reactions, benefit of the collective or the society takes precedence over that of
the individual (altruism, charity). A self-seeking reaction will put individual interests over
those of the collective.

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 3. Affective and Affective Neutral
In affective interactions, emotion is relevant to the role performance. For example, in a
mother-child relation. In affective neutral relations, emotion is not relevant to the role
performance and a neutrality is maintained. Here, role performance is not emotionless but
emotion neutral. For example, the doctor-patient relation.

4. Diffuseness and Specificity

In diffuse relations, obligations have a wide scope (relation between friends). In case of
specificity, role performance is limited and the scope is narrow (doctor-patient relation).

5. Ascription and Achievement

Ascription refers to inborn qualities of individuals like caste, race, ethnicity, gender, etc.
Achievement focuses on performance and individual achievement.

Functional Prerequisite
In every social system, there exist certain pre-requisites. These are conditions which help us
understand the functions of a particular person.

1. Adaptation
This is an external variable. It refers to the resources available in society and their
distribution. These external, environmental factors affect the functions of a particular person
and determine what he can and cannot do.

2. Goal Attainment
Every individual designs goals, keeping social considerations in mind. This is done within the
social system, with the consensus of society.

3. Integration
Integration refers to bringing individuals together. The institution which plays the most
important role in integration is culture. People determine their goals on the basis of their
culture. Another institution which integrates is family.

4. Tension Management
Tension management is an internal variable. Socialization helps in tension management. It
helps an individual handle social issues, and builds better, more balanced personalities. The
educational system and family system are important institutions for socialization. This is why
upbringing of a child is very important.

Types of Social Structures

There exists a difference between social system and social structure. Social systems are built
on social structures. For example, the social system of family is built on the social structures
of kinship (primary, secondary, tertiary kin). Status can be either ascribed or achieved and the
value domain can be either universalistic or particularistic. Combining these, four types of
social structures emerge.

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 1. Universalistic Achievement
Here, norms are uniformly and universally applied to all. Further, status is determined on the
basis of individual achievement and performance. This is seen in legal rational societies and
open societies. Example – US.

2. Universalistic Ascription
Here, norms are universally applicable to all. However, status is determined on the basis of
ascription. Caste, gender, ethnicity, etc. determine the status. Example – Nazi Germany.

India can be considered to be in a transition phase from universalistic ascription to

universalistic achievement.

3. Particularistic Achievement
Here, the normative or the value system is based on particular values, which have a dominant
role. The status is determined by individual achievement. This allows people to rise on merit.
In China, for example, family and kinship are central. Men have a more dominant role than
women.

4. Particularistic Ascription
The value system is particularistic and individual status is determined on the basis of
ascription by birth. This forms a closed community. Example – The Spanish Community of
US.

ROBERT K MERTON
He also contributed in the development of structural functionalism. Earlier, all thinkers said
that all units are functional and contribute in harmony. Merton said that every aspect of the
social system is not functional. Merton said some elements may get redundant, useless. This
was his most important contribution.

Theory of Anomy
This was initially given by Durkheim in the context of social disintegration. The state of
normlessness.

Merton’s explanation of anomy is different. He showed how social structures are

representatives of the culturally defined goals. And how these culturally defined goals can be
attained by institutionalized means. The society decides the goals and the means through
culture. Different cultures provide different goals. The society decides what means are good
and what are bad. For males and females, goals are different.

Merton said that some persons accommodate with the goals and the means and thus, do not
face issues in the society. However, some do not accommodate these goals and means and
show deviant behaviour. Thus, this theory is related to theories of crime and deviance.
Merton does not explain this in the context of disintegration. Logically, 5 conditions are
possible.

1. Conformity (+/+)
Seen in people who conform to both the goals and the institutionalized means. For
example, for a student – the goal established is grades and the means is studying. The

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 student would accept both of these. People in this category are balanced and have
fewer issues. They accommodate well with the society.

2. Innovative (+/-)
People who accept the set goals but not the legitimate means. For example, getting
better grades would be accepted but not the means of getting them through studies.
These individuals show higher rates of deviance and are more likely to commit
crimes. The means they adopt are not in consensus with the society and thus, these
individuals are harmful for the society. The child in the example would cheat in tests.

3. Ritualism (-/+)
Seen in people not accepting the goals but only the means. They do not accommodate
the goals set by society. But they conform to the means imposed on them.

4. Retreatism (-/-)
Seen in people who do not accept either the goals or the means set by society. This
often leads to their isolation from society.

5. Rebellion (x/x)
This is seen in people who accept means and goals but are changing them at the same
time. Generally, this category brings about a positive change.

Concept of Function
According to Merton, Function is an objective, observed consequence. It must not be a
subjective disposition or consideration of the individual. It helps in accommodation and
adjustment. Dysfunction is an objective consequence which does not result in
accommodation or adjustment. Nonfunction is an observed consequence which is not
relevant. E.g. Sati. Manifest Function is the intended consequence. For example, rain is the
manifest function for people performing the Hopi Rain Dance. This is observable in a
concrete manner. Latent Function is the consequence not intended. For example, an increase
in solidarity is a result but not an intended consequence of performing the Hopi Rain Dance.
This is not observable.
NEO-FUNCTIONALISM
The main shortcoming of functionalism was that it did not look into the aspects of conflict
and social change. The essence of neo-functionalism is to look into conflict and interactions.
This is an effort to synthesize functionalism with other aspects of sociology, like conflict and
interactionalism. It is similar to Neo-Marxism as that also looks into conflicts.

Functions are extending from the borders of the nation to the supra national level. In the
modern society, what is happening is that the functions of the nations and their societies are
crossing borders because of economic dependence. One function leads to the birth of another
and so on. Therefore, the requirement for an organization at the supra national level is felt.
This mandate is given to the institution which then gets the authority to exert pressure. The
institutions are able to exert pressure on nations due to functions crossing international
boundaries.

In neo-functionalism, one of the main thinkers is Jeffery Alexander. He has revived Talcott
Parsons’ functionalism. But he has mixed it with interactionism and conflict. He was also
inspired by Durkheim and we can see this by his work of cultural sociology.
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CULTURE TRAUMA AND LAYMAN TRAUMA
Whenever an event takes place and it affects a single person then it is layman trauma.
However, when a group associates with the event then it becomes culture trauma. For
example, the Nirbhaya Case affected everyone even though only one person experienced the
rape.

ICONIC CONSCIOUSNESS
He was more concerned with the material aspects of the social institutions and with how
aesthetic values are connected with the material aspects. It is cultural pragmatic as more
cultural and practical values are associated with this. He has also given one word for material
aspect, i.e. iconic consciousness. Other sociologists are more concerned with the non-material
aspects or value orientations. For example, when we talk about a Bollywood Actor, his
material impact on us is his clothes, his car, his food, etc.

CONFLICT AND NEO-MARXISM

Contemporary thinkers have said that Karl Marx’s perspectives were shaped by the
circumstances that existed during his time. However, the social situation has now changed.
There has been a decomposition of capital and labour and a middle class has emerged. Thus,
Marx’s theory needs to be altered to make it applicable in the contemporary scenario.
Functionalism and interactionism need to be combined. Functionalism and conflict need to be
combined. These basic propositions were agreed upon by all three thinkers discussed below.

RALPH DAHRENDORF

Imperatively Coordinated Association

In a social system, a hierarchy is maintained. The hierarchy is based on authority and this
authority resides in the social positions which individuals occupy and not in the individuals
themselves. Every person is subordinate to someone and above someone, controlling
someone and controlled by someone, authorizing someone and authorized by someone. These
conflicts are not between individuals but between groups.

Each person is the member of a group. This is the quasi group. Gradually, individuals
develop an interest. They then get polarized into interest groups. If the interests of two groups
do not meet, then they turn into conflict groups.

Decomposition of Capital and Labour

Marx talked about control over means of production. The conflict, in his paradigm, was
between the haves and the have nots. Today, the have nots have seen a rise in the middle
class. This class in itself has risen and is merging into the haves. This group is largely
constituted of professionals. The conflict now lies between the professionals and the laymen,
as the professionals have the control over production. The professionals are trying to
monopolise production. The nature of the conflict has changed. Thus, conflict lies not
between the haves and the have nots. The have nots have started having some control over
the production process due to state intervention.

Resolution of Conflict
Conflicts have two attributes. Intensity is the level of attachment of the people and the group
with the conflict. Cost represents the cost of the conflict. The money involved, number of

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lives lost, etc. It is not always necessary that cost would always be present. Many times, the
intensity might be very high whereas the cost would be minimal.

Whether the conflict has more intensity or cost depends upon whether the conflict will be
solved or not which in turn depends upon various factors.
 Technical, political, social conditions decide whether the conflict will be resolved.
 Effective, regulatory, structure makes resolution possible. Eg legal system – more
effective, better resolution possible.
 Level of relative deprivation. Absolute deprivation sees a person not being able to
meet basic necessities. Now, relative deprivation, has become relevant.

LEWIS COSER
He criticized the dialectical model put forward by Dahrendorf. Coser believes that conflict is
normal and functional to the society. Often, conflict is productive for the society.

Three propositions put forward by Coser on relations between social units and intensity of
conflicts.
 The more groups engage in the conflict over the realistic issues, likelier they are to
seek compromises over the means to realize their interests, and hence, less violent is
the conflict.
 The more a group engages in the conflict over the non-realistic issues, greater is the
level of emotional arousal, greater is the involvement in the conflict, and hence, more
violent is the conflict.
 The less functionally interdependent are the relations among the social units in a
system, the less is the availability of the institutional means for absorbing conflict
tensions.
o The greater is the power difference between the super and the subordinate in
the system, the less functionally interdependent is the relation.
o The greater is the level of isolation of sub-populations, the less functional the
relations.

COLLIN
While the other two worked on conflicts at the macro level, he worked at the micro level. His
was a more interactionist approach. He said that two things matter – material resources and
emotional involvement. Material resources would mean land, money, weapons, etc. in
conflict. However, the more important factor is the emotional involvement of the units in the
social system. This, again, has two aspects. First, higher the emotional involvement, higher
will the intensity of the conflict be. Second, higher intensity may or may not mean a more
violent or longer conflict.

FRANKFURT SCHOOL – HABERMAS AND ALTHUSSER

They saw that the social and economic circumstances are such that new interpretation is need
to be given to the Marxist theory. They talked about the modification in the Marxism. They
stated that economic determination may not be relevant in the present scenario. No complete
change is advocated by them, but certain modifications are needed.

Habermas
He focused on the theory of communicative actions. Before his theory, most thinkers were
focusing on finding the locus of rationality in the objective world. He proposed that
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rationality can be found in communications between two actors. Rationality is not present in
individual virtue, but is the property of a structure. This structure is the communicative
structure. There can be three types of knowledge.

 Empirical
 Historical
 Critical

There can be three types of action: teleological (when one is focusing on the means and ends
relationship, they happen in the objective world and not the subjective world); normative
(related to the social world e.g. respecting elders); dramaturgy (related to subjective world).

There is a communication being undertaken in the social structure. One calculates his means
and ends and what is going to be the result of the actions. There is no use in locating
rationality in the cosmos. Rather, we must try to find the rationality in the structure of
interpersonal linguistic communications.

Althusser
He does not deny that the economy plays an important role, but he gave another concept,
where economic determination could also be included. Economy can be the subset to the
ideological state apparatus.

Karl Marx talks about conflict, but if one looks at the social structure, the state controls the
psychology of individuals, and the kind of the ideologies inserted by the states is reflected in
the actions of the individuals. Karl Marx has propounded that conflict lies in latent from in
the social structure but Althusser says that such structures are established by the State itself.

He also talked about how in the primitive society, the religious institutions controlled the
mindset of the people. Therefore, he states that the conflict is generated through the State
itself. In the modern world, such social structures are mainly the family, school and church.
The state develops the ideologies in such a manner that can reside with the individuals for a
long period. The other mechanism he propounds is the Repressive state apparatus which
helps the state in controlling the society e.g. police. If the ideologies are against the state’s
wishes, the repressive apparatus will come into working.

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 SOCIALISATION
whenever a new member comes, he is introduced to the rules and norms of the society so as
to bring harmony among the members. Learning about the norms of the society continues
when one remains in the society. Socialization is the training given by society to its members
so that they can internalize the norms of the society in their personality and behave in
accordance with such norms so as to bring harmony and solidarity. This process stats with the
birth of an individual and ends at the death. From scientific view, majority of this training is
done in the initial years of the personality development. Physical maturity and social maturity
goes on simultaneously but are two different concepts. Social maturity depends more on
social exposure. As one grows, more options of social exposure is present for an individual.
Through this socialization one develops his self concept. Sociologists believe that when one
takes birth, he takes birth with a self concept. Society possesses difference of opinions due to
difference in socialization. This socialization has various types and stages.

CONDITIONS OF AN EFFECTIVE SOCIALIZATION

1. Concept of reward and punishment associated with one’s actions
the social agents try to make one understand the social norms and if such person voluntarily
does not follow such norm or he is not able to follow such norm, a punishment is attached to
such dissent. With one’s action, where he does not adhere to the norms, a punishment is
there. But if one goes with the norms of the society, they are rewarded. This might happen
due to certain flaw in the training programme itself. This concept is associated with the
concept of learning process only. Rewards encourages individual to do more good and his
actions would be in consonance of the norms of the society. Giving more punishment may
lead to disassociation of the individual from the group.

2. Control over the frustration

The outcome of punishment may lead to conflicts and frustrations. If frustration is not
controlled, it may lead to mental disorder or may affect the mental growth. The conflict leads
to frustration, which leads to aggression and which lead to repression and that leads to mental
disorder. The frustration is the definite consequence of socialization and learning.

3. Distinction between the norms

distinction between the old norms which one has already learnt and the new norms which the
society is now offering them. This is also called difference between traditionalism and new
morality. This leads to clash as new learning is not happening and they are not able to
accommodate to the new norms. Learning of the new norms and the accommodation to the
new norms and recycling of the old norms lead to effective socialization.

VARIOUS STAGES OF SOCIALIZATION

No strict correlation between physical maturity and social maturity or socialization.
Socialization only depends upon the social exposure.

1. Oral: Birth – 1 year

learning the identification of persons, the child is not able to differentiate between his identity
and his mother’s identity. The common learning is that of dependency. There is a correlation
between the needs and the demand fulfillment. His identification of his personality is there,
but such identity is merged with his mother. The self existence concept is developed. The self
development starts.

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 2. Anal: 1 year to 3 year
learning the norms of the society e.g. toilet training, the child understands that there are
certain groups whose norms are expected to be followed by him, he also learns the concept of
reward and punishment, he identifies how these concepts is related with following the social
norms, differentiation between the personality of his mother and his own identity, the mother
or his caretaker becomes the mediator between him and the external world and they become
the most important social agent, here the social learning transfers from society to mother and
lastly to the child.

3. Oedipus: upto the age of 12 from 4-5

how the male and female develops an interactionist approach. The person identifies with the
same sex instead of having attracted to the opposite sex. This is primary way of
understanding gender socialization. Male identifies with his father or brother. After such
identification, the child learns the norms attached to such particular sex. Against this,
Sigmund Freud provided that in this stage opposite sex attraction starts.

4. Adolescence: 12-18
a person witnesses lots of physical, psychological changes. Now, the society demands gender
socialization and the same reflection of such norms in the society. Here different social
institutions demands conformity with the social norms. Lots of confusions arises as at one
hand social pressures are coming to him and on the other hand, he hi witnessing
psychological and physical changes. This pressure leads to conflicts in the society and in the
personality. Personality may be submissive or dominating. Aggression comes due to
conflicts. Personality changes occur as the individual starts accommodating on the terms of
the societal demands.

5. Adult: above 18 yrs

adult socialization seems simple as one has already learned all the basic norms and the
personalaity fixation is already done. But if one learns new norms in this stage, this becomes
very difficult for him to accommodate such norms. E.g. norms of equality taught to girls,
which may not be the real case. Here one have to replace one’s old norms to the new norms,
which creates difficulties and makes the process of socialization more complex.

TYPES OF SOCIALISATION
Types of socialisation are not the same as stages of socialisation. Types are not concerned
with changes through physical maturity. The four exhaustive types are as given below.

1. Early Socialisation
This takes place during the oral and anal stages. In fact, it extends even after the anal stage. It
spans from the time of birth to about 6-7 years. This type forms the founding years of
personality and cognitive development. Basic group norms are understood. The individual
understand himself and develops an identity. He begins differentiating from others.
Differentiation of rights and wrongs and correlation of these with awards and punishments
takes place. Traditionally, it was believed that this happened through time spent with parents.
Now, some say that base is built during peer interaction.

2. Anticipatory Socialisation
Socialisation in the anticipation of joining a new or different group. Going from one group to
another. In anticipation to join it, preparation is undertaken. Example, preparation for joining
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NDA will see a change from civilian to military life. Social learning takes place during this
process.

3. Developmental Socialisation
This is an extension of early socialization, adding to the learning of early socialization. For
example, if parents teach about some norms which fit into gender socialization, and then a
newly wedded bride goes to her in laws’ house, the new learning taking place is not a brand-
new learning or replacing earlier knowledge. This knowledge comes in addition to the earlier
one. A student from an urban centre coming to NLU will not have to undertake new learning,
but will have to gain additional learning.

4. Resocialization
When an individual moves from one group to another with conflicting norms, a drastic
change in learning takes place. Earlier norms are replaced completely and the individual
revisits his personality. This happens especially where something is forced upon someone. A
village student coming to NLU might have to completely alter certain norms. Prostitution,
war, are other examples of resocialisation.

SOCIAL AGENTS
Divided, broadly, into two categories. The criteria for division is the agent’s authority over
the individual. In the category where the agent has no authority over the individual, we find
people of similar status, usually in similar age bracket. Examples are friends, peers, social
media, etc. in the category where the agent has an authority over the individual, we find
parents, elders, teacher, etc.

Point of contention among scholars – Which category teaches more? Those with authority or
those without?

Earlier, it was believed that agents with authority taught more. Since there was fear
associated with those with authority. However, the educational system, interactions and
influences have changed. Now, it is believed that due to a number of factors, more time is
spent with those of the same status. This makes people learn more from those without
authority. This is because the person feels that he belongs to the sub-culture group having the
same status, and is thus, likely to learn more from agents in this category. This also leads to
some conflicts between teachings of both categories. Early in life – more learning from
parents. Later – more learning from peers.

THEORIES OF SOCIALIZATION
1. Concept of Self
Social psychologists believe that the concept of self is a social concept existing in society.
The dominant school in psychology believes that the concept of self is innate. The social
concept believes that the self exists only because of the social context it exists in. Value
patterns are shaped by society.

2. Colley’s Looking Glass Self Theory

‘I am not what I think I am. I am not what you think I am. I am what I think you think I am.’
Self does not develop around what the individual thinks about himself in isolation. Similarly,
another parson’s perception in isolation does not develop the concept of self either. But if a
person knows what society thinks of him, his concept of self is developed. Nexus with the
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labelling theory. Calling someone a bad person during early socialization might make his
actions reflect that idea, since his idea of self is an acceptance of society’s idea of him. Self is
developed through acceptance of others’ views.

3. Herbert Meade’s Role Play Theory

Role playing teaches social norms in younger ages. This is a process of social conditioning.
An example is the ghar-ghar game. The child learns about the roles attached with each status.
For example, in each game, the perception of the role of a mother would be different and this
perception would depend upon how the child views his own mother. If the mother would be a
housewife, the child would associate the roles of a housewife with the status of a mother.
Thus, the individuals learn from their significant others, i.e., from those in primary, extremely
close relationships. This teaches the person about their roles. Nexus with idea of criminal
socialization. Young criminals are found to have picked up criminal tendencies from father,
elder brothers, etc.

4. Sigmund Freud’s Super Ego Psychoanalysis

Three concepts – Id, Ego, Superego.

Id represents desires. This leads to animal impulses. Superego represents the ideals and
norms of the society. It prohibits the individual from doing something wrong, in pursuance of
desires. The ego is the balance. It supplements the superego in controlling the id.

For the present discussion, it is the superego which is relevant. It is constituted of social
norms, by what is considered right and wrong in the society. The persons understanding of
right and wrong comes from the norms of the society.

5. WOI Thomson’s Defining the Situation Theory

In society, situations are already defined, and you have to adjust accordingly. The role of girl,
for example, is defined. But some individuals may not be able to accommodate in these pre-
defined roles. He talks about this with reference to gender socialisation in his book– The
Unadjusted Girl.

6. Emile Durkheim’s Theory of Collective Representation

Self-consciousness emerging out of a collection of individual consciousness. The collection is
not a simple addition, but results in the creation of something new phenomenon. Paan ka
patta example. This collective consciousness exerts a pressure.

PERSONALITY AND CULTURE

Central theme – Does culture determine personality? Primarily two views exist.

The first view does not believe that personality is influence by culture. It focuses on
biological makeup. Genetics determine how the personality of a person develops. Only our
genetic makeup can determine how hard we can work, and thus, this biological criterion
would decide our ability to become successful. This view stresses on the nature of a person in
deciding his personality rather than nurturing.

The other view believes that personality is not affected by biological factors and is developed
solely as a result of the culture that the person is exposed to. It does not believe that
personality traits can be derived by virtue of birth. Social conditioning, develops and alters

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personality. People are born as blank papers and their experiences determine how their
personality pans out. This view believes that nurturing, and not nature, determines
personality.

A third view, striking a balance between these two extreme views, is perhaps the best one.
While certain fundamentals in a person’s personality are determined by biological factors,
social conditioning plays an important role as well. Both nature and nurturing determine an
individual’s personality.

In this debate, gender socialisation is a particularly relevant issue. Margaret Meade conducted
a research to analyse whether the common notion of men being naturally aggressive and
women being naturally passive is true. She researched three different communities. In one
community, both men and women were found to be aggressive. In another, both were
relatively passive. In the third community, dominated by women, she saw a role reversal.
Women worked in areas normally perceived to be dominated by men, while men restricted
themselves to activities usually associated with women. She thus concluded, that personality
development was not based on nature but on culture.

Conclusion – Personality is predominantly determined by culture.

However, if culture defines personality, then why are people within cultures different? This
happens due to three factors, primarily.

1. Subculture Influence
Subculture groups are groups within a larger culture group having values and norms which
set them apart from the larger group. People even with a shared culture belong to different
subgroups. In India for example, diverse subgroups like Rajasthanis, Delhiites, Bengalis, etc
can be formed. Learning in the subgroup is greater than that in the larger culture group. Thus,
people are different.

Differences also exist because of cultural alternatives. Sociological aspects common to all
cultures are called cultural universals while sociological aspects differing across cultures are
called cultural alternatives. Marriage as an institution is a cultural universal. But different
societies have different types of marriages. Due to such cultural alternatives, individuals get
different cultural moulding. This in turn results in difference in personality traits.

2. Biological Differences
As discussed above, biological factors influence personality. Thus, differences on an
individual to individual basis exist due to genetic differences.

3. Situational Differences
Social environments differ for each individual. Different situations lead to different kinds of
experiences, leading to differing kinds of personalities. Thus, even if we consider twins with
high levels of genetic similarity living within the same culture, situational differences would
lead to differences in their personalities.

FAULTS IN SOCIALISATION
Inherently, there is no fault in socialisation as a concept. However, socialisation is essentially
a communication process between individuals. It involves sending, receiving and
internalising information. Faults might crop up in this process.
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Fault in Communication
Complete transfer of information is not always possible and often, interpretation of this
information is also incorrect.

Culture is an expansive concept. It influences everything – from the value patterns to the
dressing habits of an individual. Cultural transformation is one of the main objectives of
socialisation. However, since this is a long and complex process, it might become difficult for
the receiver to grasp a particular culture completely and correctly. When an individual
receives and then reflects information incorrectly, he gets disrespected by society.

Due to such faults, an individual’s concept of self may not develop properly, leading to
mental illness and stress.

Social Hierarchy
Additionally, since socialisation informs people of their role and status, an individual concept
of self might get adversely affected in the process. Coming to terms with the social hierarchy
may damage self esteem and lead to other problems. For example, the caste system, which
reflects a social hierarchy, degrades the personality of people who are told that they are
subordinate while some other are superior. Similarly, people get barred from performing
certain jobs on the basis of their race, caste, gender, etc. Instead of developing the concept of
self positively, this would hamper its development.

Research conducted in the US on the race based social division reflected this idea. The study
was conducted over a 10-15-year period, analysing the black students in a particular school.
Socialisation taught these kids that they were different from the rest resulting in them having
low self esteem. Over time, however, the social environment changed. Greater intermixing
took place and exclusive grouping virtually ended. Later, thus, they were found to have
higher self esteem.

Parenting
Since socialisation influences personalities, and parents are one of the most important social
agents, parenting style is a strongly dominant factor affecting personality development of
individuals. This can be seen in the differing personalities possessed by kids with differing
living conditions at home, but with all other factors remaining largely the same. The child
with a broken family might have more mental issues than the child living in a happy family.
This factor makes family history of mentally troubled individuals extremely relevant.

Poor parenting can thus, lead to frustration, mental conflict and other mental issues. While
the Chinese model of parenting entails excessive control, the American model allows for
excessive freedom. Many sociologists feel that Indian model involving support and control in
balanced proportions is the best model.

Conflict in Socialisation
Socialisation gives an understanding of roles, status and required behaviour to individuals. If
there is a conflict between ideas taught put across by different social agents, then conflicts in
the learning process get created. This leads to inconsistency in socialisation. Often, in such
situations, individuals take the wrong course of action, since it seems more attractive. For
example, if parents teach their child to not consume alcohol, he might still end up drinking if
his peers ask him to do the opposite.

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Adult Socialisation
Adult socialisation requires a change in social understanding in adulthood. This requires
replacements of what was learnt in younger days with new understanding of social rules. This
becomes extremely difficult. Thus, a village man taught since his birth of the superior
position of men in society might find it difficult to work under a woman, if he moves to a city
and finds a job in a MNC.

Inability to Satisfy Predetermined Parameters

Socialisation sets parameters for individuals, which they’re required to satisfy. The result is
social conflict, if they are unable to do this. For example, society says men have to be
financially sound, having a good, solid career. Similarly, traditional, conservative societies
require women to have children, grow a family and maintain beauty. If and when individuals
are unable to satisfy these goals, they develop personality problems. Researchers have, for
example, found that single women have a higher chance of developing mental issues. This is
the result of the social scheme which requires the woman to have a family, children, etc.

IMPORTANCE OF SOCIALISATION
1. It changes the biological being into a social being.
For instance, everyone takes birth simply as a male or a female individual. Just like animals.
But socialisation turns these individuals into social beings.

2. It develops the concept of self.

3. It gives an understanding of roles and statuses to each individual.
Socialisation teaches each individual about his role and status in society. In turn, they
understand what their requisite behaviour is. Their lives get a design. This is what makes
society function.

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 CULTURE
Culture consists of the beliefs, behaviours, objects, and other characteristics common to the
members of a particular group or society. A particular place or a society would have a culture
shared by everyone living there. Through culture, people and groups define themselves,
conform to society's shared values, and contribute to society. Non-conformity with this
culture would make the individual the odd-one-out and may result in imposition of sanctions.

Culture has an expansive scope. It includes everything ranging from one’s thinking, beliefs
and value systems to general habits. Different places and situations require different kinds of
behaviour. Behaviour too, falls within the ambit of culture.

Universal and Alternative Aspects

Cultural aspects common to all cultures are called cultural universals while cultural aspects
differing across cultures are called cultural alternatives. For example, marriage as an
institution is cultural universal, while ways of solemnizing marriages are cultural alternatives.

Material and Nonmaterial Aspects

Aspects of culture can be broadly classified into two groups. Values and beliefs not embodied
in physical objects fall into nonmaterial culture. Physical, tangible objects to which cultural
meaning has been attached fall into material culture. Examples are electronic gadgets,
dressing habits, etc.

High Culture and Popular Culture

Cultural aspects associated with the higher strata of society, used by it to differentiate itself
from the mainstream is called high culture. Popular culture is the mainstream culture and is
common to all. In most cases, the population tries to emulate the higher strata of the society.
Thus, aspects of high culture are adopted by the general populace.

Cultural Imperialism, Ethnocentrism, Xenocentrism and Cultural Relativism

Cultural imperialism refers to the imposition of one culture on people with different cultures,
believing the imposed culture to be superior.

Ethnocentrism is the practice of judging a different culture on the standards of one’s own. It
follows from the belief one’s own culture is superior to others. Nazi attitude to other cultures
is an example. Xenocentrism involves considering one’s own culture to be inferior to others.
Xenocentrism results in low self-esteem. An example would be a student from a rural
background feeling that he lacks exposure, when he moves to the city.

Society depends on cultural relativism. It requires open mindedness and respect for cultures
which are different than the individual’s own. This does not require acceptance of a different
culture’s practices. It simply involves appreciation and respect.

Cultural Shock
This refers to the reaction of an individual to a culture which is different, and often in conflict
with, the individual’s own culture.

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Subculture
Subculture groups are groups within a larger culture group having values and norms which
set them apart from the larger group. Learning in the subgroup is greater than that in the
larger culture group.

Elements of Culture
Values are culturally defined standards for what is considered desirable. For example, giving
importance to money, giving importance to health, etc. Beliefs are practices used to achieve
values. Example, belief in hard work, since it helps in earning money, belief in not smoking,
since it helps preserve health, etc. Learning the values and beliefs is a long-drawn process.

Norms are rules and regulations governing behaviour. They form the scale on which
behaviour is judged. Formal norms are explicit stated and codified, while informal norms,
which are found in the form of popular societal practices, are not.

Symbols are representations of various aspects of a culture. Examples are traffic signals,
mangalsutra, flags, etc. Languages are comprised of spoken words, gestures and symbols.
These are used for communication. Etiquettes are simple day to day practices.

Customs are cultural ideas that describe a regular, patterned way of behaving.

Change in Culture
1. Innovation
This is said to take place when pre-existing aspects of culture are introduced to a particular
group for the first time. Thus, these aspects get proved again. Society comes into contact with
a new concept. The discovery of North America by Columbus is an example.

2. Invention
This is said to take place when entirely new aspects of culture are created and introduced.
Examples would be the invention of radio, electronic media, etc.

3. Cultural Diffusion
When two different cultures get mixed and traits are adopted by these different cultures,
cultural diffusion is said to have taken place. This leads to cultural changes, but such changes
do not result in a complete change. The material change is visible to a large extent, but the
nonmaterial changes are limited. Thus, daily practices like eating and dressing habits
v=change more quickly than abstract ideas like the mindsets and value systems.

Cultural lag is said to take place when material culture changes very fast but nonmaterial
aspects of culture do not change with the same speed. This causes a mismatch between the
material and the nonmaterial world. For example, the caste system has lost its rigidity and
material aspects. However, caste consciousness and belongingness still persist in society.
This leads to a mismatch.

SOCIAL GROUPS
Social groups are formed out of a collection of individuals with common ideas, interests and
ideologies.

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Man is a social animal. Thus, being social beings, people share a need for company. Natural
psychological instincts, social factors like security and togetherness, political factors,
economic factors, geographical factors, etc. lead to the formation of social groups.

Membership in social groups may or may not be forced.

Classifications of Groups
1. Sumner (On the Basis of Membership)
All people associating themselves to a particular group form the in-group. Any other person
not falling in that group falls in the out-group. Different value systems may lead to conflicts
between members of different groups. For example, communal clashes take place between
Hindus, who consider all Hindus to form the in-group and Muslims, who form the out-group.

2. Elwood (On the Basis of Choice)

Voluntary social groups are those which are formed on the basis of the choice of its members.
An involuntary social group is one where choices have no role to play in deciding
membership. Example, caste system leads to formation of involuntary social groups. Other
examples are family, gender, etc.

3. Sorokin (On the Basis of Structure)

Horizontal social groups spread horizontally. For example, in a nation. Every person is an
member. Vertical social groups involve the maintenance of a hierarchy. For example,
religious social groups and the caste system.

4. Park (On the Basis of Territory)

Territorial groups, like nations, are bound by territorial limits. Non-territorial groups, like
society, transgress territorial limits.

5. Cooley (On the Basis of Nature of Relationship)

Primary groups like family and community are formed on the basis of sympathetic contact,
dependant on condition. Secondary groups like associations are more formal, formed on the
basis of categorical contact, independent of condition.

6. Tonnies (On the Basis of Nature of Relationships)

The basis of classification was similar to the one used by Cooley. Gesellschaft is based on
indirect impersonal interactions (society); Gemeinschaft is formed as a result of personal
social interactions (community).

7. Simmel (On the Basis of Size)

Social groups may either be small or large.

8. Muzafer Sherif (On the Basis of Following)

Individuals may either be a part of the membership group or the reference group. Reference
groups sets the ideal characteristics, which are followed by the membership group. Thus,
members of one group will be following the members of another.

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 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Though people might be equal, not everyone is the same. People can be differentiated on
various grounds. Equality aims at giving exposure and opportunity to all.

Parsons gave an exhaustive list of factors responsible for differentiation.

1. Quality
These refer to inborn qualities shaped by society. Personality traits like intellectual
capabilities are included in this category.

2. Possession
Refers to possession of resources, money, for example. It may either be acquired or ascribed.
This determines the opportunities that the individual would have access to.

3. Performance
This factor determines how well the individual actualises his qualities and possessions in the
society.

Differentiation leads to stratification or layering. Society places people in positions or

statuses on the basis of criteria like class, caste, race, gender, age, etc. on the basis of this, a
hierarchy is formed. Though we feel equality should exist, this layering is a fact. The caste
system is a good example of this.

Nimkoff defined stratification as the process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a
more or less enduring hierarchy of status. Diverse forms of stratification exist. Race based
stratification and caste based stratification in India are examples. We aim to end certain types
of stratification, i.e., the social recognition of the differentiation. For example, caste based
discrimination. This is done through laws, social activism etc.

Features of Stratification
1. Universal
It is an ancient, universal concept. It may take diverse forms in different societies, but is
found universally nonetheless.

2. Social
The layering is social in nature and not a natural consequence. Qualities may be inborn, but
the acknowledgment of these qualities is done by the society. It takes place only when the
differentiation is recognised by society. (Differentiation + Recognition = Stratification). For
example, intellectual qualities are placed above the artistic qualities.

3. Consequentialist
Stratification is co-relative to many other factors. Therefore, stratification affects all the other
aspects of the life. Thus, it can be called consequentialist, as it affects the individual’s
opportunities and life chances.

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Approaches to Understanding Stratification
1. Functionalist
Largely speaking the hierarchical structure is functional to the society. It helps in the
identification of roles and statuses. This teaches how to live our lives and behave in the
various roles that we occupy, as a student, friend, son, etc. for example. Despite the negative
connotation, stratification helps in social interactions. In Ancient India, for example, concepts
of Swadharma and Swabhava existed. When an individual identified which Guna (trait)
dominated his personality, he would accept the reality and decide his status accordingly. The
determination of occupations was based on personality. Thus, the system was not rigid, but
actually allowed for mobility.

2. Conflict
Conflict views stratification as a means of dividing society on the basis of control over means
of production. Thus, society is divided on the basis of economic determinants. Thus, from the
conflict perspective, stratification is viewed in a negative light.

3. Interactionist
This approach views the effects of stratification in day to day interactions. Largely, it plays a
positive role, by teaching us how to behave in all kinds of situations. Students, for example,
are able to recognise the authority of teachers in the classroom, and this, in turn makes
interaction constructive. There exist diverse views even within this approach.

Social Mobility
Social mobility refers to movement of individuals across strata. Mobility is said to be present
when society gives an opportunity to individuals to change their status. While the ascribed
status remains the same, the achieved status can be changed, since this is determined on the
basis of individual performance.

There exist two types of social mobility. Vertical mobility is said to be present when a change
in status is secured. An example would be a clerk changing professions and becoming a IAS
officer. Horizontal mobility is said to be present where no change in status but a change in
position is achieved. An example of this would be a teacher changing colleges but remaining
in the same profession. Similarly, mobility may either be upward (for example, becoming
richer) or downward (for example, becoming poorer). Intergenerational mobility entails a
change in status over two or more generations. For example, where a clerk’s son becomes a
IAS officer. Intragenerational mobility envisages a change within the generation. Siblings
with the same background securing professions of different statuses would be an example.
Structural mobility is said to be present when an entire group of people, rather than just one
individual, changes its status in society. Women empowerment and wall street professionals
after the financial crisis would be apt examples of the same.

Typical Hindu stratification – caste system (exclusive to Hindu society) and class system
(universal). Caste system is a closed system, not allowing any mobility. Originally,
stratification was based on the Varna system. Its origin is found in the Rig Veda. Strata of
society were analogous to parts of the Purusha. The Brahmins represented the head,
Kshatriyas represented the shoulders, Vaishyas thighs and Shudras, the feet. This system was
not closed. It allowed mobility. However, over time, the stratification became rigid and a
complex system of castes, sub-castes and mechanisms of maintaining their rigidity were

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developed. Thus, the caste system finds ancient, mythological and spiritual backing. The
class system, on the other hand, is universal, secular and open.

Race, Ethnicity and Minority

These can be other bases of stratification. These three terms have differing meanings in
sociology.

Race is differentiation based on skin colour and region of belongingness. These are the two
central criteria for determining race. Race is often associated with physical characteristics.
Ethnicity is based on belief and culture values. People with shared culture values will have
the same ethnicity. There might be an intersection between race and ethnicity. Where people
in the same region share the same culture, their race and ethnicity is the same. A minority is a
group singled out from the rest of the society due to its physical characteristics and cultural
practices. Thus, minority entails separation from others. Since national boundaries in
contemporary societies have been shaken, these concepts are gaining importance in the idea
of global stratification. Globally, however, stratification is largely based on the economy.

Stratification is popularly believed to not be functional, since it confines people in certain

fixed statuses and positions. However, sociologists believe that it is inevitable and is actually
functional to the society. As discussed above, it helps us understand our social status and role,
and thus helps us behave accordingly. Stratification is dysfunctional for the extent to which it
allows discrimination. Largely, however, society’s survival is dependent on social
stratification.

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 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Marriage; Family; Kinship; Religion.

Institutions evolve slowly and gradually in society. Associations, on the other hand, are
deliberately created. Marriage and family fall into both categories. As institutions, these have
naturally developed over a long period of time. It is not clear which of the two came first.
They are seen largely as parallel institutions complementing each other. As associations, they
are created deliberately and artificially for particular persons.

MARRIAGE
In today’s society, marriage is generally seen as a precondition for the existence of family.
Despite changes in formation of families through newer developments like surrogacy,
adoption, etc. this precondition has remained intact.

Marriage as a system is defined by Edward Westermarck as a more or less durable

relationship or association between a male and a female lasting beyond the mere act of
reproduction and after the birth of the offspring. Thus, marriage is not concerned only with
procreation. It is a long and durable relationship. This definition does not incorporate
emerging trends in marriage like contractual marriages, live-in relationships and homosexual
marriage. Most societies have not accepted these concepts completely, even if legal
provisions supporting their existence are present.

Types
Classification on the basis of the number of male and female participants.

1. Polygamy
One man married to multiple women. Sororal polygamy requires all the wives to be sisters.
Non-sororal polygamy is said to be present when the wives do not have a blood relation.
Societies practicing polygamy – Ancient Hindus, Muslims, Nagas (India), Gonds (India),
Eskimos, African negroes, etc.

2. Polyandry
One woman married to multiple men. This is practiced generally in matriarchal societies and
in some tribal communities. Fraternal polyandry is said to be present when the husbands are
bothers. Non-fraternal polyandry is present when the husbands do not have any blood
relation. Societies practicing polyandry – Nair, Toda and Khasi tribes in India.

Identifying fatherhood is a problem in polyandry. Some societies practicing polyandry solve

this by assigning fatherhood not necessarily on the basis of biological claim but by allowing
any of the husbands to claim, socially, the fatherhood of the child. In some others, freedom is
given to the child. He gets to choose, after an age, who his father is.

3. Monogamy
One man married to one woman. This is the most common type of marriage practiced in and
given legal recognition to in civilised societies.

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 4. Group Marriages
Multiple husbands married to multiple wives, with each husband being individually married
to each of the wives and vice versa. This is very rare. In ancient times, it was prevalent in
Australia, Tibet and in Todas in India.

Factors Responsible for Development of Polygamy and Polyandry

1. Imbalanced Sex-Ratio
Where issues like female foeticide lead to a lower female population, polyandry emerges.
Where males are fewer, polygamy gets encouraged.

2. Preservation of Property
In order to keep property intact, sororal polygamy and fraternal polyandry are practiced,
which keeps the property within one family and helps avoid division among different
families.

3. Bride Price
Bride price is the practice of giving a price to the woman to allow her to marry. Due to
poverty, it became financially sensible for several men to pool in resources to pay the bride
price, and thus, get married together to the same woman. This was an encouraging factor for
polyandry.

Rules of Marriage
Endogamy is the practice of restricting marriages within a particular group. For example –
Allowing marriages only within caste, sub-caste, village, etc. Sub-caste and caste endogamy
is declining. Rigidity in these terms has decreased substantially.

Exogamy is the practice of excluding marriages within a particular group. For example –
Hindu tradition does not allow marriages within Gotra, Pravar or Pind. Legally, exogamy is
enforced only for Pind (incest of sorts – relation within 5 paternal and 3 maternal relatives).
Even here, an exception is made for certain societies like the matriarchal system in Kerala,
where marriage with uncle is permissible. Khap panchayats demand legal recognition of
exogamy for Gotra (people with shared lineage) and Pravar as well. At certain religious
ceremonies, people are asked to utter the names of Devis or Devtas. If the name uttered by
two persons is the same, they are said to be in the same Pravar.

FAMILY
Family is a social system developed due to the idea of protection of property. Additionally,
humans instinctively, are of a controlling nature and marriage provides a legitimate
controlling system.

The concept of family has developed to include even servants. Marriage is no longer a
precondition for the existence of family, due to acceptance of emerging trends like adoption,
surrogacy, etc.

Nimkoff defined family as a more or less durable association of a husband and wife, with or
without any children, or of a man or a woman alone with children. Thus, a family must have
a minimum of two members.

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Functions of Family
Primary functions, the need for satisfaction of which marriage as an institution exists, do not
change over time. These include the following.

 Stable satisfaction of sexual needs: Social recognition is ascribed to this function to

enable procreation.
 Ascribing status: An identity is associated with the family. Caste, religion based
nomenclature is an example.
 Transmission of culture through socialisation: The family is one of the most important
teachers of values and beliefs.

Secondary functions are those which are ancillary to the existence of the institution, and
change over time. These include the following.

 Economic functions: The joint family system was based on the socialist model. There
was economic co-dependence and sharing of resources. Economic security was
derived from the income of other members of the family. With the emergence of
nuclear families, this has changed.
 Education: Earlier, formal education was not the norm, and the joint family played the
most important part in educating the individual. Even now, formal education begins
only after a few years and family based education is important.
 Religious functions.
 Recreational functions.
 Psychological functions.

Features of Family
1. Mating Relationship
2. System of Nomenclature
3. Teaching of Identity
4. Social and Economic Security

Types of Family
1. Matriarchal and Patriarchal
The classification is based on the seat of authority. In matriarchal families, the eldest female
is the head, while in patriarchal families, the head is the eldest male member.

2. Matrilocal and Patrilocal

The classification is based on residence. Where the husband moves into the house of the wife,
the family would be matrilocal, while it would be patrilocal if the wife moves into the house
of the husband.

3. Matrilineal and Patrilineal

The classification is based on descent. Ina matrilineal system, the individual is considered to
belong to the mother’s descent group. In the patrilineal system, the individual is said to
descend from the father’s side, and the family name is carried forward accordingly.

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 4. Nuclear and Joint/Undivided/Extended
The family of orientation is the family in which one takes birth while the family of
procreation is the family in which one has children. These are different in case of nuclear
families but the same in case of joint families.

Joint Family System

Iravati Karve defines a joint family as a group of people generally lying under a common
roof, sharing food from a common kitchen, sharing common property and worshipping
together.

Due to decomposition of certain factors, like living in separate houses and reduction in family
size, the functionally joint family system has emerged. Here, sharing in common property and
place of worship is still present.

Changes in the joint family system have taken place due to various factors.

 Urbanisation
 Education
 Legal Provisions like those regarding women empowerment.

Different sociologists have different opinions on the status of the joint family system in India.

Allen Ross and William believe that it is not just changing fast, but is tending towards
disintegration. KM Kapadia and Desai believe it is successfully continuing as a family
system. Irawati Karve believes that the system is changing fast and the size of the family is
decreasing. It exists in newer forms today. The functionally joint family system is united by
share in a common property.

KINSHIP
Kinship is a social structure, over which the social system of family has been established.
Kinship is the subject of anthropological study. Kinship can be established either through
blood or through marital relationships.

Primary kin can be found in 8 kinds of relationships. These are seen between members of a
nuclear family, between husband-wife, parent-children, siblings. Secondary kin can be found
in 33 kinds of relationships. These are the relationships between an individual and the
primary kin of his primary kin. Tertiary kin can be found in 151 types of relationships. These
are the relationships between an individual and the secondary kin of his primary kin.

There exist 6 rules of kinship which govern relationships. These are not universal. They’re
found in some societies.

1. Avoidance
Requires a distance between individuals in certain relations. The daughter-in-law – father-in-
law relationship, for example. An element of respect is usually involved.

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 2. Joking
A joking, informal relationship is required in certain kinds of relations so that the individuals
do not become inappropriately close. The relationship between Devar and Bhabhi, for
example.

3. Teknonymy
Where women do not refer to their spouse or any other relation, directly by their name. ‘Aji
sunte ho!’ and ‘Pappu ke papa!’, for example.

4. Avunculate
This refers to the special relationship in some matriarchal societies between a man and his
sister’s children. The maternal uncle plays an instrumental role in their lives.

5. Amitade
This refers to the special relationship in some patriarchal societies between a woman and her
brother’s children. The paternal aunt plays an instrumental role in their lives.

6. Couvade
Couvade syndrome, also called sympathetic pregnancy, is a practice in which a husband
experiences some of the same symptoms and behaviour as an expectant mother.

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 SOCIAL CONTROL
Socialisation is about social training. Individuals get an idea of the rules of the group through
this process. However, in addition to this, there exists a mechanism which the society uses to
regulate behaviour. It ensures that individuals follow the set rules. This is the mechanism of
social control. It is an extremely important component of every society.

Social control helps maintain discipline, unity, solidarity in the society. In the absence of
social control, chaos will be felt. Thus, norms of social control work in various ways to
ensure compliance. They may use ideas of fear, obligation, etc.

Methods of social control may either be formal or informal.

1. Formal
Written, codified, explicit rules. Used by formal institutions for their operation. Usually,
these norms use fear rather than ideas of morality to ensure compliance. Sanctions are
imposed in cases of non-compliance. Examples are banking regulations, criminal laws, etc.

2. Informal
Practices which are not codified, but have turned into norms and usages and which are
followed by all fall into this category. If, however, such practices get codified, they would
turn into formal mechanisms of social control.

These norms are obeyed because individuals feel an obligation to do so as members in a

community or a society. These norms might rely on fear also, in order to ensure compliance.
For example, certain practices in NLU Jodhpur, like the relationship between seniors and
junior fall within this category.

In certain cases, informal practices may come into conflict with formal rules. Ragging, for
example, may be an informal practice, but is prohibited under the formal rules of conduct.

Customs, morality, religion, public opinion etc. are types of informal mechanisms of social
control.

Emile Durkheim analysed the importance of religion as a means of social control, playing a
central role in society in governing behaviour of individuals.

Customs are another type. They may either be legal or conventional. Legal customs have a
binding force. Conventional customs do not. But due to practice over a long period of time,
these get some authority. The relationship between law and customs can be of three types.

 Where the law accepts and recognises certain customs, legal customs are formed.
Examples can be found specially in cases of family laws, where religious customs are
given recognition to. Practices like using the Mangalsutra, Kareva marriage (marriage
of the woman to the husband’s brother after the former’s death) in Punjab, marriage
of women to maternal uncles in the Nair community, etc are examples of this.

 Where the law prohibits certain practices, which are still considered acceptable in the
society, a conflict arises between the law and the custom. Often, the societal belief in
the customs would prevail, making the law ineffective. Dowry, child marriage,
witchcraft, etc. are examples of the same.
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  Where the law gives recognition to a practice which is otherwise against customary
norms, a conflict may again arise. This happens usually when the majority of the
population has not accepted a change in a certain kind of norm. in such cases, the law
is sympathetic towards these norms, and provisions allowing them are made.
Examples include live-in relationships and free entry into temples in India, and
homosexuality in conservative societies, where it has been legalised.

Where the media is controlled by the state and the public opinion is thus, shaped by the
government, media would form a means of formal social control. State propaganda moulding
popular belief would fall within this category. However, otherwise, media forms a type of
informal control mechanism.

Fashion is another strong mechanism of social control. Despite not having any sanctions
imposed against not conforming to it, fashion moulds the behaviour of most individuals in
society. This is the case because individuals feel the need to conform with rules of fashion,
like dressing and eating styles, in order to remain integrated with the society. Means of
spreading fashion may be different in different societies.

27