Applied Physics: The Inverse Square Force Laws.

Abu Bakr Mehmood

Fall 2022

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Opening remarks

Consider launching off from the earth’s surface and traveling towards
far infinity.
Clearly, the gravitational field can be assumed constant at
g ≈ 9.81 m/s 2 near the surface.
As the distance increases however, g must continuously decrease to
zero as we approach infinity.
Thus one can always speak of a distance scale where g ≠ constant,
which immediately raises the following questions:
(1) how do we calculate the potential energy as the work done by g ?
(2) can we formulate a conservation law for this more general setting?
Importantly, such a distance scale presents a good opportunity to
discuss the inverse square force law for gravity in full detail.
We can also discuss the inverse square electric force law in parallel.

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The road map

In view of these factors, we will:

(1) begin with presenting the inverse squared force laws for gravity
and electrostatics,

(2) develop the field approach to inverse squared theories,

(3) formulate the potential energy function and the conservation law,

(4) investigate the relation between the field and potential,

(5) perform several computations for field and potential.

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The inverse squared force law (1)

The inverse squared force law states that the force of interaction
between two charges is of the form:
Ð
→ c1 c2
F = κ 2 rˆ. (1)
r
Such an expression encodes both Newton’s law for gravitation and
the well known Coulomb force between static charges.
To recover Newton’s law for gravitation from (1), we choose:

c1 = m1 , c2 = m2 , κ = −G . (2)

This gives:
Ð
→ m1 m2
F gravitational = −G rˆ. (3)
r2

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The inverse squared force law (2)

And to obtain the Coulomb force, we choose in (1):

1
c1 = q1 , c2 = q2 , κ = . (4)
4π0
This yields:
Ð
→ 1 q1 q2
F electric = rˆ. (5)
4π0 r 2
Using the fact that the gravitational charge is always +ive, we can see
from (3) that the force is always attractive.
On the contrary, the electric charge comes in two varieties: +ive and
−ive.
And (5) shows that like charges repel while unlike charges attract.

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Pseudo forces, gravity and Einstein

Standard thought experiments involving linear and rotational motion

seem to support the view that acceleration is the source of pseudo
force, which is directly proportional to mass.

Interestingly, one can use acceleration to mimic gravity, which turns

out proportional to the mass.
This seems to suggest that gravity is a pseudo force, which arises out
of wrong coordinates and wrong geometry.

To support this view, one can use ‘straight lines’ on a sphere to create
the illusion of gravity.

Einstein’s theory achieves this perfectly.

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The field interpretation (1)
The inverse square force law might seem very simple at first glance.
That indeed is the case for two point particles.
However as more particles are brought in, the calculations become
complicated.
Experience has shown that the field approach helps simplify the
analysis and computations.
Consider recasting (1) in the following form:
Ð
→ c1 c2 κc1
F = κ 2 rˆ = 2 rˆ × c2 . (6)
r r
The interpretation is that:
(1) charge c1 produces a quantity (first term on RHS above) at the
location of charge c2 ,
(2) c2 experiences a force given by its product with the quantity.
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The field interpretation (2)
Notably:
(1) the force on c2 can now be equated with the product of its mass
and acceleration,
(2) the quantity created by c1 at location of c2 is there, regardless of
whether c2 is there or not.
This ‘quantity’ is what we call the field.
It is clearly a vector that permeates the whole space, and is therefore
called a vector field.
Although the field might seem like mathematical fiction, however it is
indeed very real and very physical, as can be demonstrated for an
oscillating charge.
For when the charge stops oscillating, the disturbances traveling
through the field can still be traced and we say that the field ‘retains
memory’, even when the charge does not.
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The field interpretation (3)
Thus the field is a real and physical quantity that warrants calculation.
All field computations are greatly assisted by the principle of
superposition.
This states that the total field at a point due to charges {c1 , . . . , cn },
is the sum of the fields due to individual charges:
n
κci
∑ rˆ .
2 i
i=1 ri
Of course for a continuum of charges, such a discrete summation can
be replaced by an integral:
κdc
∫ rˆ.
extended body r 2
Computations of this type will now be the focus of our attention.
Worth noting is the fact that while superposition principle is exactly
true for electrostatic force, it is only approximately true for
gravitational force.
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Some field computations (1)

Along perpendicular bisector of finite line charge:

The analysis can be extended to an infinite line charge.

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Some field computations (2)

Along symmetry axis of a ring:

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Some field computations (3)
Along symmetry axis of a thin disk:

The analysis can be extended to the case of annulus and infinite sheet.
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Potential energy for the inverse square law (1)

We have defined the potential energy as the minimum amount of

work necessary to set up a given configuration:
(1) recall the example of a spring where potential energy was shown
to be 21 κe 2 ,
(2) let’s also recall and review the example of a constant Ð
→
g field,
where potential energy was shown to be mgh.
Using these ideas, we can show the potential energy functions for
inverse squared gravitational and electric forces to be:
Gm1 m2
Ug (r ) = − ,
r (7)
q1 q2
Ue (r ) = + .
4π0 r

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Potential energy for the inverse square law (2)
It turns out that closed path integrals always calculate to zero:

Using radial lines and circular arc segments as in the proof of above
result, it is easily seen that the path integral for gravity comes out the
same along any path between distinct points: it is always the negative
change in potential energy.
You should prove both these ideas when: (1) the electrostatic force is
attractive, and (2): the electrostatic force is repulsive.
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Potential energy for the inverse square law (3)

It is interesting to see that the first of (7) proves the familiar result:

△U = mgh.

For a configuration of any (finite) number of particles, we can

interpret the total potential energy as the work necessary to assemble
the configuration.
Now let’s give each particle a push (providing it some initial velocity),
and consider writing the mathematical expression for the total
mechanical energy.
Then subsequent calculation will show that the total mechanical
energy is conserved.
Would it possible to extend the proof of this result and show that the
total ‘electro-mechanical’ energy of the system is also conserved?

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The relation between force and potential energy
Suppose the potential energy function is known throughout space:
U(t, x, y , z).
Holding all other variables fixed, consider displacing by a small
amount △x along the x axis.
Then clearly, the change in potential energy is:
△U
△U ≈ −Fx △ x Ô⇒ Fx ≈ − .
△x
As △x → 0, the approximation becomes exact and we write:
△U ∂U
Fx = − lim △x→0 ≡− .
△x ∂x
Repeating the argument along y and z directions, it is easily seen
that:
Ð
→ Ð
→
F = −∇U . (8)
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The relation between field and potential (1)
The field interprets as the force per unit charge:
Ð
→
F = − 2 rˆ = m (− 2 rˆ) ≡ mÐ
→
GMm GM
g. (9)
r r
And the potential energy per unit charge is called the potential:
GMm GM
U =− = m (− ) ≡ mV . (10)
r r
Then using (9) and (10) in (8), we have:
Ð→ Ð→
g = −∇V . (11)
Also, the potential energy is the negative of work done by the force
and thus:
2Ð→ →
△U = − ∫ F .d Ð r Ô⇒ △V = − ∫ Ð →
g .d Ð
→
2
r , (12)
1 1

showing that potential is the negative of work done by the field.

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The relation between field and potential (2)
You should provide similar arguments and establish the following
relations for the electrostatic scenario:
Ð
→ Qq Q Ð→
F = 2
rˆ = q ( 2
rˆ) ≡ q E , (13)
4π0 r 4π0 r
Qq Q
U= = q( ) ≡ qV , (14)
4π0 r 4π0 r
Ð→ Ð→
E = −∇V , (15)
2Ð
→ 2Ð
→
△U = − ∫ F .d Ð
→
r Ô⇒ △V = − ∫ E .d Ð
→
r . (16)
1 1
The crux is that potential can be computed from the field, and
conversely, the field can be computed from potential.
We have performed field computations using integration, now let’s
compute the potential using the same technique.
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Computing the potential (1)
The field is a vector quantity and so its computation requires keeping
track of direction.
This seems more complicated than computing the potential, which is
scalar and has no direction.
Thus an alternative approach to calculating the field is to compute
Ð
→
the potential and then compute its negative gradient: Ð →
g = −∇V .
Then the only question is how do we calculate the potential?
As before, the answer can be found in the principle of superposition.
Considering the scenario in which a test charge is brought into the
vicinity of two charges, a simple argument based on superposition of
fields, will show that in the vicinity of an extended body:
GdM
V = −∫ .
extended body r

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Computing the potential (2)

We can use these ideas to prove the following interesting results:

(1) the gravitational potential is the same everywhere inside a
spherical shell,
(2) the potential outside the shell is exactly as though all its mass
was placed at the center.
The figure below shows a spherical shell with radius a and area mass
density σ (constant), together with a thin strip of thickness dx
painted on the shell:

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Computing the potential (3)

Subsequent calculation from this figure will prove our claims.

That is, the potential is given by the following mathematical
expression:
GMshell
V (R) = − ∀ R ≥a,
R
GMshell
V (R) = − ∀ R ≤a.
a
The graph of this function easily obtains by considering the reflection
of y = 1/x about the x axis.
That winds up our computation of the potential.
Next, let’s take a quick look at spherical coordinates and the del
operator, we will then return to this problem.

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Spherical coordinates and the del operator (1)
The configuration for spherical coordinates is shown below:

Beginning from the origin, a coordinate grid allows you to access all
points of space.
In rectangular coordinates, the scheme to access point P is very
simple: beginning with O, you displace x, y and z units along the
coordinate directions.
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Spherical coordinates and the del operator (2)
Notably, you are using three lengths to access the point P.
Alternatively, you can use a combination one length and two angles:
displace by r units along the x axis and then rotate twice to arrive at
the desired point P.
Moreover, the following range of coordinate values will allow you to
access any point in 3-space:
0 ≤ r < ∞ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π , 0 ≤ φ < 2π .
The following diagram will allow you to convert rectangular
coordinates to spherical coordinates:

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Spherical coordinates and the del operator (3)

The coordinate relations are seen to be:

x = r sin θ cos φ , y = r sin θ sin φ , z = r cos θ .

And these invert easily to:

√ ⎛ ⎞
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , φ = tan−1 ( ) , θ = cos−1 √
y z
r= .
x ⎝ x2 + y2 + z2 ⎠

The above pair of relations allow you to switch back and forth
between the coordinates as frequently as you like:

(x, y , z) ↔ (r , θ, φ) .

What about the basis vectors in the new coordinates ? . . .

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Spherical coordinates and the del operator (4)
Considering the previous diagram once again, you can visualize the
basis vectors as unit vectors along the increasing coordinate directions:

These are notated rˆ, θ̂ and φ̂.

The right handedness of the new coordinates is visible:
rˆ × θ̂ = φ̂.
The transformation between the basis vectors is easily derived:
(x̂, ŷ , ẑ) ↔ (ˆ
r , θ̂, φ̂) .
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Spherical coordinates and the del operator (5)
But that will take us way off course and down a new road, so it’s best
to omit that.
Importantly, once you agree to transform the coordinate background,
you must also agree to transform quantities written w.r.t. this
background.
So far we have seen three examples of such quantities: (1) scalar
fields, (2) vector fields and (3) the del operator.
One can argue as to how each of these quantities transform.
The bottom line though, is that the del operator transforms as
follows:
Ð
→ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇= x̂ + ŷ + ẑ Ð→ rˆ + θ̂ + φ̂.
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
And with that done, it’s time to revisit the spherical shell.
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Revisit to the spherical shell and a computation of Ð
→
g (1)
Earlier, you’ve looked at the spherical shell shown below:

Its potential was shown to be:

GM
V (r ) = − ∀ r ≤R ,
R
GM
V (r ) = − ∀ r ≥R .
r
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Revisit to the spherical shell and a computation of Ð
→
g (2)
You should realize by now that you’ve been looking at this problem in
spherical coordinates.
In fact you’ve been using spherical coordinates since the beginning of
our discussion on the inverse squared force laws.
Its just that the quantities are independent of the angles and so θ and
φ have not entered the picture.
In these coordinates, the negative gradient of the potential will
produce the gravitational field for the shell:
Ð
→
g (r ) = 0 ∀ r < R ,
Ð
→ GM
g (r ) = − 2 rˆ ∀ R < r .
r
We see that outside the shell, the field is that of a point mass placed
at the center, while inside the shell, the field is zero.
That completes our calculation of Ð →
g.
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Computing the earth’s field by superposition principle (1)
Here we would like to calculate Ð→
g both inside and outside the earth.
The key idea is to view the earth as a collection of concentric
spherical shells, and then superimpose the Ð→
g ’s for all these shells.
Such an exercise must be carried out for points both inside and
outside the earth.
So consider a point outside the earth, then the configuration is as
follows:

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Computing the earth’s field by superposition principle (2)
It is easily seen that the field is given by:
3
Ð
→ GM
g = − 2 rˆ = −
4πG ρR
rˆ ∀ r ≥R .
r 3r 2
That proves it . . . the earth behaves gravitationally like a point mass!
Next, let’s go to a point inside the earth, then the configuration is as
below:

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Computing the earth’s field by superposition principle (3)
Subsequent calculation from this figure will show that:

Ð
→
g =−
4πG ρ
r rˆ = −
4πG ρ Ð
→
r ∀ r ≤R .
3 3
This is an interesting result: you should correlate this with the
train/tunnel problem considered earlier in the course.
In summary, we’ve shown that:

Ð→
g =−
4πG ρ
r rˆ ∀ r ≤ R ,
3
Ð→ 4πG ρR 3
g =− rˆ ∀ r ≥ R .
3r 2
Later, we will derive the Ð
→
g field from earth’s potential and cross
check with this expression.
That’s the end of it for it now.
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Computing earth’s potential by superposition principle (1)
Here we would like to calculate V both inside and outside the earth.
As before, we view the earth as a collection of concentric spherical
shells, and superimpose the V ’s for all shells.
This is to be done for points both inside and outside earth.
Then for a point outside earth, the configuration is as before:

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Computing earth’s potential by superposition principle (2)

It is easily seen that:

GM 4πG ρR 3
Vp = − =− ∀ r ≥R .
r 3r
And with P inside earth, we can consider the following diagram:

These are shells to which P is an exterior point.

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Computing earth’s potential by superposition (3)
Here superposition of potentials will give:

(ext) 4πG ρr 2
Vp =− .
3
Finally, shells to which P is an interior point are considered as below:

And subsequent calculation yields:

(int)
Vp = −2πG ρ (R 2 − r 2 ) .

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Computing earth’s potential by superposition (4)

So the total potential inside earth turns out to be:

(ext) (int) r2
Vp = Vp + Vp = −2πG ρ (R 2 − ).
3

Summarizing, we’ve shown that:

r2
V (r ) = −2πG ρ (R 2 − ) ∀ r ≤R ,
3
4πG ρR 3
V (r ) = − ∀ r ≥R .
3r

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Field to Potential and Potential to Field
For the earth, we’ve shown that:

r2
V (r ) = −2πG ρ (R 2 − ) ∀ r ≤R ,
3
(17)
4πG ρR 3
V (r ) = − ∀ r ≥R .
3r

Ð→
g =−
4πG ρ
r rˆ ∀ r ≤ R ,
3
(18)
Ð→ 4πG ρR 3
g =− rˆ ∀ r ≥ R .
3r 2
As a closing exercise, it would be nice to use the following relations
and derive either of the above equations from the other:

Ð
→ Ð
→ Ð
→
g .d Ð
→
2
g = −∇V , △V = − ∫ r . (19)
1

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