DATA MODELS, SCHEMAS,

AND INSTANCES
• A data model—a collection of concepts that can be used to describe the structure of a database—
provides abstraction.

• Structure of a database means the data types, relationships, and constraints that should hold on the
data.

• Most data models also include a set of basic operations for specifying retrievals and updates on the
database.
Categories of Data Models


The following is the categorization according to the types of concepts they use to describe the
database structure.



High level /conceptual model

Low level /physical level

Representational/Implementation model
• High-level or conceptual data models provide concepts that are close to the way many users
perceive data.
• Provides the concepts that describes the details of how data is understood by the users.

• Low-level or physical data models provide concepts that describe the details of how data is stored
in the computer.
• Concepts provided by low-level data models are generally meant for computer specialists, not for
typical end users.

Representational (or implementation) data models, which provide concepts that may be
understood by end users but that are not too far removed from the way data is organized within the
computer.

Representational data models hide some details of data storage but can be implemented on a
computer system in a direct way.

Different Data Models


Relational Model

It’s Representational / Implementation data model

Uses collection of tables to represent data and relationship among
these data.

Entity Relationship Model


Uses collection of basic objects called entities ,attributes and
relationship among these objects.

Object Oriented Data Model

Extension of ER model with notions of encapsulation,methods and
object identity.


Network data model and hierarchical data model

Widely used in the past
• Schemas , Instances and Database state

• The description of a database is called the database schema, which is specified during
database design and is not expected to change frequently
• Schemas can be displayed as a diagram.
• A displayed schema is called a schema diagram.
• The diagram displays the structure of each record type but not the actual instances of
records.
• Each object in the schema is called schema construct.
• The data in the database at a particular moment in time is called a database state or
snapshot.

• It is also called the current set of occurrences or instances in the database.

• Every time we insert or delete a record, or change the value of a data item in a record, we
change one state of the database into another state.
• Valid State

• The DBMS is partly responsible for ensuring that every state of the database is a valid
state.

• Valid state : A state that satisfies the structure and constraints specified in the schema.

• The DBMS stores the descriptions of the schema constructs and constraints—also called
the meta-data—in the DBMS catalog so that DBMS software can refer to the schema
whenever it needs to.
• Schema Evolution:
• Changes in the schema

• The schema is not supposed to change frequently.

• But when the application requirements needs changes in the schema, it can be
done.