Exam Questions - ‘Varieties of English’,

1. Categorizing world Englishes – Please elaborate on the concept of World Englishes.

World Englishes refers to the various forms and varieties of the English language used across the globe. English has
become a global language with diverse manifestations influenced by local cultures, linguistic traditions, and historical
contexts. The concept of World Englishes acknowledges that English is not a monolithic entity but a dynamic and
evolving language with numerous localized expressions. ‘’world Englishes’’ is the most encompassing of all, denoting
all or any of the varieties spoken around the world, including British English and of course forms such as Nigerian,
Malaysian, or New Zealand English. When using this term the perspective is usually a national one,

2. Please list regional English dialects.

North-northeast and lower north, northeast, cental north, central Lancashire, humberside

West and East central-merseyside, northwest midlands, west midlands, central midlands, northeast midlands,
east midlands

South- southwest, upper southwest, central southwest, lower southwest

East-south Midlands, East Anglia, home countries

3. Language is not a monolithic entity, in reality, it comes in many shadings, varieties and dialects. Please
elaborate on levels of language variation. Pay particular attention to Lexical variation.
Phonological Variation-Involves differences in the pronunciation of sounds, including accents, dialects, and
variations in intonation patterns.
Morphological Variation-Relates to differences in the structure and formation of words, such as the use of
prefixes, suffixes, and inflections.
Syntactic Variation-Refers to differences in sentence structure, word order, and the arrangement of phrases
and clauses.
Lexical Variation-Involves differences in vocabulary, word choices, and expressions used by speakers in
different regions or social groups.
Semantic Variation-Occurs when words or phrases have different meanings in different contexts, regions,
or communities.
Pragmatic Variation-Relates to differences in the use of language in various social and cultural contexts,
including variations in politeness, formality, and speech registers.
Sociolinguistic Variation-Examines how language varies in different social groups based on factors such as
age, gender, socio-economic status, and ethnicity.
Dialectal Variation-Involves differences in language associated with specific geographic regions or social
groups, leading to the development of distinct dialects.
Register Variation-Refers to differences in language use based on specific contexts or communicative
purposes, such as formal, informal, technical, or colloquial registers.

Lexical variation-means word choice, and usage, people from different dialectal regions or countries have
words of their own, like stubby or shivaree. Hawaiians say mahalo for ‘’thank you’’ South Africans have the
word veld for what may be compared to the outback in australia, Hong Kong people give red packets and
eat dim sum and so on…
4. Please provide explanation of ‘accent’ and ‘dialect’ – illustrate a difference by providing clear examples.

A dialect in the strict sense of the word, is a language variety distinguished from other varieties by differences
of grammar and vocabulary. Standard British English is therefore a dialect of English, just as the other
standard dialects of the language. Accent refers just to variations in pronunciation.

 Accent-Definition: An accent refers to the way in which a person pronounces words, including the distinctive
features of their pronunciation, rhythm, and intonation.
 Characteristics: Accent is often associated with the sounds of a particular language or variety of a language
spoken in a specific region or by a particular group of people.
 Example: An individual may have a British accent, an American accent, or a Southern accent within the English
language. Within a specific language, there can be various accents based on geographic location, social class, or
other factors.
 Dialect-Definition: A dialect refers to a variety of a language that is distinguished by its grammar, vocabulary,
and pronunciation. It encompasses all aspects of language, including phonology, morphology, syntax, and
semantics.
 Characteristics: Dialects may be associated with specific regions, social groups, or communities. They can differ
in terms of vocabulary, grammar rules, and even pronunciation.
 Example: American English and British English are often considered different dialects of the English language
due to variations in vocabulary (e.g., "boot" vs. "trunk") and pronunciation (e.g., "schedule" pronounced with a
"sh" sound in American English and a "sk" sound in British English).

5. Please explain the concept of Pidgin

A pidgin is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not
share a common language. Pidgins typically emerge in situations of contact and trade between different linguistic
communities, where a simplified form of communication becomes necessary for basic understanding. Pidgins often
have simplified grammar, reduced vocabulary, and a limited set of linguistic features compared to the languages from
which they are derived. Pidgins typically arise from the mixing of languages, incorporating elements from multiple
linguistic sources. The lexicon may be drawn from one or more languages, while the grammar and structure may be
simplified or adapted. Pidgins tend to have a limited vocabulary, focusing on essential words and phrases necessary for
basic communication, trade, or interaction. Pidgins are not passed down from generation to generation as a mother
tongue. They arise in specific social contexts and are used as auxiliary languages for communication between groups
with different native languages. Pidgins lack standardized grammar and vocabulary. They are dynamic and may evolve
rapidly based on the needs and preferences of the communities using them. Pidgins often emerge in situations of
linguistic contact, such as trade routes, colonial interactions, or other settings where people from different linguistic
backgrounds come into regular contact. Pidgins serve a practical purpose, enabling basic communication between
groups that do not share a common language. They are often used in specific domains like trade, labor, or other areas
of social interaction. In the course of the last few centuries many English-based pidgins and creoles have emerged,
mostly in tropical regions in association with colonial plantation cultures.

1. **Tok Pisin:** A pidgin based on English, spoken in Papua New Guinea.

2. **Papiamento:** A pidgin spoken in the Caribbean, combining elements of Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, and
African languages.
It's important to note that if a pidgin becomes more stabilized and is passed down to successive generations, it may
develop into a creole—a more developed and stable natural language with its own grammar and native speakers.
Creoles represent a further stage in the evolution of a language in contact situations.

6. The spread of English during the colonial period (1600–1900) led to the rise of different overseas varieties.
What factors determined the shape of these varieties?

The spread of English during the colonial period led to the rise of different overseas varieties. The shape of
these varieties was determined by a series of factors, such as the number of settlers, the relationship of
regional dialects with this group, contact with other populations, the possible existence of pidgins, and later
the rise of creoles at overseas locations, in the postcolonial period, the situation changed radically with former
colonies continuing on a path toward indigenous varieties with profiles of their own and with an increasing
effect of transnational factors and a reorientation away from Britain-based models of English toward and
America-based one.

7. When did the term ‘EMPIRE’ come to be used?

The ensemble of varieties of English found throughout the world today are the result of manifold developments. The
historical impetus for what was to become an unprecedented spread of a European language overseas was a largely
commercial undertaking that began with a British presence in the Caribbean in the early seventeenth century and
which continues to the present day. Britain was just one of several major maritime countries in Europe whose history
was determined in large part by their participation in the colonial enterprise (Canny 1998: 1—4); Spain, Portugal,
Holland, and France were also involved, often in competition with each other. Many of the rival territorial claims of
the major colonial powers were settled in treaties that were arranged in European cities, for example the famous Treaty
of Utrecht (1713). About a century after the colonial enterprise began, the term “empire” came to be used to refer to
the sphere of commercial and political influence built up by Britain overseas. In terms of language spread during the
colonial period, only Spain can rival England.

1. In which century did the transportation of varieties of English begin with British population movements
across the Atlantic?

-The transportation of varieties of English began with British population movements across the Atlanticin the seventeenth
century (Hickey 2004b)

8. Which major colony types could you list? Please provide a clear illustration of each type.
Colonies can be classified into different types based on various criteria, including their purpose, governance, and
economic activities. Here are some common types of colonies: Settlement Colony, Trading Colony, Plantation
Colony, Mining Colony. Exploitation colony.

Settlement Colony-The early English colonies in North America, such as Jamestown in Virginia (1607) and Plymouth
in Massachusetts (1620), were settlement colonies. English settlers arrived with the intention of establishing
permanent homes and communities in the New World.

Trading Colony-The establishment of trading posts by European powers in Asia, like the Portuguese trading post in
Goa, India (established in the early 16th century). These posts facilitated trade in spices, textiles, and other valuable
goods between Europe and Asia.
Plantation Colony-The Caribbean colonies, particularly those in Jamaica, Barbados, and Haiti, were often plantation
colonies. Large-scale plantations produced sugar, tobacco, and other cash crops, relying on enslaved labor for
cultivation.

Mining Colony-The Gold Coast (present-day Ghana) during the height of the transatlantic slave trade and European
exploration. European powers established colonies along the coast to exploit gold resources and engage in the slave
trade.

Exploitation colony -South Africa - In the case of South Africa, Europeans of Dutch and English descent traveled in
large numbers to South Africa. They displaced the locals, took their lands, and created a repressive and racist regime

9. Write a brief paragraph about RP – its concept, usage, spread…

Received Pronunciation (RP) is a form of British English pronunciation traditionally associated with the
educated and socially prestigious classes in England. It is often considered a standard or neutral accent within
the United Kingdom. RP encompasses certain distinctive features, such as non-rhoticity (the omission of the
"r" sound at the end of words), specific vowel pronunciations, and other phonetic characteristics. Historically,
RP developed in the southeast of England, particularly around London, and it was associated with the speech
patterns of the upper class and elite. However, its association with social prestige has diminished over time,
and various accents and dialects are now accepted across different social strata. While RP remains influential
in certain contexts, such as broadcasting and formal education, there is increasing recognition and celebration
of linguistic diversity within the United Kingdom, reflecting a broader acceptance of regional accents and
non-RP varieties in contemporary society.

10. What is the name of a traditional working class London accent?

A traditional working-class London accent is often referred to as "Cockney." Cockney is associated with the
working-class communities in the East End of London, although its boundaries and features have evolved
over time. Historically, Cockney speakers were born within hearing distance of the Bow Bells at the Church
of St Mary-le-Bow in the Cheapside district of London. However, the term "Cockney" is now used more
broadly to describe the accent and dialect associated with the working-class population in various parts of
London. Cockney accents are characterized by distinctive features such as rhyming slang, the use of glottal
stops, and specific vowel sounds. It's important to note that London, like many other large cities, has a diverse
range of accents and dialects, and Cockney is just one of the many linguistic varieties found within the city.

11. Please indicate a variety of English – mixture of RP and some London working class variety.

A variety of English that incorporates elements of both Received Pronunciation (RP) and a London working-
class variety could be described as a "London Estuary English." Estuary English is a term used to denote a set
of accents and linguistic features found in the areas around the Thames Estuary, which includes London. It
is considered a blend of traditional Cockney or working-class London English and features associated with
RP.
In London Estuary English, you might find a mix of certain RP characteristics, such as non-rhoticity and
certain vowel sounds, alongside features traditionally associated with working-class London speech,
including glottal stops and distinct intonation patterns. This variety reflects the dynamic linguistic landscape
of London, where diverse accents and dialects coexist and influence each other.

It's important to note that linguistic variations are vast, and individuals may exhibit a range of linguistic
features influenced by their specific background, community, and personal speech patterns. The term
"London Estuary English" serves as a general description of a variety that incorporates elements from both
RP and working-class London speech.

12. Northern English – which areas does it cover and what are some attributes of Northern English.
Northern English refers to the variety of English spoken in the northern regions of England. This expansive area
encompasses a range of accents and dialects, each with its own unique linguistic features. While it's important to note
that the linguistic landscape in the North is diverse, here are some general attributes associated with Northern English:
Northern English covers a broad geographic area, including cities and regions such as Newcastle, Manchester,
Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield, and the counties of Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cumbria, and others. Northern English often
exhibits distinct vowel sounds compared to Southern English varieties. For example, the pronunciation of the "a" sound
in words like "bath" or "dance" may differ. Glottal stops, where the sound /t/ is pronounced as a glottal sound
(represented by the ' symbol), are more common in Northern English. For instance, "butter" might be pronounced as
"buh'er." Word stress patterns can differ from Southern English. Certain words may have different stress patterns or
intonation. Northern English may have distinct vocabulary and expressions not commonly used in Southern English.
Local terms, slang, and colloquialisms contribute to the richness of Northern English vocabulary. Within Northern
English, there are various dialects, each with its own unique features. For example, Geordie is the dialect spoken in
and around Newcastle, while Scouse is associated with Liverpool. Some Northern English varieties maintain rhoticity,
meaning that the "r" sound is pronounced at the end of words and before consonants, in contrast to non-rhotic Southern
English accents. The historical context of industrialization and migration has influenced the development of Northern
English. The region's industrial past and cultural heritage have contributed to the distinctive linguistic features. It's
important to recognize that Northern English is not a homogeneous entity but a collection of diverse accents and
dialects shaped by local history, industry, and cultural influences. Each area within the Northern region has its own
linguistic identity, contributing to the linguistic richness of England.

13. Phonemic characterization of Northern English / please provide pronunciation details.

• U for a can be heard in cut, shut, cum- come, sumbdy, somebody.
• a; sound is short- passed, fast
• Diphthongs are usually monophthongized- o; in goa, go e; face cem-came I;- freetnin- frightening,
• Standard monophtongs diphthongized- Lean-lean feeat-feet, ehich clearly have a gliding sound ia also
acharacteristicallt northern conservative feature

14. Settlement of Jamestown, Virginia – why is it important in the context of Varieties of English?

December 6, 1606, the journey to Virginia began on three ships: the Susan Constant, the Godspeed, and the
Discovery. In 1607, 104 English men and boys arrived in North America to start a settlement. The journey you are
referring to is the establishment of the Jamestown settlement in Virginia, which was one of the earliest English colonies
in North America. The expedition set sail from England on December 6, 1606, with three ships: the Susan Constant,
the Godspeed, and the Discovery. The expedition was sponsored by the Virginia Company of London, a joint-stock
company formed to establish colonies in the New World.

On May 14, 1607, after a challenging transatlantic journey, the expedition arrived in the Chesapeake Bay. Seeking a
location with strategic defensive advantages, they chose a site along the James River in present-day Virginia. The
settlers named their new settlement "Jamestown" in honor of King James I of England.

The group of 104 English men and boys faced numerous challenges, including harsh weather, unfamiliar terrain, and
conflicts with local Native American tribes. The initial years were marked by difficulties such as disease, famine, and
internal strife. However, Jamestown eventually stabilized and played a crucial role in the establishment and growth of
English colonies in North America.

Jamestown is often considered the first permanent English settlement in what would become the United States. The
success and survival of Jamestown laid the foundation for further English colonization in North America and the
eventual establishment of the thirteen colonies along the Atlantic coast.

15. What does Aussie English stand for?

"Aussie English" refers to the variety of English spoken in Australia. It is the collective term for the linguistic
features and accents characteristic of Australian English. Aussie English has developed its own set of
vocabulary, pronunciation, and expressions influenced by the historical and cultural context of Australia.
Some distinctive features of Aussie English include vowel sounds, colloquialisms, and unique terms that
reflect the country's cultural identity. While there is a general Australian English, regional variations and
different socio-economic factors also contribute to linguistic diversity within the country. Aussie English
reflects the dynamic and multicultural nature of Australia, shaped by its history of Indigenous languages,
British colonization, and subsequent waves of immigration.

16. Provide at least two examples of English varieties in an expanding circle. Why do they belong to the
expanding circle?

The expanding circle is made up of countries in which English has no special administrative status but is recognized as
a lingua franca and is widely studied as a foreign language. Countries in the expanding circle include China, Denmark,
Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Korea, and Sweden, among many others. The expanding circle is one of the three concentric
circles of World English described by linguist Braj Kachru in "Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism: The
spread of English in the Expanding Circle is largely a result of foreign language learning within the country. As in the
Outer Circle, the range of proficiency in the language among the population is broad, with some having native-like
fluency and others having only minimal familiarity with English. However, in the Expanding Circle, unlike the Outer
Circle, there is no local model of English since the language does not have an official status and, in Kachru's (1992)
terms, has not become institutionalized with locally developed standards of use.

Both China and Japan fall within the Expanding Circle in the context of World Englishes. In these countries, English
is learned as a foreign language and is used for various purposes such as international communication, business,
education, and technology; China-English has become a widely studied foreign language in China. It is a mandatory
subject in schools, and many Chinese students pursue English language education as part of their academic curriculum.
Additionally, English proficiency is considered valuable for international business and trade. English is used in various
domains, including education, technology, and tourism. China's position as a global economic and technological
powerhouse has increased the demand for English proficiency. The ability to communicate in English is seen as
advantageous for participating in international collaborations, research, and trade. As a result, English plays a crucial
role in China's Expanding Circle. Japan-Similar to China, English is widely taught in schools and is considered an
important skill for global communication and business in Japan. Japanese students often study English throughout their
education, and there is a significant interest in English language proficiency for academic and professional purposes.
economic and technological contributions on the global stage have led to a recognition of the importance of English
for international communication. English is used in various sectors, including business, science, technology, and
tourism. As Japan engages with the international community, English proficiency becomes increasingly valuable. In
both China and Japan, English is part of the Expanding Circle because it is learned as a foreign language and is used for
practical and specific functions in a global context. The emphasis on English education in these countries reflects the
recognition of English as a global lingua franca and its role in facilitating international communication, collaboration,
and access to global knowledge and resources.

17. Please provide a name of American lexicographer who compiled American English Dictionary. Please
also provide a date.

One prominent American lexicographer known for compiling American English dictionaries is Noah
Webster. He is best known for his work on "An American Dictionary of the English Language," first published
in 1828. This dictionary was one of the earliest comprehensive dictionaries of American English, and
Webster's efforts significantly influenced the development and standardization of American spelling and
language. The 1828 edition of Webster's dictionary was a milestone in the history of American lexicography.

18. Which English varieties were covered by OED- Oxford English Dictionary (on Historical Principles)?

The Oxford English Dictionary (OED), on Historical Principles, primarily focuses on documenting the
history and development of the English language as a whole. While it doesn't explicitly cover specific
varieties of English, its scope is broad and inclusive, encompassing various forms of English used throughout
the world. The OED includes words and meanings from different regions, time periods, and English-speaking
communities, reflecting the global nature of the English language.

The OED strives to provide a comprehensive historical record of the English language, incorporating words
and usages from Old English to the present day. It includes entries from British English, American English,
Australian English, Canadian English, and other varieties. The dictionary acknowledges the diverse
influences on the English language, including regional dialects, technical and scientific terminology, and
words borrowed from other languages. The OED is a valuable resource for understanding the historical
evolution and richness of English, making it a comprehensive reference for scholars, linguists, and language
enthusiasts worldwide.

The first edition of the OED (Murray et al. 1888-1933), using the historical principles approach, covered
British English comprehensively and British dialects to a lesser extent, including Scottish English. It also
covered American, Australian, and Indian English. The OED Supplements (Burchfield 1972-1986) extended
the original coverage, brought much material up to date, and increased coverage of other varieties of English.
The so-called third edition of OED, available online by subscription (2000 to present),* is a gradual updating
and re-editing of the entire work. An effort is being made to extend coverage of WEs lexis (see Salazar 2014),
but, while the quality of OED entries is high, coverage is far from comprehensive, or even representative,
with numbers of new entries quite low.

19. How Dictionaries Are Useful to World Englishes?

Dictionaries are essential tools in the study and understanding of World Englishes, providing insights into
the lexical, grammatical, and cultural aspects of diverse English varieties. They serve as documentation tools,
capturing vocabulary, idioms, and grammatical structures specific to various World Englishes. They showcase
the lexical diversity of World Englishes by including words and expressions unique to specific regions or
communities. Dictionaries contribute to the standardization and codification of World Englishes by
providing authoritative references for spelling, pronunciation, and usage, establishing norms and
conventions for effective communication. They facilitate cross-cultural understanding by explaining the
meanings and nuances of words used in specific cultural and linguistic contexts, promoting effective
communication and reducing misunderstandings. Dictionaries are valuable tools for language planners and
policymakers, helping guide decisions on language standardization, education, and linguistic diversity. They
also aid learners in acquiring a comprehensive understanding of the language in context, aiding in linguistic
research and promoting linguistic identity.

20. Please briefly explain the concept of Braj Kachru’s Circles of English.
Braj Kachru's Circles of English is a model that categorizes the global spread and use of the English language
into three concentric circles. This model, proposed by linguist Braj Kachru, helps illustrate the different roles
and functions of English in various regions of the world. The three circles are: Inner Circle- The Inner Circle-
represents the traditional native English-speaking countries where English is the first language. This includes
countries like the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. In these
countries, English is the dominant and official language, and it serves various functions in all aspects of daily
life, including government, education, business, and media. Outer Circle-The Outer Circle includes countries
where English has official or significant status as a second language. These are typically former colonies or
regions where English serves various official, educational, and administrative functions. In the Outer Circle,
English may not be the native language, but it plays a crucial role in areas such as governance, education, and
law. Countries in this circle often have bilingual or multilingual populations. Expanding Circle-The
Expanding Circle comprises regions where English is learned as a foreign language and is used for specific
purposes, such as international communication, business, science, and technology. In the Expanding Circle,
English is not typically used as a native or official language, but it has functional and instrumental roles.
People in these regions may use English for specific purposes rather than for everyday communication.
Kachru's model recognizes the global spread of English and the diverse contexts in which it is used. It
highlights the importance of understanding English as a global language with various roles and functions
beyond its traditional native-speaking communities. The model encourages a more inclusive perspective on
World Englishes, acknowledging the linguistic diversity and the evolving nature of English in different parts
of the world.
21. Please list English Varieties spread in Northern England
contains : yorkshire, northumbrian, cumbrian, cheshire dialects. the most influential was northumbrian. it also had
contact with old norse. also we have monophtongisation of diphtongs. phonologically (horseshoe simbol) is replaced
with /A/. also we have short /A/ - sound.

Northern England is characterized by linguistic diversity, and various English varieties are spoken across the region.
Here are some of the notable English varieties spread in Northern England: Geordie- is known for its distinctive accent
and vocabulary. It has unique pronunciations and words that set it apart, including the use of "why aye" for "yes."
Scouse- has a distinct accent and vocabulary. Liverpulians are often referred to as "Scousers." The accent is known for
its unique vowel sounds and intonation patterns. Mancunian (Manchester English)-has its own accent and local
vocabulary. The accent can vary within the Greater Manchester area, and speakers may use distinctive local
expressions. Yorkshire English encompasses a range of accents and dialects within the historic county of Yorkshire.
Different areas may have unique pronunciations and vocabulary. Lancashire English includes various local accents and
expressions. It reflects the historical and cultural diversity of the county. Cumbrian English exhibits distinct features,
influenced by the geography and cultural history of the region. It may vary across different parts of Cumbria.
Northumbrian English reflects the linguistic heritage of the northernmost regions of England, with variations in accent
and vocabulary. It's important to note that within each of these broad varieties, there can be further local variations
and nuances. The linguistic landscape of Northern England is rich and diverse, with each area contributing to the
region's unique linguistic tapestry.

22. Please list English varieties spread in Northern US

The Northern United States is characterized by linguistic diversity, and various English varieties are spoken across the
region. Here are some notable English varieties spread in Northern US states: New England English exhibits distinct
features, including the non-rhotic accent (where the "r" sound is not pronounced after vowels), certain vowel shifts,
and local vocabulary New York City English (NYCE) is characterized by its diverse accents due to the multicultural
nature of the city. Different boroughs may have unique linguistic features, and there is a notable variation between
Manhattan, Brooklyn, the Bronx, Staten Island, and Queens. Inland Northern American English is known for the
Northern Cities Vowel Shift, which involves changes in the pronunciation of several vowel sounds. It is a distinct
feature of speech in this region. Midwestern English- can exhibit a range of accents and dialects. It may have some
similarities with Inland Northern American English but also includes unique features across the diverse states in the
region. North Central American English may share some features with Midwestern English but also has its own
regional characteristics, influenced by factors such as settlement patterns and cultural history. Pittsburgh English is
known for certain vowel and consonant shifts, including the "cot-caught" merger, which affects the pronunciation of
these vowel sounds. These varieties represent the linguistic diversity found in the Northern United States, with each
region contributing unique accents, pronunciations, and vocabulary to the overall tapestry of American English. It's
important to note that within each broad variety, there can be further local variations and nuances.

23. Did indigenous population have any effect on emerging varieties of English? If yes, please briefly
elaborate.
the interactions between European colonizers and indigenous populations had a significant impact on the emerging
varieties of English in regions where colonization took place. The effects can be observed in various linguistic aspects,
including vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammatical structures. Here are some key points: Indigenous languages
influenced English by contributing loanwords and vocabulary. English speakers adopted terms for local flora, fauna,
and cultural practices from indigenous languages. This borrowing enriched the lexicon of English in these regions.
Contact between English settlers and indigenous populations influenced the phonological aspects of English varieties.
This influence can be seen in the pronunciation of certain sounds and the development of unique accents, reflecting
the linguistic interactions between different language communities. Indigenous languages often convey distinct
cultural concepts and perspectives. The encounter with indigenous cultures influenced the way English speakers
expressed ideas and understood the world. This impact is visible in the incorporation of indigenous cultural terms and
expressions into English. The grammatical structures of English varieties in contact with indigenous languages may
show influences, such as changes in word order or the adoption of grammatical features from indigenous languages.
This linguistic convergence reflects the complex dynamics of language contact. In some cases, prolonged contact
between English and indigenous languages led to the development of pidgins or creoles. These are hybrid languages
that emerge when speakers of different languages need to communicate. These varieties often incorporate elements
from both English and indigenous languages. Bilingualism and code-switching between English and indigenous
languages have been common in areas of contact. Speakers may seamlessly switch between languages in their
communication, leading to the integration of linguistic features from both language systems. The encounter between
English and indigenous languages created a dynamic environment of language contact, leading to linguistic variation.
This variation is evident in the diverse English varieties that developed in regions with a history of colonization and
interaction with indigenous populations. It's important to note that the nature and extent of these linguistic influences
varied across different regions and communities. The impact of indigenous languages on emerging varieties of English
is a complex and multifaceted aspect of linguistic history, reflecting the interplay of languages and cultures in contact.

24. Provide at least two examples of English varieties in an outer circle. Why do they belong to the outer
circle?

Indian English- India is a significant representative of the Outer circle with English being used as a second
language by millions of Indians. Indian English exhibits unique features influenced by the linguistic diversity
of the country. It has its own vocabulary, pronunciation patterns, and grammatical structures that have
evolved in the Indian context. English is often used as a medium of instruction in schools and universities,
and it plays a crucial role in various professional and administrative domains. Singaporean English-English is
one of the official languages in Singapore, alongside Malay, Mandarin, and Tamil. Singaporean English is
characterized by a blend of linguistic influences from the country's multicultural population. It has its own
set of vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar, reflecting the linguistic diversity of the region. English is
widely used in education, business, and government, making it an essential part of daily life in Singapore.
These varieties belong to the outer circle because English is not the native language of the speakers in these
regions, but it is acquired and used for practical purposes in various domains. The outer circle represents the
global spread of English beyond native-speaking communities, leading to diverse linguistic developments in
different cultural and linguistic contexts.

25. Which Englishes are there in Inner circle (which are spread outside British isles).
The Inner Circle, as conceptualized by Braj Kachru, traditionally includes the native English-speaking countries where
English is the first language. While the original Inner Circle primarily consists of the British Isles (the United Kingdom
and Ireland), certain countries outside the British Isles also fall within the Inner Circle due to historical colonization
or settlement patterns. These include: The United States is a core Inner Circle country where English is the native
language. The development of American English has been influenced by historical factors, including colonization,
immigration, and geographical isolation, leading to distinct varieties within the broader American English umbrella.
Canada English-English is one of the two official languages of Canada (alongside French). Canadian English is
considered part of the Inner Circle, and it has distinctive features influenced by both British and American English.
The country's historical ties to Britain and proximity to the United States contribute to linguistic variation. While these
Inner Circle countries are located outside the British Isles, they are recognized as native English-speaking nations with
distinct linguistic features and varieties. The spread of English to these regions occurred through historical processes
of colonization, migration, and settlement, leading to the development of unique linguistic characteristics in each
country.