Englishes

Englishes is a term used to describe the many different variations of the English language
spoken around the world. While Standard English (also known as Received Pronunciation or
RP) is often thought of as the "correct" or "proper" form of English, there are many different
dialects and accents of English that vary depending on factors such as geography, culture, and
social status.

Englishes can include regional dialects such as American English, British English, Australian
English, or South African English, as well as pidgins and creoles that have developed from
English as a second language in countries such as Jamaica or Nigeria.

Additionally, there are variations of English used in specific contexts such as business English,
academic English, or medical English.

The term "Englishes" acknowledges the diversity and richness of the English language, and
highlights the importance of understanding and respecting different varieties of English spoken
around the world.

World Englishes:

This term refers to the different varieties of English that are spoken and written around the
world, including British English, American English, Indian English, Nigerian English,
Singaporean English, and many others.

Varieties of English:

This term is often used to describe the different regional and social varieties of English that exist
within a particular country, such as Australian English, Scottish English, or African American
Vernacular English.

English as a lingua franca:

This term describes the use of English as a common language for communication between
people who do not share a first language. English is often used as a lingua franca in
international business, diplomacy, and academia.

Creole English:

This term refers to English-based creole languages, which are formed when English is blended
with other languages in areas where English was historically spoken as a colonial language,
such as the Caribbean or West Africa.
Pidgin English:

This term describes simplified forms of English that are used as a means of communication
between speakers of different languages, often in trade or other commercial contexts.

Overall, Englishes can be thought of as a diverse set of linguistic systems that reflect the
complex histories, cultures, and social contexts in which they are used.

History
The word "Englishes" is a relatively new term that has emerged in the field of linguistics to refer
to the different varieties of the English language spoken around the world. The concept of
"Englishes" reflects the recognition that English is a global language that has been adopted and
adapted in many different ways by people from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds.

The earliest recorded use of the word "Englishes" in its modern sense dates back to the
mid-20th century, when the linguist Randolph Quirk used the term in his work on the grammar of
spoken English. However, the term did not become widely used until the 1990s, when the field
of World Englishes began to emerge as a distinct area of study within linguistics.

The study of World Englishes focuses on the linguistic and cultural diversity of English as a
global language, and the ways in which it is used and adapted in different parts of the world.
This includes varieties of English such as Indian English, Nigerian English, and Singaporean
English, which have developed their own unique features and characteristics over time.

Today, the term "Englishes" is widely used in academic and professional contexts to refer to the
diverse range of English varieties spoken around the world, and to emphasize the importance of
recognizing and valuing linguistic diversity in our globalized world.

Variation,Development and Function

Explanation

The study of World Englishes is concerned in part with the development of new varieties of the
English language outside of the anglosphere, the discipline's literature provides both theoretical
and practical frameworks for understanding how these new Englishes develop.

What counts as a "new" English?

The answer to this question depends on the standards used to differentiate one set of
English-speaking practices from another.
Most scholars are careful to distinguish between the notions of language and dialect. While
Melchers and Shaw (2003) note that this distinction is not clear-cut, languages are generally
autonomous, whereas dialects are heteronomous.

In other words, one can say that X is a dialect of language Y or that language Y has the dialects
X and Z, but never that Y is a language of dialect X. This is a useful distinction, though it is
contentious in borderline cases (p. 11).

Another difference offered by Melchers and Shaw (2003) is that dialects, in

contrast with languages, are mutually intelligible. While dialects are typically
spoken and do not, like languages, have a codified written form, some regional/social or
nonstandard dialects are frequently reflected in writing.

Dialects are also said to be used only in certain "domains," whereas languages show maximal
variation or "elaboration of function" (p. 12).

In order to avoid making the notoriously difficult dialect/language distinction,

Some linguists prefer a more neutral term, "variety," which covers both concepts and is not
tainted through popular usage.

The concept of "varieties" is very useful, as "variety" in the singular is a neutral label applied to
many different types of language use. According to Kachru et al. (2006), the phrase "varieties of
English" suggests the heteronomy of such varieties to the common core of English. Bauer
(2002) argues that we can use "variety" to mean a language, a dialect, an idiolect, or an accent;
it is a term which encompasses all of those ideas.

Today, "variety" is an academic term used for any kind of language production, whether viewed
as being determined by region, by gender, by social class, by age or by our own inimitable
individual characteristics.

How do new English varieties develop?

In non-English-speaking regions English tends to emerge initially as an import from an

English-speaking region. This can occur for many reasons, including migration/diaspora,
colonization, the adoption of new technology, and the proliferation of entertainment like movies.
However, local languages, cultures,values, and perceptions toward English can also influence
the development and spread of the new language. It may, for instance, initially take root in just
one particular domain of society, like the education or media spheres. Gradually, however, it
tends to spread into other domains as a dialect (or even as a new variety of English) and starts
evolving at a societal level.

Chambers (1995) provides two basic causes for any language variations:
naturalistic and socially-constructed explanations. Chambers argues that the underlying cause
of sociolinguistic variation is the human instinct to establish and maintain social identity (p. 250).
Therefore, the recognition of "new varieties" of English has not historically rested on linguistic
criteria alone. For instance, in addition to a distinctive vocabulary and accent, important defining
features of new varieties also include a historical tradition, creative writing, and the existence of
reference works of various kinds.

The World Englishes initiative in recognizing and describing the new Englishes of the
Caribbean, Africa, and Asia has been partly motivated by a consideration of the local linguistic
"facts," and partly by the desire to creatively remodel and reconstruct discursive practices. The
notion of "varieties" in this context is similarly dynamic, as new contexts, new realities, and the
origins and traditions of the metalanguage have the potential to assist our own
conceptualizations and theorizations of this branch of linguistics (Kachru et al., 2006, p. 308).

Variation in World Englishes can thus potentially be found (and can potentially begin) in all
domains of language:

i.e.,spelling,phonetics/phonology, morphology, syntax, the lexicon (vocabulary), and discourse.

How do new English varieties function?

As each setting is shaped by local cultural and social values, local norms of use develop
consistent with these values. These norms specify what, when, where, and how something can
be said at all linguistic levels, from the phonological to the pragmatic (Berns, 2009). Any variety
of English works similarly in any particular context, which means the varieties of English function
locally based on their local norms and values.

To observe the functions of any variety of English, scholars have provided a heuristic called the
functional framework (later termed "sociolinguistic profile"). This framework, adopted by Berns
(1990 and originally proposed by Kachru (1981), helps researchers understand English usage in
any particular context.

According to the framework, there are four categories that explain the distinctive uses of English
language in any particular context: the regulative function (for administrative and legal
purposes), the instrumental function (status of a language as a medium of instruction), the
interpersonal function (to serve as a link language and to symbolize prestige, elitism, and
modernity), and the imaginative/innovative function (literary creation). Berns (1990) mentions
that this sociolinguistic profile highlights the salient features of use and users in a particular
context and serves as a basis for comparison of these features in a range of contexts (native as
well as
non-native).

Comparison of this type is instrumental in understanding the characteristics that distinguish one
context from another. There are multiple sociolinguistic profiles published already based on
Berns' (1990) functional framework. The following are just a few examples of profile articles
published in World Englishes, a leading journal in the field:
 ● "English in Colombia: A sociolinguistic profile" (Gloria Valez-Rendon, 2003)
● "English in a multilingual Algeria" (Kamal Belmihoub, 2018)
● "English in Costa Rica" (Jorge Aguilar-Sanchez, 2005)
● "English in Mongolia" (Roger Cohen, 2005)
● "English in Turkey" (Seran Dogncay-Aktuna and Zeynep Kiziltepe, 2005)
● "English in Russia" (Irina P. Ustinova, 2005)

These sociolinguistic profiles focus on the local context and highlight how
English has been used in different domains of that context, viewing these usages through the
different perspectives of the functional framework. For instance, in Japan, English serves a
variety of functions. Some Japanese people use English words and phrases for professional
purposes, while others use it to identify themselves as modern, Western, or sophisticated.
Similarly, in Nepal, English functions (mostly) as a primary language in schools, though English
is not an official language in the country.