Satan in the Book of Job; discuss a development towards the later Jewish understanding of Satan

as a specific demonic being (“Look up ‘Satan’ in some Bible dictionaries and find out more

about its use and the development of the concept of Satan as a demonic being who is a leader of

the forces of evil”).

I. Introduction

A. Overview of the Book of Job

The Book of Job begins by introducing Job, a righteous and prosperous man who enjoys a close

relationship with God. However, tragedy strikes Job's life when he loses his wealth, family, and

health, leading him to question the purpose and fairness of his suffering. The bulk of the book

consists of poetic dialogues between Job and his friends, who attempt to explain his suffering as

a consequence of sin.

Job's friends adhere to a traditional viewpoint that suffering is a direct result of wrongdoing.

However, Job vehemently defends his innocence, expressing his frustration and despair while

longing for a chance to confront God and plead his case.

Throughout the dialogues, Job grapples with profound questions about the nature of God and the

meaning of suffering. He yearns for answers and demands a hearing before God to justify his

suffering. The book presents various arguments and perspectives as Job and his friends engage in

a series of intense debates.

Toward the end of the book, God finally responds to Job's cries, appearing in a whirlwind and

challenging Job's limited human understanding. In a poetic and majestic monologue, God reveals

1
His wisdom, power, and sovereignty over creation, reminding Job of his finite perspective in the

grand scheme of things.

The Book of Job concludes with Job humbling himself before God, acknowledging the

limitations of his understanding and repenting of his audacity to question the Almighty. God

restores Job's fortunes and blesses him abundantly, illustrating His ultimate justice and mercy.

B. III. The Early Jewish Understanding of Satan

The name Satan stems from the Hebrew word “ ‫ ”ׂשטן‬a term whose definition includes

“adversary” and “accuser.”1 In the Hebrew Bible, śaṭan was thus never used as a proper name

and served merely as a term to identify an adversary. In the Hebrew Bible there was no Satan

with a capital S, and in early Hebrew traditions, there was no devil, demons, or Hell. Evil and

suffering in the world instead had another source; God himself. The Book of Isaiah 45:7 reads,

“I form light, and create darkness, I make weal and create woe: I the Lord do all these things”

(NSRV). According to the Hebrew Bible or Old Testament, God alone controlled all events and

was responsible for all conditions within creation, both good and evil. This idea, however

acceptable it was early in Jewish traditions, became confusing and frustrating, and led to the

basic question of theodicy: How could a loving and benevolent God allow so much suffering and

pain on earth?

The eventual answer to this question within the religion of ancient Israel was found during the

Persian period, 539-332 BCE, the period in which Persia controlled the entire Near East,

1
Comay and Brownrigg. “Satan,” pp. 404.

2
including Israel. Perhaps the earliest point in Satan’s history may have its roots in the Persian

Empire, which in turn influenced ancient Judaism.2

The influence of Persian dualism

The ancient religion of Persia was Zoroastrianism, based on the teachings of a religious

philosopher named Zoroaster who may have lived around 600 BCE. Among his teachings was

the compelling idea of dualism. According to dualism, evil does not stem from the good God or

spirit known as Ahura Mazda, “wise lord,” within the faith. Instead, there existed a separate evil

being known as Ahriman, “fiendish spirit,” also known as Angra Mainya, “evil spirit,” that

created death, disease, and lies. People had to choose whether to follow Ahura Mazda on the

path of good or Ahriman on the path of evil. The idea from Persia that God himself was separate

from evil would have been an acceptable answer to the early Jewish theodicy question and would

have explained how there could be such suffering in a world created by a loving God. From this

was born the idea that God did not personally create suffering himself, but that he would instead

use other lowly figures to complete such tasks with his approval. This idea would lay the

foundation for Satan’s entrance into the world.3

The term "śaṭan" in the Hebrew Bible is used in ten instances, and in six of those cases, it refers

to human beings rather than a divine figure. For example, in 1 Samuel 29:4, David is referred to

as a śaṭan as he hides from Saul, who feared David would take his throne. In 2 Samuel 19:21-23,

Abashai, a member of David's court, is called a śaṭan when he tries to convince David to kill

Shimei. Solomon reflects on having no more śaṭans or adversaries in 1 Kings 5:4. The term is

2
Gregory Mobely and T.J. Wray, The Birth of Satan: Tracing the Devil’s Biblical Roots (New York, Palgrave
Macmillan 2005),
pp. 85-87
3
Lucas Sweeney, The History and Origins of Satan, p.3.

3
also used to describe adversarial figures like Hadad and Rezon in 1 Kings 11:14 and 23, and a

slanderous opponent in Psalm 109:1-6.

In contrast, śaṭan is also used four times in reference to celestial servants of God, often seen as

angelic beings or "sons of God." These celestial adversaries, according to Elaine Pagels, are not

inherently evil but carry out tasks assigned by God. An example is found in Numbers 22:22,

where an angel, referred to as a śaṭan, is sent by God to block the path of Balaam, who was

traveling with the men of Moab. The angel is only visible to Balaam's donkey, who tries to save

Balaam's life by avoiding the angel's path. In this instance, the śaṭan is portrayed as a loyal

servant of God, following His commands without question.

Overall, while the term "śaṭan" is used in different contexts within the Hebrew Bible, it is

important to note that the concept of the Satan we know today as a malevolent figure opposing

God's will evolved over time and is not fully represented in these early biblical instances.. 4

Of the four cosmic adversaries in the Hebrew Bible, it is haśśaṭan ("the satan") in the Book of

Job that plays the largest role of any “adversary” in the Hebrew Bible. This story begins as God

is bragging about a man named Job, one his most loyal worshippers. Haśśaṭan approaches God

and challenges him to let him lay waste to the man's property, livestock, and family, believing

that Job is only loyal to God because he has a good and protected life. God accepts his challenge

on the condition that he does not harm Job and haśśaṭan destroys all of Job’s possessions and

kills his ten children. Much to haśśaṭan’s dismay, Job still remains loyal to God. After God once

again begins to brag about Job, haśśaṭan offers another challenge. This time, he believes that if

Job is physically hurt, he will turn from God. God again accepts his challenge on the condition

that he does not kill Job and haśśaṭan strikes Job with boils, burns, and other injuries. Yet again,
4
C. Breytanbach, “Satan,” in Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (Leiden, Brill 1999), p. 727.

4
Job remains faithful to God and haśśaṭan seems to vanish from the story. According to T.J. Wray

and Gregory Mobely, the Book of Job is symbolic. Job represents

II. Satan in the book of job 1-2

The term "Satan" is introduced in the prologue of the Book of Job, specifically in the prose

section comprising Job 1-2. This section serves as a significant preamble to the poetic dialogues

between Job and his friends. It unfolds through five distinct scenes, alternating between the

earthly realm and the heavenly realm, establishing a profound connection between the two. 5

While the human characters remain oblivious to the events transpiring in heaven, the reader is

granted insight into this celestial backdrop. It is within this heavenly setting that the questions

and dilemmas, which the subsequent dialogues aim to address, are brought forth. Thus,

according to Leonce F. Rambauthe structure of Job 1-2 can be summarized and reimagined as

follows: 1:1-5. Earthly Setting: Description of the person of Job, his character, and his family.

1:6-12. Heavenly Court: The first dialogue between the Satan and God. 1:13-22. Earthly Setting:

the Satan brings to realization the deliberations of the Heavenly Court, and Job reacts. 2:1-6

Heavenly Court: The second dialogue between the Satan and God. 2:7-13. Earthly Setting: the

Satan brings to realization the deliberations of the Heavenly Court. Job reacts; so do his friends.

This interplay between the earthly and heavenly realms sets the stage for an exploration of the

meaning and function of Satan within the Hebrew Bible and its implications for theology and

culture.6

Scene 1: Description of Job’s Character, His Family and Possessions (Job 1:1-5)

5
Cf. D.A. CLINES, Job 1–20, 8.
6
Leonce F. Rambau, ‘The Meaning and Function of Satan in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament)’. December 2017,
pp. 129-129

5
 There was a man in the land of Uz, whose name was Job; and that man was blameless

and upright, one who feared God, and turned away from evil. There were born to him

seven sons and three daughters. He had seven thousand sheep, three thousand camels,

five hundred yoke of oxen, and five hundred she-asses, and very many servants; so that

this man was the greatest of all the people of the east. His sons used to go and hold a

feast in the house of each on his day; and they would send and invite their three sisters to

eat and drink with them. And when the days of the feast had run their course, Job would

send and sanctify them, and he would rise early in the morning and offer burnt offerings

according to the number of them all; for Job said, “It may be that my sons have sinned,

and cursed God in their hearts.” Thus Job did continually.7

The first scene serves as a setting for the unfolding of the events in the prose section, which

forms in some sense, the basis for the dialogues. It introduces Job, the main character in the

book. In 1:1, Job is described as a perfect human being, blameless, upright, God-fearing, who

turns away from evil. His character is described using a pair of words, which are common in

proverbial wisdom and the Psalms.8 This description suggests completeness and perfection,

integrity and respectful piety.9

In Job 1:2-3, the author describes Job’s family, property, his household and status. Newsome

suggests that the conjunction wü connects Job’s integrity and piety with his prosperity: “Does

Job just happen to be rich and have a large family, or does he have these things because he is a

man of exemplary piety? Although the narrator does not say explicitly, the very description of

Job’s family and wealth suggests a connection. All the numbers used are symbolic, suggesting

7
The book of job., 1-6 The Holy Bible: The Revised Standard Version, (New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1971), and the Hebrew texts are taken from Biblia
Hebraica Stuttgartensia, Edited by K. Elliger, W. Rudulph, and Institute for NT Textual Research Munster (Munster: German Bible Society, 2006).
8
D.A. CLINES, Job 1–20, 8.
9
C.A. NEWSOM, “The Book of Job” 345.

6
completeness and perfection … Just as Job’s piety is complete, so also his family and property

are complete and perfect.”10 His prosperity is the result of his exemplary piety, the sign of God’s

blessings. This is the principle of Divine Justice and Retribution, that is, God rewards the just

and punishes the wicked.

In verses 4-5, Job’s exemplary piety is emphasized by showing how he goes to extraordinary

lengths to ensure that his sons do not sin against God. The Hebrew expression for what the sons

may be doing is literally “blessing” God “in their hearts”. The verb “blessing”, however, seems

to be a euphemism (cf. v. 11). As the translation above indicates, the word seems surely to mean

“cursing.” This scene prepares the ground for the second scene, which takes place in the

Heavenly Court (1:6-12).

Scene 2: The First Dialogue between God and the Satan (Job 1:6-12)

The scene is set in heaven, where God presides over the Heavenly Council, surrounded by divine

counselors. The "sons of God" present themselves before God as courtiers, signifying their

membership in the heavenly or divine sphere (Job 1:6). 11The term "sons of God" does not imply

literal progeny but rather beings belonging to the heavenly or divine realm (Job 1:6). This

concept reflects a common Semitic usage of "son" to denote membership in a class or group.

Over time, the notion of "sons of God" became fused with the concept of angels (Job 1:6).12

Among the members of the Heavenly Court is Satan, who comes before God to report on his

duties. Although Satan has an adversarial relationship with humans, he remains under God's

10
Ibid.
11
5 B. BYRNE, “Sons of God”, ABD VI, New York: Doubleday 1992, 156.
12
M.H. POPE, Job. AB 15, New York: Doubleday 1965, 9-10

7
authority and control. Notably, the conversations between Satan and God in Job 1:7-12 and 2:2-6

are unique in the Hebrew Scriptures, with God initiating both dialogues (Job 1:7; 2:2).

When God asks Satan where he has come from, Satan describes his activities of roaming and

observing the earth (Job 1:7). The verb "going to and fro" used by Satan forms a poetic parallel

with the noun Satan and is reminiscent of Zechariah 4:10b, where the lamps symbolize God's

eyes that go to and fro throughout the earth (Job 1:7). The use of "going to and fro" may also be

analogous to a Persian context, where royal officials known as "the eyes and ears of the king"

were responsible for surveillance and security. 13 This suggests that Satan functions as a roving

secret agent, patrolling the earth and reporting evils to God. God then brings up the topic of Job

in the heavenly dialogue, praising him as His servant and emphasizing that there is no one like

him on earth (Job 1:8). This reinforces the depiction of Job's righteousness presented in the first

scene (Job 1:8).

Newsom suggests that God's question to Satan indicates an ongoing rivalry between them.

According to Newsom, Satan's function involves both defending a king's honor by uncovering

hidden disloyalty and potentially exposing the king to dishonor by revealing disrespect. To

preempt this activity and defend His own honor, God directs attention to Job, highlighting his

unwavering loyalty and regard for God.14

In his reply, Satan shifts the focus of the debate. He questions Job's sincerity and suggests that

Job serves God to obtain prosperity. Satan accuses God of providing divine patronage to Job,

multiplying his possessions and protecting him. This challenges the validity of the doctrine of

Divine Justice and Retribution, which asserts that righteousness is rewarded with material

13
M.H. POPE takes this as an etymology of the noun Satan. Cf. Job, 11.
14
C.A. NEWSOM, “The Book of Job”, 349.

8
prosperity. By doing so, Satan questions whether Job's motives for serving God are truly

disinterested and indirectly accuses God of favoritism. 15 Day argues that there is a shift from

testing Job's loyalty to testing God. Satan attacks the world order established by God. While this

claim may be overstated, it is clear that Satan raises fundamental questions about human motives

for serving God and casts doubt on the possibility of disinterested piety. Can humans serve God

for God's sake if they are rewarded for their piety?16

Newsom suggests that Satan insinuates that Job and God are both self-deceived in thinking that

piety can be freely offered when it is routinely met with blessings. Breaking this pattern would

prove Satan right. If God breaches the protective hedge around Job and destroys what he has,

Satan believes Job will openly reject God. In verse 11, the word "bless" is used euphemistically

to mean "curse," as Satan predicts that Job will curse God.

God grants Satan permission to test Job but reserves the protection of Job's person for Himself.

In scene three, the setting shifts to the earth as God removes the protective fence around Job's

possessions. Job experiences a series of catastrophes that result in the loss of his possessions, but

contrary to Satan's expectations, Job blesses the name of the Lord and does not sin or accuse God

of wrongdoing. Job's actions contradict Satan's prediction, demonstrating that disinterested piety

is possible. Job remains faithful to God throughout these trials.

Scene 3: The Second Dialogue between God and the Satan (Job 2:1-6)

2:1 again there was a day when the sons of God came to present themselves before the

LORD, and Satan also came among them to present himself before the LORD. 2 And the

LORD said to Satan, “Whence have you come?” Satan answered the LORD, “From

15
T.C. YOUNG, “Satan,” 987.
16
C.A. NEWSOM, op.cit., 349.

9
 going to and fro on the earth, and from walking up and down on it.” 3 And the LORD

said to Satan, “Have you considered my servant Job, that there is none like him on the

earth, a blameless and upright man, who fears God and turns away from evil? He still

holds fast his integrity, although you moved me against him, to destroy him without

cause.” 4 Then Satan answered the LORD, “Skin for skin! All that a man has he will give

for his life. 5 But put forth thy hand now, and touch his bone and his flesh, and he will

curse thee to thy face.” 6 And the LORD said to Satan, “Behold, he is in your power;

only spare his life.”

In scene four (Job 2:1-6), another session of the Heavenly Court takes place. Verses 1-3a of this

second chapter are almost a verbatim reproduction of Job 1:6-7. The word breaks with 1:6-7

starts in verse 3b in God’s description of Job’s character. This signals a change of the focus of

attention, namely, the focus falls on God’s and the Satan’s actions: “He still holds fast his

integrity, although you moved me against him, to destroy him without cause: The Satan has

incited God to treat Job undeservedly. In this text, “for nothing, Hinnäm” recalls the Satan’s

words in 1:9 that Job does not serve God “for nothing.” This word could mean, ‘without

compensation,’ ‘in vain,’ ‘without cause,’ ‘undeservedly.’ But whether the word means the same

in both verses 1:9 and 2:3, Newsom argues that the use of the same word in these verses suggests

a complex issue underlying the whole story: “The didactic tale has been guiding the reader to

affirm that disinterested piety, a fully unconditional love of God, is both possible and

commendable. [The Lord’s] echo of the term Hinnäm in the context of ‘gratuitous destruction’

however, suggests the dark possibilities inherent in a relationship that is radically

unconditional.”17

17
C.A. NEWSOM, op.cit., 354.

10
In Job 2:4-6, instead of admitting defeat, the Satan shifts the ground of the argument. He

proposes a more severe level of the test, namely, to afflict Job’s own person. For the Satan, the

test had been too lenient: “the real test of the relationship of Job’s piety and his prosperity has

not yet begun, he means to say; it is only when the man himself, his own ‘bone’ and ‘flesh’ is

smitten that one can determine the truth about the piety of Job.” 18 The Satan quotes a proverb,

“skin for skin, `ôr Bü`ad-`ôr.” The meaning of this proverb is enigmatic. Clines gives a likely

meaning of this proverb as follows:

The phrase may well have had to do originally with what was fair: proverbially speaking,

the only indisputably fair exchange for one pelt is another pelt …. Job judged his

possessions (including his children) and his own life (including his health) to be of equal

value to him; he can afford to forgo his goods to save his life – and indeed he must, for if

he refuses to afford to, he loses his life … the only means he has of securing his life is to

give up his possessions with good grace – and not curse God.19

Understood in this way, the proverb means that Job has held fast in his integrity “to save his own

skin,” for it was understood that whenever someone cursed God, God would smite him instantly

(cf. 2:9, Job’s wife’s suggestion). In this way the Satan proposes a new test, that God allow Job

to suffer physical harm, “his bone and his flesh,” hoping that Job will curse God (v. 5). God

gives him the permission to afflict Job, but again, God reserves for himself the protection of

Job’s life. Just as in scene two, the Satan goes forth from God’s presence, to act according to the

permission he has received (verse 7a) in scene five. The Satan afflicts Job with miserable bodily

ailments, but Job maintains his piety towards God, and this proves the Satan wrong: disinterested

piety is possible: “In all this Job did not sin with his lips” (Job 2:10).
18
D.A. CLINES, Job 1–20, 43.
19
Ibid, 44.

11
In this analysis we have seen how the Satan carries out his function as a prosecuting attorney, an

accuser. Unlike the other texts treated, the Satan does not point out human sinfulness and

disloyalty to God, but he examines motives; he suggests putting humans to the test in order to

reveal ulterior motives for serving God. In carrying out this task however, the Satan not only puts

himself in opposition to human beings but also in opposition to God. The Satan questions the

system that God has put into place, the one which rewards virtue with material prosperity and

stable physical health. But, in the final analysis, the Satan is firmly under God’s control, and

does only what God permits him to do. In Job 1–2, the author brings to light the Satan’s activities

and functions in order to address the fundamental questions that he intended to address

throughout the entire book. The author simply uses the concepts that were already present in the

biblical tradition: the concept of a legal, heavenly accuser, the concept of the Heavenly Court,

and more fundamentally, the notion inherent in Deuteronomistic theology that human

righteousness meets with God’s blessings through material prosperity and physical wellbeing,

and that sins are met with divine punishment (see Deut 27- 28). This would explain why the

Satan disappears from the dialogues, and never appears at all in the epilogue, for the author

conceives of him as the trigger that raises the fundamental questions that he aimed to address in

the poetic section. The dialogue between the Satan and God lays a firm foundation for the book,

since it puts forward the premises that are discussed at length in the poetic section of the book of

Job. Job and his friends exhaust every possible explanation of Job’s misfortunes. The dialogues

between Job and his friends hinge on the fact they are unaware of what transpired in the

heavenly court. However, they address the questions that arise therein, namely, does human

righteousness automatically lead to God’s blessings through material prosperity and general

well-being and vice versa?

12
Development of Satan as a specific demonic being

The development of Satan as a specific demonic being with distinct characteristics and attributes

evolved over time through religious, theological, and literary influences. While the Hebrew Bible

does not present a fully formed Satan figure, subsequent traditions expanded on the concept,

shaping him into a powerful and malevolent entity.

One important influence on the development of Satan as a specific demonic being was the

intertestamental period, which witnessed the composition of various Jewish texts outside the

Hebrew Bible. These texts, including the Book of Enoch, Jubilees, and the Testaments of the

Twelve Patriarchs, expanded on the idea of fallen angels and their leader, who became associated

with Satan.

The Book of Enoch, in particular, played a significant role in shaping the character of Satan. It

introduces the figure of Azazel, who is depicted as a fallen angel teaching forbidden knowledge

to humanity. Azazel is often equated with Satan, and this connection helped solidify the concept

of Satan as a malevolent being associated with rebellion and corruption.

In early Christian literature, the New Testament portrays Satan as a tempter and adversary. The

Gospels depict Satan tempting Jesus in the wilderness (Matthew 4:1-11, Luke 4:1-13), while

other passages describe Satan as the ruler of demons (Matthew 12:24-26) and the accuser of

believers (Revelation 12:10).

Christian theologians, such as Origen and Augustine, further developed the concept of Satan,

drawing from biblical texts and philosophical ideas. They explored the nature of evil, the fall of

angels, and the role of Satan in tempting and deceiving humanity.

13
Literary works, such as John Milton's "Paradise Lost," published in the 17th century, had a

profound impact on popularizing the image of Satan as a powerful and adversarial figure.

Milton's portrayal of Satan as a charismatic and tragic character struggling against God's

authority influenced subsequent artistic and cultural depictions of Satan.

Over time, visual representations, folklore, and cultural beliefs also contributed to the

development of Satan as a specific demonic being. Iconography, such as the imagery of a

horned, red-skinned figure, became associated with Satan. Folklore and legends further

embellished Satan's attributes, casting him as a tempter, deceiver, and embodiment of evil.

In summary, the development of Satan as a specific demonic being involved a complex interplay

of religious, theological, literary, and cultural influences. Through the expansion of texts,

theological reflections, and artistic representations, the image of Satan evolved into the powerful

and malevolent figure that is widely recognized in religious and popular imagination today.

The emergence of Satan as a leader of evil forces

The emergence of Satan as a leader of evil forces in religious and cultural beliefs occurred over

an extended period and was influenced by various factors. While the Hebrew Bible does not

provide a fully developed concept of Satan as a malevolent figure, subsequent religious and

literary traditions expanded on the idea.

One significant influence on the development of Satan as a leader of evil forces was the

intertestamental period, which refers to the time between the composition of the Hebrew Bible

and the New Testament. During this period, Jewish literature, such as the Book of Enoch and

other apocalyptic texts, began to introduce more elaborate ideas about angels, demons, and

cosmic battles between good and evil.

14
 The Book of Enoch

The Book of Enoch, specifically the Parables of 1 Enoch (1Enoch 37-71), played a crucial role in

shaping the character of Satan. Although Satan is not explicitly named in these texts, they

describe fallen angels who rebel against God and corrupt humanity. These fallen angels, led by

their leaders Azazel and Shemihazah, are seen as adversaries who tempt and lead people astray.

While the focus is on the fallen angels rather than Satan, these stories laid the foundation for later

depictions of Satan as a leader of evil forces.

The Book of Jubilees

In the book of Jubilees, written around the middle of the second century BCE, the heavenly

opponent and enemy of humankind is named Mastemah, meaning "hostility." Mastemah is

identified with Satan in Jubilees 10:8 and is introduced as the "Prince of the (evil) spirits." He

tempts and ruins humankind as his task, working through demons as his agents. Although God

orders the binding of the demons, Mastemah requests to preserve his ability to act, claiming that

his role is to tempt and ruin humanity due to its malice. 20 God allows a tenth of the demons to

remain under Mastemah's influence. Throughout Israel's history, Mastemah continues to menace

humankind, tempting the sons of Noah to sin and inciting threats against nourishment and the

people of Israel. The accounts of Abraham's sacrifice and Moses' destruction reveal Mastemah's

role as a tempter. Obeying the Mosaic Law and staying in the covenant, particularly through

circumcision, is presented as a means of protection against the evil spirits. Jubilees responds to

the cultural threat of Hellenistic influences by emphasizing Jewish identity and resistance against

20
In Jub 1:20 Belchor (i.e. Beliar) is mentioned as the tempter and depraver of the people of God.

15
dominant cultural and political powers. Mastemah serves as a personalized concept of the

enemy, encouraging readers to resist the cultural and political forces of the Hellenistic culture. 21

The Dead Sea Scrolls

Belial, a well-attested name for the devil in the Dead Sea Scrolls, signifies "wickedness." The

scrolls describe an ongoing struggle between the forces of good and evil, depicting a heavenly

battle between the angel Michael and Belial. On the human level, the Teacher of Righteousness

represents the forces of light and good, while the wicked priest opposes him, representing

darkness and evil. The "people of the lot of Belial" are in opposition to the "people of the lot of

God." However, Belial is ultimately subordinate to God, as both the spirits of light and darkness

were created by God. In the eschatological war, Belial will be defeated by God and his agents,

resulting in his permanent annihilation along with all the sons of darkness, whether angelic or

human. The battles in this war are guided supernaturally through prayers and signals from the

priests, giving the impression of ritual or liturgical events. The community finds hope in the

eschatological victory over Belial, as the present age is seen as a time of Belial's rule and

hostility against the children of light. Belial is described as the "angel of hostility" who brings

destruction, accuses, and pronounces guilt. Protection against Belial is sought through curses,

God's covenant and faithfulness, obedience to the Torah, circumcision, and belonging to the

community. These protective measures serve as identity markers for Israel and the priestly-

oriented community. Belial functions as a heavenly stock figure representing the opposing group,

specifically the incumbent High Priest in Jerusalem and the associated priesthood, seen in

connection with the nations and apostates of Israel. The metaphor of "battle" reflects the

seriousness of the encounter as perceived by the marginalized group of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The
21
STEFAN SCHREIBER, MÜNSTER., “The Great Opponent The Devil in Early Jewish and Formative Christian
Literature”. Pp. 442-443

16
dangerousness of the opponents' way of life is depicted through the metaphor of a viper's venom

causing pain, disease, and weakness. The suffering experienced by the community is understood

as being tested and purified by Belial, ultimately originating from God himself, who uses Belial

as an instrument and will bring eschatological release. Belial serves as a function of the

eschatological dualism within the community of the Scrolls. Consequently, the absence of Satan

is a characteristic of the Eschaton.22

The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs

The text in TestLev 19:1 presents a metaphorical choice between light and darkness, or on a

personal level, between following the law of the Lord or engaging in the deeds of Beliar. This

ethical dualism is a characteristic feature of TestXII and shares similarities with the dualistic

elements found in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Beliar and his evil spirits symbolize temptation by

desires and leading a wicked life. Interestingly, the spirits of Beliar must seek permission from

God to tempt humanity. TestDan 6:2,4 mentions in passing that "Satan" (also referred to as the

"enemy") rules an empire, reflecting a demonological worldview.

The texts frequently emphasize the need for the people of Israel to be vigilant against the threat

of Beliar and his spirits. Overcoming Beliar is achieved by avoiding bad conduct, living in purity

without sin, and practicing good deeds. The decision of who aligns with Beliar determines who

will be ruled by him, while those who adhere to the law and commandments of the Lord make

Beliar flee. The instruction given is to maintain Israel's way of life. TestAss 6:4-6 introduces an

eschatological motivation, stating that the decision between following the angels of the Lord or

Beliar will persist into the eschatological fate.

22
Ibid., pp. 443-445

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The ultimate defeat of Beliar and rendering the evil forces powerless occurs only in the

eschatological new creation. The promise is that Beliar will be bound and made ineffective,

signifying God's victory over Beliar in the final battle. Retaliation against Beliar is announced,

and Beliar will be thrown into the eternal fire.

The Greek Life of Adam and Eve (GLAE)

At the heart of GLAE is the story of the Fall of Man, narrated by Eve herself, who was deceived

by the devil. This is one of the earliest instances where the devil is explicitly mentioned as the

cause of the Fall and integrated into the account of Genesis 3. The devil's motivation, identified

as envy, is also mentioned in the Book of Wisdom. Initially referred to as "the enemy," the devil

serves as a cipher and later becomes clearly identified. Acting as a tempter and corrupter, the

devil places enmity between humanity and God's commandments, exemplified in the deception

of Eve. The devil first makes the serpent envious of Adam's higher rank in paradise, using it as

an instrument to deceive Eve and Adam into eating from the tree of life, leading to their loss of

righteousness and glory. The responsibility of mankind is emphasized, highlighting a dualism

between God's intentions for humanity and the devil's desire to corrupt. Salvation is attained

through vigilance and protection from evil, keeping God's commandments and guarding

paradise. The narrative underscores the constant threat posed by the devil, leading to disease,

death, and hardships. The devil serves as a concept of the enemy to raise awareness of his danger

and the need to be attentive. The context of GLAE may reflect a cultural encounter between

Jewish and Hellenistic influences or a response to the challenges posed by a threatened life and

the dominance of a pagan culture.

Other Early Jewish Writings

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The Parables of 1 Enoch (1Enoch 37-71) do not present a clear picture or narrative role for

Satan. Instead, it is the fallen angels who fulfill the function of tempting humanity. The leaders

of these angels are accused of tempting lower-ranking angels to engage with human women,

including Eve. The devil does not play a role in these events, and the portrayal of temptation in

Eve's story only gradually incorporates a sexual connotation. Satan is primarily used as an

attribute to connote evil power rather than a distinct character. References to "the satans" in

1Enoch 65:6 allude to evil spirits, and in 1Enoch 54:6, the fallen angels who became servants of

Satan are punished. Satan is also associated with the end-time "instruments of torture" prepared

for earthly rulers in 1Enoch 53:3. In Sibylline Oracles 3:63-67, Beliar is prophesied to deceive

people with great signs, possibly referring to the diabolical character of the Roman Emperor,

Nero. The power of the threatening political authority is dismissed as an agent of the devil.

Assumption of Moses 10:1 promises the end and annihilation of the devil when God's

eschatological reign is accomplished. The novel of Joseph and Aseneth portrays the devil

metaphorically as the "wild old lion," representing the dangerousness of polytheistic Egyptian

culture. Aseneth, turning away from her traditional idolatrous background, faces the persecution

of this "father of the Egyptian gods," but is ultimately rescued by the God of Israel. Interestingly,

the devil is not mentioned in the apocalyptic writings of 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch, indicating that the

devil is not necessarily a standard figure in ethical or eschatological discourses.

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