Grade 8 PHSC Page 1 of 25 CLIFTON COLLEGE

ATOMS

Matter is defined as anything that has mass and occupies space.

All matter consists of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.

thoughtco.com
How small are atoms?

Let’s consider one drop of water.

If one drop of water has a mass of 0,05 g, then that one drop
of water will contain about 5 015 043 187 000 000 000 000
atoms!

Atoms are far too small to see. Yet we know that they exist because we have ‘seen’
them using a scanning tunnelling microscope and because of the way that
substances behave and react.

An element is a pure substance that is made entirely of one type of atom. Atoms of
a particular element cannot be broken down into simpler atoms.

Atoms of elements are represented by symbols, for example:

Ag is the symbol for silver, C is the symbol for carbon, Aℓ is the symbol for
aluminium and O is the symbol for oxygen.

An atom is the smallest particle that retains the property of an element. This means
that all atoms of a particular element are identical and atoms of one element differ
from the atoms of all other elements. Silver atoms are different from the atoms of
other elements such as carbon, aluminium and oxygen.

An element cannot change into another element by means of a chemical reaction.

All the known elements are listed on the Periodic Table of elements.
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THE PERIODIC TABLE

I II Key III IV V VI VII 0

1 Atomic number (Z) 1 2
1 H
1
H He
4

3 4 1 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be Relative atomic mass B C N O F Ne
7 9 10.8 12 14 16 19 20

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Aℓ Si P S Cℓ Ar
23 24.3 27 28 31 32 35.5 40

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 63.5 65.4 70 72.6 75 79 80 84

Atomic Number Symbol Name

1 H Hydrogen
2 He Helium
3 Li Lithium
4 Be Beryllium
5 B Boron
6 C Carbon
7 N Nitrogen
8 O Oxygen
9 F Fluorine
10 Ne Neon
11 Na Sodium
12 Mg Magnesium
13 Aℓ Aluminium
14 Si Silicon
15 P Phosphorus
16 S Sulphur
17 Cℓ Chlorine
18 Ar Argon
19 K Potassium
20 Ca Calcium
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The periodic table creates meaningful order out of what would otherwise be a
random list of over 100 elements.

Some important categories of elements in the periodic table:

The horizontal rows of elements are called PERIODS.

The vertical columns of elements are called GROUPS.

Group I elements are called the Alkali Metals.

Group II elements are called the Alkali Earth Metals.

The elements found between Group II and Group III are called the Transition
Elements.

Group VII elements are called the Halogens.

Group VIII (or 0) elements are called the Inert elements (or Noble gases) because
they do not react naturally with other elements.

The metals and the non-metals are separated by a dark dividing line which starts
from boron (B - found in Group III, Period 2). This dividing line appears as a “step
ladder” and ends at the element astatine (At - found in Group VII, Period 6).
Elements lying on either side of this line are called metalloids or semi-metals or
semi-conductors. The elements on the left of the table are called metals. The
elements on the right of the table are called non-metals.
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Phases of matter

The phases of matter are always stated for the phase of a substance at room
temperature, 25 oC. The phases for the elements at room temperature are as
follows…
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The test / examination data sheet

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE

The nucleus of an atom

* The nuclei of atoms consist of protons and
neutrons.
* The proton is positively charged and the
neutron is electrically neutral.
* The mass of a proton is approximately equal
to that of a neutron.
* Protons and neutrons are given the
collective name nucleons.

The electrons in an atom

* The electrons spin in energy levels around the nucleus.
* The electron is negatively charged.
* The mass of an electron is so small that it’s negligible.
* The amount of negative charge carried by an electron is equal to the amount of
positive charge carried by a proton.

The Atomic number (Z)

* The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom.
* In any atom (which is an electrically neutral particle) there are as many
electrons as protons.
* All the atoms of a particular element have the same atomic number.
* The elements in the Periodic Table are arranged in order of increasing atomic
number.

The Mass Number (A)

* The mass number is the number of nucleons (protons + neutrons) in the
nucleus of an atom.
* The electrons contribute virtually no mass to the total mass of the atom and
therefore almost all the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus.
* The number of neutrons in an atom is given by (A-Z).
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WORKSHEET 1
Complete the following table.

Group Period Atomic No. of No. of Mass No. of

Name Symbol
number number number protons electrons number neutrons

hydrogen

helium

lithium

beryllium

boron

carbon

nitrogen

oxygen

fluorine

neon

sodium

magnesium

aluminium

silicon

phosphorous

sulphur

chlorine

argon

potassium

calcium
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HOW TO COUNT THE NUMBER OF ELEMENTS AND ATOMS

Be Mg S Single elements. One atom of each.

H2 N2 O2 F2 Cℓ2 Br2 I2 Elements which occur in nature as diatomic

molecules. 2 atoms of the same element in
each molecule.

NaCℓ 1 atom of Sodium, 1 atom of Chlorine. This is a molecule but it

can also be called a compound. There are two elements.

H2O 2 atoms of Hydrogen, 1 atom of Oxygen. This is a molecule but it

can also be called a compound. There are two elements.

CO2 1 atom of Carbon, 2 atoms of Oxygen. This is a molecule but it

can also be called a compound. There are two elements.

H2SO4 2 atoms of Hydrogen, 1 atom of Sulphur, 4 atoms of Oxygen.

This is a molecule but it can also be called a compound. There
are three elements.

NAMING COMPOUNDS & WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAE

Binary compounds (ie compounds consisting of 2 elements only).

The name of the metal (or hydrogen) is retained in its original form.

The name of the non-metal is altered to end in – ide

For example:

Sodium with chlorine (NaCℓ) sodium chloride

Sodium with bromine (NaBr) sodium bromide
Sodium with oxygen (Na2O) sodium oxide
Sodium with sulphur (Na2S) sodium sulphide

Prefixes for Second Ion

We can use prefixes to indicate the number of atoms of the second element that are
bonded to the first element.

Mono – 1
Di – 2
Tri – 3
Tetra – 4
Penta – 5
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For example:

CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
SO3 sulphur trioxide
CCℓ4 carbon tetrachloride
PCℓ5 phosphorous pentachloride

Writing the chemical formulae for compounds …

Valency: the number of electrons an atom will lose, gain or share when bonding with
another atom.

❖ Determine the valencies of the bonding elements.

❖ The metal atom/hydrogen is written down first, followed by the non-metal atom.
❖ The valencies are crossed and brought down as subscripts to indicate how
many atoms are required to make the molecule / compound electrically neutral.
(if the valency is one, do not write it in)

Examples:

H1 O2 H1 O2 H2O Hydrogen oxide Water

2 1
Be2 F1 Be F BeF2 Beryllium fluoride
Aℓ3 S2 Aℓ3 S2 Aℓ2S3 Aluminium sulphide
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CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Substances can react with each other to form new substances with different physical
and chemical properties.

In a chemical reaction, the substances that react with one another are called
reactants.

The substances that are produced are called the products of the reaction.

During a chemical reaction the atoms rearrange themselves. The force that holds the
atoms together in a compound is called a chemical bond.

The bonds between the atoms in the reactants break during a chemical reaction.

New bonds form between the atoms to produce the products. The reactants and
products have different combinations of atoms.

The Law of Constant Composition:

A chemical compound always contains the same elements combined together in the
same fixed ratio and in the same proportion by mass.

Eg: Water, H2O, will always have hydrogen and Oxygen in a ratio of 2:1, or in a mass
proportion of 2:16 or 1:8.

The Law of Conservation of Mass:

Mass is neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.

In other words, the mass of the reactants at the beginning of a reaction will equal
the mass of the products at the end of the reaction.
Example:

In words:

Hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen gas to form water vapour

In symbol form:

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
reactant reactant product

+ →
4 H atoms 2 O atoms 4 H atoms & 2 O atoms
4g 32 g 36 g
2 molecules 1 molecule 2 molecules
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Because of the Law of Conservation of Mass, all equations for chemical reactions
must be balanced. The left-hand side (LHS) and the right – hand side (RHS) of any
equation must be equal to each other. ‘Balancing’ a chemical equation is to ensure
that there are equal numbers of atoms, of the same element, on both sides of the
equation.

To achieve this balance, co-efficient (multipliers) are used in front of the formulae in
the equation. The formulae, themselves, are not altered when balancing the
equation.

Example 1:

Fe + O2 → FeO (Unbalanced)

Unbalanced LHS RHS

Fe (iron) atoms 1 1
O (oxygen) atoms 2 1

2Fe + O2 → 2FeO (balanced)

Balanced LHS RHS

Fe (iron) atoms 2 2
O (oxygen) atoms 2 2

Example 2:

Aℓ + O2 → Aℓ2O3 (Unbalanced)

Unbalanced LHS RHS

Aℓ (aluminium) atoms 1 2
O (oxygen) atoms 2 3

4Aℓ + 3O2 → 2Aℓ2O3 (balanced)

Balanced LHS RHS

Aℓ (aluminium) atoms 4 4
O (oxygen) atoms 6 6

Letters as subscripts in a chemical equation indicate the phase of the substance.

(s) Solid
(ℓ) Pure liquid
(aq) Aqueous phase (the substance is dissolved in water)
(g) Gaseous phase
↑ The gas escapes form the reaction mixture / vessel
↓ A precipitate is formed (a precipitate is an undissolved solid)

Examples follow on page 11….

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Examples:

C + O2 → CO2 (g)↑

AgNO3 + NaF → NaNO3 + AgF(s)↓

A chemical equation to show that salt has dissolved in water:

NaCℓ(s) → Na+(aq) + Cℓ−(aq)

Note that we don’t write the formula for the water on the LHS or the RHS of the
arrow because the salt does not chemically react with the water.

WORKSHEET 2

Question 1: Complete the following table:

Number
Atoms of Atoms of Atoms of Atoms of
Formula Molecules of
? ? ? ?
elements
5H2O 5 10 H 5O 2
2CaCO3
3H2SO4
2Mg(OH)2

Question 2: Name the following compounds.

NaCℓ _________________________ CaCℓ2 __________________________

CaO __________________________
CaS __________________________
H2O __________________________
Na2O _________________________
Mg3N2 ________________________
AℓN __________________________
Aℓ2O3 _________________________
MgBr2 __________________________
Ag2S ___________________________
AℓI3 ____________________________
Aℓ4C3 ___________________________
H2S _____________________________
SiC _____________________________
KBr _____________________________
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Question 3: Write the chemical formula for each of the following.

aluminum carbide _________________ hydrogen oxide _____________________

aluminum oxide __________________ silver sulphide ______________________
silicon carbide ___________________ calcium chloride _____________________
sodium chloride __________________ sodium oxide _______________________
magnesium bromide ______________ calcium sulphide _____________________
hydrogen sulphide ________________ magnesium nitride ___________________
aluminum iodide _________________ calcium oxide _______________________
aluminum nitride _________________ sodium hydride ______________________

Question 4: Balance the following chemical equations:

1. N2 + H2 → NH3

2. H3PO4 + KOH → K3PO4 + H2O

3. K + B2O3 → K2O + B

4. HCℓ + NaOH → NaCℓ + H2O

5. Na + NaNO3 → Na2O + N2

6. C + S8 → CS2

7. Na + O2 → Na2O

8. N2 + O2 → N2O5

9. KOH + HBr → KBr + H2O

10. Aℓ(OH)3 + H2CO3 → Aℓ2(CO3)3 + H2O

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PROPERTIES OF MATTER
https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/physical-and-chemical-properties/

A physical property is a characteristic of matter that is not associated with a change

in its chemical composition.

Examples of physical properties include:

• density,
• colour,
• odour,
• texture,
• hardness,
• solubility
• melting and boiling points, and
• electrical conductivity.

We can observe some physical properties, such as density and colour, without
changing the physical state of the matter observed.

Other physical properties, such as the melting temperature of iron or the freezing
temperature of water, can only be observed as matter undergoes a physical change.

The change of one type of matter into another type (or the inability to change) is
a chemical property.

Examples of chemical properties include:

• flammability,
• toxicity,
• acidity,
• reactivity (many types), and
• heat of combustion.

Some examples:
• Iron combines with oxygen in the presence of water to form rust;
• Chromium does not oxidize.
• Nitroglycerin is very dangerous because it explodes easily.
• Neon poses almost no hazard because it is very unreactive.
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MIXTURES
PURE
SUBSTANCES
MATTER
Anything that has mass and When two or more substances combine,
occupies space yet retain their original properties.

ELEMENTS MOLECULES COMPOUNDS HOMOGENEOUS HETEROGENEOUS

MIXTURES MIXTURES
An element is a A molecule consists A compound
pure substance of two or more consists of two or A mixture in which the composition A mixture in which the
that is made atoms chemically more different is the same throughout. composition is not constant.
entirely of one bonded together in elements chemically
type of atom. a fixed ratio. bonded together in All the substances in a The substances in a
a fixed ratio. homogeneous mixture appear to heterogeneous mixture
exist in one phase. generally exist in different
All compounds are molecules but not all A homogeneous mixture is also phases.
molecules are compounds. called a solution. The solution is Any combination of substances
always clear, although it may be that do not dissolve in each
coloured. other can form a
In solution we distinguish between heterogeneous mixture.
the SOLUTE and SOLVENT. Any two liquids that will not mix
Solute: the component that are immiscible.
dissolves in the solvent. Suspensions (an insoluble
Solvent: the component that solid in a liquid) are
represents the largest amount. heterogenous mixtures.

diatomic molecules: molecules

consisting of only two atoms
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PHYSICAL CHANGE

A physical change occurs when a substance changes phase. No new substances

form during physical changes.

When mixtures are formed or separated, a physical change takes place.

METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES

Homogeneous mixtures

Two miscible liquids: FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

All substances have their own boiling points. We can separate a mixture
of liquids like water and alcohol by boiling off one of the liquids – the
liquid that has the lowest boiling point.

A soluble solid and liquid: EVAPORATION or CRYSTALLISATION

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Heterogeneous mixtures

Two immiscible liquids:

SEPARATING FUNNEL

An insoluble solid in a liquid: FILTRATION

A magnetic solid with a non-magnetic solid:

MAGNETIC SEPARATION

Two solids: HAND SORTING

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WORKSHEET 3

For each of the following, state …..

i) the type of mixture
ii) the phases of the components in the mixture
iii) how you would separate the different components (note there can be more than
one process to separate a mixture into its various components)

For example:

Alcohol and water

i) homogeneous mixture
ii) alcohol – liquid; water – liquid
iii) fractional distillation

1) Sea water
2) Sugar water
3) pepper and water
4) petrol and water
5) copper and iron nails
6) nickel and silica powder
7) stainless steel and zinc pieces
8) microbeads from facewash
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CHEMICAL CHANGE

New substances are formed during chemical changes.

Examples of chemical changes.

Synthesis Reactions

Synthesis means “putting together”.

A synthesis reaction is the formation of a compound from simpler compounds or

from its elements.

Examples:

When magnesium is burned in oxygen the compound magnesium oxide is

synthesised. Energy is released in the form of heat and an intense white light during
the burning. When energy is released in a chemical reaction, we call it an
EXOTHERMIC reaction. Not all synthesis reactions are exothermic reactions.

2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

The product of a synthesis reaction is called a compound. In this reaction 2

molecules of the compound, magnesium oxide, are formed.

Decomposition Reactions

A decomposition reaction is the breaking down of a chemical compound into

simpler compounds or elements.

Decomposition reactions often need some type of energy input, such as heat or
electricity. When energy is absorbed in a chemical reaction, we call it an
ENDOTHERMIC reaction. Not all decomposition reactions are endothermic
reactions.

Examples:

Mercury oxide (HgO) is a poisonous red powder. When it is heated, it decomposes

to form silver mercury droplets (Hg) and oxygen gas (O2). Mercury oxide is a
compound that consists of the elements mercury and oxygen.

HgO(s) →
 Hg(ℓ) + O2(g)
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Copper carbonate (CuCO3) is a green powder. When it is heated, it changes into

copper oxide (CuO), a black powder. Closer investigation shows that the gas carbon
dioxide (CO2) is also produced. Here the decomposition does not result in elements
but compounds that are simpler than the original substance.

CuCO3(s) →
 CuO(s) + CO2(g)

Water (H2O) is composed of the elements oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H). Water can
be decomposed by sending an electric current through the water that contains a little
acid. This process is known as ELECTROLYSIS.

2H2O(ℓ) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)

Copper(II) chloride (CuCℓ2) is composed of the elements copper (Cu) and chlorine
(Cℓ). Copper(II) chloride can be decomposed by sending an electric current through
a solution of copper(II) chloride and water.

CuCℓ2(aq) → Cu(s) + Cℓ2(g)

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TESTING FOR GASES IN THE LABORATORY

Test for Oxygen Gas

A glowing splint will ignite in the presence of

oxygen gas.

Test for Hydrogen Gas

A burning splint will make a popping sound in

the presence of hydrogen gas.

Test for Carbon dioxide gas

Bubble the gas through clear limewater and

the clear limewater will turn milky.
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WORKSHEET 4

1. Choose the correct option :

1.1) An element is
A the smallest particle of a compound
B a substance that can be broken down into simpler substances by physical
methods
C a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
chemical methods
D a substance of which the smallest particles consist of molecules

1.2) Atoms are

A the smallest particles of elements
B the smallest particles of compounds
C solid, indivisible particles
D the identical particles of which all matter is composed

1.3) An example of a compound is

A air
B water
C iron
D oxygen

1.4) Which subatomic particle is not part of an atom?

A electron
B neutron
C proton
D photon

1.5) An example of a compound that breaks up on heating is

A water
B copper(II) chloride
C potassium permanganate
D sodium hydroxide

1.6) An example of a compound that breaks up when an electric current is passed

through it is
A mercury oxide
B copper(II) chloride
C potassium permanganate
D sodium hydroxide
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2. a) Choose the correct option in column B that best suits the statement in
column A. Use each answer in column B only once.
Column A Column B
1 The central region of an atom A Compound
2 A pure substance B Periodic Table
A substance that consists of atoms of two or
3 C Element
more elements chemically bonded together
The process whereby a compound is broken
4 D Nucleus
down into simple substances
The chart in which all the known elements are
5 E Decomposition
listed

b) Choose the correct option in column B that best suits the statement in
column A. Use all the options in column B that are correct for each
statement in column A. Answers in column B can be used more than once.
Column A Column B
1 A diatomic molecule A H2O
2 A molecule of an element B CH4
3 A molecule of a compound C H2
A compound in which the elements are
4 D NH3
bonded in a ratio of 1 : 4
5 A product when water decomposes E O2

3. State whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE. Correct the
FALSE statements.
a) The atoms of all elements are the same.
b) All known elements are listed on the Periodic Table of elements.
c) The nucleus of an atom contains the protons and electrons.
d) Atoms are neutral because they contain equal numbers of protons and
neutrons.
e) Elements and compounds are pure substances.
f) O2 and H2O are molecules of compounds.
g) The atoms in H2SO4 are combined in a ratio of 2 : 1 : 4.

4. Write a paragraph to explain the difference between the following terms: atoms,
molecules, elements and compounds.

5. Classify the substances created in the following cases as either pure

substances or mixtures.
a) Oxygen and hydrogen combine to form water.
b) Water and sand combine to form mud.
c) Copper and tin combine to form brass.
d) Oxygen and carbon combine to form the gas carbon dioxide.
e) Vinegar and oil combine to form salad dressing.
f) Sugar, vegetable fat, cocoa butter and milk combine to form chocolate.
g) Tartaric acid and sodium bicarbonate combine to form baking powder.
h) Magnesium combines with oxygen in the air to form magnesium oxide.
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6. Fluorine is element number 9. It has an atomic number of 9 and a mass

number of 19.
a) Name the subatomic particles that can be found in the nucleus of an atom
of fluorine.
b) Name the subatomic particle that can be found outside the nucleus.
c) Fluorine has 9 protons. How many electrons will there be in a fluorine
atom?
d) The total number of protons and neutrons is 19. How many neutrons are
there in a fluorine atom?
e) Draw a diagram of a model of a fluorine atom, showing the correct number
of subatomic particles.

7. Liquid lead bromide is poured into a beaker and two

graphite rods are placed inside the liquid. The graphite
rods are connected to the two poles of a battery, as
shown in the diagram.
a) Is this an example of a synthesis or decomposition?
b) What is this process called?
c) What is the liquid lead bromide known as?
d) What do we call the two graphite rods?
e) What would be the products of this process?
f) Is this process a physical or a chemical change?

8. Choose the correct option:

8.1) The arrow in a chemical equation tells us that

A the products are equal to the reactants
B the reactants react to form products
C the products react to form reactants
D the number of atoms stays the same

8.2) Which of the following statements is incorrect? During a chemical reaction

A the atoms rearrange
B products form
C reactants are used up
D the products and the reactants have the same chemical properties

8.3) A chemical bond

A is a force that holds atoms together
B is a force that holds substances together
C forms between reactants
D forms between products
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9. Choose the option in column B that best suits the explanation in column A.

Column A Column B
1 The substances that react with each other A Chemical reaction
2 The force between atoms B Reactants
3 When reactants form products C Products
4 The substances that form in a reaction D Chemical bond

10. Copper chloride can decompose to form copper and chlorine gas when an
electric current is sent through the solution.

a) Write a word equation for the reaction.

b) Name the reactant in the reaction.
c) Name the products in the reaction.
d) How do the properties of the reactant and products compare?
e) How do the bonds in the reactants and products change during the
reaction?

11. When a piece of iron rusts, the iron atoms combine with the oxygen in the air to
form reddish-brown iron oxide that we call rust.

a) Name the reactants in this reaction.

b) Name the products that form.
c) What is this type of bond called?
d) Write a word equation for this bond.
e) How will the total number of atoms in iron and oxygen compare with that in
iron oxide?