Kant: Duty and Reason

Immanuel Kant
● Different from Mill because Kant focuses on duty and reason, while Mill focuses on character
○ Not focused on motivation, but kung anong kalalabasan kung yan ang pipiliin mong course of action? kaya
siya consequentialist
● Concern is with nature and morality
● Proposes a comprehensive system of the universe in which their certainty is guaranteed
● Skepticism results from the error of seeking a basis for certainty where it cannot be found, in the content of
experience.
● The justification of knowledge does not depend on experience
○ Concerns a priori knowledge → knowledge that a person can have without having any experience to justify it
● It is the nature of the mind to think in accordance with the principle that every event must have a cause
○ General notion: nature itself provides the causal order of our experience
○ Kant insists that it is the mind which orders our experience causally
● While experience teaches us what actually happens, it does not teach us what necessarily happens.
○ A priori structure of knowledge: can be understood through examination of the presuppositions of our orderly
experience of nature
● Grounds of the validity of ethics → Kant employs the same method by which he establishes the grounds of the certainty
of science

Genuine morality, that is, a morality which is objectively and universally binding, requires an a priori foundation.

● Scientific Contributions
○ Kant's significant scientific work includes the "General Natural History and Theory of the Heavens" (1755),
where he proposed the nebular hypothesis to explain the origin of the solar system.
● Philosophical Works
○ “Critique of Pure Reason" (1781) is Kant's seminal philosophical work, aiming to establish the possibility of
certain knowledge in natural sciences and mathematics.
○ "Critique of Judgment" (1790) delves into aesthetics and biology.
○ "Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals" (1785) and "Critique of Practical Reason" (1788)
explore the foundations of genuine morality and its implications for religion.
● Philosophical Interests
○ Kant is interested in both nature and morality, as evidenced by his admiration for the starry heavens and the
moral law within.
○ He seeks to establish the certainty of scientific knowledge and moral principles against the backdrop of
18th-century skepticism.
● Addressing Skepticism
○ Kant argues that skepticism arises from seeking certainty in the content of experience rather than in the form of
reason itself.
○ He proposes that the grounds of certainty lie in the structure of reason, particularly in the categories or
concepts of the mind.
○ Kant conducts an intensive examination of thought to demonstrate how we can have certain knowledge of
scientific facts and moral duties.
● Certainty in Scientific Knowledge
○ Kant analyzes knowledge to show that the necessity and universality of scientific knowledge are guaranteed by
the laws through which the categories of the mind become effective.
○ The categories, such as the concept of causality, are inherent to the mind and not derived from experience.
○ Kant argues that the mind orders our experience causally, allowing us to be certain of the causal
interconnection of events.
● A Priori Nature of Categories
○ The categories are a priori, universally applicable to experience, and necessary preconditions of empirical
knowledge.
○ While all knowledge begins with experience, the a priori structure of knowledge cannot be derived from
induction but is understood through examining the presuppositions of our orderly experience of
nature.
● Validity of Ethics
○ Kant applies the same method used for establishing the certainty of science to ethics.
○ He asserts that valid moral principles must be independent of empirical data to be universally binding.
 ○ Genuine morality requires an a priori foundation, which Kant believes is revealed through ordinary moral
consciousness or conscience.
● Universal Obligation
○ Kant asserts that universal obligation cannot be derived from empirical data such as human desires or
inclinations since these vary from person to person.
○ The basis of morality must instead lie in rational nature, which is the same in all individuals.
● Rational Basis of Morality
○ Kant argues that a moral principle must be rational, meaning it can be applied to all rational beings
without contradiction.
○ The moral law must be such that one can will it to be followed by everyone, including oneself.
● Categorical Imperative
○ Kant introduces the concept of the categorical imperative as the fundamental moral law.
■ Kant uses the test of consistency as the core of the fundamental moral law
■ The only basis for determining our duties
○ According to this principle, actions are right if they conform to principles that one can consistently will to be
followed by everyone.
■ Morally right if it can be universalized
○ Conversely, actions are wrong if they are based on maxims that a rational being could not will to be
universalized.
● Determining Right and Wrong
○ The categorical imperative serves as both a test and an unconditional directive for behavior, enabling
the distinction between right and wrong actions.
○ It is binding on everyone because each rational being acknowledges an obligation to follow reason.
■ Each rational being acknowledges the obligation to follow reason
● Validity of Moral Law
○ Kant maintains that the validity of the moral law is not contingent on people's actual conduct.
○ Even if everyone were to violate the moral law, its validity would remain unaffected because it is grounded in
reason and duty.
■ Moral law is grounded in reason and duty and so, even if people violate it, it does not affect its
validity.
■ Moral law holds whether or not people actually follow it.
■ Reason prescribes duty (a priori)

#1 Good Things and Good Will

● Good Will as the Sole Good Without Qualification
○ According to Kant, nothing in the world, or even beyond it, can be considered good without qualification
except a Good Will.
○ Intelligence, wit, courage, and other talents or qualities may be desirable, but their goodness depends on the
will that employs them.
○ Good without qualification → doesn’t need anything else to be good; absolute good in itself

These gifts of nature may also become extremely bad and mischievous if the will which is to make use of them, and which, therefore,
constitutes what is called “character” is not good.

● Qualities and Gifts of Nature

○ Talents of the mind and qualities of temperament, as well as gifts of fortune like power, riches, and honor, are
considered good and desirable.
○ However, these qualities can become harmful if not accompanied by a Good Will to use them for moral ends.
● Importance of Good Will in Happiness
○ Even happiness and well-being are not worthy of pleasure to an impartial rational spectator if not accompanied
by a pure and good will.
○ A good will is deemed indispensable or necessary for being worthy of happiness.
● Serviceable Qualities to Good Will
○ Some qualities, such as moderation, self-control, and calm deliberation, can facilitate the action of a good will.

Moderation in the affections and passions, self-control and calm deliberation are not only good in many respects, but even seem to
constitute part of the intrinsic worth of the person; but they are far from deserving to be called good without qualification.
 ○ However, these qualities are not considered absolutely good without qualification; their worth depends on
their relation to a good will.
● The Role of Good Will in Evaluating Qualities
○ Without the principles of a good will, even seemingly virtuous qualities can become extremely bad.
○ For instance, the coolness of a villain may make them more dangerous and abominable if not guided by a good
will.

#2 Good Will is Not Good Because

It Achieves Good Results
● Intrinsic Value of a Good Will
○ Kant argues that a good will is inherently good, not because of its outcomes or effects, but simply by virtue of
the volition itself.
■ Volition → faculty or power of using one’s will
○ It is esteemed much higher than anything it could achieve in favor of inclinations or desires.
● Independence from External Circumstances
○ Even if a good will lacks the power to accomplish its purpose due to unfavorable circumstances, its
value remains unchanged.
○ Its worth is not determined by its usefulness or fruitlessness in achieving goals.
● Inherent Value
○ A good will is compared to a jewel that shines by its own light, possessing value in itself.
■ Good will possesses value in itself
○ Its usefulness may serve as a setting to make it more convenient for common commerce or to attract attention,
but it does not determine its true value.
● Evaluation by True Connoisseurs
○ The value of a good will cannot be fully appreciated by those who do not understand its intrinsic worth.
○ True connoisseurs recognize and esteem the inherent value of a good will, regardless of its external
achievements.
■ Gumagawa ng mabuti nang kahit walang kapalit

#3 Reason is Not Intended to Produce Happiness,

but to Produce a Good Will
● Critique of the Absolute Value of the Will
○ Kant acknowledges the strangeness of the idea that the mere will has absolute value without considering its
utility.
■ Reason as the governor of our will
○ He suggests that this notion might be dismissed as a product of high-flown fancy, prompting an examination of
nature's purpose in assigning reason as the governor of our will.
● Nature's Purpose in Reason
○ Kant argues that if nature's (i.e., reason) purpose were the conservation and welfare of a being, reason would be
a poorly suited means to achieve this purpose.
○ Instinct would be more effective in guiding actions for survival and happiness, leaving reason to contemplate
nature's design rather than interfering with it.
● Failure of Reason in Pursuit of Happiness
○ Kant observes that as reason applies itself to the pursuit of happiness, individuals often find themselves lacking
true satisfaction.
○ Many experience misology, or a hatred of reason, as they recognize that reason brings more trouble than
happiness, leading them to envy those guided more by instinct than reason.
● Nature's Wisdom
○ Kant argues that reason's true purpose is not to ensure happiness but to produce a will that is good
in itself.
■ Reason must produce a good will—not merely good as a means to something else, but good in itself.
■ Reason is requisite (or necessary) for good will.

Reason is imparted to us as a practical faculty, i.e., as one which is to have influence on the will.

○ While reason may interfere with the attainment of happiness, it does not contradict nature's wisdom, as
reason's true destination is to establish a good will, which is necessary for its own sake.
■ Nothing inconsistent with reason interfering with happiness
■ Happiness is always conditional while good will is unconditional
 ● Supreme Good
○ The cultivation of reason may interfere with the pursuit of happiness, but it is consistent with nature's
purpose, as reason recognizes the establishment of a good will as its highest practical destination.
● Satisfaction of Reason's Proper Kind
○ Reason is capable only of a satisfaction of its own proper kind, namely, the attainment of an end determined by
reason itself, even if it involves disappointment in the pursuit of inclination.

#4 Good Will and Duty

● Duty and a Good Will
○ Kant asserts that the notion of a will deserving esteem for itself, without consideration of external factors, is
inherent in sound natural understanding.
○ Duty encompasses the notion of a good will, though it may involve subjective restrictions and
hindrances.
○ Difference between acting “according to duty” and “from duty”
● Exclusion of Certain Actions
○ Kant excludes actions inconsistent with duty, as they conflict with it and cannot be considered as done from
duty.
○ He also sets aside actions conforming to duty but driven by other inclinations, as it is easier to
distinguish whether they are done from duty or selfish motives.
○ When our desires lead to actions which happen to conform to duty, we cannot be sure that the consciousness
of duty, rather than inclination, was our motive.

But even action in accordance with duty is not enough; only respect for duty gives an action inner moral worth.

● Example of Honest Commerce

○ Kant illustrates the difficulty of discerning whether an action is done from duty or inclination using the
example of an honest tradesman who does not overcharge customers.
○ While the tradesman's actions serve others honestly, they cannot be assumed to be done from duty or direct
inclination, but rather from selfish motives.
● Example of Preserving Life
○ Kant contrasts the duty to maintain one's life with the natural inclination to do so.
○ Merely preserving one's life out of self-preservation has no intrinsic moral worth.
○ However, if someone preserves their life out of duty, even in the face of adversity and without a
personal desire for life, their action holds moral worth.

#5 Differentiating Merely Praiseworthy

Behavior From Moral Action
Altruistic actions which result from feelings of sociability deserve praise and encouragement, but they cannot be classified as possessing
strictly moral value.

● Beneficence as a Duty
○ Kant asserts that being beneficent (generous or doing good) when we can is a duty.
○ Some individuals naturally derive pleasure from spreading joy without any other motive of vanity or
self-interest.
■ This is what I aspire to be. To just do good for the sake of duty.
■ Bakit nga ba ko nahihirapan?
■ No true moral worth; deserves praise and encouragement, but not esteem
● Moral Worth of Beneficence
○ Kant argues that actions of beneficence done solely from inclination lack true moral worth.
○ Such actions are on par with other inclinations, like the inclination to honor, and deserve praise but not
moral esteem.
○ The moral import of an action lies in whether it is done from duty, not from inclination.
● Example of a Philanthropist
○ Kant provides an example of a philanthropist who, despite being naturally inclined to help others, lacks
genuine moral worth if their actions are driven solely by inclination.
○ The true moral worth of the philanthropist's actions is demonstrated when they act from duty, even if they
must overcome personal sorrow or lack of sympathy.
● Moral Worth Beyond Inclination
 ○ Kant suggests that even individuals lacking natural sympathy or inclination towards beneficence can
achieve moral worth by acting from duty.
○ The highest moral worth lies in being beneficent from duty rather than from inclination.

#6 Act Done From Duty Derives Moral Value From the Principle by Which it is Determined
● Not from the results it produces!

That an action done from duty derives its moral worth, not from the purpose which is to be attained by it, but from the maxim by which
it is determined, and therefore does not depend on the realization of the object of the action, but merely on the principle of volition by
which the action has taken place, without regard to any object of desire.

● Principle of Volition Determines Moral Worth

○ Kant asserts that the moral worth of an action done from duty does not stem from the purpose or end it aims
to achieve.
○ Instead, the moral worth derives from the maxim or principle of volition by which the action is
determined.
● Independence from Desired Objectives
○ The moral worth of an action is not contingent upon the realization of its intended object or outcome.
○ It solely depends on the principle of volition underlying the action, regardless of any desired object or
consequence.
■ Doesn’t look into the consequence?
● Disconnection from Desired Ends
○ Previous discussions establish that the purposes or effects of actions, when considered as ends or motives of the
will, cannot provide actions with unconditional or moral worth.
○ Therefore, the worth of actions must lie solely in the principle of the will, independent of the ends that can be
achieved by the action.
● Primacy of Will and Principle
○ The moral worth of an action lies in the principle of the will, which guides the action, rather than
the anticipated effects or objectives.
■ E.g., Kant is pro capital punishment; retributive justice; maxim = principle of equality
■ Hindi naman tayo pinanganak sa mundong may equality or fair lahat ng conditions
■ Napakaraming external at internal factors na kailangan tignan; complex ang mundo at complex ang
tao
○ It emphasizes the intrinsic value of the principle of volition, detached from any external aims or desires.

#7 Definition of Duty
● Duty Arises from Respect for the Law
○ Kant states that duty is the necessity of acting from respect for the law.
○ While one may have inclination for an object as the effect of their proposed action, they cannot have respect for
it because it is merely an effect and not an expression of the will's energy.
● Respect vs. Inclination
○ Respect cannot be felt for inclination, whether one's own or another's, as inclination is tied to personal
interests and desires.
○ Respect is only felt for what is connected with the will as a principle, independent of personal inclinations, and
serves as a command.
● Exclusion of Inclination in Duty
○ Actions done from duty must exclude the influence of inclination and any other object of the will.
○ The will is determined solely by the objective law and subjectively by pure respect for this practical law, even if
it thwarts one's inclinations.
● Moral Worth Independent of Effects
○ The moral worth of an action does not lie in the expected effect or outcome, nor in any principle of action that
derives its motive from this effect.
○ The supreme and unconditional good, which Kant calls moral, resides in the conception of law in itself,
independent of its effects.
○ This moral good is present in the person who acts accordingly, and it does not depend on the result of the
action.

#8 Categorical Imperative and

 Ethical Principles or Maxims
● Conformity to Universal Law
○ Kant emphasizes that the will must conform to law in general, without consideration of any particular law
applicable to specific actions.
○ This universal conformity to law serves as the principle for the will, ensuring that duty is not a vain delusion.
● Example of Making False Promises
○ Kant illustrates this principle with the example of making false promises, distinguishing between the questions
of prudence and morality.
○ While making a false promise might seem prudent in certain situations, acting from duty involves considering
whether the maxim of the action could be willed as a universal law.
● Distinguishing Prudence from Duty
○ Acting truthfully from duty implies that the notion of the action already implies a law.
○ Acting truthfully from fear of consequences, however, is based on apprehension and calculation of personal
advantage.

Should I be content that my maxim should hold good as a universal law, for myself as well as for others?

● Testing the Maxim with Universal Law

○ Kant proposes a test for determining the moral permissibility of actions: whether the maxim behind the action
could be willed as a universal law.
○ In the case of making false promises, Kant concludes that the maxim cannot be willed as a universal
law because it would undermine the concept of promises altogether.

#9 Categorical Imperative and

Hypothetical Imperative
● Nature of Imperatives
○ Imperatives are expressions of objective principles that are obligatory for a will.
○ They indicate the relation of an objective law of reason to a will, which may not necessarily be determined by it
due to subjective factors.
● Ought and Shall
○ Imperatives are typically expressed using the words "ought" or "shall," conveying that something would be good
to do or to forbear.
○ They address the will, which may not always act in accordance with what is conceived to be good.
● Practical Good vs. Pleasant
○ What is practically good determines the will through the conceptions of reason, objectively and universally,
rather than subjectively.
○ This is distinguished from what is merely pleasant, which influences the will through sensation and is
subjective.
● Types of Imperatives
○ Imperatives can be either hypothetical or categorical.
○ Hypothetical imperatives represent the practical necessity of an action as a means to something else that is
willed.
○ Categorical imperatives represent an action as necessary in itself, without reference to another end, and are
objectively necessary.
● Relation to Practical Law
○ Every practical law represents a possible action as good and necessary for a subject determined by reason.
○ Imperatives serve as formulae for actions necessary according to the principle of a will that is good in some
respects.
● Categorical Imperative
○ The categorical imperative represents an action as necessary in itself, conceived as good in itself, and as the
principle of a will that conforms to reason.

#10 Essence of Morality Lies in Acting

on the Basis of an Impersonal Principle
● Hypothetical Imperatives
○ Hypothetical imperatives are contingent upon specific conditions or desires.
○ They provide instructions based on the condition under which they become imperative, tailored to individual
purposes or desires.
● Categorical Imperative
 ○ The categorical imperative, on the other hand, is not contingent upon any specific condition or desire.
○ It contains only the necessity that the maxims (principles of action) conform to universal law, without any
restrictions or conditions.
● Formulation of the Categorical Imperative
○ Kant formulates the categorical imperative as follows: "Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same
time will that it should become a universal law."
○ This imperative commands actions based on maxims that one can will to become universal laws, applicable to
all rational beings.
● Universal Law of Nature
○ Kant further elucidates the imperative of duty by expressing it as: "Act as if the maxim of thy action were to
become by thy will a Universal Law of Nature."
○ This formulation emphasizes the idea that moral actions should be such that their maxims could be willed to
become universal laws governing the natural order.
● Significance of the Categorical Imperative
○ Kant argues that if all imperatives of duty can be derived from this single imperative as their principle, then it
provides a foundational understanding of what duty entails.
○ Even if the concept of duty remains contentious, the categorical imperative offers a framework for moral
deliberation based on universal principles.

#11 Twofold Test

1. Suicide: A person considering suicide due to despair examines whether their maxim, based on self-love, could become a
universal law of nature. They realize that if everyone acted on the principle of shortening life based on self-love, it would
contradict the nature of life preservation itself.
2. False Promise: Another individual, facing financial difficulty, considers making a promise to borrow money despite
knowing they cannot repay it. Evaluating this action according to the categorical imperative, they recognize that if
everyone made false promises for personal gain, promises would lose their meaning, leading to a contradiction.
3. Neglect of Talent: A person blessed with talent chooses pleasure over developing their abilities. Reflecting on whether
this maxim could be a universal law, they conclude that while a system might function with individuals neglecting their
talents, as rational beings, they inherently will the development of their faculties.
4. Lack of Benevolence: Someone in prosperity refuses to help others in need, reasoning that it's not their concern. They
realize that if this attitude were universalized, it would undermine the possibility of receiving help when needed,
leading to a contradiction in their own desire for assistance.

#12 Treat All Human Beings as Ends in Themselves and Never as Merely Means to Ends
● Absolute Worth and Categorical Imperative
○ If something has absolute worth, it can be a source of definite laws.
○ This concept forms the basis of the categorical imperative, a practical law.
● Ends in Themselves
○ Man and rational beings are ends in themselves, not mere means.
○ All actions involving rational beings must respect their inherent worth.
● Conditional Worth
○ Objects of inclinations have conditional worth.
○ Inclinations themselves lack absolute worth and are universal wishes to be free from.
● Objective Ends
○ Rational beings are called persons and are objective ends.
○ Their existence is an end in itself, not just a means.
● Supreme Practical Principle
○ If there's a supreme practical principle or categorical imperative, it must be based on the concept of rational
beings as ends in themselves.
○ This principle constitutes an objective principle of will and serves as a universal practical law.
● Practical Imperative
○ The practical imperative is to treat humanity, in oneself and others, always as an end and never merely as a
means.
○ It emphasizes respect for human dignity and rational nature.

#13 Basic Identity of the First and Second Formulations of the Categorical Imperative
● Principle of Universal Validity
○ The principle states that one should act in a way that considers every rational being, including oneself and
others, as an end in themselves.
 ○ It is essentially identical to the principle of acting upon a maxim that can be universally valid for every rational
being.
● Use of Means and Ends
○ When using means to achieve ends, one should ensure that their maxim holds true as a law for every rational
being.
○ The fundamental principle is that rational beings should never be used merely as means, but always treated as
ends themselves.

#14 Pure Moral Philosophy

● Critical Position of Philosophy
○ Philosophy finds itself in a critical position, needing to establish its principles firmly despite lacking support
from external sources.
○ It must demonstrate its purity as the absolute dictator of its own laws, relying solely on reason rather than
implanted senses or natural inclinations.
● Purity of Morals
○ Empirical elements, derived from experience, are not only unhelpful but detrimental to the purity of morals.

○ The worth of an absolutely good will lies in its freedom from contingent grounds influenced by empirical
motives.
● Warning Against Lax Thought
○ There is a warning against relying on empirical motives and laws as the principle of morality.
○ Human reason, in its fatigue, may seek comfort in empirical motivations, creating a false sense of morality.
● True Virtue and Morality
○ True virtue is seen when morality is stripped of all sensory influence and selfish motives.
○ Virtue surpasses all other charming affections when observed in its pure form.