Merged

ME2302 INTRODUCTION
ME2302: INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS SCIENCE AND

MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING
Introduction
Historical Perspective
Materials are so important in the development of civilization that we associate Ages with them. In the
origin of human life on Earth, the Stone Age, people used only natural materials, like stone, clay,
skins, and wood. When people found copper and how to make it harder by alloying, the Bronze Age
started about 3000 BC. The use of iron and steel, a stronger material that gave advantage in wars
started at about 1200 BC. The next big step was the discovery of a cheap process to make steel around
1850, which enabled the railroads and the building of the modern infrastructure of the industrial world.
Materials Science and Engineering
Understanding of how materials behave like they do, and why they differ in properties was only
possible with the atomistic understanding allowed by quantum mechanics, that first explained atoms
and then solids starting in the 1930s. The combination of physics, chemistry, and the focus on the
relationship between the properties of a material and its microstructure is the domain of Materials
Science. The development of this science allowed designing materials and provided a knowledge base
for the engineering applications (Materials Engineering).
Classification & the structure of Engineering Materials
Like many other things, materials are classified in groups, so that our brain can handle the complexity.
One could classify them according to structure, or properties, or use. The one that we will use is
according to the way the atoms are bound together:
- Crystalline Materials ( Metals, Ceramics)

- Amorphous Materials (Glass, Polymers)
- Type of Bonding
- Molecular & crystal Structure
- Physical & Mechanical properties
What are the Materials?
- Metals and alloys: Iron, steel, Cu, Al & its alloys

- Polymers: Plastics/ Rubber combine, Nylon, Polyethylene
- Ceramics & Glasses: Al2O3, MgO, SiO2, SiC, Si3N4
- Composites: Wood, Fiber glass
Metals: valence electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in an 'electron sea' that "glues" the ions
together. Metals are usually strong, conduct electricity and heat well and are opaque to light (shiny if
polished). Examples: aluminum, steel, brass, gold.
Semiconductors: the bonding is covalent (electrons are shared between atoms). Their electrical
properties depend extremely strongly on minute proportions of contaminants. They are opaque to
visible light but transparent to the infrared. Examples: Si, Ge, GaAs.
DEPARTMENT OF MME -1-

ME2302 INTRODUCTION
Ceramics: atoms behave mostly like either positive or negative ions, and are bound by Coulomb
forces between them. They are usually combinations of metals or semiconductors with oxygen,
nitrogen or carbon (oxides, nitrides, and carbides). Examples: glass, porcelain, many minerals.
Polymers: are bound by covalent forces and also by weak van der Waals forces, and usually based on
H, C and other non-metallic elements. They decompose at moderate temperatures (100 – 400 C), and
are lightweight. Other properties vary greatly. Examples: plastics (nylon, Teflon, polyester) and
rubber.
Other categories are not based on bonding. A particular microstructure identifies composites, made of
different materials in intimate contact (example: fiberglass, concrete, wood) to achieve specific
properties. Biomaterials can be any type of material that is biocompatible and used, for instance, to
replace human body parts.
Advanced Materials
Materials used in "High-Tec" applications, usually designed for maximum performance, and normally
expensive. Examples are titanium alloys for supersonic airplanes, magnetic alloys for computer disks,
special ceramics for the heat shield of the space shuttle, etc.
Structure:
 At the atomic level: arrangement of atoms in different ways. (Gives different properties for
graphite than diamond both forms of carbon.)
 At the microscopic level: arrangement of small grains of material that can be identified by
microscopy. (Gives different optical properties to transparent vs. frosted glass.)
Properties are the way the material responds to the environment. For instance, the mechanical,
electrical and magnetic properties are the responses to mechanical, electrical and magnetic forces,
respectively. Other important properties are thermal (transmission of heat, heat capacity), optical
(absorption, transmission and scattering of light), and the chemical stability in contact with the
environment (like corrosion resistance).
Processing of materials is the application of heat (heat treatment), mechanical forces, etc. to affect
their microstructure and, therefore, their properties.
Modern Material's Needs
 Engine efficiency increases at high temperatures: requires high temperature structural materials
 Use of nuclear energy requires solving problem with residues, or advances in nuclear waste
processing.
 Hypersonic flight requires materials that are light, strong and resist high temperatures.
 Optical communications require optical fibers that absorb light negligibly.
 Civil construction – materials for unbreakable windows.
 Structures: materials that are strong like metals and resist corrosion like plastics.
Why do we want to study about materials?
All engineering disciplines need to know about materials. Even the most "immaterial", like software or
system engineering depend on the development of new materials, which in turn alter the

ME1301 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
economics, like software-hardware trade-offs. Increasing applications of system engineering are in

materials manufacturing (industrial engineering) and complex environmental systems.
 To be able to select a material for a given use based on considerations of cost and performance.
 To understand the limits of materials and the change of their properties with use.
 To be able to create a new material that will have some desirable properties.
Properties of Materials
Mechanical Properties : Strength, Hardness, Toughness, Fatigue/ Creep Strength

Physical Properties : Thermal, Electrical, Optical, Magnetic properties
Chemical Properties : Oxidation, Corrosion
Production Properties : Ease of manufacture, Fabrication, Joining, Finishing methods
Economic Properties : Price, Availability
Aesthetic Properties : Appearance, Texture, Feel
Surface Properties : Friction, Abrasion & Wear
The factor which determines the behaviour and properties of the material is its structure. Structure can
be classified as follows depending on the level of observation.
1. Macro structure
2. Micro Structure
3. Crystal structure
4. Atomic structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Fundamental Concepts
Atoms are composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Electron and protons are negative and
positive charges of the same magnitude, 1.6 × 10-19 Coulombs.
The mass of the electron is negligible with respect to those of the proton and the neutron, which form
the nucleus of the atom. The unit of mass is an atomic mass unit (amu) = 1.66 × 10 -27 kg, and equals
1/12 the mass of a carbon atom. The Carbon nucleus has Z=6, and A=6, where Z is the number of
protons, and A the number of neutrons. Neutrons and protons have very similar masses, roughly equal
to 1 amu. A neutral atom has the same number of electrons and protons, Z.
A mole is the amount of matter that has a mass in grams equal to the atomic mass in amu of the atoms.
Thus, a mole of carbon has a mass of 12 grams. The number of atoms in a mole is called the Avogadro
number, Nav = 6.023 × 1023. Note that Nav = 1 gram/1 amu.
Calculating n, the number of atoms per cm3 in a piece of material of density d (g/cm3).
n = Nav × d / M, Where M is the atomic mass in amu (grams per mol).
Thus, for graphite (carbon) with a density d = 1.8 g/cm3, M =12, we get 6 × 1023 atoms/mol × 1.8
g/cm3 / 12 g/mol) = 9 × 1022 C/cm3.

For a molecular solid like ice, one uses the molecular mass, M (H2O) = 18. With a density of 1 g/cm3,
one obtains n = 3.3 × 1022 H2O/cm3. Note that since the water molecule contains 3 atoms, this is
equivalent to 9.9 × 1022 atoms/cm3.
Most solids have atomic densities around 6 × 1022 atoms/cm3. The cube root of that number gives the
number of atoms per centimeter, about 39 million. The mean distance between atoms is the inverse of
that, or 0.25 nm. This is an important number that gives the scale of atomic structures in solids.
Electrons in Atoms
The forces in the atom are repulsions between electrons and attraction between electrons and protons.
The neutrons play no significant
role. Thus, Z is what characterizes
the atom.
The electrons form a cloud around

the neutron, of radius of 0.05 – 2
nanometers. Electrons do not
move in circular orbits, as in
popular drawings, but in 'fuzzy'
orbits. We cannot tell how it moves, but only say what is the probability of finding it at some distance
from the nucleus. According to quantum mechanics, only certain orbits are allowed (thus, the idea of a
mini planetary system is not correct). The orbits are identified by a principal quantum number n, which
can be related to the size, n = 0 is the smallest; n = 1, 2 …are larger. (They are "quantized" or discrete,
being specified by integers). The angular momentum l is quantized, and so is the projection in a
specific direction m. The structure of the atom is determined by the Pauli exclusion principle, only two
electrons can be placed in an orbit with a given n, l, m – one for each spin.
The Periodic Table
Elements are categorized by placing them in the periodic table. Elements in a column share similar
properties. The noble gases have closed shells, and so they do not gain or lose electrons near another
atom. Alkalis can easily lose an electron and become a closed shell; halogens can easily gain one to
form a negative ion, again with a closed shell. The propensity to form closed shells occurs in
molecules, when they share electrons to close a molecular shell. Examples are H2, N2, and NaCl.
The ability to gain or lose electrons is termed electronegativity or electropositivity, an important factor
in ionic bonds. Atom is the smallest portion of matter and it consists of a nucleas (which contains
protons and neutrons) whilst electrons revolve around the nucleas in an orbital.
Note:
- Atom is electrically neutral because number of protons = Number of electrons

- Atomic number of an element = number of protons in the atom
- Periodic table is arranged in the order of the atomic number
 All the elements in the periodic table can be divided in to three categories.
o Metals
o Non – Metals
o Metalloids (elements that exhibit the properties of both metals and non metals) – B, Si,
Ge, As, Sb, Te

 About 80% of the metals in the periodic table are metals because the outer most shells of these
elements are not fully occupied and electrons move freely from one atom to another giving
high electrical and thermal conductivity.
 All the metals except (mercury)
Hg are solid at room
temperature.
 The light metals (s block
elements — IA & IIA) are soft
and chemically reactive
because they have only 1 or 2
electrons in the outer shell and
give away these electrons very
easily. Hence, the ionization
energy is very low.
 The noble gases (group VIIIA
- He, Ne, Ar, etc.,) have the
last orbital fully filled and
they are chemically inert or
inactive.
 The d-block elements
(groups IIIA - VIIA) have atoms in which the outermost d-orbital is filling. These
elements need only a few electrons to complete their outer shell which they try to get from
(or share with) the other atoms. Hence, the ionization energy of these elements is high and is
mostly non-metallic.
 Most non-metals are gaseous but bromine (Br) is a liquid.
 The d-block elements (groups IB - VIIIB) are the elements in which the d-orbit is
filling. From these, the elements in which the d-orbit is not fully occupied are called the
"transition metals" (groups IIIB — VIIIB). They are stronger and harder than the other
metals.
 H can be in group IA (because it has only one electron) or group VIIA because, like the halogens, it
needs one electron to complete its outer energy level. However, its properties differ from those
of both groups.
 He can be placed in group IIA, but it is placed in group VIIIA. This is because its highest energy
level is completely filled with two electrons, and its properties are similar to those of other
noble gases that are chemically inert.
Bonding Forces and Energies between atoms
The Coulomb forces are simple: attractive between electrons and nuclei, repulsive between electrons
and between nuclei. The force between atoms is given by a sum of all the individual forces, and the
fact that the electrons are located outside the atom and the nucleus in the center.
When two atoms come very close, the force between them is always repulsive, because the electrons
stay outside and the nuclei repel each other. Unless both atoms are ions of the same charge (e.g., both
negative) the forces between atoms is always attractive at large internuclear distances r. Since the force
is repulsive at small r, and attractive at small r, there is a distance at which the force is zero. This is the
equilibrium distance at which the atoms prefer to stay.
The interaction energy is the potential energy between the atoms. It is negative if the atoms are bound
and positive if they can move away from each other. The interaction energy is the integral of the force
over the separation distance, so these two quantities are directly related. The interaction energy is a
minimum at the equilibrium position. This value of the energy is called the bond energy, and is the

energy needed to separate completely to infinity (the work that needs to be done to overcome the
attractive force.) The strongest the bond energy, the hardest is to move the atoms, for instance the
hardest it is to melt the solid, or to evaporate its atoms.
Bonds form between atoms due to forces of attraction and repulsion that operate between them. The
types of bonds formed between atoms (inter-atomic bonds) are grouped into two categories.
Primary bonds: - e.g. Ionic bonds, covalent bonds, metallic bonds
Secondary bonds:- Van der Waals bonds, Hydrogen bonds
Primary Interatomic Bonds
1) Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonds form between a metal and a non-metal. The metallic element gives up one or more
electrons to the non-metallic element, producing two oppositely charged ions. Ionic bond lacks the
directionality. An example is NaCl. In the molecule, there are more electrons around Cl, forming Cl -
and less around Na, forming Na+. Ionic bonds are the strongest bonds. In real solids, ionic bonding is
usually combined with covalent
bonding.
Na – 1s22s22p63s1 – gives away

one electron and forms Na+ ion
Cl - 1s22s22p63s23p5 – Takes
that electron and forms Cl- ion
In this case, the fractional ionic

bonding is defined as %ionic =
100 × [1 – exp(-0.25 (XA –
XB)2], where XA and XB are the
electronegativities of the two atoms, A and B, forming the molecule.
This is the bond when one of the atoms is negative (has an extra electron) and another is positive (has
lost an electron). Then there is a strong, direct Coulomb attraction.
Due to the electrostatic forces (attractive forces) that exists between the negatively charged and the
positively charged ions a bond is formed between them. This is referred to as an ionic bond. To
preserve the charge neutrality, the positive and negative ions must alternate in a symmetrical fashion.
Attractive force
q2
Attractive force, F 
4 0 r 2
r
Where q – charge on each ion, 0 – permittivity, r – separation of the ions
Work as the ions are brought to a separation r from infinity,

u   fdr U
q2
r 4 0 r

2) Covalent Bonding
In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between the molecules, to saturate the valency. The simplest
example is the H2 molecule, where the electrons spend more time in between the nuclei than outside,
thus producing bonding.
Covalent bonding takes place between non – metallic elements near one another in the periodic table.
The bond is formed due to sharing of their outer electrons, so that each atom has a complete outer
electron shell. Covalent bond is directional.
A B
Energy in a covalent bond, U  m
 n (m<n)
r r
Attractive part Repulsive part
Covalent bond energies are generally high,

indicating the formation of a strong bond.
However many materials with covalent bonds
do not have high strength and a high melting
temperature. This is due to the weak
secondary bonds that are present between
molecules. e.g.: CH4
3) Metallic Bonding
The metallic bond occurs between atoms with only a few electrons in their outer s and p orbitals.
These electrons are bound to the atom much less strongly than those in the atoms of non – metals.
Hence, they are free to move from atom to atom. This is responsible for the high electrical and thermal
conductivity of metals. Therefore metallic bonding is observed only among atoms in metallic elements
and the bond is formed due to the electrostatic attraction between the electron cloud and the ions. Since
the electrons can move freely between atoms, metals have non-directional bonds (therefore close
packing of atoms is possible and close packing in planes make it possible to deform without fracture).
Metallic bond is the dominant bond in metals and alloys. In metals, the atoms are ionized, loosing
some electrons from the valence band. Those electrons form an electron sea, which binds the charged
nuclei in place, in a similar way that the electrons in between the H atoms in the H2 molecule bind the
protons. In a solid metal the highest energy electrons tends to leave the parent atoms and combine to
form a “sea” (sometimes referred to as an electron cloud).
Metals account for about two thirds of all the elements and about 24% of the mass of the planet. They
are all around us in such forms as steel structures, copper wires, aluminum foil, and gold jewelry.
Metals are widely used because of their properties: strength (a measure of the ability of a material to
support a load), ductility, high melting point, thermal and electrical conductivity, and toughness (the
ability to absorb energy of deformation without breaking. High toughness requires both high strength
and high ductility).
These properties also offer clues as to the structure of metals. As with all elements, metals are
composed of atoms. The strength of metals suggests that these atoms are held together by strong
bonds. These bonds must also allow atoms to move; otherwise how could metals be hammered into

sheets or drawn into wires? A reasonable model would be one in which atoms are held together by
strong, but delocalized, bonds.
Secondary Bonding (Van der Waals)
Atoms with filled outer shells, such as inert gases and non polar covalently bonded molecules are held
together by forces known as Van der Waals’ forces. This is due to a temporary dipolar attraction
between uncharged atoms. These bonds are very weak with low binding energies. The low binding
energies result in very low melting and boiling temperature. These bonds are non-directional due to the
fluctuating character of dipoles.
Examples:
Noble or inert gases (Ne, Ar,………..)

Halagens (F2, Cl2, Br2,…………….....)
CH4
Graphite
Liquid Nitrogen (N2) (melting point is -198˚C)
1) Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds

Since the electrons may be on one side of the atom or the other, a dipole is formed: the + nucleus at the
center, and the electron outside. Since the electron moves, the dipole fluctuates. This fluctuation in
atom A produces a fluctuating electric field that is felt by the electrons of an adjacent atom, B. Atom B
then polarizes so that its outer electrons are on the side of the atom closest to the + side (or opposite to
the – side) of the dipole in A. This bond is called van der Waals bonding.
2) Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds
A polar molecule like H2O (Hs are partially +, O is partially –), will induce a dipole in a nearby atom,
leading to bonding.
3) Permanent Dipole Bonds
This is the case of the hydrogen bond in ice. The H end of the molecule is positively charged and can
bond to the negative side of another dipolar molecule, like the O side of the H2O dipole.
Hydrogen Bond
Hydrogen bonds are formed between polar covalently bonded molecules containing H bonded to a
highly electronegative atom. Examples: HF, H2O, NH3 and HCl.
H Cl- H Cl-
+ +
H + (or proton) acts as a bridge
between strongly electronegative
Cl H Cl H
- + - + Cl atoms.
Hydrogen atoms are strongly attracted to two different atoms, thereby acting as a bond between them.
This type of bond is called a “hydrogen bond”.
Molecules
If molecules formed a closed shell due to covalent bonding (like H2, N2) then the interaction between
molecules is weak, of the van der Waals type. Thus, molecular solids usually have very low melting
points.

ME2302 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
Fundamental Concepts
Atoms self-organize in crystals, most of the time. The crystalline lattice is a periodic array of the
atoms. When the solid is not crystalline, it is called amorphous. Examples of crystalline solids are
metals, diamond and other precious stones, ice, graphite. Examples of amorphous solids are glass,
amorphous carbon (a-C), amorphous Si, most plastics.
Packing of atoms in solids
All solid materials (ionic, covalent, metals) may be classified on the basis of their atomic arrangement
as crystalline or amorphous.
Crystalline Amorphous
Atoms are situated in a repeating or Atoms are not packed in definite orderly
periodic array over large atomic distances. arrangement. Amorphous solids have short
Crystalline solids have short range order as range order but there is no long range order.
well as long range order (E.g. metals & (E.g. Glass & Polymers)
ceramics)
Above their melting point, metals are liquids, and their atoms are randomly arranged and relatively
free to move. However, when cooled below their melting point, metals rearrange to form ordered,
crystalline structures.
Arrangement of atoms in a
Liquid and a solid

Amorphous solids have one of two atomic arrangements: that is either a
I. Tangled mass of long chained molecules (Polymers) or

II. Three dimensional network of atoms with no long range order (glass)
Crystalline Materials
All most all metals and ceramics are made entirely of small crystals in which atoms are packed in
regular, repeating three dimensional patterns. These are called crystalline materials.
Single Crystals: For a crystalline solid when the periodic and repeated arrangement of atoms extends
throughout the entire specimen it results a single crystal. High technology requires preparing these.
E.g.: tiny semiconductors, single crystal turbine blades (for very high strength).
Polycrystalline Materials: A solid can be composed of many crystalline grains, not aligned with each
other. It is called polycrystalline. The grains can be more or less aligned with respect to each other.
Where they meet is called a grain boundary.
Anisotropy: Different directions in the crystal have a different packing. For instance, atoms along the
edge FCC crystals are more separated than along the face diagonal. This causes anisotropy in the
properties of crystals; for instance, the deformation depends on the direction in which a stress is
applied.
Non-Crystalline Solids
In amorphous solids, there is no long-range order. But amorphous does not mean random, since the
distance between atoms cannot be smaller than the size of the hard spheres. Also, in many cases there
is some form of short-range order. For instance, the tetragonal order of crystalline SiO2 (quartz) is still
apparent in amorphous SiO2 (silica glass.)
Polymers: Long chain polymers made by a process of polymerization. These chains are arranged
randomly and not as regularly repeating 3D patterns and hence they are non crystalline or amorphous.
However some polymers can contain both amorphous and crystalline regions. The atoms within a long
chain molecule are held together by covalent bonding, and the molecules themselves are bonded by
Van der Waals’ forces.
Glass: usually consists of oxides (SiO2) with atoms packed in a non crystalline manner. This is a solid
up to well over 1000˚C because of strong covalent bonds linking the Si to the O atoms. Addition of
soda (Na2O) breaks up the structure and lowers the softening temperature (at which the glass can be
worked) to about 700˚C. Glass is used for bottles, windows,.etc.
Lattice: Atomic arrangements in crystalline solids can be described with respect to a network of lines
in three dimensions. A three dimensional array of points coinciding with atom positions is called as a
lattice. The intersections of the lines are called “lattice sites” (or lattice points). Each lattice site has the
same environment in the same direction.
Unit cell: The unit cell is the smallest structure that repeats itself by translation through the crystal.
We construct these symmetrical units with the hard spheres. The most common types of unit cells are
the faced-centered cubic (FCC), the body-centered cubic (FCC) and the hexagonal close-packed
(HCP). Other types exist, particularly among minerals.
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 10 -
s.c. f.c.c b.c.c. h.c.p.

Only Polonium Cu, Pb, Ni, Al Cr, MO, V, W Zn, Mg, Ti
(Po) Fe at temp. > 910C Fe at temp. < 910C
Different types of unit cells available.
e. g.: There are four principle crystal structures for metals
(a) Body-centered cubic (BCC)
The body-centered cubic (BCC) (unit cell has atoms at each of the eight corners of a cube plus one
atom in the center of the cube). Because each of the corner atoms is the corner of another cube, the
corner atoms in each unit cell will be shared among eight unit cells. The BCC unit cell consists of a net
total of two atoms, the one in the center and eight eighths from the corners.
(b) Face-centered cubic (FCC)
In the FCC arrangement, there are eight atoms at corners of the unit cell and one atom centered in each
of the faces. The atom in the face is shared with the adjacent cell. FCC unit cells consist of four atoms,
eight eighths at the corners and six halves in the faces.
(c) Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)
Crystal arrangement of close-packed layers of particles where three layers of particles alternate
positions
Important properties of the unit cells are
 The type of atoms and their radii R.

 cell dimensions (side a in cubic cells, side of base a and height c in HCP) in terms of R.
 n, number of atoms per unit cell. For an atom that is shared with m adjacent unit cells, we only
count a fraction of the atom, 1/m.
 CN, the coordination number, which is the number of closest neighbors to which an atom is
bonded.
 APF, the atomic packing factor, which is the fraction of the volume of the cell actually
occupied by the hard spheres. APF = Sum of atomic volumes/Volume of cell.
Unit Cell n CN a/R APF
SC 1 6 2 0.52
BCC 2 8 4/ √3 0.68
FCC 4 12 2×√ 2 0.74
HCP 6 12 0.74
The closest packed direction in a BCC cell is along the diagonal of the cube; in a FCC cell is along the
diagonal of a face of the cube.
Density Computations
The density of a solid is that of the unit cell, obtained by dividing the mass of the atoms (n atoms x
Matom) and dividing by Vc the volume of the cell (a3 in the case of a cube). If the mass of the atom is
given in amu (A), then we have to divide it by the Avogadro number to get Matom. Thus, the formula
for the density is:
weight of atoms in a unit cell

Density =
volume of unit cell
Example:
Copper (Cu) has a f.c.c. structure with a lattice parameter of 3.61Å. What is the density of Cu?
(Atomic weight of Cu = 63.5 g/mole)
63.5 g / mole
Weight of atoms = x 4 atoms / unit cell
6.02 x 10 23 atoms / mole
= 4.2192 x 1023 g/unit cell
Volume of unit cell = a3 = (3.61 x 108)3 cm3
4.2192 x 10 22
Therefore, Density =
(3.61x 10  8 )3
= 8.96 g/cm3
Polymorphism and Allotropy
Some materials may exist in more than one crystal structure, this is called polymorphism. If the
material is an elemental solid, it is called allotropy. An example of allotropy is carbon, which can exist
as diamond, graphite, and amorphous carbon.
Close-Packed Crystal Structures
The FCC and HCP are related, and have the same APF. They are built by packing spheres on top of
each other, in the hollow sites. The packing is alternate between two types of sites, ABABAB.. in the
HCP structure, and alternates between three types of positions, ABCABC… in the FCC crystals.
To build 3D packing pattern,
- pack atoms two dimensionally in atomic planes

- Stack these planes on top of one another to give crystal.
Packing factor (packing Density): Fraction of volumes of the unit cell occupied by the atoms.
Packing factor = volume of atoms in unit cell / volume of the unit cell,
FCC & HCP ≈ 0.74, BCC ≈ 0.68
Coordination Number (CN)
CN is the number of equidistant nearest neighboring atoms for each atom.
BCC → CN= 8
HCP & FCC → CN= 12
Lattice Parameters (constants)
Height, width, Breadth of a unit cell are known as lattice constants or parameters. Consider a unit cell.
Relationship between lattice

parameters (a, b, c) and the atomic
radius (r)
FCC: atoms contact in all the face

diagonals.
4r  a 2  b 2 = 2a
2
r a
4
BCC: Atoms contact along the body diagonal.
AB= √2. a , BC= a

AC2 = AB2 + BC2
=> 4r  2a 2  a 2 4r = 3a
3
r a
4
HCP:
Considering top plane,
a
4r = 2a  r 
2
Considering the tetrahedron
Close Packed Planes (CPP) and Close Packed Directions (CPD)

Here parallel planes and directions considered to be similar.
Packing factor = True Volume / Bulk Volume
True Volume = Volume occupied by atoms
Bulk Volume = Volume occupied by unit cell
Miller Indices
Any plane or a direction in a crystal can be specified by a set of three numbers called “Miller Indices.”
Miller Indices for a Plane

The Miller indices for a plane are the reciprocals of the intercepts the plane makes with the three axes,
reduced to the smallest integers.
z
x y z
Intercepts 1 0 
Reciprocals 1/1 1/  1/ 
y Miller indices 1 0 0
x
Miller indices of the plane is (100)
x y z
Intercepts  1 
Reciprocals 1/  1/1 1/ 
Miller indices 0 1 0
Miller indices of the plane is (010)
Miller Indices for a Direction

The Miller indices of a direction are the components of a vector, starting from the origin, along the
direction, reduced to the smallest integer set.
z
P x y Z
a/6 Co – ordinates of P relative to O 1/6 0 1
y
Smallest integers 1 0 6
Miller indices 106
o x
z
111

A family of directions is given by the brackets <xyz>.
y
x 100 110
 
Planar Density
Planar density is the number of atoms per unit area within a plane.
a
For a s.c. structure:
a
(1 / 4  4) 1 110
(100) = 2
=
a a2 2a
1 / 4  4 0.707
(110) = = a
2a 2 a2
(1 / 6  3) 1
(111) =  100
3a 2a 3a 2
 2 ]
2a 2a
2 2 2
111
0.577
= 
a2
2a
Therefore, for a simple cubic crystal, planar density of (100) > (110) > (111), and the close-packed
plane in a s.c. structure is the (100) plane.
For a f.c.c. structure:

Therefore, for a f.c.c. crystal
structure the planar density of (111)
> (100) > (110), and the close-
packed plane in a f.c.c. structure is
the (111) plane.
For a b.c.c. structure:
1 Therefore, for a b.c.c. crystal

(100) = 2a structure the planar density of (110)
a2
1.414 > (100) > (111), and the close-
(110) = a packed plane of the b.c.c structure is
a2
the (110) plane.
0.577
(111) =
a2
Linear Density
The linear density is the number of atoms per unit length in particular direction of the unit cell.
For the simple cubic structure:
Therefore, for a s.c.c.

structure, the linear
density of 100 >
110 > 111, and
the close-packed
direction of the s.c.c.
structure is [100].
For the f.c.c. structure,
Therefore, for a b.c.c. structure, the linear

Therefore, for a f.c.c. structure, the linear density density of 111 > 100 > 110, and the close-
of 110 > 100 > 111, and the close-packed packed direction of a b.c.c. structure is the [111]
direction of a f.c.c. structure is the [110] direction. direction.
Some Materials have Different Crystal Structures at Different Temperatures.

Crystal Structure for some Metals (at room temperature)
Aluminum FCC Nickel FCC Iron BCC Gold FCC

Cadmium HCP Niobium BCC Lead FCC Vanadium BCC
Chromium BCC Platinum FCC Magnesium HCP Copper FCC
Cobalt HCP Silver FCC Zinc HCP Titanium HCP
Zirconium HCP
Materials choose a crystal structure (bcc, fcc or hcp) that gives minimum energy and this structure
may not necessarily be close packed. Crystal structure may change with temperature. Example: iron
from bcc structure to fcc structure at 911˚C.
˚C
Liquid Fe
1536
δ Fe (BCC) δ - Ferrite
1391
γ Fe (FCC) Austenite
914
α Fe (BCC) Ferrite
Unit cell structures determine some of the properties of metals. For example, FCC structures are
more likely to be ductile than BCC, (body centered cubic) or HCP (hexagonal close packed).
Many elements and compounds exist in more than one crystalline form under different conditions of
temperature and pressure. This phenomenon is called polymorphism or allotropy
Crystal Structures in Non-metallic Materials

In non-metallic materials, ionic and covalent bonds are the bases of molecular formation. These bonds
lead to the production of molecules so large that within these molecules exists a repetitive pattern
common to crystalline structures.
(a) (b (c)
)
Crystalline ceramics: (a) covalently bonded silica (SiO2) (b) ionically bonded alumina (Al2O3) and (c) NaCl.
Crystalline solids with directionally bonded atoms and molecules are generally not-close packed due to
the directional requirement of the bonds. Example: Diamond
Carbon exists in three allotropic forms: diamond, graphite, and fullerene.
Diamond:
Diamond which is an allotrope of carbon has a three dimensional structure. Each
carbon atom is connected to four others by covalent bonds and are at the corners
of a regular tetrahedron.
Diamond is mechanically strong and it is the hardest substance known. It has an

extremely high melting point 3500C. Since there are no free electrons, it is not a
conductor of electricity. Materials like Si, Ge and grey tin (an allotrope of tin)
also crystallize in the diamond type of structure.
Graphite:
This has a layer type structure, with each carbon atom surrounded by three other
carbon atoms. Since the fourth electron is free to move from atom to atom, the
graphite conducts electricity. Coordination Number =3. Layers of graphite are held
together by week van der Waals forces. Therefore, sheets of graphite are strong but
they slide over each other very easily. Materials like clay and talc also contain a layer
type structure similar to this.
Fullerenes:
Fullerene consists of a series of large molecules each
containing an even number of carbon atoms arranged in the
form of a closed hollow cage (i & ii). The most stable form
C60 is produced by laser-vaporizing graphite in an inert
atmosphere. It is found that C60 in various compound forms (i) (ii)
can function as an insulator, a conductor, a semiconductor,
and a superconductor.
ME2302 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Introduction: Often materials are subject to forces (loads) when they are used. Mechanical engineers
calculate those forces and material scientists how materials deform (elongate, compress, and twist) or
break as a function of applied load, time, temperature, and other conditions.
Materials scientists learn about these mechanical properties by testing materials. Results from the tests
depend on the size and shape of material to be tested (specimen), how it is held, and the way of
performing the test. That is why we use common procedures, or standards, which are published by the
ASTM.
Concepts of Stress and Strain
To compare specimens of different sizes, the load is calculated per unit area, also called normalization
to the area. Force divided by area is called stress. In tension and compression tests, the relevant area is
that perpendicular to the force. In shear or torsion tests, the area is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
s = F/A0 tensile or compressive stress

τ = F/A0 shear stress
The unit is the Megapascal = 106 Newtons/m2.
There is a change in dimensions, or deformation elongation, DL as a result of a tensile or compressive
stress. To enable comparison with specimens of different length, the elongation is also normalized, this
time to the length L. This is called strain, e.
ε = dL/L
The change in dimensions is the reason we use A0 to indicate the initial area since it changes during
deformation. One could divide force by the actual area; this is called true stress.
For torsional or shear stress, the deformation is the angle of twist, θ and the shear strain is given by:
γ = tan θ
Stress—Strain Behavior
Elastic deformation.
When the stress is removed, the material returns to
the dimension it had before the load was applied.
Valid for small strains (except the case of rubbers).
Deformation is reversible, non permanent
Plastic deformation
When the stress is removed, the material does not

return to its previous dimension but there is a
permanent, irreversible deformation.
In tensile tests, if the deformation is elastic, the
stress-strain relationship is called Hooke's law:
σ=Eε
That is, E is the slope of the stress-strain curve. E is Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity. In some
cases, the relationship is not linear so that E can be defined alternatively as the local slope:
E = dσ/dε
Shear stresses produce strains according to:
τ = G γ, where G is the shear modulus.
Elastic moduli measure the stiffness of the material. They are related to the second derivative of the
interatomic potential, or the first derivative of the force vs. internuclear distance. By examining these
curves we can tell which material has a higher modulus. Due to thermal vibrations the elastic modulus
decreases with temperature. E is large for ceramics (stronger ionic bond) and small for polymers (weak
covalent bond). Since the interatomic distances depend on direction in the crystal, E depends on
direction (i.e., it is anisotropic) for single crystals. For randomly oriented policrystals, E is isotropic.
Anelasticity
Here the behavior is elastic but not the stress-strain curve is not immediately reversible. It takes a
while for the strain to return to zero. The effect is normally small for metals but can be significant for
polymers.
Elastic Properties of Materials
Materials subject to tension shrink laterally. Those subject to compression, bulge. The ratio of lateral
and axial strains is called the Poisson's ratio n.
n = elateral/eaxial
The elastic modulus, shear modulus and Poisson's ratio are related by E = 2G(1+n)
Tensile Properties
UTSs
UYP
D
B
LYP E
Stress A C
Strain
Stress-strain curve for steel
Yield point. If the stress is too large, the strain deviates from being proportional to the stress. The
point at which this happens is the yield point because there the material yields, deforming permanently
(plastically).
Yield stress. Hooke's law is not valid beyond the yield point. The stress at the yield point is called
yield stress, and is an important measure of the mechanical properties of materials. In practice, the
yield stress is chosen as that causing a permanent strain of 0.002.
The yield stress measures the resistance to plastic deformation.
The reason for plastic deformation, in normal materials, is not that the atomic bond is stretched beyond
repair, but the motion of dislocations, which involves breaking and reforming bonds.
Plastic deformation is caused by the motion of dislocations.
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
The stress corresponding to the maximum load that the material can withstand before the initiation of
fracture is called the “Ultimate Tensile Strength.”
UTS = Pmax /AO
At this point, the sample develops a neck (the cross sectional area decreases). The load now acts on a
diminishing cross-sectional area and therefore, the stress decreases with further strain until the sample
fractures.
Note:
The UTS is the maximum level of stress that should neither exceed during metal working process nor
in service of a material.
Necking
begins
Tensile strength
When stress continues in the plastic regime, the stress-strain passes through a maximum, called the
tensile strength (sTS) , and then falls as the material starts to develop a neck and it finally breaks at the
fracture point
Note that it is called strength, not stress, but the units are the same, MPa.
For structural applications, the yield stress is usually a more important property than the tensile
strength, since once the it is passed, the structure has deformed beyond acceptable limits.
Proof Stress
The yield stress of a material is of greater importance

to structural and constructional engineering work.
However, in most soft (non-ferrous) metals there is no
sharp yield point.
From the viewpoint of designing, since it is necessary

to know a definite stress under which a material can be
stressed with safety without yielding, a substitute value
is derived for those materials that show no obvious
yield point. This is known as the proof stress. This is
the stress required to produce a specified amount of
plastic deformation (0.2% strain).
Ductility
The ability to deform before braking. It is the opposite of brittleness. Ductility can be given either as
percent maximum elongation emax or maximum area reduction.
%EL = emax x 100 %
%AR = (A0 - Af)/A0
These are measured after fracture (repositioning the two pieces back together).
Resilience.
Capacity to absorb energy elastically. The energy per unit volume is the area under the strain-stress
curve in the elastic region.
Toughness
Ability to absorb energy up to fracture. The energy per unit volume is the total area under the strain-
stress curve. It is measured by an impact test.
Work done =  force (P)  increment of extension (dl)

P dl 
Work done / volume =     d
A l o
 E   1
=  E d =   
o 2  2 2
Therefore, the toughness is simply the area under the stress-true strain curve.
Impact test
The impact test is used to evaluate the fracture resistance of

a material when subjected to an impact loading. The
impact test measures the energy necessary to fracture a
standard notched bar by an impact load. This test gives an
indication of the toughness of a material under shock
loading.
The specimen is struck by a heavy hammer (pendulum)

released from a known height. This breaks the sample
before it continues its upward swing. If the mass of the
hammer and the difference between the initial and final
heights are known, the energy absorbed in fracture can be
calculated.
This test indicates that the material is highly sensitive to notches resulting from the presence of internal
cracks.
 If the energy absorbed by the sample is low, the material is brittle and low in toughness.
 If the energy absorbed by the sample is high, the material is soft, ductile, and high in toughness.
From the graph, it could be observed that:

1. Most of the low-strength f.c.c. metals are tough at all temperatures.
2. High strength materials are always brittle and low in toughness.
3. The b.c.c. metals like iron and steel undergo a ductile to brittle transition as the temperature is
reduced. At low temperatures they are brittle (high strength) and at high temperatures they are
tough and low in strength.
True Stress and Strain
When one applies a constant tensile force the material will break after reaching the tensile strength.
The material starts necking (the transverse area decreases) but the stress cannot increase beyond s TS.
The ratio of the force to the initial area, what we normally do, is called the engineering stress. If the
ratio is to the actual area (that changes with stress) one obtains the true stress.
P
True Stress (t) =
Ai
li
dl
True Strain (t) =  = ln l  lli =
l
ln i = ln
l 0  l 
lo l 0 lo lo
 t = ln 1  e 
Theoretical Strength of a Material
By considering the bond energy and the interatomic distance of a bond, it is found that the theoretical
strength of a material is given by th = E/10
From the above given values it can be observed that the actual strengths of all metals and ceramics are
often far below than the strengths predicted by calculations.
The low strength values observed in real materials are mainly due to the defects existing in real
materials.
E(GPa) th (MPa) max (MPa)
Steel 210 21,000 400-2,000
Al alloys 70 7000 70-670
Alumina 390 39,000 5,000
Diamond 1000 100,000 50,000
max = Max. Tensile strength determined from a tensile test
Elastic Recovery during Plastic Deformation
If a material is taken beyond the yield point (it is deformed plastically) and the stress is then released,
the material ends up with a permanent strain. If the stress is reapplied, the material again responds
elastically at the beginning up to a new yield point that is higher than the original yield point (strain
hardening. The amount of elastic strain that it will take before reaching the yield point is called elastic
strain recovery.
Compressive, Shear, and Tensional Deformation
Compressive and shear stresses give similar behavior to tensile

stresses, but in the case of compressive stresses there is no
maximum in the s-e curve, since no necking occurs. Specim
en
Compression test
Brittle materials are quite strong in compression and are often weak
in tension. Therefore, brittle materials are only tested under
compression loads.
These materials cannot be tested under tension, because:

 The presence of very small cracks which are oriented perpendicular to the direction of the applied
tensile stress propagate and failure occurs at very low stresses.
 The crack size varies from sample to sample and the f values show a large scatter.
 It is impossible to do a tensile test on brittle materials, as they tend to break in the grips.
Because the compression test increases the cross-sectional area of the sample, necking never occurs.
For ductile materials, comp  tensile
For brittle materials, comp  15 tensile
Cracks in compression propagate parallel to the compression

axis. Fracture is not caused by propagation of one crack, but the
slow extension of many cracks to form a crushed zone.
Therefore, the average crack size determines the strength.
Note: Brittle materials can also be tested by a bend test.
Malleability
This term refers to the extent to which a material can undergo deformation in compression before
failure occurs. All ductile materials are malleable but malleable materials are not necessarily always
ductile since a soft material may lack strength and thus tear apart very easily in tension. A malleable
material is required for such process as forging, rolling, and rivets heading (hammering).
Hardness
Hardness is the resistance to plastic

deformation (e.g., a local dent or
scratch). Thus, it is a measure of plastic
deformation, as is the tensile strength, so
they are well correlated. Historically, it
was measured on an empirically scale,
determined by the ability of a material to
scratch another, diamond being the hardest and talc the softer. Now we use standard tests, where a ball,
or point is pressed into a material and the size of the dent is measured. There are a few different
hardness tests: Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, etc. They are popular because they are easy and non-
destructive (except for the small indent).
Hardness testing is frequently used for quality control in production due to the following reasons:
1. Sample preparation is not required.
2. Test can be conducted easily and it is not time consuming.
3. There is a direct correlation between hardness and the UTS.
 Brinell hardness test – for low strength non-ferrous metals (lead, tin, aluminium) to relatively
high strength ferrous metals
 Vickers hardness test – for low strength non-ferrous metals of very thin sections to very high
strength metals
 Rockwell hardness test – for any type of metal – this is widely used in industry, as it is quick,
simple, and can directly read the hardness value.
 Shore hardness test – only for plastics and rubbers
Rockwell hardness test can also be used to measure hardness of polymeric materials, with a lower load
being applied. The hardness of ceramic materials cannot be tested by the above methods as it may
damage the indenter. The Moh’s scale is used to determine the hardness of ceramics, which gives a
relative value compared to other known materials.
Variability of Material Properties
Tests do not produce exactly the same result because of variations in the test equipment, procedures,
operator bias, specimen fabrication, etc. But, even if all those parameters are controlled within strict
limits, a variation remains in the materials, due to uncontrolled variations during fabrication, non
homogenous composition and structure, etc. The measured mechanical properties will show scatter,
which is often distributed in a Gaussian curve (bell-shaped), that is characterized by the mean value
and the standard deviation (width).
Design/Safety Factors
To take into account variability of properties, designers use, instead of an average value of, say, the
tensile strength, the probability that the yield strength is above the minimum value tolerable. This leads
to the use of a safety factor N > 1 (typ. 1.2 - 4). Thus, a working value for the tensile strength would be
sW = sTS / N.
ME2302 NON METALLIC MATERIALS
NON METALLIC MATERIALS

CERAMICS
Ceramics properties that are different from those of metals lead to different uses. In structures, designs
must be done for compressive loads. The transparency to light of many ceramics leads to optical uses,
like in windows, photographic cameras, telescopes and microscopes. Good thermal insulation leads to
use in ovens, the exterior tiles of the Shuttle orbiter, etc. Good electrical isolation are used to support
conductors in electrical and electronic applications. The good chemical inertness shows in the stability
of the structures thousands of years old.
 Ceramics are a range of non-metallic, inorganic materials. They are mainly oxides, nitrides, and
carbides.
 They contain ionic and/or covalent bonds and are crystalline in structure. However, glass, which is
a type of ceramic, is amorphous in structure.
 They are very stable and chemically non-reactive. Have high melting points, hard and brittle, can
withstand high compressive loads, and have low electrical and thermal conductivity.
Cement and Concrete:
Cement is used for general construction and as a

component of concrete.
Portland cement contains (CaO (C) + Al2O3 (A)

+ SiO2 (S)) and when it is mixed with water (H)
hydration occurs and cement sets:
C3A + 6H  C3AH6 + heat – hardened cement
paste C3S2H3 is
Tobomorite
When the following reactions occur cement gel
hardens.
2C2S + 4H  C3S2H3 + CH + heat
2C3S + 6H  C3S2H3 + 3CH + heat
Glass Properties
A special characteristic of glasses is that solidification is gradual, through a viscous stage, without a
clear melting temperature. The specific volume does not have an abrupt transition at a temperature but
rather shows a change in slope at the glass-transition temperature.
The melting point, working point, softening point and annealing point are defined in terms of viscosity,
rather than temperature, and depend on glass composition..
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion
 Good thermal shock resistance - It is the ability of a solid to withstand sudden changes in
temperature.
Other important applications of glass in engineering are:

 Glass fibre reinforced plastics, for boats, furniture, etc.
Type of Glass Composition Applications

70%SiO2 + CaO +
Soda-lime glass Windows, bottles
Na2O
80%SiO2 + B2O3 + Pyrex – cooking and chemical glass
Borosilicate glass
Na2O ware*
Silica glass Pure silica Optical fibers, electronic components
Lead glass SiO2 + PbO + CaO Crystal ware, optical lenses
 Laminated and toughened safety glass for shatter proof/bulletproof windows, aircraft windshields,
etc.
 Fibre-glass wool for heat, cold, and sound insulation
 Cat’s eyes –as a light reflector on roads
 Incandescent (tungsten) bulbs, florescent lighting, neon lighting, sodium lamps, etc.
POLYMERS
Polymers are common in nature, in the form of wood, rubber, cotton, leather, wood, silk, proteins,
enzymes, starches, cellulose. Artificial polymers are made mostly from oil. Their use has grown
exponentially, especially after WW2. The key factor is the very low production cost and useful
properties (e.g., combination of transparency and flexibility, long elongation).
Hydrocarbon Molecules
Most polymers are organic, and formed from hydrocarbon molecules. These molecules can have
single, double, or triple carbon bonds. A saturated hydrocarbon is one where all bonds are single that
is, the number of atoms is maximum (or saturated). Among this type are the paraffin compounds,
CnH2n+2. In contrast, non-saturated hydrocarbons contain some double and triple bonds.
Isomers are molecules that contain the same molecules but in a different arrangement. An example is
butane and isobutane.
Polymer Molecules
Polymer molecules are huge, macromolecules that have internal covalent bonds. For most polymers,
these molecules form very long chains. The backbone is a string of carbon atoms, often single bonded.
Polymers are composed of basic structures called mer units. A molecule with just one mer is a
monomer.
The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules
Examples of polymers are polyvinyl chloride (PVC), poly-tetra-chloro-ethylene (PTFE or Teflon),

polypropylene, nylon and polystyrene. Chains are represented straight but in practice they have a
three-dimensional, zig-zag structure.
When all the mers are the same, the molecule is called a homopolymer. When there is more than one
type of mer present, the molecule is a copolymer.
Molecular Weight
The mass of a polymer is not fixed, but is distributed around a mean value, since polymer molecules
have different lengths. The average molecular weight can be obtained by averaging the masses with
the fraction of times they appear (number-average) or with the mass fraction of the molecules (called,
improperly, a weight fraction).
Molecular weight of polymer = molecular weight of monomer  n
Properties of polymers depend on the average n.

e.g. In the case of ethylene single molecules,
n =1 - it is a gas at room temp.
n =6 - liquid
n = 36 - grease
n = 140 - wax
n > 500 - solid plastic
The degree of polymerization is the average number of mer units, and is obtained by dividing the
average mass of the polymer by the mass of a mer unit.
Polymers of low mass are liquid or gases, those of very high mass (called high-polymers, are solid).
Waxes, paraffins and resins have intermediate masses.
 linear (end-to-end, flexible, like PVC, nylon)
 branched
 cross-linked (due to radiation, vulcanization, etc.)
 network (similar to highly cross-linked structures).
Molecular Configurations
The regularity and symmetry of the side-groups can affect strongly the properties of polymers. Side
groups are atoms or molecules with free bonds, called free-radicals, like H, O, methyl, etc.
If the radicals are linked in the same order, the configuration is called isostatic
In a stereoisomer in a syndiotactic configuration, the radical groups alternative sides in the chain.
In the atactic configuration, the radical groups are positioned at random.
The exact arrangement of side groups is important to determine whether a polymer will be crystalline
or amorphous.
H H H H H H H H H H H R H H H R H H H H H R H H
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
 C C C C C C C C  C C C C C C C C  C C C C C C C C
| | | | | | | |
H R H R H R H R
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
H R H H H R H H H R H R H H H R
Syndiotactic Atactic
Isotactic Alternate in some regular way Alternate randomly.
Side groups are on the round the chain. (PMMA) No order. (polystyrene - PS)
same side.
(polypropylene - PP)
 Polymers with isotactic arrangements (even with large side groups) will be crystalline.
 Polymers with atactic arrangements will generally be amorphous and are of lower density.
Copolymers
Copolymers, polymers with at least two different types

of mers can differ in the way the mers are arranged.
Fig. shows different arrangements: random,
alternating, block, and graft.
Polymer Crystallinity
Crystallinity in polymers is more complex than in

metals. Polymer molecules are often partially
crystalline (semicrystalline), with crystalline regions
dispersed within amorphous material. .
Chain disorder or misalignment, which is common, leads to

amorphous material since twisting, kinking and coiling
prevent strict ordering required in the crystalline state.
Thus, linear polymers with small side groups, which are not
too long form crystalline regions easier than branched,
network, atactic polymers, random copolymers, or polymers
with bulky side groups.
Crystalline polymers are denser than amorphous polymers,

so the degree of crystallinity can be obtained from the
measurement of density.
Polymers can be classified as:

1. Thermoplastics
2. Thermosets
3. Elastomers.
Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers
Thermoplastic polymers (thermoplasts) soften reversibly when heated (harden when cooled back)
Thermoplastics are made by adding together monomers to form long chains. Such a process is known
as “addition polymerization”.
Types of Thermoplastics:
 Polyethylene (C2H4)n- commonest of the thermoplastics
 Vinyl compounds - compounds based on ethylene in which one or more of the H atoms have been
replaced by a different atom or group of atoms.
Note: Not all thermoplastics are vinyl compounds
H H  R = Cl - Polyvinyl chloride(PVC)
| | R = CH3 - Polypropylene
C C R = C6H5 - Polystyrene
| |
H R  R = COOCH3 - Polyvinyl acetate
 n
F F
H Cl  | | 
| |   Polytetrafluroethyl
C C  C  C  ene
Polyvinyl  
| |  chloride | | (PTFE) or Teflon
H Cl   F F 
 n n
Polymers derived from a single monomer such as the polymers given above are called homopolymers.
Thermosetting polymers (thermosets) harden permanently when heated, as cross-linking hinder

bending and rotations. Thermosets are harder, more dimensionally stable, and more brittle than
thermoplastics.
Thermosets are made by mixing two components that react and harden, either at room temperature or
on heating.
Urea (NH2CONH2) + Formaldehyde (CH2O)  Urea Formaldehyde + Water (H2O)
H O H H H O H H H O H
| || | | | || | | | || |
2 N  C N  C  O  N  C N  C  N  C N  H 2O
| | | | | |
H H H H H H
 This type of reaction is called condensation

polymerization. A thermoset polymer where the chains
 If the resulting polymer forms covalent cross-links (called are tied tightly together by frequent
network polymers), which are very strong, then the cross- covalent cross-links
links prevent melting or viscous flow (they ‘set’) and
hence they cannot be softened by heating.
 Therefore, in thermosets the structure becomes amorphous due to the formation of crosslinks which
are covalent bonds.
Elastomers
In vulcanization, crosslinking of the elastomeric polymer is achieved by an irreversible chemical

reaction usually at high temperatures (hence ‘vulcan’), and usually involving the addition of sulfur
compounds. The S atoms are the ones that form the bridge cross-links. Elastomers are thermosetting
due to the cross-linking.
Natural rubber is polyisoprene R= CH3, i.e. (C5H8)n but it is not useful as an H H

engineering material as it permanently deforms when a force is applied. | |
C C  C C
Rubbers become harder and extend less with increasing sulfur content. For  | | | |
automobile applications, synthetic rubbers are strengthened by adding carbon H H R H 
n
black.
In silicone rubbers, the backbone C atoms are replaced by a chain of alternating silicon and oxygen
atoms. These elastomers are also cross-linked and are stable to higher temperatures than C-based
elastomers.

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ME2302 INTRODUCTION

ME2302: INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS SCIENCE AND

Materials Science and Engineering

Classification & the structure of Engineering Materials

- Crystalline Materials ( Metals, Ceramics)

What are the Materials?

- Metals and alloys: Iron, steel, Cu, Al & its alloys

DEPARTMENT OF MME -1-

Modern Material's Needs

Why do we want to study about materials?

DEPARTMENT OF MME -2-

economics, like software-hardware trade-offs. Increasing applications of system engineering are in

Mechanical Properties : Strength, Hardness, Toughness, Fatigue/ Creep Strength

n = Nav × d / M, Where M is the atomic mass in amu (grams per mol).

DEPARTMENT OF MME -3-

The electrons form a cloud around

The Periodic Table

- Atom is electrically neutral because number of protons = Number of electrons

DEPARTMENT OF MME -4-

Bonding Forces and Energies between atoms

DEPARTMENT OF MME -5-

Primary bonds: - e.g. Ionic bonds, covalent bonds, metallic bonds

Secondary bonds:- Van der Waals bonds, Hydrogen bonds

Primary Interatomic Bonds

Na – 1s22s22p63s1 – gives away

In this case, the fractional ionic

DEPARTMENT OF MME -6-

Covalent bond energies are generally high,

DEPARTMENT OF MME -7-

Secondary Bonding (Van der Waals)

Noble or inert gases (Ne, Ar,………..)

1) Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds

DEPARTMENT OF MME -8-

Packing of atoms in solids

DEPARTMENT OF MME -9-

Amorphous solids have one of two atomic arrangements: that is either a

I. Tangled mass of long chained molecules (Polymers) or

s.c. f.c.c b.c.c. h.c.p.

Different types of unit cells available.

e. g.: There are four principle crystal structures for metals

(a) Body-centered cubic (BCC)

(b) Face-centered cubic (FCC)

(c) Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)

Important properties of the unit cells are

 The type of atoms and their radii R.

Unit Cell n CN a/R APF

FCC 4 12 2×√ 2 0.74

weight of atoms in a unit cell

Volume of unit cell = a3 = (3.61 x 108)3 cm3

Polymorphism and Allotropy

Close-Packed Crystal Structures

To build 3D packing pattern,

- pack atoms two dimensionally in atomic planes

Relationship between lattice

FCC: atoms contact in all the face

BCC: Atoms contact along the body diagonal.

AB= √2. a , BC= a

Considering top plane,

Considering the tetrahedron

Close Packed Planes (CPP) and Close Packed Directions (CPD)

Miller Indices for a Plane

Miller Indices for a Direction

For a f.c.c. structure:

For a b.c.c. structure: