Construction and Building Materials 123 (2016) 501–507

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Geopolymer-bamboo composite – A novel sustainable construction

material
Ruy A. Sá Ribeiro a,b,⇑, Marilene G. Sá Ribeiro b, Kaushik Sankar a, Waltraud M. Kriven a
a
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
b
Structural Engineering Laboratory, National Institute for Amazonian Research, Manaus, AM 69067-375, Brazil

h i g h l i g h t s

Potassium-sodium geopolymer is reinforced with bamboo fibers and strips.

Testing the geopolymer-bamboo composite yielded good to high flexural strength.

SEM micrographs reviewed the interface between the fibers and the geopolymer matrix.

Metakaolin geopolymer was cured at 50 °C for 24 h and set to dry for 7 days at room temperature.

Room temperature cure was also achievable with the same system.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the pursuit of sustainable construction, regional natural materials can be used as a base for geopolymer
Received 15 February 2016 processing. For higher strength achievement, this study uses mixed potassium-sodium polysialate
Received in revised form 13 July 2016 siloxo-type geopolymer reinforced with bamboo fibers and strips. The composite geopolymer reinforced
Accepted 15 July 2016
with bamboo fibers was used as a binder for the bamboo strips. Geopolymer was synthesized using
Available online 21 July 2016
metakaolin produced from kaolinite extracted from Amazonian soil, and microscopically compared to
a commercial, highly reactive, Metamax metakaolin-based geopolymer. Amazonian kaolin was converted
Keywords:
into metakaolin by calcination up to 700 °C. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis showed the resulting
Geopolymer
Metakaolin
amorphous metakaolin to be 76% pure, with 24% crystalline quartz impurity. Four-point flexural and
Amazon compressive strength testing of the geopolymer were carried out according to ASTM standards
SEM C1341-13 and C1424-10. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to investigate the microstructure
XRD and the interface. In addition, XRD was used to confirm the formation of geopolymer. Amazonian
Compressive strength of geopolymer metakaolin geopolymer reinforced with bamboo is a potential green sustainable construction material
Flexural strength of geopolymer composite with compressive strength ranging from: 23–38 MPa for micro bamboo fibers alkali treated (BF1A),
Bamboo 23–25 MPa for short BF alkali treated (BF4A), and 25–29 MPa for short BF water treated (BF4W).
Flexural strength values for geopolymer reinforced with bamboo fibers ranged from: 4–8 MPa for
BF1A, 7–8 MPa for BF4W, and reached 21–30 MPa for mixed BF1A and bamboo strip reinforcements.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction poly-silicoaluminates or simply polysialates, these materials

The term polymer refers to organic molecules with large
number of repeating units. Geopolymers are obtained from the
polycondensation of aluminosilicate solids, activated by an
aqueous solution of alkali silicate. Such reactions produce
⇑ Corresponding author at: Structural Engineering Laboratory, National Institute
for Amazonian Research, Manaus, AM 69067-375, Brazil.
E-mail addresses: ruy@desari.com.br (R.A. Sá Ribeiro), mlene@desari.com.br
(M.G. Sá Ribeiro), sankar3@illinois.edu (K. Sankar), kriven@illinois.edu
(W.M. Kriven).
generally called ‘‘geopolymers”, or inorganic polymers [1].
As a structural material, metakaolin-based geopolymers
(MKGP) have several advantages when compared to ordinary
Portland cement (OPC). They have twice the compressive
strength, three times flexure strength, faster setting time, earlier
strength development [2], lower CO2 emissions [3–5], and higher
temperature resistance [2,6]. However, pure geopolymers are
brittle and have low fracture toughness and tensile strength, like
ceramics. Hence, like OPC, reinforcements are added to make a
composite material which has better fracture toughness and
tensile strength.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.07.037
0950-0618/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
502 R.A. Sá Ribeiro et al. / Construction and Building Materials 123 (2016) 501–507
Duxson et al. [7,8] carried out extensive research on the
relationships between composition, processing, microstructure
and the properties of MKGP and found out that geopolymers with
Si:Al mole ratio 2:1 provided a fully reacted geopolymer with the
best mechanical properties. Tippayasam et al. [9] reported on
potassium-metakaolin based geopolymer heat-treated. Gouny
et al. [10,11] researched natural materials composites on the feasi-
bility of a geopolymer binder to assemble wood and earth struc-
tures. Haider et al. [12] studied the stress-strain characteristics of
high-(85 MPa) and low-(28 MPa) strength geopolymer synthesized
with sodium and fly ash, revealing similarities to normal concrete.
Pelisser et al. [13] characterized sodium metakaolin-based
geopolymer with high flexural strength of 17.6 MPa, compressive
strength of 64 MPa, and elastic modulus of 10 GPa.
Geopolymers are eco-friendly and sustainable materials with a
low carbon footprint. In addition to the mineral reserves contain-
ing aluminosilicates, Brazil has many industrial processes that gen-
erate fly ash and other by-products as sources of aluminosilicates,
so it has the raw materials necessary for exploitation of this tech-
nology in abundance. Moreover, the introduction of fibers, particles
and strips of native or natural materials grown in the Amazon
(such as bamboo) in the production of geopolymeric composites,
promote higher strength, rigidity, and workability, generating
green high-performance materials. The use of regional and local
materials in the production of geopolymeric composites reduce
environmental impacts and broaden their applications.
Nematollahi et al. [14] evaluated sodium, potassium and cal-
cium fly ash-based geopolymer reinforced with polyvinyl alcohol
(PVA) short fibers. The resulting sodium-based geopolymer com-
pressive strength was 54.6 MPa. Adding by uniform dispersion
2 vol% of 40 lm by 8 mm long PVA fibers to the sodium-based
geopolymer matrix increased the compressive strength to
63.7 MPa. Sodium- and potassium-based geopolymer composites
yielded 11.5 and 5.4 MPa flexural strength, respectively. Natali
et al. [15] investigated the added strength and ductility of four dif-
ferent short fibers (7-mm long high tenacity (HT) carbon, E-glass,
PVA and polyvinyl chloride (PVC)) on sodium-metakaolin-ladle
slag based geopolymer. The 7-day three-point flexure strength
for unreinforced geopolymer was 6.9 MPa. Adding 1 wt% of
10 lm HT carbon, 10 lm E-glass, 18 lm PVA, and 400 lm PVC
yielded 11.7, 9.0, 11.2, and 10.0 MPa, respectively.
Herbal biocomposites (natural fibers), have low density, low
cost and low energy consumption, as well as neutralizing CO2.
Characteristics of bamboo fibers include: low cost, high strength
and biodegradability; absorption of CO2 and production of O2 3
times more than other plants. In the pursuit of tough or semi-
ductile and high strength green geopolymer composites, several
researchers used natural fibers, such as basalt [16,17], corn husk
[18], wool [19], jute [20], rice stem [21], fique (or sisal) [22] for
reinforcement of metakaolin based geopolymer (MKGP). Adding
10 wt% of 13 lm by 6.35 mm long basalt fiber tows to
potassium-based geopolymer composites yielded 19.5 MPa three-
point flexure strength [16]. Increasing the chopped basalt fiber
Fig. 1. (a) Water-treated bamboo culms; (b) mechanically attained air-dried fiber bundles; (c) washed BFs reinforcement just before use; (d) BSs reinforcement.
lengths to 12.7 mm yielded 27.1 MPa three-point flexure strength
[17]. Sodium-based geopolymer reinforced with corn husk fiber
bundles resulted in 14.1 MPa four-point flexure strength [18].
Sodium-based geopolymer reinforced with 5 wt% wool fiber bun-
dles yielded 8.1–9.1 MPa three-point flexure strength [19].
Sodium-based geopolymer reinforced with 30 wt% untreated jute
weave resulted in 20.5 MPa four-point flexure strength [20].
Potassium-based geopolymer reinforced with 6.4 wt% rice stems
yielded 18.4 MPa three-point flexure strength [21]. Potassium-
based geopolymer reinforced with 30 wt% alkali-treated fique
fibers yielded 11.4 MPa four-point flexure strength [22]. Up to this
date, we found no published work on MKGP reinforced with
bamboo fibers.
In this manuscript, mixed sodium and potassium geopolymer
reinforced with chopped bamboo fibers was used as a binder for
bamboo strips. The aim of this research was to develop high perfor-
mance green-sustainable technologies, using local materials culti-
vated in the Amazon (like bamboo). The building components are
designed to be innovative, low-carbon emission elements, in pro-
duction and utilization. This project also aims to develop a new
generation of sustainable building materials such as reinforced
crushed bamboo for panels and blocks, ceramic-like composites
which take advantage of the low-temperature synthesis of
geopolymers and their superior mechanical properties as com-
pared to normal cement. Kaolinite clays and amorphous silica from
the Amazon region will be the low cost starting powders.
2. Experimental procedures
2.1. Bamboo fibers and strips processing
An Amazonian tropical bamboo specie Guadua angustifolia was
selected based on abundance, accessibility, mechanical properties,
durability and commercial size criteria [23]. Four-year old Guadua
culms were collected from a research plantation area [24,25], in
Manaus, Brazil, and immersed in water for three days for better
machine workability. The mean basic density of the Guadua culms
were determined as 0.59 ± 0.04 g/cm3. The green bamboo culms
(Fig. 1(a)) were chopped through a chipper PZ8 Pallman and the
chips were transformed into fiber bundles through a Hammer Mill
Bison. The bamboo fiber bundles (BFs) were air-dried, and filtered
by an Allgaier sifter machine through a mesh #4 (12.51–40 mm)
(producing short bamboo fibers, BF4) and a mesh #1.25 (producing
particulates or micro bamboo fibers, BF1), as illustrated in Fig. 1
(b)–(c). The main chemical constituents of bamboo are around 60
wt% cellulose, 32 wt% lignin and 8 wt% hemicellulose [26]. Minor
constituents are resins, tannins, waxes, inorganic salts. Bamboo
fiber bundles and particles cut as-received were characterized by
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and
thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). In addition, bamboo strips
(BSs) were cut and planed to size to compose the architecture of
the geopolymer composites studied. The BSs were water treated
for starch removal, and set to dry in a solar kiln at 40 °C [27].
 R.A. Sá Ribeiro et al. / Construction and Building Materials 123 (2016) 501–507
Furthermore, kaolinite clay from the Amazon region was dried and
transported for characterization by SEM, XRD, X-ray fluorescence
(XRF) and calcination, in order to compose the geopolymer matrix.
Before utilization, the BFs and BSs were washed with deionized
water and set to dry-in two layers of paper towels. The testing pro-
gram used water-treated (W) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
alkali-treated (A) BFs and BSs (Fig. 1d), in order to find out if
reinforcements from natural or pretreated chopped bamboo were
compatible with highly caustic geopolymer matrix.
2.2. Materials characterization
Images of untreated bamboo fibers, raw Amazonian kaolin (KA)
and fractography of post-tested composite samples were done
using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (JSM-6060LV JEOL
USA, Inc., Peabody, MA). SEM samples were sputter coated with
Au/Pd alloy for 25 s, to eliminate charging during scanning. The
nature of the interactions between the fiber bundles and the
geopolymer matrix was analyzed by SEM. Phase characterization
of KA samples was performed by XRD. X-ray diffraction was
performed on a Siemens/Bruker D-5000 Model with a copper
K-alpha radiation wavelength of 0.15418 nm using a single crystal
quartz holder without any background. XRD was carried out
according to the following parameters: scan speed 1 deg/min with
0.05 degree increments and the scan type was locked in a coupled
configuration. Based on thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) (Q50
TA Instruments New Castle, DE) of KA, the calcination of raw KA
was on a Carbolite electric furnace (Derbyshire, UK) with a temper-
ature schedule of 10 °C/min ramp up to 700 °C/hold for 1 h, then
ramp at 10 °C/min down to a targeted ambient temperature of
26 °C. SEM, and XRD characterized the calcined KA, transformed
into Amazonian metakaolin (MKA). MKA samples were ball milled
twice with zirconia balls, ground in a porcelain bowl with mortar
and pestle in preparation for particle size analysis (PSA). Phase
characterization of the tested geopolymer was performed by XRD
on a Siemens/Bruker D-5000.
2.3. Geopolymer composite processing
Based on findings by Duxson et al. [8] a mixed alkali water glass
(WG) of 75% potassium (K75) and 25% sodium (Na25) was pre-
pared to process the geopolymer matrix. WG was made, composed
of 0.75 mol potassium hydroxide (KOH), 0.25 mol sodium hydrox-
ide (NaOH), 11 mol deionized water (H2O), and 2 mol fumed silica
(SiO2). The total WG batch components were measured stoichio-
metrically, and the final solution was stored in plastic containers.
Calcined KA produced MKA for utilization in the geopolymer
matrix. Geopolymer (GP) was prepared with K75-Na25 WG
according to the reaction
1:5 KOH þ 0:5 NaOH þ 10 H2 O þ 2 SiO2
! 0:75 K2 O þ 0:25 Na2 O þ 2 SiO2 þ 11 H2 O
and 4.7 lm MKA76 (76% MK, 24% Quartz; Al2O3  2SiO2) mixed
using a high shear mixer (IKA mixer, Model RW20DZM, Germany).
Fig. 2. Four-point flexural plate and specimen MKA76-BF-BS GPC.
503
This mixture was put in a planetary conditioning mixer and degas-
sing machine (Thinky ARE-250, Intertronics, Kidlington, Oxford-
shire, UK) for fine removal of bubbles. For GP composite (GPC)
batches, BFs 5 wt% was slowly added to the geopolymer slurry
and manually mixed until complete integration occurred. The GPC
slurry was poured onto a high strength plastic mold for compres-
sive/flexural strength specimens attached to a vibration table for
more uniform distribution of BFs and less voids formation. The filled
mold was wrapped in plastic wrap to minimize water loss during
curing. The mold was clamp pressed, and then cured for 24 h in a
50 °C oven. Then, the cured mold was demolded and set to dry at
room temperature.
2.4. GPC compressive strength
Cylindrical specimens with 25-mm diameter and 50-mm height
were tested in accordance with ASTM C1424-10 [28]. The compres-
sive testing program sampled six specimens per day-7 for
K75Na25-MKA76 GP, K75Na25-MKA76-BF1A GPC, K75Na25-
MKA76-BF4A GPC, and K75Na25-MKA76-BF4W GPC. Tests were
carried out on an Instron-4483 testing machine, with a 100-kN
load cell, on the 7th day after curing. The test crosshead speed
was 0.010 mm/s. Strain rate of 0.010/s was measured by crosshead
displacement.
2.5. Third-point loading flexural strength
Ten (200  30  12 mm) GPC specimens (Fig. 2) were cut from
each of the four plate configurations K75Na25-MKA76 containing
reinforcements (BF1A, BF4W, BF1A-BSW, and BF1A-BSA) for
third-point loading flexural strength test according to ASTM stan-
dard C1341-13 [29]. Tests were carried out by an Instron-4483
testing machine, with 100-kN load cell, on the 7th day after curing.
The test span to depth ratio was 13:1, and the crosshead displace-
ment rate was 0.47 mm/s. Strain was measured by crosshead
displacement.
Weibull functions were calculated using a linear regression
method. A distribution function, F, was estimated based on the
compressive and flexure strength of n samples, using the median
rank method shown in Eq. (2) below
i  0:3
Fffi ð2Þ
n þ 0:4
where the flexure strength for each sample is given a rank i from 1
to n, which is the number of samples in the batch. The Weibull
distribution function is written as shown in Eq. (3) below, where
v is the non-dimensional volume, r is the stress, ro is the scale
parameter and m is the shape parameter or Weibull modulus
F ¼ 1  e½v ðro Þ 
r m
ð3Þ
Since the gauge length was the same in all samples, v = 1. In
order to determine the Weibull parameters, Eq. (3) can be rear-
ð1Þ ranged to obtain Eq. (4) below


1
ln ln ¼ m lnðrÞ  m lnðro Þ ð4Þ
1F
504 R.A. Sá Ribeiro et al. / Construction and Building Materials 123 (2016) 501–507

This is of the slope-intercept form of a straight line, so Table 1

  1 
ln ln 1F is then plotted versus ln(r), using the approximation Chemical composition of KA and MKA by XRF.

of F given in Eq. (2), and a linear fit is applied for each data series. Sample SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 TiO2 CaO MgO Na2O K2O LOIa
The slope of the fitted line then corresponds to the Weibull modu- KA 62.10 26.20 0.58 0.85 0.01 0.07 N.D. 0.21 9.60
lus, m, and the y-intercept corresponds to –m ln(ro) which can be MKA 67.80 29.60 0.70 0.98 0.01 N.D. 0.01 0.24 0.02
solved for the scale parameter, ro. The average value rf can be cal- a
LOI: loss on ignition from 25 °C to 1000 °C.
culated according to the Eq. (5), where C is the Gamma function.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

ffi (alumina and silica Al2O32SiO2) and 24% crystal quartz (Fig. 4).
1
rf ¼ ro C 1 þ ð5Þ Table 1 lists the XRF chemical analysis of KA and MKA, and con-
m firms the major components as alumina and silica. SEM micro-
The standard deviation, S, was calculated using Eq. (6) graphs of the structure of the K75Na25-MKA76 GP (Fig. 5a)
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi reveal the presence of crystalline quartz. SEM and digital images

 
2 of the K75Na25-MKA76-BF4W GPC tested in 4-pt flexure revealed
2 1
S ¼ ro C 1 þ  C 1þ ð6Þ imprints of the pulled out bamboo fibers (Fig. 5(b)) and BF con-
m m
firmed fiber pulled-out (Fig. 5(c)), denoting good bonding between
the bamboo fibers and the geopolymer matrix. These BFs imprints
3. Results and discussion and pull-out are characteristics of a strong interface.
Table 2 shows the GPC compressive strength average values of
The microstructures produced were examined, especially to 25  50-mm tested specimens for 7-day curing time, and the Wei-
understand and maximize any hardening or strengthening mecha- bull statistics parameters with 95% confidence intervals. There was
nisms, which may arise, for example, the exact nature of the rein- a 10.3% increase in compression strength of the composite made
forcing bamboo matrix interface. Characterization techniques of from the water treated bamboo fibers, when compared to the alkali
standard ceramic engineering were used for thermal analysis as treated ones. As expected, the BFs-reinforced GP compressive
TGA. TGA for KA revealed an optimum calcination temperature at strength was lower than that of the pure GP, but it was still very
700 °C (Fig. 3). This was decided because the sample underwent good for sustainable structural applications.
no appreciable weight change beyond 700 °C. XRD and Jade analy- The 56 MPa average compressive strength of KNa-MKA76 GP
sis with Rietveld Index Refinement (RIR) for KA revealed a crys- was comparable to the value found by Kriven et al. [31] for K-MK
talline composition of 80% kaolinite (aluminum silicate GP, and higher than those reported by Dias and Thaumaturgo
hydroxide Al2Si2O5(OH)4) and 20% quartz (silicon dioxide SiO2) [32] and by Zhang et al. [33] for K- and Na-MK GP, respectively.
(Fig. 4). Based on Sardela [30], XRD scanning and Jade analysis with The 24–30 MPa average compressive strength of GP reinforced
RIR for MKA revealed a composition of 76% amorphous metakaolin with 5 wt% (8 vol%) BF was comparable to the values reported
for K-MK GP reinforced with 0.5–1 vol% basalt fibers [32].
Table 3 shows the GPC 4-point flexural strength average values
of 30  12-mm tested specimens, and the Weibull statistics
parameters with 95% confidence intervals. There was no significant
difference in flexural strength between the alkali and water treat-
ment of the bamboo fibers and strips. Adding bamboo strips to the
GPC reinforced with bamboo fibers increased the flexural strength
by about 3.5 times. Large displacement was observed in all sam-
ples before the initial vertical crack at the central point. Central
displacement continued until the fibers stretched to breaking,
accompanied by some fiber pullout. This behavior was also
reflected in the shape of the stress–strain curve (Fig. 6), showing
Fig. 3. TGA for raw Amazonian kaolinite KA. very smooth behavior without sharp kinks. The bamboo strips also

Fig. 4. Amazonian kaolinite KA and metakaolinite MKA XRD, 2h 5-80°.

 R.A. Sá Ribeiro et al. / Construction and Building Materials 123 (2016) 501–507 505

Fig. 5. SEM of (a) K75Na25-MKA76 GP; (b) K75Na25-MKA76-BF4W GPC showing imprints of the pulled out bamboo fibers; and (c) digital images of bamboo fibers pull-out.

Table 2
Average compressive strength of 25  50-mm tested samples and Weibull parameters.

GPC Modulus b shape Scale ro (MPa) rc-avg (MPa) Std. Dev. (MPa) Low 95% (MPa) Up 95% (MPa)
a
KNa-MKA76 11.590 58.20 55.70 5.83 51.98 60.12
KNa-MKA76-BF1Ab 3.303 33.11 29.70 9.90 22.91 38.08
KNa-MKA76-BF4Ac 15.38 24.76 23.93 1.91 22.75 25.24
KNa-MKA76-BF4Wd 12.010 28.07 26.90 2.72 25.37 28.84
a
Potassium-Sodium-Amazonian Metakaolin based unreinforced GP matrix.
b
KNa-MKA based GP reinforced with 5 wt% micro BFs alkali treated.
c
KNa-MKA based GP reinforced with 5 wt% short BFs alkali treated.
d
KNa-MKA based GP reinforced with 5 wt% short BFs water treated.

Table 3
Average 4-point flexural strength of 30  12-mm tested samples and Weibull parameters.

GPC Modulus b shape Scale ro (MPa) rf-avg (MPa) Std. Dev. (MPa) Low 95% (MPa) Up 95% (MPa)
KNa-MKA76-BF1A 1.323 6.59 6.07 4.63 3.96 7.73
KNa-MKA76-BF4W 8.619 7.50 7.09 0.98 6.52 7.71
KNa-MKA76-BF1A-BSAa 3.831 27.60 24.95 7.28 21.02 29.58
KNa-MKA76-BF1A-BSWb 4.477 26.91 24.55 6.22 20.71 28.61
Pure K-geopolymer [34] 2.700 5.10 4.50 1.80 – –
a
KNa-MKA based GP reinforced with 5 wt% micro BFs alkali treated and BS alkali treated.
b
KNa-MKA based GP reinforced with 5 wt% micro BFs alkali treated and BS water treated.

Fig. 6. Typical stress-strain curves for geopolymer reinforced with water treated short bamboo fibers (BF4W) and alkali treated short bamboo fibers and water treated
bamboo strip with a geopolymer binder (BF1A-BSW) GPCs tested in bending.
506 R.A. Sá Ribeiro et al. / Construction and Building Materials 123 (2016) 501–507
have improved the Weibull modulus (b), when compared to pure
K-geopolymer [34].
Table 3 summarizes the flexure strength of geopolymer and the
geopolymer composites. It was observed that the composites in
general had improved strength, when compared to pure geopoly-
mer. They also had improved Weibull modulus which indicated
their insensitivity to flaws when the volume is scaled up, when
compared to pure geopolymers. The reason for the improvement
in the flexure property is because adding reinforcements toughens
the composite.
The 7 MPa average flexural strength for KNa-MKA-BF4 is
comparable to that reported for Na-MK GP reinforced with 50 wt%
polypropylene fibers [33]. The 25 MPa flexural strength for
KNa-MKA-BF1-BS is comparable to those reported for K-MK GP
reinforced with 15 vol% of stainless steel powder [31] and with
10 wt% 12.7-mm long chopped basalt fibers [17], but it is much
lower than that reinforced with 3.5 vol% carbon fiber sheets [35].
Fractography of post-tested composite samples were performed
by SEM to understand the toughening mechanisms that improved
the flexure strength of the composite when compared to pure
K-geopolymer. SEM images show fiber pull out which is a toughen-
ing mechanism. In addition, there is also a good wetting between
the fiber and the matrix as the imprint of the fiber is on the matrix.
Hence, there would be friction between the fiber and the matrix,
which is an energy dissipation mechanism.
4. Conclusions
This investigation reinforcing Amazonian geopolymer compos-
ite with bamboo fibers and strips resulted in the following
observations:
1) TGA for KA revealed an optimum calcination temperature at
700 °C for an hour.
2) XRD and JADE analysis with RIR for KA showed a crystalline
composition of 80% kaolinite and 20% quartz. XRD scanning
and JADE analysis with RIR for MKA revealed a composition
of 76% amorphous metakaolin and 24% crystalline quartz.
3) XRF chemical analysis of KA and MKA confirmed the major
components as alumina and silica.
4) SEM micrographs of the structure of the K75Na25-MKA76
GP reveal some unreacted MK and the presence of crys-
talline quartz. SEM and digital images of the K75Na25-
MKA76-BF4W GPC tested in 4-pt flexural strength revealed
imprints of the pulled out bamboo fibers and BFs pull-out,
denoting force transfer between the bamboo fibers and the
geopolymer matrix.
5) The BFs-reinforced GP compressive strength of 25  50-mm
tested samples was lower (23–38 MPa) than that of pure GP
(56 MPa), but it was still very good for sustainable structural
applications.
6) There was no difference in 4-point flexural strength between
the alkali and water treatment of the bamboo fibers and
strips. Adding bamboo strips to the GPC reinforced with
bamboo fibers increased the flexural strength by about 3.5
times. The stress-strain curves were smooth, and yielded a
reasonable average flexural strength of 7 MPa for the fiber-
reinforced GPC, and high average flexural strength of
25 MPa for the mixed fiber-strip-reinforced GPC.
7) Design, fabrication and evaluation of mixed mode com-
pounds containing chopped fibers inter-dispersed between
long slices of bamboo revealed the bamboo-reinforced
geopolymer composite to be a potential sustainable green
material for construction.
Acknowledgements
This research is part of the postdoctoral project Engineered
Building Components with Green Geopolymers which aims to
develop high performance, green-sustainable technologies, using
local materials cultivated in the Amazon (like bamboo). Bamboo
collection and fibers and strips preparation and conditioning
were carried out at the Structural Engineering Laboratory
(LTEE-INPA-National Institute for Amazonian Research). SEM and
XRD were carried out at the Frederick Seitz Materials Research
Laboratory Central Facilities (FS-MRL). Mechanical strength
tests were carried out at the Advanced Mechanical Testing and
Evaluation Laboratory of UIUC – University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign. This work was partially supported by the US
Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR) through the Tyndall
Air Force base in Florida under Grant No. FA 8650-11-1-5900,
and by CNPq – Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico
e Tecnológico – Brazil.
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