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Engineering Mechanics page i

STATICS & DYNAMICS

THIRD EDITION

Michael E. Plesha
Professor Emeritus, Department of Engineering Physics
University of Wisconsin–Madison

Gary L. Gray
Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics
Penn State University

Robert J. Witt
Department of Engineering Physics
University of Wisconsin–Madison

Francesco Costanzo
Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics
Penn State University
 page ii

ENGINEERING MECHANICS: STATICS & DYNAMICS

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 ABOUT THE AUTHORS page iii

Michael E. Plesha is a Professor Emeritus of Engineering

Mechanics in the Department of Engineering Physics at the
University of Wisconsin–Madison. Professor Plesha received his B.S.
from the University of Illinois–Chicago in structural engineering and
materials, and his M.S. and Ph.D. from Northwestern University in
structural engineering and applied mechanics. His primary research
areas are computational mechanics, focusing on the development of
finite element and discrete element methods for solving static and
dynamic nonlinear problems, and the development of constitutive
models for characterizing the behavior of materials. Much of his
work focuses on problems featuring contact, friction, and material
interfaces. Applications include nanotribology, high-temperature
rheology of ceramic composite materials, modeling geomaterials
including rock and soil, penetration mechanics, and modeling crack
growth in structures. He is coauthor of the book Concepts and
Applications of Finite Element Analysis (with R. D. Cook, D. S.
Malkus, and R. J. Witt). In addition to teaching statics and dynamics,
he also has extensive experience teaching courses in basic and
advanced mechanics of materials, mechanical vibrations, and finite
element methods.

Gary L. Gray is an Associate Professor of Engineering Science and

Mechanics in the Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics
at Penn State in University Park, PA. He received a B.S. in
mechanical engineering (cum laude) from Washington University in
St. Louis, MO, an S.M. in engineering science from Harvard
University, and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in engineering mechanics
from the University of Wisconsin–Madison. His primary research
interests are in dynamical systems, dynamics of mechanical systems,
and mechanics education. For his contributions to mechanics
education, he has been awarded the Outstanding and Premier
Teaching Awards from the Penn State Engineering Society, the
Outstanding New Mechanics Educator Award from the American
Society for Engineering Education, the Learning Excellence Award
from General Electric, and the Collaborative and Curricular
Innovations Special Recognition Award from the Provost of Penn
State. In addition to dynamics, he also teaches mechanics of
materials, mechanical vibrations, numerical methods, advanced
dynamics, and engineering mathematics.

Robert J. Witt retired from the University of Wisconsin–Madison,

Department of Engineering Physics, in 2020 after a 33-year teaching
career. He received his B.S. in mechanical engineering from the
University of California–Davis and his M.S. and Ph.D. in nuclear
engineering from MIT. His research interests were in computational
methods in fluid and solid mechanics, with particular applications to
nuclear systems. He taught 20 different courses over the span of his
career, including statics, dynamics, mechanics of materials, and a
variety of other classes in applied mechanics, computational
methods, and nuclear engineering. He is coauthor of the book
Concepts and Applications of Finite Element Analysis (with R. D.
Cook, D. S. Malkus, and M. E. Plesha).

Francesco Costanzo is a Professor of Engineering Science page iv

and Mechanics in the Engineering Science and Mechanics
Department at Penn State. He received the Laurea in Ingegneria
Aeronautica from the Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy. After coming
to the United States as a Fulbright scholar, he received his Ph.D. in
aerospace engineering from Texas A&M University. His primary
research interest is the mathematical and numerical modeling of
material behavior. His specific research interests include the
theoretical and numerical characterization of dynamic fracture in
materials subject to thermo-mechanical loading, the development of
multi-scale methods for predicting continuum-level material
properties from molecular calculations, and modeling and
computational problems in bio-medical applications. In addition to
scientific research, he has contributed to various projects for the
advancement of mechanics education under the sponsorship of
several organizations, including the National Science Foundation. For
his contributions, he has received various awards, including the 1998
and the 2003 GE Learning Excellence Awards and the 1999 ASEE
Outstanding New Mechanics Educator Award.
The authors thank their families for their patience, page v
understanding, and, most importantly, encouragement
during the long years it took to bring these books to completion.
Without their support, none of this would have been possible.
 BRIEF CONTENTS page vi

Statics
1 Introduction to Statics 1
2 Vectors: Force and Position 29
3 Equilibrium of Particles 125
4 Moment of a Force and Equivalent Force Systems 203
5 Equilibrium of Bodies 271
6 Structural Analysis and Machines 363
7 Centroids and Distributed Force Systems 431
8 Internal Forces 493
9 Friction 533
10 Moments of Inertia 573

Dynamics
11 Introduction to Dynamics 619
12 Particle Kinematics 649
13 Force and Acceleration Methods for Particles 789
14 Energy Methods for Particles 861
15 Momentum Methods for Particles 933
16 Planar Rigid Body Kinematics 1055
17 Newton-Euler Equations for Planar Rigid Body Motion
1145
18 Energy and Momentum Methods for Rigid Bodies 1207
19 Mechanical Vibrations 1289
20 Three-Dimensional Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 1349

Appendices
A Technical Writing A-1
B Answers to Even-Numbered Problems A-5
C Mass Moments of Inertia A-65
D Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body A-75
Index I-1
U.S. Customary and SI Unit Systems
Properties of Lines and Area Moments of Inertia
Properties of Solids and Mass Moments of Inertia
 STATICS TABLE OF CONTENTS page vii

Preface xiv

1 Introduction to Statics 1
1.1 Engineering and Statics 1
1.2 Topics That Will Be Studied in Statics 3
1.3 A Brief History of Statics 3
Galileo Galilei 4
Isaac Newton 5
1.4 Fundamental Principles 5
Newton’s laws of motion 7
1.5 Force 8
1.6 Units and Unit Conversions 9
Dimensional homogeneity and unit conversions 10
Prefixes 10
Angular measure 11
Small angle approximations 12
Accuracy of calculations 13
1.7 Newton’s Law of Gravitation 16
Relationship between specific weight and density 17
1.8 Failure 21
1.9 Chapter Review 23

2 Vectors: Force and Position 29

2.1 Basic Concepts 29
Introduction—force, position, vectors, and tides 29
Denoting vectors in figures 31
Basic vector operations 32
Performing vector operations 34
 Resolution of a vector into vector components 34
2.2 Cartesian Representation of Vectors in Two
Dimensions 48
Introduction—Cartesian representation and a walk to
work 48
Unit vectors 48
Cartesian coordinate system 49
Cartesian vector representation 49
Addition of vectors using Cartesian components 51
Position vectors 52
2.3 Cartesian Representation of Vectors in Three
Dimensions 66
Right-hand Cartesian coordinate system 66
Cartesian vector representation 66
Direction angles and direction cosines 66
Position vectors 67
Use of position vectors to write expressions for force
vectors 68
Some simple structural members 68
2.4 Vector Dot Product 84
Dot product using Cartesian components 85
Determination of the angle between two vectors 85
Determination of the component of a vector in a
particular direction 86
Determination of the component of a vector
perpendicular to a direction 87
2.5 Vector Cross Product 101
Cross product using Cartesian components 102
Evaluation of cross product using determinants 103
Determination of the normal direction to a plane 105
Determination of the area of a parallelogram 105
Scalar triple product 105
2.6 Chapter Review 116

3 Equilibrium of Particles 125

3.1 Equilibrium of Particles in Two Dimensions 125
 Free body diagram (FBD) 126
Modeling and problem solving 130
Cables and bars 131
Pulleys 133
Reactions 134
3.2 Behavior of Cables, Bars, and Springs 151
Equilibrium geometry of a structure 151
Cables 151
Bars 152
Modeling idealizations and solution of 152
Springs 152

3.3 Equilibrium of Particles in Three page viii

Dimensions 166
Reactions 166
Solution of algebraic equations 166
Summing forces in directions other than x, y, or z 167
3.4 Engineering Design 181
Objectives of design 181
Particle equilibrium design problems 182
3.5 Chapter Review 195

4 Moment of a Force and Equivalent Force Systems 203

4.1 Moment of a Force 203
Scalar approach 204
Vector approach 205
Varignon’s theorem 207
Which approach should I use: scalar or vector? 208
4.2 Moment of a Force About a Line 220
Vector approach 220
Scalar approach 221
4.3 Moment of a Couple 232
Vector approach 233
Scalar approach 233
Comments on the moment of a couple 233
Equivalent couples 234
 Equivalent force systems 234
Resultant couple moment 235
Moments as free vectors 235
4.4 Equivalent Force Systems 246
Transmissibility of a force 246
Equivalent force systems 247
Some special force systems 248
Wrench equivalent force systems 250
Why are equivalent force systems called equivalent? 250
4.5 Chapter Review 263

5 Equilibrium of Bodies 271

5.1 Equations of Equilibrium 271
5.2 Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies in Two Dimensions
272
Reactions 272
Free body diagram (FBD) 274
Alternative equilibrium equations 276
Gears 277
Examples of correct FBDs 277
Examples of incorrect and/or incomplete FBDs 279
5.3 Equilibrium of Bodies in Two Dimensions—
Additional Topics 298
Why are bodies assumed to be rigid? 298
Treatment of cables and pulleys 298
Springs 299
Superposition 300
Supports and fixity 300
Static determinacy and indeterminacy 301
Two-force and three-force members 303
5.4 Equilibrium of Bodies in Three Dimensions 322
Reactions 322
More on bearings 322
Scalar approach or vector approach? 324
Solution of algebraic equations 324
Examples of correct FBDs 325
 Examples of incorrect and/or incomplete FBDs 327
5.5 Engineering Design 344
Codes and standards 346
Design problems 347
5.6 Chapter Review 353

6 Structural Analysis and Machines 363

Structures and machines 363
6.1 Truss Structures and the Method of Joints 364
When may a structure be idealized as a truss? 365
Method of joints 365
Zero-force members 367
Typical truss members 369
6.2 Truss Structures and the Method of Sections 380
Treatment of forces that are not at joints 382
Static determinacy and indeterminacy 383
Design considerations 384

6.3 Trusses in Three Dimensions 399 page ix

Stability of space trusses and design
considerations 400
6.4 Frames and Machines 408
Analysis procedure and free body diagrams (FBDs) 408
Examples of correct FBDs 409
Examples of incorrect and/or incomplete FBDs 411
6.5 Chapter Review 426

7 Centroids and Distributed Force Systems 431

7.1 Centroid 431
Introduction—center of gravity 431
Centroid of an area 433
Centroid of a line 434
Centroid of a volume 435
Unification of concepts 435
Which approach should I use: composite shapes or
integration? 435
 Finer points: surfaces and lines in three dimensions 436
7.2 Center of Mass and Center of Gravity 449
Center of mass 449
Center of gravity 450
7.3 Theorems of Pappus and Guldinus 461
Area of a surface of revolution 461
Volume of a solid of revolution 462
Proof of the Pappus–Guldinus theorems 462
7.4 Distributed Forces, Fluid and Gas Pressure
Loading 468
Distributed forces 468
Distributed forces applied to beams 468
Fluid and gas pressure 469
Forces produced by fluids 471
Forces produced by gases 473
7.5 Chapter Review 486

8 Internal Forces 493

8.1 Internal Forces in Structural Members 493
Why are internal forces important? 493
Internal forces for slender members in two dimensions
494
Internal forces for slender members in three dimensions
495
Determination of internal forces 495
8.2 Internal Forces in Straight Beams 503
Determination of V and M using equilibrium 503
Shear and moment diagrams 503
8.3 Relations Among Shear, Moment, and Distributed
Force 514
Relations among V, M, and w 514
Determination of V and M using integration 515
Which approach should I use? 516
Tips and shortcuts for drawing shear and moment
diagrams 517
Design considerations 518
 8.4 Chapter Review 527

9 Friction 533
9.1 Basic Concepts 533
A brief history of tribology 533
A simple experiment 534
Coulomb’s law of friction 535
Coefficients of friction 535
Dry contact versus liquid lubrication 537
Angle of friction 537
Problems with multiple contact surfaces 537
Wedges 538
Coulomb’s law of friction in three dimensions 538
Design considerations 538
9.2 Problems with Multiple Contact Surfaces 551
Determination of sliding directions 551
9.3 Belts and Cables Contacting Cylindrical Surfaces
560
Equilibrium analysis 560
9.4 Chapter Review 567

10 Moments of Inertia 573

10.1 Area Moments of Inertia 573
An example—test scores 573
An example—beam loading 574
Definition of area moments of inertia 574
What are area moments of inertia used for? 575

Radius of gyration 576 page x

Evaluation of moments of inertia using integration
577
10.2 Parallel Axis Theorem 585
Use of parallel axis theorem in integration 586
Use of parallel axis theorem for composite shapes 586
10.3 Mass Moments of Inertia 593
An example—figure skating 593
 Definition of mass moments of inertia 593
What are mass moments of inertia used for? 594
Radius of gyration 595
Parallel axis theorem 595
Evaluation of moments of inertia using integration 596
Evaluation of moments of inertia using composite shapes
597
10.4 Chapter Review 612
 DYNAMICS TABLE OF page xi

CONTENTS

Preface xiv

11 Introduction to Dynamics 619

11.1 The Newtonian Equations 619
11.2 Fundamental Concepts in Dynamics 625
Space and time 625
Force, mass, and inertia 625
Particle and rigid body 626
Vectors and their Cartesian representation 626
Useful vector “tips and tricks” 629
Units 630
11.3 Dynamics and Engineering Design 646
System modeling 647

12 Particle Kinematics 649

12.1 Position, Velocity, Acceleration, and Cartesian
Coordinates 649
Position vector 650
Trajectory 650
Velocity vector and speed 650
Acceleration vector 652
Cartesian coordinates 652
12.2 One-Dimensional Motion 668
Rectilinear motion relations 668
Circular motion and angular velocity 670
12.3 Projectile Motion 689
 12.4 Planar Motion: Normal-Tangential Components
703
Normal-tangential components 703
12.5 Planar Motion: Polar Coordinates 717
The time derivative of a vector 717
Polar coordinates and position, velocity, and acceleration
719
12.6 Relative Motion Analysis and Differentiation of
Geometrical Constraints 738
Relative motion 738
Differentiation of geometrical constraints 739
12.7 Motion in Three Dimensions 759
Cartesian coordinates 759
Tangent-normal-binormal components 759
Cylindrical coordinates 761
Spherical coordinates 762
12.8 Chapter Review 775

13 Force and Acceleration Methods for Particles 789

13.1 Rectilinear Motion 789
Applying Newton’s second law 789
Force laws 791
Equation(s) of motion 793
Inertial reference frames 794
Degrees of freedom 794
13.2 Curvilinear Motion 812
Newton’s second law in 2D and 3D component systems
812
13.3 Systems of Particles 837
Engineering materials one atom at a time 837
Newton’s second law for systems of particles 837
13.4 Chapter Review 854

14 Energy Methods for Particles 861

14.1 Work-Energy Principle for a Particle 861
Work-energy principle and its relation with 861
 Work of a force 863
14.2 Conservative Forces and Potential Energy 877
Work done by the constant force of gravity 877
Work of a central force 877
Conservative forces and potential energy 878
Work-energy principle for any type of force 880
When is a force conservative? 880
14.3 Work-Energy Principle for Systems of Particles
901
Internal work and work-energy principle for a system
901
Kinetic energy for a system of particles 902
14.4 Power and Efficiency 919
Power developed by a force 919
Efficiency 919
14.5 Chapter Review 926

15 Momentum Methods for Particles 933 page xii

15.1 Momentum and Impulse 933
Impulse-momentum principle 933
Conservation of linear momentum 936
15.2 Impact 955
Impacts are short, dramatic events 955
Definition of impact and notation 955
Line of impact and contact force between impacting
objects 955
Impulsive forces and impact-relevant FBDs 956
Coefficient of restitution 956
Unconstrained direct central impact 958
Unconstrained oblique central impact 958
Impact and energy 959
15.3 Angular Momentum 982
Moment-angular momentum relation for a particle 982
Angular impulse-momentum for a system of particles
983
Euler’s first and second laws of motion 986
 15.4 Orbital Mechanics 1007
Determination of the orbit 1007
Energy considerations 1013
15.5 Mass Flows 1023
Steady flows 1023
Variable mass flows and propulsion 1026
15.6 Chapter Review 1044

16 Planar Rigid Body Kinematics 1055

16.1 Fundamental Equations, Translation, and
Rotation About a Fixed Axis 1055
Crank, connecting rod, and piston motion 1055
Qualitative description of rigid body motion 1056
General motion of a rigid body 1057
Elementary rigid body motions: translations 1059
Elementary rigid body motions: rotation about a fixed
axis 1060
Planar motion in practice 1062
16.2 Planar Motion: Velocity Analysis 1075
Vector approach 1075
Differentiation of constraints 1076
Instantaneous center of rotation 1077
16.3 Planar Motion: Acceleration Analysis 1097
Vector approach 1097
Differentiation of constraints 1097
Rolling without slip: acceleration analysis 1098
16.4 Rotating Reference Frames 1118
The general kinematic equations for the motion of a point
relative to a rotating reference frame 1118
Coriolis component of acceleration 1122
16.5 Chapter Review 1136

17 Newton-Euler Equations for Planar Rigid Body Motion

1145
17.1 Newton-Euler Equations: Bodies Symmetric with
Respect to the Plane of Motion 1145
 Linear momentum: translational equations 1145
Angular momentum: rotational equations 1146
Graphical interpretation of the equations of motion 1150
17.2 Newton-Euler Equations: Translation 1153
17.3 Newton-Euler Equations: Rotation About a Fixed
Axis 1163
17.4 Newton-Euler Equations: General Plane Motion
1177
Newton-Euler equations for general plane motion 1177
17.5 Chapter Review 1199

18 Energy and Momentum Methods for Rigid Bodies 1207

18.1 Work-Energy Principle for Rigid Bodies 1207
Kinetic energy of rigid bodies in planar motion 1207
Work-energy principle for a rigid body 1209
Work done on rigid bodies 1209
Potential energy and conservation of energy 1210
Work-energy principle for systems 1212
Power 1212
18.2 Momentum Methods for Rigid Bodies 1243
Impulse-momentum principle for a rigid body 1243
Angular impulse-momentum principle for a rigid body
1244

18.3 Impact of Rigid Bodies 1265 page xiii

Rigid body impact: basic nomenclature and
assumptions 1266
Classification of impacts 1266
Central impact 1266
Eccentric impact 1268
Constrained eccentric impact 1269
18.4 Chapter Review 1282

19 Mechanical Vibrations 1289

19.1 Undamped Free Vibration 1289
Oscillation of a railcar after coupling 1289
 Standard form of the harmonic oscillator 1291
Linearizing nonlinear systems 1292
Energy method 1293
19.2 Undamped Forced Vibration 1307
Standard form of the forced harmonic oscillator 1307
19.3 Viscously Damped Vibration 1321
Viscously damped free vibration 1321
Viscously damped forced vibration 1324
19.4 Chapter Review 1340

20 Three-Dimensional Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 1349

20.1 Three-Dimensional Kinematics of Rigid Bodies
1349
Computation of angular accelerations 1350
Summing angular velocities 1350
20.2 Three-Dimensional Kinetics of Rigid Bodies 1366
Newton-Euler equations for three-dimensional motion
1366
Kinetic energy of a rigid body in three-dimensional
motion 1371
20.3 Chapter Review 1388

A Technical Writing A-1

B Answers to Even-Numbered Problems A-5

C Mass Moments of Inertia A-65

Definition of mass moments and products of inertia A-65
How are mass moments of inertia used? A-67
Radius of gyration A-68
Parallel axis theorem A-68
Principal moments of inertia A-70
Moment of inertia about an arbitrary axis A-73
Evaluation of moments of inertia using composite shapes
A-74
D Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body A-75
Angular momentum of a rigid body undergoing three-
dimensional motion A-75
Angular momentum of a rigid body in planar motion A-
78
Index I-1
U.S. Customary and SI Unit Systems
Properties of Lines and Area Moments of Inertia
Properties of Solids and Mass Moments of Inertia
 PREFACE page xiv

Welcome to statics and dynamics! With this book we hope to provide

a teaching and learning experience that is not only effective but also
motivates your study and application of statics and dynamics.
1. Learn the fundamental principles of statics and dynamics; and
2. Gain the skills needed to apply these principles in the
modeling of real-life problems and for carrying out engineering
design.
To achieve the objectives cited above, we have developed this book
as follows. First, we provide a rigorous introduction to the
fundamental principles. In a constantly changing technological
landscape, it is by understanding fundamentals that you will be able
to adapt to new technologies. This book places great emphasis on
developing problem-solving skills. The need for an engineer to be
able to accurately model real-life problems and solve them is
obvious. Beyond this, it is only by mastering problem-solving skills
that a true, deep understanding of fundamentals can be achieved.
Second, we incorporate pedagogical principles that research in math,
science, and engineering education has identified as essential for
improving learning. These include teaching concepts in parallel with
problem-solving skills, identifying and addressing misconceptions,
and assessing conceptual understanding via specific problems. Third,
we have made modeling the underlying theme of our approach to
problem solving. We believe that modeling, understood as the
making of reasonable assumptions to reduce a real-life problem to a
simpler but tractable problem, is also something that must be taught
and discussed alongside the basic principles. Fourth, we emphasize a
systematic approach to solving every problem, an integral part of
which is creating the aforementioned model. We believe these
features make this book new and unique, and we hope that they will
help you learn and master statics and dynamics.
Several design problems are presented where appropriate
throughout the book. These problems can be tackled with the
knowledge and skills that are typical of statics and dynamics,
although the use of mathematical software is sometimes helpful.
These problems are open ended, they allow you to show creativity in
developing solutions that solve important and realistic engineering
problems, and their solution requires the definition of a parameter
space in which the statics and dynamics of the system must be
analyzed. Design topics include methods of design, parametric
analysis, issues of professional responsibility, ethics, communication,
and more.
After studying statics and dynamics, you should have a thorough
understanding of the fundamental principles, and, at a minimum,
key points should remain in your memory for the rest of your life.
We say this with a full appreciation that some of you will have
careers with new and unexpected directions. Regardless of your
eventual professional responsibilities, knowledge of the
fundamentals of statics and dynamics will help you to be technically
literate. If you are actively engaged in the practice of engineering
and/or the sciences, then your needs go well beyond mere technical
literacy, and you must also be accomplished at applying these
fundamentals so that you can study more advanced subjects that
build on statics and dynamics, and because you will apply concepts
of statics and dynamics on a daily basis in your career.

Why Another Statics and Dynamics Series? page xv

These books provide thorough coverage of all the pertinent topics
traditionally associated with statics and dynamics. Indeed, many of
the currently available texts also provide this. However, these texts
offer several major innovations that enhance the learning objectives
and outcomes in these subjects.
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 Fig. 3.

The rule is used to find the middle of an edge or surface by placing

it across the piece so that the distances from the edges of the piece
to corresponding inch, or fractional marks shall be the same, Fig. 3,
the middle of the piece being at a point midway between the marks
selected.
2. The Try-square.—The try-square may be made entirely of iron
or steel or it may have a head of wood called
the beam and a blade of steel. The blade is graduated into inches
and fractions of an inch. As all try-squares are liable to be injured by
rough usage, care should be taken not to let them drop on the bench
or floor, nor should they ever be used for prying or pounding. Fig. 4.
 Fig. 4.

The try-square is used for three purposes: First, to act as a guide

for the pencil or knife point in laying out lines across the grain at right
angles to an edge or surface; second, to test an edge or end to see
whether it is square to an adjoining surface or edge; third, to test a
piece of work to see whether it is of the same width or thickness
thruout its entire length.
Fig. 5 shows the various positions assumed in lining across a
piece. The beam should be held firmly against either the face side or
the face edge.
The face side of a piece is the broad surface which is first made
true. The face edge is the first edge which is made square to the
face side and straight. These two surfaces are usually marked in
some way so that they may be distinguished from the other surfaces.
Their use is fully explained in Chapter III.
 Fig. 5.

If the beam projects beyond the end of the wood, it should be

reversed. The knife should be inclined forward and away from the
blade of the try-square slightly. A light, firm line should be made the
first time across the piece.
 Fig. 6.

In testing edges or ends for squareness, the beam should be held,

as in lining, firmly either against the face side or the face edge. Fig.
6. Care should be taken to test the extreme ends of the piece. Also
test at a sufficient number of points to show fully the condition of the
edge. Sliding the try-square along the edge is not objectionable if the
blade be held lightly on the surface. Under no circumstances should
the try-square be used to scrape the wood.
 Fig. 7.

In testing a piece to see whether it is of the same width or

thickness thruout its entire length, place the blade across the surface
to be tested, holding the beam lightly against the face side or face
edge, slide the try-square along the piece with the eye fixed upon the
graduations at the outer edge. Fig. 7.
3. The Framing Square.—Large squares of one piece of steel,
called framing squares, are used by
carpenters for large and rough work. The long arm is called the
blade and the short one the tongue. Fig. 8. In addition to the
divisions into inches and fractions of an inch, there is on the blade a
board measure table and on the tongue a brace or rafter measure
table. This square will be found convenient when “cutting up” stock,
also for testing corners of large pieces of furniture and for setting the
bevel to various angles.
 Fig. 8.

Fig. 9.

4. The Bevel.—The bevel differs from the try-square in having a

movable blade. Fig. 9. This blade may be set at any
desired angle from 0 to 180 degrees. The manner of using the bevel
is similar to that of the try-square. When adjusting, the blade should
be just loose enough to move upon the application of slight pressure.
There are various ways of setting the bevel to the required angle.
Should the triangle used in mechanical drawing be available, angles
of 30 degrees, 45 degrees and 60 degrees are easily obtained by
adjusting the bevel to the sides of the required angle.

Fig. 10.

To set the bevel to 45 degrees by means of the framing square,

hold the beam against one of the arms, Fig. 10, and move the blade
so that it shall pass through corresponding points on both blade and
tongue. Fig. 11 illustrates a method in which no other tools are
needed. A line is squared across a board having a straight edge.
Equal distances are measured from the point at which the line cuts
the edge, the blade then being made to pass through these points
while the beam is held tightly against the edge.
 Fig. 11.

For angles of 30 degrees and 60 degrees, square a knife line at

right angles to an edge. Fig. 12. Measure from the edge, along this
line, or from this line along the edge any given distance. Take twice
this distance upon the blade of the bevel and adjust so that a right
triangle is formed in which the length of the longest side shall be
twice that of the shortest.
5. The Marking Gage.—The gage is used for laying out lines
along the grain of the wood. It consists of a
beam, Fig. 13, head, thumb screw, and marking point or spur. The
spur should be sharpened to a knife point with a file so that it may
make a fine smooth line. It should project far enough below the
beam so that the beam may be rolled forward in such a way as to
bring the spur into the board at a slight angle, when properly
marking. It should extend not less than an eighth of an inch and in
most cases three-sixteenths of an inch.
Fig. 12.
 Fig. 13.

The graduations on the beam are seldom reliable. It is safer to set

the gage with the rule by measuring the distance from the spur to the
gage block. This is done by holding the gage bottom side up in the
left hand. With the right place the end of the rule against the head.
Fig. 13. After the screw has been tightened, apply the rule again to
make sure of the correctness of the setting.
 Fig. 14.

To gage the line, take the tool in the right hand, three fingers
grasping the beam, first encircling the head for narrow work, and the
thumb back, or nearly back, of the spur. Fig. 14. The head should be
kept against one or the other of the face sides. Begin at the end of
the piece which is towards you, hold the block firmly against the
piece, roll the beam forward until the spur barely touches the surface
and make a very light line. Fig. 15 illustrates the manner of raising
the spur from the wood by raising the wrist during the backward
stroke. It will be found convenient to hold the piece against the
bench stop. This steadies the piece and permits the worker to see
how deep the spur is cutting and whether the head is against the
face properly. Avoid deep lines. They are inaccurate even if straight
and always cause trouble in the making unless the grain of the wood
is perfectly straight.

Fig. 15.

6. The Pencil Gage.—There are occasions when a pencil-gage

marks with sufficient accuracy and is more
suitable because its point does not cut the wood, such as in gaging
for a bevel. A hole bored thru the beam near one end, just large
enough to receive a pencil snugly, will suffice. Fig. 16.

Fig. 16.
 Fig. 17 illustrates a method frequently used by carpenters. The
fingers act as a gage head.
7. Slitting Gage.—A slitting gage is one in which the spur is sharp
and strong, and will cut thru soft lumber as thick
as one-quarter of an inch. The boards are cut from each side and
considerable pressure is required. Sometimes a handle like that of
the plane is fastened to the beam near the knife or spur. Fig. 18.

Fig. 17.
 Slitting Gage
Mortise Gage
Panel Gage For wide boards

Fig. 18.

8. The Mortise Gauge.—Fig. 18 also shows a mortise gage used

in advanced work. It has two spurs, one of
them adjusted by means of the screw at the end of the beam at any
desired distance from the stationary one, so that the two sides of a
mortise or tenon can be marked at once.
9. The Dividers.—Dividers, Fig. 19, are used (1) in describing
circles, (2) in dividing a given space into a given
number of parts, and (3) in marking one member which is to be fitted
to another irregular member. Fig. 20 shows the manner of setting the
dividers. The thumb-screw should be released so that the legs may
be moved without much effort. When the approximate setting has
been secured, use the thumb-nut for adjusting to more accurate
measurement. In describing circles, the dividers should be held as in
Fig. 21 and swung to the right or left as is convenient. They should
be leaned forward slightly and an effort made to secure a sharp, light
line. For most work the two legs may be sharpened to points.
Sometimes one is sharpened like a knife point.
Fig. 19.
 Fig. 20. Fig. 21.

10. Pencil and Knife.—Pencil lines may be used in getting out

stock from rough material and in laying out
work on rough surfaces where a knife line would not be visible.
Pencil lines should be carefully made, however. The pencil may be
used also in marking bevels, curves and in other places where the
knife or gage mark would be injurious. Otherwise, the knife and gage
should be used. Pencil lines are easiest removed from wood by
means of the eraser.
 Fig. 22.

In laying out rough stock, if the first edge is sufficiently straight, it is

usual to thumb-gage for width. This is done by holding the pencil at
the end of the rule and using the thumb of the left hand as the gage
head, drawing the whole towards you with the rule acting as gage-
beam. Fig. 22.
 Fig. 23.

A straight-edge, a board with a straight edge, is often used in

marking out. Mark off the length of the piece of wood required. Mark
off the breadth at the end of the board, also mark it near what is to
be the other end of the piece. Place the straight-edge on these two
marks and draw the line. Fig. 23. The try-square should be used to
mark across the grain.
 CHAPTER II.
Saws.

11. Saws.—Saws which are used in cutting across the grain are
called crosscut; those which are used in cutting parallel
to the grain are called ripsaws. Fig. 24. Upon the blade of a saw,
near the handle, will be found a number. This represents the number
of points to the inch. Points should not be confused with teeth, for
there is always one more point per inch than there are teeth.

Fig. 24.

To prevent the sides of a cut or kerf from binding the saw, the teeth
are bent alternately from side to side, that the opening may be wider
than the blade is thick. The saw teeth are then said to have “set.” To
do good work, a saw should have no more set than is necessary to
allow a free movement. Fig. 25. Damp, spongy lumber will require
considerable set, while well seasoned lumber necessitates but little.