or Bakau kurap (Rhizophora mucronata), Nippa Palm (Nypha fruiticans), Lenggadai

(Bruguiera parviflora), Teruntum Merah (Lumnitzera littorea), and several species of

Api-Api (Avicennia spp).
• Back Zone: The soil has a higher clay content and is flooded only during exceptionally
high tides. Common tree and shrub species include: Tumu (Bruguiera spp.), Jeraju
(Acanthus spp.), and mangrove fern (Acrosticum aureum).

Figure 2. Conceptual diagram of mangrove ecosystem zonation. Mangrove forests grow between MTL and HHWST. Height
within tidal range and other factors result in horizontal and vertical zonation of flora and fauna. The horizontal axis is
compressed. https://www.dreamstime.com/zonation-mangroves-trees-as-forest-plant-species-ecosystem-outline-diagram-zonation-
mangroves-trees-as-forest-plant-species-image226192166

Plant species living in the mangrove forest ecosystems have physiological, reproductive and
morphological adaptations (Figure 7) to the anoxic soils.

a b c

d e

Figure 3. Types of root adaptations in mangrove ecosystems: a) cone roots, b) stilt or prop roots, c)
pneumatophores or knee roots, d) pencil roots, e) plank roots (snake-like), and f) buttressed roots.
(Source: Göltenboth and Schoppe 2006)