Introduction to AC Refrigeration

Systems

Name_________________

Dealership_____________

Course A1101.08ME
 Air Conditioning Refrigeration (Part 1)

11000.01

Technician’s Guide

Foreword
Many of the items and points discussed in class will not necessarily be easy to remember when
you return to your job. Use the space provided in this guide to make notes during the program.
While this booklet will serve as an excellent review of the extensive program presented in the train-
ing session, it is not intended to substitute for the various service manuals normally used on the
job. The range of specifications and variations in procedures between carlines and models re-
quires that the appropriate service publications be referred to, as necessary, when performing
these operations.
All information contained in this booklet is based on the latest data available at the time of publica-
tion approval. The right is reserved to make product or publication changes, at any time, without
notice. This booklet, or any portion thereof, may not be reproduced without written consent of the
Product Service Training Department, General Motors of Canada Limited, Oshawa, Ontario.

i
Table of Contents

Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Heater, Ventilation and Air Conditioning SubĆSystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Refrigeration Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Air Distribution Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Air Conditioning and Comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Heat Versus Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

States of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Latent Heat and the Vaporization of Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

PressureĆTemperature Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Effect of Pressure on Gases and Vapors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

A/C Systems PressureĆTemperature Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Basic Refrigeration Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Controlling Refrigerant in the A/C System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Pressure and Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
HighĆ and LowĆPressure Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Controlling Refrigerant Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Factors Affecting Heat Transfer Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Heat Transfer Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Condenser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Evaporator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Metering Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Orifice Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Dual Stage Orifice Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Thermostatic Expansion Valve (TXV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Thermostatic Expansion Valve Used On Front A/C Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Thermostatic Expansion Valve Used On Rear A/C Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Fixed Output Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Variable Output Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Variable Displacement Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Scroll Compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Pressure Relief Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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 Table of Contents

Muffler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
System Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Compressor Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Compressor Clutch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
A/C HighĆPressure CutĆOff Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
A/C LowĆPressure CutĆOff Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
A/C Refrigerant Low Temperature Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Evaporator Thermistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
A/C Refrigerant Pressure Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Refrigerant Conditioning Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Accumulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
ReceiverĆDryer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Refrigeration System Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Cycling Clutch Orifice Tube (CCOT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Variable Displacement Orifice Tube (VDOT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Variable Displacement Thermostatic Expansion Valve (VDTXV) . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Rear A/C Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

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 Introduction
Objectives
Upon completion of this course, you will be able:
• To understand the basic principles of refrigeration.
• To identify system components.
• To identify and describe the operation of current types of refrigeration systems.

1
Introduction
Heater, Ventilation and Air Conditioning Sub-Systems

A Heater, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system can be divided into the following
three sub-systems:
• Refrigeration
• Cooling
• Air Distribution
This program deals with the principles of operation and components used for the refrigeration
sub-system.
The refrigeration sub-system transports refrigerant throughout the HVAC system. It is
composed of refrigerant lines, pressure control devices and heat transfer components.
The cooling sub-system is used to cool the hot refrigerant entering the condenser. The cooling
sub-system directs cool air entering the engine compartment through the condenser.
The air distribution sub-system directs air through the ventilation system.

REFRIGERATION

Restriction
AIR DISTRIBUTION

Heater
Core

Evaporator
COOLING Fan

Compressor

Condenser
Accumulator-
Radiator Dryer

Figure 1. HVAC Sub-Systems

2
 Introduction
Refrigeration Systems
Refrigeration systems are used to transfer heat from the air entering the passenger
compartment to the refrigerant. The refrigerant is then cooled and cycled through the
system.
To perform this task. all refrigeration systems use the following components:
• Evaporator
• Accumulator-Dryer
• Compressor
• Condenser
• Restriction

REFRIGERATION

Restriction

Evaporator

Compressor
Condenser

Accumulator-
Dryer

Figure 2. Refrigeration System Components

3
Introduction
Cooling Systems
The cooling sub-system of the HVAC system directs air through the fins of the condenser.
Passing air through the condenser allows heat transfer from the hot refrigerant to the
cooler air. Cooling systems are composed of the following components:
• Air Intake
• Condenser
• Radiator
• Fan(s)
• Seals and Shroud

COOLING Fan

Condenser

Radiator

Figure 3. Cooling System Components.

4
 Introduction
Air Distribution Systems
The air distribution sub-system of the HVAC system directs conditioned air through the
outlets. Air distribution systems are composed of the following components:
• Blower
• Evaporator
• Heater Core
• Air Doors/Valves
• Air Ducts
• Control System

AIR DISTRIBUTION

Heater
Core
Blower
Evaporator Motor

Figure 4. Air Distribution System Components.

5
Principles of Refrigeration
Air Conditioning and Comfort
The sole purpose of an A/C system is for customer comfort.The A/C system achieves
customer comfort by cooling the air temperature inside the passenger compartment and
removing moisture (humidity), dust and pollen particles.
By removing moisture and lowering the humidity, the A/C system can achieve customer
comfort at higher temperatures. Laboratory tests show that people feel just as cool at 26°C
(79°F) with 30% humidity, as they would at 22°C (72°F) with 90% humidity. The reason for this
is that the human body cools itself by allowing moisture on the skin to evaporate. When
moisture evaporates the skin becomes cooler.
The relative humidity governs how quickly evaporation occurs:
• High relative Humidity = low evaporation rate.
• Low relative humidity = high evaporation rate.
When the A/C system removes moisture from the air, the relative humidity in the passenger
compartment decreases.
By reducing the relative humidity, the A/C system increases the rate at which moisture on the
passenger’s skin will evaporate.

AIR
CONDITIONING

HEAT

MOISTURE

CLEAN
COOL,
DUST DRY AIR

POLLEN

Figure 5. Functions of the A/C System

6
 Principles of Refrigeration
Heat Versus Temperature
A/C systems operate by removing heat from the air entering the passenger compartment. The
result of this is a lower temperature. Temperature and heat are not interchangeable terms.
Heat is the energy in a substance. Heat can be measured by British Thermal Units (BTU’s).
One BTU is the amount of heat needed to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit at
sea level. Heat is independent of temperature. A cup of coffee and a coffee pot may both be at
the same temperature but they have different amounts of heat.

100 BTU’S
OF HEAT

1,000 BTU’S
OF HEAT

CUP OF COFFEE AT POT OF COFFEE AT

71 C (160 F) 71 C (160 F)

Figure 6. Temperature Versus Energy

Temperature is the intensity level of heat. Temperature can be measured in degrees Celsius
(C) and degrees Fahrenheit (F). An object that is hot has a high intensity of heat. An object
that is cold has a low intensity of heat. Cold objects have heat but a lower intensity level of
heat. For example: A cold swimming pool has a greater quantity of heat than a hot barbecue
even though the barbecue has a much higher intensity of heat.

MORE
HEAT

HIGHER
TEMPERATURE

Figure 7. Heat Versus Temperature

7
Principles of Refrigeration
Heat Transfer

The law of heat transfer states that:

• Heat always flows from an area of higher temperature to an area of lower temperature.
For example, when holding a glass of ice water, heat flows from the warm hand to the cooler
glass.
The law of heat transfer also states that:
• The greater the difference in temperature the faster heat flows.
• Heat continues to flow until both temperatures are equal (heat transfer tries to equal
intensity).

HEAT FLOWS FROM HEAT FLOWS UNTIL

HIGH TO LOW TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURES ARE
EQUAL

LOW
TEMPERATURE

HIGH
TEMPERATURE

VIEW VIEW
A B

Figure 8. Heat Transfer Equalizes Temperature.

8
 Principles of Refrigeration
An automotive engine cooling system is an excellent example of the different types of heat
transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. The heat transfer process occurs throughout
the system.
Inside the engine cylinders, burning fuel generates tremendous amounts of heat. However,
because engine coolant keeps the cylinder walls cooler than the temperature of the burning
fuel, heat flows from the combustion gases to the cooler inner cylinder wall. This heat is then
transferred to the outer cylinder wall and to the liquid coolant. The outer cylinder wall is hotter
than the coolant, so heat flows to the lower temperature coolant. This type of heat flow is
called “conduction” – the flow of heat through a substance.
The water pump circulates the heat-saturated coolant away from the cylinder walls to the
radiator. This movement of heat from one place to another using a liquid transfer path is
known as “convection”
Conductive transfer again occurs at the radiator, where the heat energy moves to the cooler
radiator surfaces. Then, as air flows through the radiator core, the heat radiates to the cooler
air.
The law of heat transfer, along with the design of the cooling system, prevent engine
overheating. Each time heat flows, the law is upheld: Heat flows from areas of higher
temperature to areas of lower temperature.
In principle, an air conditioning system does the same job as an engine cooling system. An
engine cooling system carries heat away from the engine via coolant, while the A/C system
carries heat away from air in the passenger compartment via refrigerant. Both systems will
release stored heat to the outside air.

RADIATOR

COOLANT

ENGINE

AMBIENT
AIR

Figure 9. Heat Transfers in an Engine Cooling System.

9
Principles of Refrigeration
States of Matter
Because the A/C refrigeration system and the engine cooling systems use different mediums
for heat transfer, there are some important differences between the two systems.
Engine coolant is an ethyl glycol-based liquid. Ideally, it remains a liquid as it transfers heat.
Refrigerant, on the other hand, evaporates and condenses each time it absorbs and transfers
heat.
As a result, it changes from a liquid to a vapor and back to a liquid as it flows through the A/C
system.

ABSORBING HEAT

EVAPORATES

VAPOR REFRIGERANT LIQUID

CONDENSES

REMOVING HEAT

Figure 10. Refrigerant Changes States.

10
 Principles of Refrigeration
In physics, a change in state occurs when the molecular structure of a substance is
rearranged as it changes between any two of the three states: solid, liquid, or gas. For
example, an ice cube undergoes a change of state as it melts into a liquid. And, as the water
evaporates into a vapor, another change of state occurs.

SOLID LIQUID GAS

HEAT HEAT

Figure 11. Changes in States of Matter.

11
Principles of Refrigeration
Latent Heat and the Vaporization of Liquids
Another law of physics states:
A specific amount of heat is needed to change a liquid into a vapor.
The amount of heat needed to change one gram of liquid into a vapor is called its heat of
vaporization. The heat of vaporization is also known as latent heat. Latent heat refers to the
heat absorbed as the liquid changes state. It is called latent (hidden) heat because, even
though a lot of heat is absorbed as a change in state occurs, the liquid and vapor remain at
the same temperature. When water has absorbed enough heat to boil, it turns to vapor. Water
at 100°C (212°F) turns into vapor at the same temperature.
Under normal circumstances, adding more heat to the water does not increase the
temperature of the water. Boiling water at atmospheric pressure (101.4 kPa / 14.7 psi) cannot
be heated above 100°C (212°F). Any heat above the quantity necessary to boil water only
produces greater quantities of vapor in less time.

1
GRAM

SAME
TEMPERATURE

HEAT REQUIRED

Figure 12. Heat of Vaporization.

12
 Principles of Refrigeration
When vapor changes to a liquid, it is said to “condense”. A common example is found on the
bathroom mirror during a steamy shower. Moisture from the steamy air condenses as it comes
in contact with the cool mirror. This moisture collects on the mirror and drips down the surface
in the form of a liquid.
When vapor condenses, it releases its latent heat. The latent heat of condensation is the
amount of heat released as vapor changes to a liquid.

LATENT LATENT
HEAT HEAT
ABSORBED RELEASED

LIQUID VAPOR LIQUID

Figure 13. Vaporization and Condensation.

13
Principles of Refrigeration
Pressure-Temperature Relationships

The science of physics includes laws describing the relationship between pressure and the
boiling points of liquids:

• If the pressure acting on a liquid is increased, the boiling point of the liquid increases.
• Lowering the pressure acting on a liquid lowers its boiling point.
Thus, water in a vacuum boils at a very low temperature, while water in a pressurized engine
cooling system boils at well above 100°C (212°F).

HIGH LOW
PRESSURE PRESSURE
EQUALS EQUALS
HIGH LOW
BOILING BOILING
POINT POINT

1524 M (5000
FT.)
ABOVE
SEA LEVEL
97 C (206 F)

SEA LEVEL
100 C (212 F)

LATENT HEAT EXCHANGE IS THE SAME AMOUNT AT BOTH ALTITUDES

BUT WATER TURNS TO STEAM AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES.

Figure 14. Effect of Pressure on Boiling Point.

14
 Principles of Refrigeration
An engine cooling system readily demonstrates the effect of pressure on the boiling point of
water. As water in the cooling system warms up, pressure builds in the sealed system. This
pressure increases the boiling point of the water well above 100°C (212°F). As long as the
system remains sealed and the pressure is maintained, the water can be heated above its
normal boiling point without boiling. However, if the radiator cap is removed, the pressure in
the cooling system is released. This means the pressure acting on the water is now ambient
air pressure. The water, heated under pressure to more than 100°C (212°F), will boil as soon
as the pressure is released. This example is useful, as pressure affects all liquids the same
way it affects water.

SEALED COOLING SYSTEM PRESSURE

UNDER PRESSURE RELEASED

WATER
BEGINS
WATER TEMPERATURE TO BOIL
ABOVE 100 C (212 F)

WATER DOESN’T BOIL WATER

TEMPERATURE
ABOVE 100 C (212 F)

Figure 15. Boiling Point in a Sealed and Open System.

15
Principles of Refrigeration
Effect of Pressure on Gases and Vapors
Pressure also affects the temperature of gases and vapors. Compressing a gas or vapor
increases its temperature because the same amount of heat is concentrated into a smaller
area. Thus, the temperature of the gas or vapor can be increased without adding extra heat.
This is what happens inside an A/C compressor. A compressor uses pressure to concentrate
the heat of a vapor. A heat transfer occurs when the vapor contacts a cooler surface.
Transferring heat away from the hot, high-pressure vapor condenses it into a liquid. Lowering
the pressure of this liquid causes it to boil and absorb heat as it changes states.

HEAT

HEAT

HEAT

HEAT
HEAT

LOW PRESSURE HIGH PRESSURE

(LOW TEMPERATURE) (HIGH TEMPERATURE)

Figure 16. Concentrating Heat Raises Temperature

16
 Principles of Refrigeration
A/C Systems Pressure-Temperature Relationships
The boiling point of R-134a is –27°C (–16°F) at sea level (101.4 kPa [14.7 psi]). Pressure in
an A/C system raises the boiling point of the refrigerant. Thus, automotive A/C systems are
designed to operate at pressures that keep the boiling point of refrigerant at just the right
temperature for taking heat out of the passenger compartment. A definite temperature and
pressure relationship exists between liquid refrigerants and their vapors. Heating refrigerant
causes it to expand. When confined in a closed space, an increase in temperature is always
accompanied by an increase in pressure – even though no compressor is present. For every
temperature increase, a corresponding pressure will exist in a container of R-134a. This
temperature-pressure relationship can be easily demonstrated. A pressure gauge attached to
a container of R-134a at 21°C (70°F) reveals a pressure of about 487 kPa (71 psi). At 38°C
(100°F), the gauge will register about 857 kPa (124 psi). If the refrigerant within a refrigeration
system or container is not pure, the pressure-temperature relationship will not match the
values shown in the chart.

17
Principles of Refrigeration

R-134a AUTOMOTIVE TEMPERATURE-PRESSURE CHART

Temperature, Pressure Temperature, Pressure

C ( F) kPa (PSI) C ( F) kPa (PSI)
- 9 (16) 106 (15) 38 (100) 857 (124)
- 8 (18) 115 (17) 39 (102) 887 (129)
- 7 (20) 124 (18) 40 (104) 917 (133)
- 6 (22) –– –– 134 (19) 41 (106) 948 (137)
- 4 (24) E 144 (21) 42 (108) 980 (142)
- 3 (26) V 155 (22) 43 (110) –– –– 1012 (147)
- 2 (28) A R 166 (24) 44 (112) 1045 (152)
- 1 (30) P A 177 (26) 46 (114) 1079 (157)
0 (32) O N 188 (27) 47 (116) 1114 (162)
1 (34) R G 200 (29) 48 (118) 1149 (167)
2 (36) A E 212 (31) 49 (120) C 1185 (172)
3 (38) T 225 (33) 50 (122) O 1222 (177)
4 (40) O 238 (35) 51 (124) N R 1260 (183)
7 (45) R 272 (40) 52 (126) D A 1298 (188)
10 (50) –– –– 310 (45) 53 (128) E N 1337 (194)
13 (55) 350 (51) 54 (130) N G 1377 (200)
16 (60) 392 (57) 57 (135) S E 1481 (215)
18 (65) 438 (64) 60 (140) E 1590 (231)
21 (70) 487 (71) 63 (145) R 1704 (247)
24 (75) 540 (78) 66 (150) 1823 (264)
27 (80) 609 (88) 68 (155) 1948 (283)
30 (85) 655 (95) 71 (160) 2079 (301)
32 (90) 718 (104) 74 (165) –– –– 2215 (321)
35 (95) 786 (114) 77 (170) 2358 (342)

EVAPORATOR pressures represent gas temperatures inside the coil and not the coil sur-
faces. Add to temperature for coil and air-off temperatures (4 to 6 C / 8 to 10 F).
CONDENSER temperatures are not ambient temperatures. Add to ambient (19 to 22 C / 35
to 40 F) for proper heat transfer, then refer to chart.
Example: At an ambient temperature of 32 C, the condenser temperature would be (32 C +
22 =) 54 C. From the chart 54 C is 1377 kPa based on 50kph airflow.

18
 Principles of Refrigeration
Basic Refrigeration Cycle
Automotive A/C systems move heat from one place to another by compressing, condensing
and evaporating refrigerant. The A/C system creates these special conditions by using
pressure and heat transfer to control the changing states of liquid and vapor. An A/C
refrigerant system consists of several components connected together with tubing and hoses
to form a closed loop for the refrigeration cycle. Refrigerant flows through the closed loop,
absorbing heat in the evaporator and releasing it in the condenser. All automotive A/C
systems contain these components:Compressor – builds pressure to concentrate the heat of
the refrigerant vapor. Condenser – transfers heat away from vapor coming out of compressor,
condensing the refrigerant into liquid. Evaporator – transfers heat from passenger
compartment air to the refrigerant, vaporizing the refrigerant. Refrigerant – absorbs and
releases heat as it changes state. Lubricant – extends compressor life.

A COMPRESSOR
INSTALLED HERE
WOULD COMPLETE
A BASIC
REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM

EVAPORATOR

CONDENSER

THESE THREE COMPONENTS

ARE USED IN EVERY
REFRIGERATION CIRCUIT

Figure 17. Basic Refrigeration Cycle.

19
Principles of Refrigeration
Controlling Refrigerant in the A/C System

Pressure and Flow

In addition to the compressor, condenser, and evaporator, A/C systems require some
method of controlling refrigerant pressure and flow. The compressor can pump refrigerant
through the system, but unless it has something to push against, it cannot build up system
pressure and maintain the conditions necessary to achieve the refrigeration effect.
Refrigerant system pressure is necessary. Low-side system pressure keeps the boiling
point of the refrigerant at the proper level. High evaporator pressure would slow the
evaporation of the refrigerant and reduce the refrigeration effect. High-side system
pressure allows the refrigerant to condense at normal ambient temperatures. A metering
device is used to help the compressor build pressure and maintain the refrigerant cycle.
GM uses two types of metering devices: orifice tubes and thermostatic expansion valves
(TXV). Orifice tubes have openings of fixed diameters for metering refrigerant flow. TXVs
vary refrigerant flow based on evaporator outlet temperatures.

High- and Low-Pressure Areas

The refrigerant system is divided into two portions: a high-pressure area (high side) and a
low-pressure area (low side). These two areas are separated by a metering device (orifice
tube or TXV) and compressor. Because the compressor can move more refrigerant than is
able to pass through the metering device in a given time, pressure builds between the
compressor outlet and the metering device. Therefore, the high side of the refrigerant
system extends from the compressor outlet, through the condenser, to the metering device
inlet. During operation, the high-pressure side is also the high-temperature side of the
system. The low side starts at the metering device outlet, includes the evaporator and
accumulator, and continues to the compressor inlet. During operation, the low-pressure
side is also the low-temperature side of the refrigerant system. The high-pressure and
low-pressure sides can be distinguished in several ways: Tube diameter – High-side tubing
is often smaller than low-side tubing. Feel – High-side tubing is hotter than low-side tubing.
Sight – Low-side tubing is often cool enough to collect frost or water droplets on
high-humidity days. Pressure – A gauge set can be used to measure the pressures in an
A/C system.

20
 Principles of Refrigeration
Controlling Refrigerant Flow
Depending on design, automotive A/C systems use several methods to control the flow of
refrigerant. Central to each design, however, is the continuous interaction of the
compressor with a flow control device, such as an orifice tube. The volume of flow is
adjusted based on the pressure-temperature load, which is monitored at a key location in
the system.

EVAPORATOR

CONDENSER ORIFICE
TUBE

VARIABLE
DISPLACEMENT
COMPRESSOR

PRESSURE LIQUID
RELIEF LINE
VALVE ACCUMULATOR-
DRYER

CLUTCH
(NON-CYCLING)

HIGH-PRESSURE
VAPOR
HIGH-PRESSURE
LIQUID
LOW-PRESSURE
LIQUID
LOW-PRESSURE
VAPOR
Figure 18. High- and Low-Pressure Areas of the Refrigeration System.

21
Principles of Refrigeration
Factors Affecting Heat Transfer Efficiency
The heat transfer efficiency of automotive A/C systems is greatly affected by “heat load” –
the amount of heat that must be absorbed by the refrigerant. Factors affecting heat load
are airflow at the condenser and evaporator, humidity, ambient temperatures, and
sun load.
Coolant fan – Engine coolant fans are an important part of the air conditioning system.
In addition to causing engine overheating, a nonfunctional cooling fan hinders
the heat transfer processes taking place at the condenser and radiator.
Insufficient heat transfer at the condenser causes the compressor to work too
hard at compressing the refrigerant vapor. This, in turn, causes compressor
head pressure - or high-side pressure - to rise to unacceptable levels.
Condenser – Any obstruction that reduces or blocks air flow through the condenser will
affect the efficiency of the condenser and the overall A/C refrigeration system
performance. If air is diverted around the condenser (missing seals or damage to
the air dam), the A/C refrigeration system performance will also be reduced.
Blower motor – the blower motor affects evaporator heat transfer in the same way that
the coolant fan affects condenser heat transfer. Blower motor speed controls
airflow speed, which determines the volume of air flowing over the evaporator.
Humidity – Humidity is a measure of the water vapor present in air. When water vapor
condenses on the evaporator, the heat of vaporization of the water is absorbed
by the cooler evaporator surface. This heat is then absorbed by the refrigerant in
the evaporator. This reduces the amount of heat that can be removed from the
air. Therefore, on a humid day, the air is not cooled as efficiently as it is on a dry
day.
Sun Load – Sun load is the intensity of the long-wave heat rays from the sun. Ambient
temperatures, together with the type and color of the interior and exterior
materials, affect heat load and, thus, the efficiency of the A/C system.

22
 Refrigeration System Components
Heat Transfer Components

Condenser

Figure 19. Typical Condenser

The condenser consists of refrigerant tubing mounted in a series of thin cooling fins. The
condenser is mounted in front of the radiator for maximum airflow.
The condenser is used to liquify the hot, high-pressure vapor it receives from the
compressor. To accomplish this, it must transfer heat and condense the vapor. Hot,
high-pressure vapor enters the top of the condenser at the inlet. The hot vapor passes
downward through the condenser coils, transferring heat to the coils and fins. The fins then
transfer the heat to air passing over them. As this heat transfer occurs, the hot,
high-pressure refrigerant vapor changes into a warm, high-pressure liquid. The warm liquid
flows from the outlet at the bottom of the condenser.
The process of removing heat from refrigerant after condensation is known as
“subcooling”. During normal condenser operation, the outlet pipe is slightly cooler than
the inlet pipe.

23
Refrigeration System Components
Evaporator

Figure 20. Typical Evaporator

The evaporator consists of fins (which rapidly transfer heat) and refrigerant-carrying coils.
The evaporator cools and dehumidifies the airstream entering the passenger
compartment.
During A/C system operation, liquid refrigerant flows from the metering device into the low
pressure area of the evaporator. This action creates a very cool evaporator surface. As the
air entering the passenger compartment flows over the evaporator fins, the air loses its
heat to the cooler surfaces of the evaporator fins. Moisture (humidity) present in the
airstream condenses on the cool surfaces of the evaporator and drains off as water.
If the evaporator surfaces are too cold, the moisture collecting on the fins will not
drain off as water. Instead, it will freeze. This freezing occurs when low-side
pressure is so low that the refrigerant boils at less than the freezing point of water.
“Superheat” is defined as the difference between evaporator inlet and outlet temperatures
and is created in the evaporator as liquid refrigerant changes into vapor. Ideally, all liquid
refrigerant boils before it reaches the evaporator coil outlet. In fact, the refrigerant
temperature is above the boiling point. For example, refrigerant in an evaporator at 177
kPa (26 psi) has a temperature of –1°C (30°F). As the refrigerant boils, the temperature of
the vapor rises until, at the outlet, it reaches 1.6°C (35°F). The inlet to outlet differential - or
superheat - is 2.6°C (5°F).

24
 Refrigeration System Components
Metering Devices

Orifice Tube

Orifice (Expansion)
Tube

O-Ring

Figure 21. Orifice Tube

The orifice tube is one of the dividing points between the high-pressure and low-pressure
sides of the refrigerant system. The tube, with its mesh filter screen and orifice, provides a
restriction to the high-pressure refrigerant in the liquid line. Filter screens protect both the
inlet and the outlet side of the orifice from contamination. The orifice tube meters the flow
of refrigerant into the evaporator as a low-pressure liquid. An orifice tube is typically
located in the refrigerant line between the condenser outlet and the evaporator inlet.
Orifice tube failure is usually indicated by low suction and high discharge pressures and
insufficient evaporator cooling. Orifice tube failure is usually due to a restriction. A common
cause of this complaint is a clogged orifice tube inlet screen due to contamination,
corrosion particles or refrigerant drying chemicals loose in the refrigerant system.

25
Refrigeration System Components
Dual Stage Orifice Valve

Figure 22. Dual Stage Orifice Tube

The dual stage orifice valve consists of a solenoid driven plunger, which can provide two
possible sizes of restriction:
• 1.57 mm (0.062 in) - energized position
• 2.03 mm (0.080 in) - de-energized position
In warm to hot ambient conditions the valve allows the compressor to stay on by reducing
compressor head pressure.
The valve may also reduce compressor cycling under mild ambient conditions.

Thermostatic Expansion Valve (TXV)

The Thermostatic Expansion Valve (TXV) is installed at the evaporator inlet and outlet
pipes. The valve converts the high-pressure liquid refrigerant to a low-pressure liquid
refrigerant by forcing it through a small port before entering the evaporator.
When the heat load increases or decreases, the expansion valve supplies the correct
quantity of refrigerant to the evaporator for maximum heat transfer.

26
 Refrigeration System Components
Thermostatic Expansion Valve Used On Front A/C Systems

R-134a Charge In The Temperature Sensing

Device Expands And Contracts As It Is Heated
And Cooled By Refrigerant Vapor Leaving The
Evaporator

From Evaporator To Compressor

To Evaporator

From Receiver-Dryer

Superheat Adjustment (Bias)

Spring

Figure 23. Current Front SystemThermostatic Expansion Valve

The thermal expansion valve (TXV) currently used on front systems has an internal
sensing device to control the opening of the orifice.

The refrigerant in the sensing device expands as it is heated by the refrigerant leaving
the evaporator. This provides increased pressure to the back-side of the diaphragm,
opening the orifice.

The refrigerant in the sensing device contracts as it is cooled by the refrigerant leaving
the evaporator. This decreases pressure to the back-side of the diaphragm and allows
the superheat spring to close the orifice.

27
Refrigeration System Components
All TXVs are adjusted to compensate for superheat conditions. “Superheat” is defined
as the difference between evaporator inlet and outlet temperatures and is created in the
evaporator as liquid refrigerant changes into vapor. Ideally, all liquid refrigerant boils
before it reaches the evaporator coil outlet. In fact, the refrigerant temperature is above
the boiling point. For example, refrigerant in an evaporator at 177 kPa (26 psi) has a
temperature of –1°C (30°F). As the refrigerant boils, the temperature of the vapor rises
until, at the outlet, it reaches 1.6°C (35°F). The inlet to outlet differential - or superheat -
is 2.6°C (5°F). As the evaporator size increases, so does superheating.

Thermostatic Expansion Valve Used On Rear A/C Systems

Capillary
Tube

Screen

Remote Internal Inlet

Bulb Equalizer
Passage
Orifice
Seat

Superheat
Spring

Outlet

Figure 24. Current Rear System Thermostatic Expansion Valve

The thermal expansion valve (TXV) currently used on rear systems has a remote bulb.

The remote bulb is clamped to the low-pressure vapor line just beyond the evaporator
outlet.
As the evaporator outlet temperature changes, the gas inside the remote bulb expands
and contracts, providing pressure to the backside of the diaphragm.

An internal equalizer passage provides TXV outlet-side pressure to the other side of the
diaphragm.
The TXV outlet pressure and the superheat spring control the closing of the orifice.

28
 Refrigeration System Components
Compressors
The compressor performs one main function;
• to compress low-pressure vapor from the evaporator into a high-pressure,
high-temperature vapor.

Figure 25. A/C Compressor.

Although General Motors is currently using compressors made by several manufacturers, they
fall into two main categories:
• Fixed Output Compressors
• Variable Output Compressors

Fixed Output Compressors

All current fixed output compressors use a fixed displacement compressor. Fixed output
compressors cycle ON and OFF to meet A/C system demands.

29
Refrigeration System Components

Shaft

Swash Plate Piston

Figure 26. Fixed Output Compressor

The compressor mechanism incorporates axially oriented pistons and a wobble plate.
A swash plate is used to move the pistons back and forth in the cylinders as the input shaft
is rotated.
Each piston draws low-side refrigerant vapor into the cylinder through a reed valve on its
suction stroke.
On its compression stroke, the piston compresses the refrigerant and discharges high-side
refrigerant vapor through another reed valve.

Variable Output Compressors

Two types of compressors are currently used to provide variable output depending on heat
load:
d Variable Displacement Compressors

d Scroll Compressors

Variable Displacement Compressors

The variable displacement compressors are capable of meeting A/C system demands
without cycling. The compressor controls temperature by changing the length of its
piston strokes. Short piston strokes displace small volumes of refrigerant, whereas long
piston strokes displace large amounts of refrigerant.

30
 Refrigeration System Components

Wobble Wobble
Pisto Plate Piston Plate
n

Control
Control Valve
Valve Bellows
Bellows

Control
Control Piston Valve
Valve Stroke Piston
Stroke
Shaft
Shaft Centerline
Centerline
Pressures
Wobble Plate Positions Low
Wobble Plate Positions At Minimum Discharge
At Maximum Displacement Crankcase
Displacement
Figure 27. Variable Displacement Compressor at Minimum and Maximum Displacement

The compressor mechanism incorporates axially oriented pistons and a variable angle
wobble plate. Compressor displacement (piston stroke length) is controlled by the
position of a bellows-actuated control valve in the rear head of the compressor.
The control valve senses suction (low-side) pressure. The difference between suction
and crankcase pressure determines wobble plate angle. This, in turn, determines piston
stroke and displacement.

When A/C capacity demand is high, suction pressure is above the control point. At this
time, the compressor control valve maintains a pressure bleed from the crankcase to
suction. With no crankcase-to-suction pressure differential, the wobble plate moves to
maximum angle, and the compressor operates at maximum displacement. When A/C
capacity demand is lower, suction pressure reaches the control point. At this time, the
control valve bleeds discharge gas into the crankcase and closes a passage between
the crankcase and the suction plenum. Because the angle of the wobble plate is
controlled by a force balance on the five pistons, a slight elevation of the
crankcase-to-suction pressure differential delivers maximum force to the pistons. This
action results in a movement around the wobble plate pivot pin that reduces plate angle
and decreases displacement.

Scroll Compressor

Scroll compressors are also capable of meeting A/C system demands without cycling.
The compressor has a fixed displacement but can control temperature by diverting
some high pressure vapor back to the suction side during low heat load conditions.

31
Refrigeration System Components

Fixed Scroll

Discharge
Rotating Scroll Port

Control Valve
Pressure Bleed
Holes

Figure 28. Scroll Compressor.

Scroll compressors have two identical scrolls that are arranged at 180 degrees around
the offset centers. One scroll is fixed and the other turns at a constant rate around the
rotating shaft. With this configuration, the space between the scrolls moves from the
outside toward the center and reduces in volume to create compression.

In addition to a central discharge port, the fixed scroll has pressure bleed ports. A
pressure activated control valve (mounted in the channel plate directly below the fixed
scroll) diverts some high pressure vapor from the bleed ports back to the suction side
when heat load is low.

32
 Refrigeration System Components
Pressure Relief Valve
A pressure relief valve is located on the rear compressor head. Under certain conditions,
discharge refrigerant pressure may exceed the designed limit. To prevent system damage,
the pressure relief valve opens and releases pressure.

PRESSURE COMPRESSOR
RELIEF VALVE

Figure 29. A/C Pressure Relief Valve.

Muffler

Figure 30. Muffler

A muffler is used on some refrigerant systems to reduce characteristic compressor

pumping noises that result from high or low-pressure vibrations. The muffler is usually
installed on the outlet side of the compressor.

33
Refrigeration System Components
System Lubrication
The A/C system refrigerant carries a charge of lubricating oil. Since the refrigerant and oil
mix, the refrigerant carries oil throughout the system to lubricate moving parts. Most
compressors rely upon oil-saturated refrigerant to lubricate their internal moving parts.
General Motors uses PAG (Polyalkaline Gycol) oil with the R-134a refrigerant to provide
this lubrication.
Normally, it should not be necessary to add oil unless there is evidence of a major loss of
system oil or a component requires replacement.

34
 Refrigeration System Components
Compressor Controls
The compressor can be engaged and disengaged based on system pressures. The pressures
are monitored by a variety of switches. These switches provide inputs that are used to control
the compressor clutch.

Compressor Clutch

PULLEY ROTOR COIL

CLUTCH DRIVE RING
KEY
NUT

BEARING

Figure 31. Compressor Pulley Rotor and Clutch Components

All compressors use an electromagnetic clutch referred to as the compressor clutch.
When the electromagnetic clutch is de-energized, the pulley on the front of the compressor
is allowed to freewheel.
When the electromagnetic clutch is energized, the engine accessory belt drives the
compressor.

35
Refrigeration System Components

A/C
ENABLE
RELAY

A/C A/C
CLUTCH COMPRESSOR
DIODE CLUTCH PCM
A/C
Enable

Figure 32. Typical Compressor Clutch Circuit.

Voltage to operate the compressor clutch is provided using an A/C Enable Relay
(Compressor Clutch Relay). This relay is controlled by the vehicle’s Powertrain Control
Module (PCM) when A/C is requested.
A diode is used to absorb the induced voltage across the clutch coil when de-energized.

A/C High-Pressure Cut-Off Switch

A/C
HIGH-PRESSURE
CUT-OFF SWITCH
COMPRESSOR

Figure 33. A/C High-Pressure Cut-Off Switch.

The Powertrain Control Module (PCM) will disengage the compressor clutch, if the
high-side pressure should rise above normal operating parameters. A pressure-sensitive
electric switch, called the A/C High-Pressure Cut-Off Switch provides this information.

36
 Refrigeration System Components
The switch is a normally closed, spring loaded, diaphragm-type pressure switch.

A/C Low-Pressure Cut-Off Switch

Accumulator

O-Ring

Pressure
Cycling
Switch

Figure 34. Pressure Cycling Components

An A/C Low-Pressure Cut-Off Switch (or Pressure Cycling Switch) is used on the low-side
to:
• prevent evaporator freeze-up,
• prevent compressor operation during low ambient temperatures, and
• prevent compressor operation if a there is low refrigerant charge
The A/C Low-Pressure Cut-Off Switch is a pressure-sensitive electric switch.
The switch is a spring loaded, diaphragm-type pressure switch.
When the low-side pressure falls below approximately 175 Kpa (25 p.s.i.), the switch
opens. The PCM will disengage the compressor clutch.
When the low-side pressure rises above approximately 315 Kpa (46 p.s.i.), the switch
closes and the PCM engages the compressor clutch.
Pressure cycling switches are often located on the accumulator. However, while the
location may vary, the switch is always located on the low-pressure side of the refrigerant
system and indicates evaporator pressure.

A/C Refrigerant Low Temperature Sensor

An A/C Refrigerant Low Temperature Sensor is used on the low-side to prevent evaporator
freeze-up.

37
Refrigeration System Components
The A/C Refrigerant Low Temperature Sensor is a thermistor. A thermistor’s output voltage
is inverse to temperature. A high voltage represents a low temperature and a low voltage
represents a high temperature.

Evaporator Thermistor

Evaporator Thermistor

Evaporator

Figure 35. Evaporator Thermistor

Thermistors are also used in some air conditioning systems to control evaporator
temperatures. The thermistor is a sensor that converts evaporator temperature into a
resistance value. The sensor is electrically connected to the system that controls the
compressor. When evaporator temperatures drop below approximately 1_C (34_F), the
compressor shuts off, preventing the formation of frost and ice on the evaporator fins.

38
 Refrigeration System Components
A/C Refrigerant Pressure Sensor

Figure 36. A/C Refrigerant Pressure Sensor

A pressure sensor called the A/C Refrigerant Pressure Sensor is used on the high-side on
some systemsreach.
It is a three-wire transducer that is a direct input of PCM used for:
• cooling fans,
• idle speed control,
• low-pressure protection, and
• high pressure protection.

39
Refrigeration System Components
Refrigerant Conditioning Devices

Accumulator
The accumulator-dryer acts as a storage container, receiving liquid refrigerant, vapor and
oil from the evaporator. Its primary function is to separate the vapor from the liquid and oil,
then release the vapor to the compressor. In this way, it helps protect the compressor from
damage that could occur from attempting to compress liquid.
The accumulator-dryer contains a desiccant in a bag. The desiccant acts as a refrigerant
oil drying agent by absorbing moisture that may have entered the system. An oil bleed hole
is located near the bottom of the accumulator-dryer outlet pipe. The bleed hole provides a
path for oil to return to the compressor.
A service valve is typically located near the top of the accumulator-dryer in the low side
line. The pressure cycling switch is also located on a Schrader fitting so that it can be
replaced without recovering refrigerant from the system.
The accumulator-dryer (because of it’s location and operating characteristics) is used
together with a fixed (orifice) type metering device systems.

Refrigerant
Vapor Inlet
Inlet

Outlet

Baffle

Internal
Desiccant Bag Tube
Assembly

Oil Filter
Assembly
Oil Bleed Hole
Location In Tube

Figure 37. Typical Accumulator

40
 Refrigeration System Components
Receiver-Dryer
Inlet
Fitting

Outlet

Shell

Desiccant
Bag

Filter

Figure 38. Receiver-Dryer

The receiver-dryer is a storage tank for liquid refrigerant from the condenser. The liquid
flows into the upper portion of the receiver tank, which contains a desiccant (chemical
drying agent). As the refrigerant flows through an opening in the lower portion of the
receiver, it is filtered through a mesh screen attached to a baffle at the bottom of the
receiver. The desiccant absorbs any moisture that might enter the system. These features
prevent obstruction to the valves or damage to the compressor.
The receiver-dryer (because of it’s location and operating characteristics) is used with
variable (TXV) type metering device systems.

41
Refrigeration System Configurations
Refrigeration System Types
There are currently three types of refrigeration systems.
These systems are identified by the first letters of the compressor control and the flow control
device.
• CCOT (Cycling Clutch Orifice Tube)
• VDOT (Variable Displacement Orifice Tube)
• VDTXV (Variable Displacement Thermostatic Expansion Valve)

Cycling Clutch Orifice Tube (CCOT)

Condenser
Evaporator

Orifice
Tube
Fixed
Displacement
Compressor

Accumulator-
Dryer

High Pressure Vapor

High Pressure Liquid

Low Pressure Liquid

Low Pressure Vapor

Figure 39. CCOT System.

All Cycling Clutch Orifice Tube (CCOT) refrigerant systems use fixed displacement
compressors and an orifice tube.
CCOT systems cycle the compressor on and off to maintain the refrigeration cycle within
predetermined limits.
These systems also include a condenser, accumulator-dryer,evaporator and various
control components.

42
 Refrigeration System Configurations
Variable Displacement Orifice Tube (VDOT)

Condenser
Evaporator

Orifice
Tube
Variable
Displacement
Compressor

Accumulator-
Dryer

High Pressure Vapor

High Pressure Liquid

Low Pressure Liquid

Low Pressure Vapor

Figure 40. VDOT System.

Variable Displacement Orifice Tube (VDOT) refrigerant systems use variable displacement
compressors and an orifice tube.
Both the variable displacement and scroll compressors can vary their outputs depending
on heat load. Because of this similarity, the scroll compressor, even though it has a fixed
displacement, is often grouped into this category.
The compressor clutch remains engaged whenever the A/C mode is selected. The
compressor varies its output to maintain the refrigeration cycle within predetermined limits.
In addition to a compressor and orifice tube, VDOT refrigerant systems typically include a
condenser, accumulator-dryer and evaporator.

43
Refrigeration System Configurations
Variable Displacement Thermostatic Expansion Valve (VDTXV)

Condenser Evaporator

Receiver-
Dryer

Variable TXV
Displacement
Compressor

High Pressure Vapor

High Pressure Liquid

Low Pressure Liquid

Low Pressure Vapor

Figure 41. VDTXV System.

The Variable Displacement Thermostatic Expansion Valve (VDTXV) system uses a
variable displacement (or output) compressor with a TXV.
The compressor clutch remains engaged whenever the A/C mode is selected.
The compressor varies its output and the TXV varies its metering to maintain the
refrigeration cycle within predetermined limits.
In addition to a compressor and TXV, VDTXV refrigerant systems typically include a
condenser, receiver-dryer and evaporator.

44
 Refrigeration System Configurations
Rear A/C Systems
Rear A/C refrigeration systems operate in conjunction with the front system; they do not
operate independently.

Front
Evaporator
Condenser
Orifice
Tube

Compressor TXV Rear

Evaporator

Accumulator-
Dryer

High Pressure Vapor

High Pressure Liquid

Low Pressure Liquid

Low Pressure Vapor

Figure 42. Rear Refrigeration System.

These systems receive high-pressure liquid refrigerant from the forward A/C system.
The refrigerant is metered into the rear evaporator as a low pressure-liquid by the TXV.
After absorbing heat in the rear evaporator, vaporized refrigerant is returned to the forward
refrigerant system.

45