THE CALCULUS OF RESIDUES

(INTEGRATION)

Submitted
In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE

Submitted by

TUSHAR KANOJIYA
B.Sc. (PCM) - VI Semester
Roll No.: 2101034204029

Under the supervision of

PROF. (DR.) CHINTA MANI TIWARI

Professor
MUIT, Lucknow

MAHARISHI SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

2024
 THE CALCULUS OF RESIDUES
(INTEGRATION)

Submitted
In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE

Submitted by

TUSHAR KANOJIYA
B.Sc. (PCM) - VI Semester
Roll No.: 2101034204029

Under the supervision of

PROF. (DR.) CHINTA MANI TIWARI

Professor
MUIT, Lucknow

MAHARISHI SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

2024
 Certificate
Certified that Tushar kanojiya (roll no. 2101034204029) has carried out the
research work presented in this Dissertation entitled The Calculus of Residues
(Integration) for the Degree of Bachelor of Science from Maharishi Univer-
sity of Information Technology, Lucknow under my supervision. The Dissertation
embodies results of original work, and studies are carried out by the student him-
self/herself and the contents of the Dissertation do not form the basis for the
award of any other degree to the candidate or to anybody else from this or any
other University/Institution.

(Prof. (Dr.) Chinta Mani Tiwari)

Professor
Maharishi School of Science and
Humanities
Date:
Declaration

We hereby declare that the project entitled ”The calculus of Residues (Inte-
gration)” submitted to the Department of Mathematics Maharishi University of
Information Technology, Lucknow is record of an original work done by me under
the guidance of (proff) Dr.CM Tiwari”, Faculty of school of science.

Tushar kanojiya
Roll no -2101034204029
B.Sc 6th semester
Date:
Place: Lucknow

i
Acknowledgement

First of all, I am extremely grateful to the almighty GOD for giving me the
opportunity to carry out research work With all due respect, I would like to thank
my supervisor. (Proff) Dr. Chinta- mani Tiwari, for their invaluable guidance and
support throughout my master’s program. Their expertise and encouragement
helped me to complete this research and write this thesis. I would also like to
thank Dr. Chinta-mani Tiwari for serving on my thesis committee and providing
helpful feedback and suggestions. I would also like to thank my friends and family
for their love and support during this process. Without them, this journey would
not have been possible. Finally, I would like to thank all of the participants in my
study for their time and willingness to share their experiences. This work would
not have been possible without their contribution. I am grateful to everyone who
has supported me throughout this process. Without your help and guidance, this
thesis would not have been possible

Tushar kanojiya

ii
Contents

Declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

1 Introduction 1

2 Zero of analytic function and singularity 3

2.0.1 ZERO OF ANALYTIC FUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.0.2 SINGULAR POINT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3 Residues 8
3.0.1 DEFINITION OF THE RESIDUE AT A POLE . . . . . . 8
3.0.2 RESIDUE AT INFINITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.0.3 METHOD OF FINDING RESIDUES . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4 Residue theorem 16
4.0.1 RESIDUE THEOREM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

5 Special integration around the unit circle 19

5.0.1 INTEGRATION AROUND THE UNIT CIRCLE . . . . . 19
R ∞ f (x)
5.0.2 EVALUATION OF −∞ fjj (x) dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

6 Rouche’s Theorem 27
6.0.1 Theorem . (Rouche’s Theorem) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.0.2 Application of Rouche’ s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

iii
7 Conclusion 31

Bibliography 33
Chapter 1

Introduction

The ”Calculus of Residues” is a mathematical concept that deals with

complex numbers and their residues. It is a powerful tool for solv-
ing integrals, series, and other complex analytic functions. The theory
of residues is the invention of Augustin Louis Cauchy‘S (1789-1857), a French
mathematician, noted for his clear and rigorous methods in mathematic proof.
Cauchy was also the inventor of the theory of functions of a complex variable of
which the residue theory is a very useful facet.

Among the many applications of complex analysis are the explicit com-
putation of definite integrals, the summation of series, and counting
how many zeros a function has in a given region of C. Although such
questions are not as important a part of pure mathematics as they once
were, they are still very relevant to practical applications. Further,
the power of the method and its wide applicability demonstrate the
advantage of general principles and deep theorems over manipulative
ingenuity. The basic idea in all of these applications is to use Cauchy’s
Theorem to exploit the exceptional nature of the term b1/(zz0 ) in the
Laurent expansion of a differentiable function

What is the main principle behind the ”Calculus of Residues”?

The main principle behind the ”Calculus of Residues” is that the

residue of a function at a particular point is equal to the coefficient
of the term with the highest power in the Laurent series expansion of
the function around that point.

What are some common techniques used in the ”Calculus of Residues”?

Some common techniques used in the ”Calculus of Residues” include

the Cauchy residue theorem, the Cauchy integral formula, and the
method of partial fractions. These techniques are used to simplify
complex functions and make them easier to integrate or evaluate

What are some applications of the ”Calculus of Residues”?

1
The ”Calculus of Residues” has many applications in mathematics and
physics. It is used to solve complex integrals, evaluate infinite series,
and calculate complex contour integrals. It is also used in the study of
differential equations and in signal processing.

Some common techniques used in the ”Calculus of Residues” include

the Cauchy residue theorem, the Cauchy integral formula, and the
method of partial fractions. These techniques are used to simplify
complex functions and make them easier to integrate or evaluate.

2
Chapter 2

Zero of analytic function and

singularity

2.0.1 ZERO OF ANALYTIC FUNCTION

A zero of analytic function f(z) is the value of z for which f(z)=0.

Example 1.Find out the zeros and discuss the nature of the singularities
of  
z−2 1
f (z) = · sin (2.1)
z2 z−1
Solution. Poles of f(z) are given by equating to zero the denominator
of f(z) i.e. z = 0 is a pole of order two zeros of f(z) are given by equating
to zero the numerator of f(z) i.e.,
 
1
=⇒ (z − 2) sin =0
z−1

 
1
=⇒ Either z − 2 = 0 or sin =0
z−1

1
=⇒ z = 2 and = nπ
z−1
1
=⇒ z = 2, z= + 1, n = ±1, ±2.........
nπ
Thus, z=2 is a simple zero. The limit point of the zeros are given by
1
z= + 1 (n = ±1, ±2, . . .
nπ

3
2.0.2 SINGULAR POINT
A point at which a function ƒ (z) is not analytic is known as a singular
1
point or singularity of the function. For example, the function z−2 has a
singular point at z-2= 0 or z = 2

Types of singularities

Isolated singular point: If is a singularity of f(z) and if there is no other

singularity with in a small circle surrounding the point z = a, then z
= a is said to be an isolated singularityisolated of the function f(z) ;
otherwise it is called non- isolated singularity.

1
For example, the function (z−1)(z−3) has two isolated singular points,
namely z = 1 and z=3. [(z - 1)(z - 3) = 0 or z = 1, 3].

1
Example of non-isolated singularity. Function (z−1)(z−3) is not analytic
π π
at the points where sin z =0 where sin z = 0 , i.e, at the point πz = 0

,i.e.(n= 1,2,3........). Thus z = 1, 21 , 13 , . . . , z = 0 are the points of singular-

ity , z=0 is the non isolated singularity of the function sin 1 π because
(z)
in the neighborhood of z= 0 , there are infinite number of other sin-
gularities z = n1 where n is very large number.

Pole of order m Pole of order m. Let a function f(z) have an isolated singular
point z = a f(z) can be expanded in a Laurent’s series around z = a giving

f (z) = a0 + a1 (z − a) + a2 · (z − a)2 + . . .

b1 b2 bm bm+1 bm+2
+ + 2
+ ... m
+ m+1
+ + . . . (1)
z − a (z − a) (z − a) (z − a) (z − a)m+2

In some cases it may happen that the coefficients bm+1 = bm+2 = bm+3 = 0
then (1) reduces to

b1 b2 bm
f (z) = a0 + a1 (z − a) + a2 (z − a)2 + . . . + + + . . . +
(z − a) (z − a)2 (z − a)m

4
 1
f (z) = a0 + a1 (z − a) + a2 (z − a)2 + . . . + b1 (z − a)m−1
(z − a)m

+b2 · (z − a)m−2 + b3 · (z − a)m−3 + . . . + bm

then z = a is said to be a pole of order m of the function f(z) , when m = 1 ,

the pole is said to be simple pole . In this case
b
f (z) = a0 + a1 (z − a) + a2 · (z − a)2 + . . . +
z−a

If the number of the terms of negative powers in expansion (1) is infinite, then z
= a is called an essential singular point of f(z).

Example :Find the singularity (ties) of the functions

1 e1/z


(1) f(z) = sin z
(2) g(z) = z2

Solution 1- we know that

 
1 1 1 1 1
sin = − 3
+ 5
+ . . . + (−1)n ·
z z 3!z 5!z (2n + 1)!z 2n+1

Obviously, there is a number of singularity,

1
( z1 = ∞ at z = 0)


sin z
is not analytic at z = 0
Hence, sin z1 has a singularity at z = 0.

1
ez
2- Here,we have g(x) = z2

   
1  −1  1 1 1 1 1
we know that · e z = 2 1+ + + + ... + + ...+
z2 z z 2!z 2 3!z 3 n!z n

5
 1 1 1 1 1
= 2
+ 3+ 4
+ 7
+ ... + + ...
z z 2!z 3!z n!z n+2

Here, f(z) has infinite number of terms in negative powers of z.

Hence, f(z) has essential singularity at z = 0

ez−a
Example:Find the pole of the function . (z−a)2

Solution:
ez−a (z − a)2
 
1
= 1 + (z − a) + + ...
(z − a)2 (z − a)2 2!
The given function has negative power 2 of (z - a) . So, the given function has a
pole at z = a of order 2.
z
Example: Expand f(z) = e (z−2) in a Laurent series about z= 2

Solution:

Here , we have
z
f (z) = e z−2
z−2+2
=e z−2

2
= e · e z−2

2
= e · ee · e z−2

6
 2 3
h i
− 1+ z2 + z4 + z8 +...
=e·e

2 3
h i
x
(1−1) − + x4 + x8 +...
=e ·e 2

z2
2 3
 
z
h i
− x2 + x4 + x8 2
=e e =1+ + + .....
1! 2!

  2  3 
z z2 z3 z z2 z3
z z z 2 3
2
+ 4
+ 8 2
+ 4
+ 8
= 1 − − − + − + . . .
 
2 4 8 2! 3!

z z2 z3 z2 z4 z3 z4 z3
 
= 1− − − + + + + − ...
2 4 8 8 32 8 16 48

z z2 z3
=1− − − ........
2 8 48

7
Chapter 3

Residues

3.0.1 DEFINITION OF THE RESIDUE AT A POLE

Let z = a be a pole of order m of a function f(z) and C1 circle of radius

r with centre at z = a which does not contain any other singularities
except at z = a then f(z) is analytic within the annulus r < |z − a| < R
and can be expanded within the annulus. Laurent’s series:

m
X m
X
f (z) = an (z − a)n + bn (z − α)n (3.1)
n=0 n=1

Where, I
1 f (z) dz
an = (3.2)
2πi C (z − a)n+1
I
1 1
and bn = f (z) dz (3.3)
2πi C (z − a)−n+1

|z − a| = r being the circle C1

8
 I
1
P articularly, b1 = f (z) dz
2πi C

The coefficient b1 is called f(z) at the pole z = a. It is denoted by symbol

Res.(z = a) = bv

3.0.2 RESIDUE AT INFINITY

1
H
Residue of f(z) at z = is defined as − 2πi C
f (z) dz where the integration
is taken round C in anti-clockwise direction, where C is a large circle
containing all finite singularities of f(z)

3.0.3 METHOD OF FINDING RESIDUES

(a) Residue at simple pole (i) If f(z) has a simple pole at z = a then

Res(f ; a) = lim (z − a) · f (z)

z→a

Proof.
b
f (z) = a0 + a1 (z − a) + a2 · (z − a)2 + . . . +
z−a

=⇒ (z − a)f (z) = a0 (z − a) + a1 · (z − a)2 + a2 · (z − a)3 + . . . + b1

=⇒ b1 = (z − a)f (z) − [a0 (z − a) + a1 (z − a)2 + a2 (z − a)3 + . . . ]

Taking limit as z → a , we have b1 = limz→a (z − a) · f (z)

Res(at z = a) = lim (z − a)f (z)

z→a

ϕ(z)
(ii) If f(z) is of the form f (z) = ψ(z)
where ψ(a) = 0, but ϕ(a) ̸= 0

ϕ(a)
Res(at z = a) =
ψ ′ (a)

9
Proof.
ϕ(z)
f (z) =
ψ(z)

ϕ(z)
Res(at z = a) = lim (z − a) ·
z→a ψ(z)

By Taylor’s Theorem

(z − a) [ϕ(a) + (z − a)ϕ′ (a) + . . .]

lim ′′
z→a ψ(a) + (z − a)ψ ′ (a) + (z − a)2 ψ 2!(a) + . . .

(z − a) [ϕ(a) + (z − a)ϕ′ (a) + . . .]

= lim ′′
z→a (z − a)ψ ′ (a) + (z − a)2 ψ 2!(a) + . . .
[ since ψ(a) = 0]

ϕ(a) + (z − a) · ϕ′ (a) + . . .
= lim ψ ′′ (a)
z→a ψ ′ (a) + (z − a) · 2!
+ ...

ϕ(a)
Res ( at z=a ) = ψ ′ (a)
Proved
(b) Residue at a pole of order n.
If f (z) has a pole of order n at z = a , then
 (n−1)  
1 d n
Res (at z = a) = [(z − a) f (z)]
(n − 1)! dz (n−1) z=a

Proof. If z = a is a pole of order n of function f(z), then by Laurent’s theorem

b1 b2 bn
f (z) = a0 + a1 (z − a) + a2 (z − a)2 + . . . + + 2
+ ... +
z − a (z − a) (z − a)n

10
 Multiplying by(z − a)n ,we get

(z − a)n f (z) = a0 (z − a)n + a1 (z − a)n+1 + a2 (z − a)n+2 + . . .

+b1 (z − a)n−1 + b2 (z − a)n−2 + b3 (z − a)n−3 + . . . + bn

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. ’z’ (n - 1) times and putting z=a ,we get

dn−1
  
n
· [(z − a) · f (z)] = (n − 1)! · b1
dz n−1 z=a

dn−1
  
1 n
=⇒ b1 = · [(z − a) · f (z)]
(n − 1)! dz n−1 z=a

dn−1
  
1 n
Residue f (a) = · [(z − a) · f (z)]
(n − 1)! dz n−1

(c) Residue at a pole z = a of any order (simple or of order m)

 
1
Res f (a) = coeff
t

Proof.If f(z) has a pole of order m, then by Laurent’s theorem

b1 b2
f (z) = a0 + a1 (z − a) + a2 (z − a)2 + . . . + + + . . . + bm (z − a)m
z − a (z − a)2

If we put z - a= t or z=a+t , then

b1 b2 bm
f (a + t) = a0 + a1 · t + a2 · t2 + . . . + + 2 + ... + m
t t t

11
 1
Resf (a) = b1 , Resf (a) = coefficient of
t
1
Rule.Put z= a+t in the function f (z) , expand it in power of t. Coefficient of t
residue of f (z) at z=a.
(d) Residue of f (z) at z =

= lim {−z · f (z)}

z→∞

Z
1
or Residue of f (z) at ∞ = − f (z) dz
2πi C

1


Example: Find the Residue at z = 0 of z · cos z

Solution.Expanding the function in powers of z1 we have

   
1 1 1 1 1
z cos =z 1− 2 + − . . . = z − + − ...
z 2z 4!z 4 2z 24z 3

This is the Laurent’s expansion about z = 0

1
in it is − 21 So the Residue of z cos 1
at z = 0is− 21


The coefficient of z z
Ans.
Example.Determine the pole and residue at the pole of the function
z
f (z) = z−1
Solution.The poles of f (z) are given by putting the denominator equal to
zero.
∴ z−1=0⇒z =1 (3.4)
The function f (z) has a simple pole at z = 1
Residue is calculated by the formula

Residue = lim (z − a)f (z)

z→a

z


Residue of f (z)( at z = 1) = limz→1 (z − 1) z−1

= lim z = 1
z→1

Hence,f (z) has a simple pole at z = 1 and residue at the pole is 1.

12
 n  o
1 d(n−1)
FORMULA: RESIDUE OF f (a) = (n−1)! dz (n−1)
[(z − a)a · f (z)]
z=a

Example:Find the residue of a function

z2
f (z) = at its double pole
(z + 1)2 · (z − 2)

Solution.we have
z2
f (z) =
(z + 1)2 · (z − 2)

Poles are determined by putting denominator equal to zero.

i.e., (z + 1)2 · (z − 2) = 0
=⇒ z = −1, −1 and z = 2
The function has a double pole at z = - 1

(z + 1)2 · z 2
  
1 d
Residue at (z = −1) = lim
z→−1 (2 − 1)! dz (z + 1)2 · (z − 2)

z2
  
d
=
dz z−2 z=−1

((z − 2) · 2z − z 2 · 1)
 
=
(z − 2)2 z=−1

z 2 − 4z (−1)2 − 4(−1)
 
= =
(z − 2)2 z=−1 (−1 − 2)2

1+4 5
[Residue at (z = −1) = =
9 9

ϕ(a)
FORMULA: Res. (at z = a ) = ψ ′ (a)

Example:Determine the poles and residue at each pole of the function f(z)
= cot z

13
 cos(z)
Solution.f (z) = cot(z) = sin(z)

The poles of the function ƒ (z) are given by

cos(z) cos(z)
Residue of f (z) at z = nπis = d
= = 1 [Res. at z = a = ϕ(a)·ψ(a)]Ans.
dx
(sin(z)) cos(z)

1 1
FORMULA: RESIDUE = COEFFICIENT OF t
, where z = t

Example: The poles of f (z) are determined by

(z − 1)4 · (z − 2)(z − 3) = 0 ⇒ z = 1, 2, 3
Here z = 1 is a pole of order 4

z3
f (z) =
(z − 1)4 (z − 2)(z − 3)

P utting z - 1 = t or z = 1 + t in(1), we get

(1 + t)3
f (1 + t) =
t4 (t − 1)(t − 2)

1 1 t
= 4
· (t3 + 3t2 + 3t + 1) · (1 − t)−1 · · (1 − )−1
t 2 2

t t2 t3
   
1 1 3 3 1 2 3
= · + 2+ 3+ 4 · (1 + t + t + t + . . .) · 1 + + + + . . .
2 t r r t 2 4 8

    
1 1 3 3 1 3 7 2 15 3 1 1 9 21 2 15 3
= · + + + · 1 + t + t + t + ... = + t + t + t + ...
2 t t2 t3 t4 2 4 8 2 t 2 4 8

 
1 9 21 15 1 1
= · 1+ + + · [Res f (a) = coeff. of ]
2 2 4 8 t t

14
  
1 1 9 21 15 101
Coefficient of = · 1 + + + = Ans
t 2 2 4 8 16

z·ez
Example : Find the residue of f (z) = (z−a)3
at its pole.

Solution. The pole of f (z) is given by (z − a) = 0, i.e., z = a. Here, z = a

is a pole of order 3. Putting z = a + t, where t is small, we have

(a + t) · ea+t a 1 a+t a a 1
f (z) = 3
= 3
+ 2
) · e = e · ( 3
+ 2
) · et
t t t t t
a a a 1 1 1
= ea · ( 3
+ 2 + + 2 + + + . . .)
t t 2t t t 2
1 a 1 1 1
= ea · ( + ( + 1) · + (a + 1) · 2 + a · 3 + . . .)
2 2 t t t
Coefficient 1t = ea · ( a2 + 1).
Hence, the residue at z = a is ea · ( a2 + 1).

15
Chapter 4

Residue theorem

4.0.1 RESIDUE THEOREM

If f (z) is analytic
H in a closed curve C, except at a finite number of poles
within C, then C f (z) dz = 2πi( Sum of residues at the poles within C)
Proof.

Let C1 , C2 , C3 , ...., Cn be the non-intersecting circles with centres at

a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., an respectively, and radii so small that they lie entirely
within the closed curve C. Then f (z) is analytic in the multiple con-
nected region lying between the curves C and C1 , C2 , ...., Cn . Applying
Cauchy’s theorem
Z c Z c2 Z c3 Z cn
f (z) dz = f (z) dz + f (z) dz + . . . + f (z) dz
c c1 c2 cn−1

= 2πi (Resf (a1 ) + Resf (a2 ) + Resf (a) + . . . + Resf (an )) P roved.

Example: Evaluate the following integral using residue theorem

16
 Z
1+z
dz
C z(2 − z)
where c is the circle —z— = 1
Solution.

The poles of the integrand are given by putting the denominator equal to zero.
z(2 − z) = 0 or z = 0, 2
The integrand is analytic on |z| = 1 and all points inside except z = 0 as a
pole at z = 0 is inside the circle |z|= 1.
Hence by residue theorem
Z
1+z
dz = 2πi Resf (0)
C z(2 − z)

1+z 1+z 1
Resf (0) = lim z · = lim =
z→0 z(2 − z) z→0 2 − z 2

Putting the value of Residue f (0) in (1), we get

Z  
1+z 1
dz = 2πi = πi Ans.
C z(2 − z) 2

Example:Evaluate the following integral using residue theorem

4 − 3z
Z
dz
C z(z − 1)(z − 2)

3
Where C is the circle |z| =
2

17
Solution.The poles of the function f(z) are given by equating the denominator
to zero.
z(z − 1)(z − 2) = 0 ⇒ z = 0, 1, 2

The function has poles at z = 0, z = 1 and z = 2 of which the given circle

encloses the pole at z = 0 and z = 1.
Residue of f(z) at the simple pole z = 0 is
4 − 3z 4 − 3z
= lim z · = lim
z→0 z(z − 1)(z − 2) z→0 (z − 1)(z − 2)

4+0 4
= = =2
(0 − 1)(0 − 2) 2

Residue of f(z) at the simple pole z = 1 is

4 − 3z 4 − 3z 4−3
lim (z − 1) · = lim = = −1
z→1 z(z − 1)(z − 2) z→1 z(z − 2) 1(1 − 2)

By Cauchy’s integral formula

Z
f (z) dz = 2πisum of the residue within C
C

= 2πi · (2 − 1) = 2πi Ans.

18
Chapter 5

Special integration around the

unit circle

5.0.1 INTEGRATION AROUND THE UNIT CIRCLE

a. Z 2π
f (cos θ, sin θ) dθ
0

where f (cos θ, sin θ) is a rational function of cos e and sin 0.

Convert sin θ, cos θ into z.
Consider a circle of unit radius with centre at origin, as contour.

eiθ − e−iθ
 
1 1
sin(θ) = = z− z = reiθ = 1 · eiθ = eiθ
2i 2i z

eiθ + e−iθ
 
1 1
cos(θ) = = z+
2 2 z

As we know

19
 dz
z = eiθ , dz = eiθ i dθ = zi dθ or dθ =
iz

The integrand is converted into a function of z.

Then apply Cauchy’s residue theorem to evaluate the integral.
Some examples of these are illustrated below.
Example:Evaluate the integral,
Z 2π
1
dθ
0 5 − 3 cos(θ)

Solution.
Z 2π Z 2π
1 dθ
dθ =  
0 5 − 3 cos(θ) 0 5−3 eiθ +e−iθ
2

Z 2π  
2dθ iθ iθ dz
= e =z =⇒ e = dz and dθ =
0 10 − 3eiθ − 3e−iθ iz

Z Z
2 dx dz
3 · = 2i
C 10 − 3x − z
iz C 10x − 3x2 − 3

[C is the unit circle |z|=1]

Z
2 1
=− dz
i C 3z 2 − 10z + 3

20
 Z Z
2 dz dz
=− = 2i
i C (3z − 1)(z − 3) C (3z − 1)(z − 3)

Z
dz
Let I = 2i
C (3z − 1)(z − 3)

Poles of the integrand are given by

1
(3z − 1)(z − 3) = 0 ⇒ z = , 3
3

There is only one pole at z = 1/3 inside the unit circle C.

2i(z − 13 )
 
1 1
Residue z = = lim1 z − · f (z) = lim1
3 z→ 3 3 z→ 3 (3z − 1)(z − 3)

2i i
= 1

=−
3 3
−3 4

Hence, by Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

 
i π
I = 2πi (Sum of residues within contour) = 2πi − =
4 2

Z 2π
1 π
dθ = Ans.
0 5 − 3 cos(θ) 2
Example:Use the complex variable technique to find the value of the integral:
Z 2π
1
dθ
0 2 + cos(θ)

21
 Solution.
Z 2π Z 2π Z 2π
1 1 2dθ
LetI = dθ = eiθ +e−iθ
dθ =
0 2 + cos(θ) 0 2+ 2 0 4 + eiθ + e−iθ

dz
eiθ = z ⇒ eiθ · i dθ = dz ⇒ i z dθ = dz ⇒ dθ =
iz

2 · dz
Z
iz
I= 1 where c denotes the unit circle —z— = 1
C 4+z+ z

Z
1 2 dz
=
i C z2 + 4z + 1

The poles are given by putting the denominator equal to zero.

√ √
2 −4 ± 16 − 4 −4 ± 2 · 3 √
z + 4z + 1 = 0orz = = = −2 ± 3
2 2

√
The pole within the unit circle C is a simple pole at z = −2 + 3 .Now we
calculate the residue at this pole.

√
√ 1 (z + 2 − 3) · 2
Residue at z = −2 + 3 = lim √ · √ √
z→−2+ 3 i (z + 2 − 3) · (z + 2 + 3)

2 2 1
= lim √ √ = √ √ =√
z→−2+ 3 i(z + 2 + 3) i(−2 + 3 + 2 + 3) 3i

Hence by Cauchy’s Residue Theorem, we have

Z 2π
1
dθ = 2πi (sum of the residues within the contour)
0 2 + cos(θ)

22
 1 2π
= 2πi · √ = √ Ans.
i 3 3

R∞ fj (x)
5.0.2 EVALUATION OF −∞ fj (x) dx
where f (x) and f2 (x) are polynomials in x. Such integrals can be reduced to
contour integrals if...
(i).f2 (x) has no real roots.
(ii). the degree of f2 (x) is greater than that of f1 (x) by at least two.
Procedure-f (x) = ff12 (x)
(x)

R
Consider C
f (z) dz
where C is a curve, consisting of the upper half c1 of the circle |z| = R and
part of the real axis from −R to R.
If there are no poles of f (z) on the real axis, the circle |z| = R, which is
arbitrary, can be taken such that there is no singularity on its circumference Cn
in the upper half of the plane, but possibly some poles inside the contour C
specified above. Using Cauchy’s theorem of residues, we have

Z
dz = 2πix ( Sum of the Residue of f (z), at the poles within C)
C

Z R Z
i.e. f (x) dx + gf (z) dz = 2πi ( Sum of Residues within C)
−R C

Z R Z
=⇒ f (x) dx = − f (z) dz + 2πi ( Sum of Residues within C)
−R CR

23
 Z R Z
∴ lim f (x) dx = − lim f (z) dz + 2πi (Sum of Residues within C)
R→∞ −R R→∞ CR

Z Z π
Now lim f (z) dz = f (Reiθ ) · Rieθ dθ
R→∞ CR 0

=o when R ⇒ z

Z w
(1) reduces lim f (x) dx = 2πi (Sum of Residues within C)
w→∞ −∞

R∞ cos mx
Example:Evaluate 0 (x2 +1)
dx
R ∞ mx
Solution . 0 cos dx
x2 +1 R
Consider the integral C f (z) dz where...
imz
f (z) = ze2 +1 taken round the closed contour c consisting of the upper half of
a circle
|z| = R and the real axis from -R to R
Poles of f (z) are given by

z 2 + 1 = 0, i.e., z 2 = −1, i.e., z = i.

The only pole which lies within the contour is at z = i.

The residue of f (z) at z = i.

(z − i) · eimz eimz e−m

= lim = lim =
z→i z2 + 1 z→i z + i 2i

24
 Hence by Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have
Z
f (z) dz = 2πi (sum of the residues)
C

R
eimz e−m eimx
Z Z
=⇒ dz = 2πi =⇒ dx = πe−m
C z2 + 1 2i −R x2 + 1

Equating real parts, we have

∞ ∞
πe−m
Z Z
cos(mx) cos(mx)
dx = πe−m =⇒ dx = Ans.
−∞ x2 + 1 0 x2 + 1 2

R∞ x2
Example: Evaluate −∞ (x2 +1)(x2 +4)
dx
z2
R R
Solution.We consider C (z2 +1)(z 2 +4) dz = C f (z) dz

where C is the contour consisting of the semi-circle C of radius R together

with the part of the
real axis from - R to + R .

The integral has simple poles at z = ±i, ±2iof which z = i, 2 i only lie inside C..

z2
The Residue(at z = i) = lim(z − i) ·
z→i (z + i)(z − i)(z 2 + 4)

z2 −1 −1
= lim = =
z→i (z + i)(z 2 + 4) 2i(−1 + 4) 6i

25
 z2
The residue(at z = 2i) = lim (z − 2i) · 2
z→2i (z + 1)(z + 2i)(z − 2i)

z2 (2i)2 1
= lim 2
= =
z→2i (z + 1)(z + 2i) (−4 + 1)(2i + 2i) 3i

By residue theorem
Z  
1 1 π
f (z) dz = 2πi (Resf (i) + Resf (2i)) = 2πi − + =
C 6i 3i 3
Hence, by making R → ∞, relation (1) becomes
Z ∞ I 
π
f (x) dx + f (z) dz =
−∞ CR 3
R
Now, as R → ∞, CR f (z) dz vanishes. For any point on CR as |z| → ∞,
f (z) = 0, so
Z
lim f (z) dz = 0
|z|→∞ CR
Z ∞
π
f (x) dx =
−∞ 3
∞
x2 dx
Z
π
=⇒ 2 2
= Ans.
−∞ (x + 1)(x + 4) 3

26
Chapter 6

Rouche’s Theorem

6.0.1 Theorem . (Rouche’s Theorem)

Suppose f (z) and g(z) are analytic inside and on a simple closed contour
C , with |g(z)| < |f (z)| on C. Then f (z) and f (z) + g(z) have the same
number of zeros inside C.
Proof-
We first show that f (z) and f (z) + g(z) have no zero on C. Assume that there
is some α on C such that f (α) = 0. Then |g(α)| < |f (α)| = 0, a contradiction.
Next, we assume that f (α) + g(α) = 0 for some α on C. Then we obtain
|f (α)| = |g(α)|, a contradiction.

Let N1 and N2 be the number of zeros of f (z) and f (z) + g(z) inside C.
Then by the argument principle, we have

1 1
N1 = 2π
[arg f (z)] C, N2 = 2π
[arg(f (z) + g(z))] C,

Now
   
1 g(z)
N2 = arg{f (z) · 1 + } .
2π f (z) C

  
1 1 g(z)
= [arg f (z)]C + arg 1 +
2π 2π f (z) C

  
1 g(z)
= N1 + arg 1 + .
2π f (z) C

27
 Let w(z) = 1 + fg(z)
(z)
for all z on C. Then |w(z) − 1| = fg(z)(z)
< 1 for all z on
C. This shows that as z describes the closed curve C, the corresponding point
w describes the curve γ lying entirely within the circle |w(z) − 1| = 1.( in fig :1).
Therefore the point

 
1 + g(z)
w = 0 lies outside γ. Thus arg w(z) = arg returns to its original value
f (z)
  
1 + g(z)
When z describes the closed curve C and hence, arg = 0.
f (z) C

So from (3) we obtainN1 = N2 and the theorem follows.

Corollary 1: Let g be analytic for |z| ≤ 1 and |g(z)| < 1 for |z| = 1. Then
g has a unique fixed point in |z| < 1.
Proof.Let f (z) = −z. For |z| = 1, we have |g(z)| < | − z| = 1. Hence, by
Rouche’s theorem, we can say that f (z) + g(z) = g(z) − z has exactly one zero
in |z| < 1.

ExampleUse Rouche’s theorem to determine the number of zeros of the poly-

nomial
p(z) = z 10 − 6z 9 − 3z + 1 inside the circle |z| = 1.

Solution.
Let f (z) = −6z 9 +1, and g(z) = z 10 −3z.T hen p(z) = f (z)+g(z) on |z| =
1.

|f (z)| = | − 6z 9 + 1| ≥ 6|z 9 | − 1 = 6 − 1 = 5

and |g(z)| = |z 10 − 3z| ≤ |z|10 + 3|z| = 4 < 5 ≤ |f (z)|

28
By Rouche’s theorem, f (z) and f (z)+g(z) = p(z) have the same number of zeros.
inside |z| = 1. But f (z) has 9 zeros inside |z| = 1.Therefore, p(z) = z 10 −
6z 9 − 3z + 1 has 9 zeros inside |z| = 1.
has 9 zeros inside |z| = 1.

Example: Show that if |a| > e, the equation az n −ez = 0 has n roots inside the circle |z| =
1 |z| = 1
Solution.Suppose thatf (z) = az n , and g(z) = −ez , Then on |z| = 1.

|f (z)| = |a · z n | = |a| and g(z) = −e| z| = e ≤ e = e.

Thus on |z| = 1, |g(z)| ≤ e < |a| = |f (z)|. So, by Rouche’s theorem, f (z) and
f (z) + g(z) have the same number of zeros inside |z| = 1. Since f (z) has n zeros
inside |z| = 1, f (z) + g(z) = a · z n − ez has n zeros |z| = 1.

Example: Prove that all roots of P (z) = z 7 − 5z 3 + 12 = 0 lie between

the circles |z| = 1 and |z| = 2.
Solution: We denote the circles |z| = 1 and |z| = 2 by C1 and C2 respectively.
7 3
First we consider the circle C1 . Let f (z) = 12 and g(z) = z −5z
12
. Obviously, both
f (z) and g(z) are analytic on C1 and on C1 (|z| = 1), we have

g(z) z 7 − 5z 3 |z|7 + 5|z|3 1+5 1

= ≤ = = < 1.
f (z) 12 12 12 2

Thus, |g(z)| < |f (z)| on C1 . Therefore, applying Rouche’s theorem, we can say
that f (z) and f (z) + g(z) have the same number of zeros inside |z| = 1. Since
f (z) = 12 has no zeros inside |z| = 1, it follows that f (z) + g(z) = z 7 − 5z 3 + 12
has no zeros inside |z| = 1.
For the circle C2 , we take ϕ(z) = z 7 and ψ(z) = 12 − 5z 3 . Obviously, both
ϕ(z) and ψ(z) are analytic on C2 , and on C2 (|z| = 2), we have

ψ(z) 12 − 5z 3 12 + 5|z|3 12 + 40 52
= 7
≤ 7
= 7
= < 1.
ϕ(z) z |z| 2 128

Thus, |ψ(z)| < |ϕ(z)| on C2 . Therefore, applying Rouche’s theorem, we can say
that ϕ(z) and ϕ(z) + ψ(z) have the same number of zeros inside |z| = 2. Since
ϕ(z) = z 7 has seven zeros inside |z| = 2, it follows that ϕ(z)+ψ(z) = z 7 −5z 3 +12
has seven zeros inside |z| = 2.
Note that |P (z)| ≥ 12 − |z 7 − 5z 3 | ≥ 12 − |z|7 − 5|z|3 = 6 on |z| = 1, and so
P (z) can have no zeros on |z| = 1. Since the equation z 7 − 5z 3 + 12 = 0 has no
roots inside |z| = 1 but has all seven roots inside |z| = 2, it follows that all the
roots of this equation lie between the circles |z| = 1 and |z| = 2.
article amsmath
Example: Suppose c ∈ C is such that |c| > e. Show that the number of
solutions, including multiplicity, of the equation ez = cz n in |z| < 1 is n.
Solution: Consider g(z) = ez − cz n and f (z) = −cz n . Then, |f − g| = |ez | =
x
e ≤ e < |c| = |f | on |z| = 1. Hence, Rouche’s Theorem shows that g has n zeros
in |z| < 1.

29
 Remark: From the examples, if γ = {z ∈ C : |z| = R} for some R > 0
Pdeg(g) k
and g(z) = k=1 ak z is a polynomial, we see that a technique in applying
Rouche’s Theorem to get the number of zeroes of g is to set f as a polynomial
with simple factorization while |f | is large on γ. In particular, it would be easier
to begin the test by considering f (z) = am z m , where 1 ≤ m ≤ deg(g) is such
that |am |Rm = max1≤k≤deg(g) |ak |Rk . This kind of method can also somewhat be
extended to the case where g is not a polynomial by considering f (z) = cz k for
some k ∈ N and c ∈ C

6.0.2 Application of Rouche’ s theorem

1. Counting Roots: Given two complex polynomials f (z) and g(z), if |f (z)| >
|g(z)| for all z on a simple closed contour C, then f (z) and f (z) + g(z) have the
same number of zeros inside C.

2. Existence of Zeros: If f (z) and g(z) are two complex polynomials such
that |f (z) − g(z)| < |f (z)| for all z on a simple closed contour C, and if f (z) has
exactly k zeros inside C, then g(z) also has exactly k zeros inside C.

3. Stability of Roots: If f (z) and g(z) are two complex polynomials such
that |f (z) − g(z)| < |g(z)| for all z on a simple closed contour C, and if g(z) has
all its zeros inside C, then f (z) also has all its zeros inside C.

4.Residue Computation: Rouche’s theorem is often used to simplify the

computation of residues of complex functions by deforming a contour integral to
a simpler path where the function has fewer singularities.

5. Mapping of Regions: Rouche’s theorem can be used to show that two

complex functions define the same mapping of regions, by comparing their be-
havior on the boundary of the region.

30
Chapter 7

Conclusion

The calculus of residues is a powerful tool in complex analysis that allows us to

evaluate complex integrals, particularly those around closed contours, by lever-
aging the residues of singularities within the contour. This technique, stemming
from the residue theorem, has wide-ranging applications in physics, engineer-
ing, and mathematics, offering elegant solutions to complex problems that would
otherwise be cumbersome to solve.
At the heart of the calculus of residues lies the concept of a residue. For a
function that is analytic everywhere inside and on a simple closed contour except
at a finite number of isolated singular points, the residue at a singular point is
the coefficient of the term with (z − z0 )−1 in the Laurent series expansion of the
function around that point. The residue captures essential information about the
behavior of the function near the singularity and is instrumental in evaluating
complex integrals.
One of the key results in the calculus of residues is the residue theorem, which
states that for a function that is analytic inside a simply connected region except
at a finite number of isolated singularities, the contour integral around a closed
curve enclosing those singularities is equal to 2i times the sum of the residues of
the singularities inside the contour. This theorem provides a direct and efficient
method for evaluating many types of complex integrals.
The calculus of residues finds applications in various areas of mathematics and
its applications. In complex analysis, it is used to compute real integrals involving
trigonometric and rational functions, as well as improper integrals. In number
theory, residues play a crucial role in the study of congruences and modular forms.
In physics, particularly in quantum field theory and string theory, the calculus of
residues is used to compute loop integrals and scattering amplitudes.
To illustrate the power of the calculus of residues, consider the evaluation
of the integral of a rational function over the real line. By using the residue
theorem and contour integration techniques, we can transform the real integral
into a complex contour integral around a suitable contour in the complex plane.
This allows us to exploit the residues of the function to evaluate the integral,
often leading to simpler and more elegant solutions than traditional real analysis
methods.

31
 In conclusion, the calculus of residues is a fundamental technique in complex
analysis that provides a powerful tool for evaluating complex integrals. Its ap-
plications are vast and diverse, making it an indispensable tool in mathematics,
physics, and engineering. Through the residue theorem and contour integration
techniques, the calculus of residues offers elegant solutions to complex problems,
showcasing the beauty and utility of complex analysis.

32
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34