VCQ SummerSchool GianLucaGiorgi

GIAN LUCA GIORGI
Institute of Cross-disciplinary Physics

and Complex Systems
Palma de Mallorca (Spain)
QUANTUM RESERVOIR COMPUTING
@ifisc_mallorca Facebook.com/ifisc http://ifisc.uib-csic.es - Mallorca - Spain

People
Gian Luca Giorgi Miguel C. Soriano Roberta Zambrini
Pere Mujal Johannes Nokkala Christos

(Now in Turku) Charalambous
People
Ph. D. Students
Rodrigo Martínez -Peña Jorge García-Beni Guillem Llodrà
Antonio Sannia Adrià Labay-Mora

People
Ph. D. Students
Rodrigo Martínez -Peña Jorge García-Beni Guillem Llodrà
Quantum
associative
Memory
Antonio Sannia Adrià Labay-Mora

Funding
Spanish
government
Balearic Islands
government
Quantum Reservoir Computing
First paper published in 2017

Outline
- Unconventional computing and artificial neural

networks
- Basics of (classical) reservoir computing
- From classical to quantum: how, why and when:

Quantum reservoir computing for data classification
and prediction
- Aspects of QRC:
- QRC and dynamical phase transitions
- Input-output nonlinearity
- Input injection strategies
- Quantum measurements in QRC
- QRC with (bosonic) linear systems
- Photonic platform for online time series processing
- Role of quantum statistics in QRC
Outline

networks

and prediction
}
- Aspects of QRC:
- Input-output nonlinearity Spins
Unconventional computing
A computer is any physical object that can be

recon gured to solve multiple problems, that
is, to answer many different questions
fi
Unconventional computing
A computer is any physical object that can be

recon gured to solve multiple problems, that
is, to answer many different questions
An unconventional computer is a computing

device that uses physical, chemical, or
biological entities to perform calculations and
to precess information
Examples
- DNA computing
- Robot motion computing
- Animal brain
It uses hardware from nature
fi
Basics of ANNs
Artificial neural networks (ANNs)

are computing paradigms designed to
simulate the way the the biological
nervous system analyzes and
processes information.
Learning can be either supervised or
unsupervised
Connections are reorganised based on
previous experience
Usefulness of ANNs
Classification: assign objects to specified classes
Forecasting: predict future events based on past history
Clustering: group together objects with common features
Optimization: optimize function values in the presence of

constraints
Function approximation
…
Supervised learning
RC is a supervised learning technique
You use (many) examples to optimise your system to

perform a given task
Then your system will be autonomously able to perform

that desired task when interrogated with unseen inputs
Supervised learning
Picture taken at https://www.javatpoint.com/supervised-machine-learning

Basics of ANNs
Two main kinds of NNs:

Feed-forward NNs
Recurrent NNs (to which reservoir computing
belongs)
Basics of ANNs
Feed-forward NNs
Basics of ANNs
Recurrent neural networks: connections allow

previous outputs to be used as inputs, which makes it
possible to exploit their internal state (memory) to
process time series
Reservoir x(t) → network state at time t
u(t) → input state at time t
f → activation function
y(t) → output at time t
output
input
x(t) = f(Winu(t) + W x(t − 1)), t = 1,…, T
y(t) = Wout x(t)
Basics of ANNs

process time series
output
input
x(t) = f(Winu(t) + W x(t − 1)), t = 1,…, T
y(t) = Wout
In general NN calculations, allx(t)weights are optimised
during the training stage using examples
Basics of ANNs

process time series
output
input
x(t) = f(Winu(t) + W x(t − 1)), t = 1,…, T
Fact: people realised y(t)

that=W out x(t) most of the weights
often
remained almost constant during the optimisation
From ANNs to RC
Reservoir computing
output
input
Only output weights need to be trained
x(t) = f(Winu(t) + W x(t − 1)), t = 1,…, T

y(t) = Wout x(t)
From ANNs to RC
Reservoir computing
output
input
Only output weights need to be trained
x(t) = f(Winu(t) + W x(t − 1)), t = 1,…, T

y(t) = Wout x(t)
RESERVOIR: We don’t need to know its details, we don’t need to touch it
From ANNs to RC
Reservoir computing
From ANNs to RC
Reservoir computing
What is useful for?
- time series prediction (ex. weather forecasting)
- speech/handwritten digit recognition
- …
RC properties
Task: given an input, get the desired output that contains

information about input in the past or in the future (memory)
input Output
RC properties
Task: given an input, get the desired output that contains

information about input in the past or in the future (memory)
input output
t* t* − τ′ t* + τ

RC properties
Example: time delay (short-term memory STM)
1.0
1.0
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
input output
out(k) = in(k − τ)
τ = 1 in this case
Can be defined with a continuous input

RC properties
1.0
1.0
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
input output
This task requires memory (remember states in the past)

RC properties
1.0
1.0
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
input output
This task requires memory (remember states in the past)

The memory required is linear
RC properties
RC properties
Example: Narma (nonlinear autoregressive moving average
model) task
ȳk = target function

sk = input
n = maximum delay
This task requires both linear and nonlinear memory

RC properties
Example: Parity check (measures the parity of a binary
input)
τ
(∑ )
(PC(τ))k = mod sk−l,2
l=0
k−τ … k−2 k−1 k
sk = binary input {1,1,1,0} → 1

τ = maximum delay Ex.
{1,0,1,0} → 0
This task requires purely nonlinear memory

RC properties
How to quantify the memory of a system?
RC properties
RC properties
Given a degree of nonlinearity d we set the class of targets
Delayed input
Legendre polynomials (orthogonal basis)

RC properties
Capacity for an input string of size L: sum over all degrees

RC properties
Capacity for an input string of size L: sum over all degrees
We’ll see examples later (in QRC)

RC properties
Random recurrent network prepared in a random state
Complex, high-dimensional dynamical system with a high

degree of nonlinearity
x1
input
RC properties

x2
x1
input
RC properties

x2
xN
x1
input
RC properties
Training stage
ΣW output
input x(t)
y(t) = Wout x(t)
Given a target ȳ(t), weights are chosen to minimize
L is the length of the

training set
RC properties
Training stage
ΣW output
input x(t)
y(t) = Wout x(t)
Only the output layer is updated (not the reservoir)

RC properties
Training stage
ΣW output
input x(t)
y(t) = Wout x(t)
The optimisation is done through linear regression

RC properties
Multitasks
ΣW(1)
ΣW(2) output
input x(t)
ΣW(3)
Given different target ȳi(t), we can train the same reservoir

for different tasks
yi(t) = W(i)
out x(t)
RC properties
Summing up the main features
- fast training (only output layer is updated)
- easy training (linear regression)
- multitasking
RC properties
Reservoir:
- Random networks
- random initial conditions
What (main) conditions do we require?
- Echo state property (related to fading memory

and convergence)
- Separability
RC properties
Echo state property
The state of the reservoir only depends on the input

sequence (echo of the input)
RC properties
Echo state property

The initial condition must be forgotten (“fading”

memory)
RC properties
Echo state property


memory)
Initially separated dynamics must converge

RC properties
Echo state property


memory)
We need to wash the initial condition out

RC properties
Echo state property

The initial condition must be forgotten (“fading” memory)
wash-out time
time
RC properties
Echo state property


memory)
Initially separated dynamics must converge
We’ll see examples later (in QRC)

RC properties
Separability
Different input strings must give different reservoir states

(for this we need high dimensionality)
RC properties
Separability
Different input strings must give different reservoir states

(for this we need high dimensionality)
i1 o1
same reservoir
i2 o2
RC vs Extreme learning machines
Reservoir computing was proposed to study memory-
related problems
related problems
The very system can also be employed in “static” tasks
We may not care about previous inputs

related problems
The very system can also be employed in “static” tasks
We may not care about previous inputs
Extreme learning machines
Mainly used in data classification problems

Quantum RC
How to go quantum in RC
input
substrate
task
Why to go quantum in RC
…
What do we need for efficient QRC processing?

- Echo state property (related to fading memory and
convergence)
- Separability
- Dissipation (contractiveness) (not explicitly
required in classical RC)
Outline

networks

and prediction
- Aspects of QRC:
Physical
nodes: spins
Classical input signal (qubits)
Computational
nodes: density
matrix elements
random couplings
random couplings
0 1
x1
B .. C xi = Tr[Bi ⇢]
⇢!x=@ . A <latexit sha1_base64="IZAAAgJr54Y9g/1D3+miPfv5rjI=">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</latexit>
4N ⌦N
x 2N {B i } = {I, X, Y, Z} <latexit sha1_base64="LEbltvIu5nRQJHliqasx1kSZ8Ls=">AAACaXicbVFdaxQxFM2MX3WtulUU0ZfgUqiwLDOloC9CqS/6Uiq47epmO2Qyd3ZDM8mQ3Cm7hAF/o2/+AV/8E2a2+6CtFwKHc889yT3JayUdJsnPKL51+87de1v3ew+2Hz563N95cupMYwWMhVHGTnLuQEkNY5SoYFJb4FWu4Cy/+ND1zy7BOmn0F1zVMKv4XMtSCo6ByvrfmT/KJGvP/cG5P27b98x/Gk6GX4ffOo4ZlBU4etz2dpldGIaGepaXdBmECkrcC3wOc6k9t5avWi+CcpmljFF2WRh0jC0zv7+2DlLQxUbY+cn5At9k/UEyStZFb4J0AwZkUydZ/wcrjGgq0CgUd26aJjXOgi1KoaDtscZBzcUFn8M0QM3DAjO/Tqqlu4EpaGlsOBrpmv17wvPKuVWVB2XFceGu9zryf71pg+W7mZe6bhC0uLqobBQNgXWx00JaEKhWAXBhZXgrFQtuucDwOb0QQnp95ZvgdH+UJqP088Hg8GgTxxZ5RV6TPZKSt+SQfCQnZEwE+RVtR8+i59HveCd+Eb+8ksbRZuYp+afiwR8S2rkI</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="jmXyzUPmFlhuaYe+37nc6e/Ncgw=">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</latexit>
Bloch basis
One of them is redundant (Trρ = 1)

random couplings
Ex. One-qubit state

1
<latexit sha1_base64="klotQ/c8SMfcsxUgTsqc6ByOdWU=">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</latexit>
⇢ = [I + x1 x + x2 y + x3 3]
2
Ex. Two-qubit state
ui
<latexit sha1_base64="WRMcY5HFfVK+OLsd1cNM9XFMQcc=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lEqseiF48V7Qe0oWy2m3bpZhN2J0IJ/QlePCji1V/kzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekEhh0HW/ncLa+sbmVnG7tLO7t39QPjxqmTjVjDdZLGPdCajhUijeRIGSdxLNaRRI3g7GtzO//cS1EbF6xEnC/YgOlQgFo2ilh7Qv+uWKW3XnIKvEy0kFcjT65a/eIGZpxBUySY3pem6CfkY1Cib5tNRLDU8oG9Mh71qqaMSNn81PnZIzqwxIGGtbCslc/T2R0ciYSRTYzojiyCx7M/E/r5tieO1nQiUpcsUWi8JUEozJ7G8yEJozlBNLKNPC3krYiGrK0KZTsiF4yy+vktZF1atVvfvLSv0mj6MIJ3AK5+DBFdThDhrQBAZDeIZXeHOk8+K8Ox+L1oKTzxzDHzifP132jds=</latexit>
vi
<latexit sha1_base64="ZpWQ/fNO2o0/9vfW8rtnNTaqz2Y=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPRi8eK9gPaUDbbTbt0swm7k0IJ/QlePCji1V/kzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekEhh0HW/ncLa+sbmVnG7tLO7t39QPjxqmjjVjDdYLGPdDqjhUijeQIGStxPNaRRI3gpGdzO/NebaiFg94SThfkQHSoSCUbTS47gneuWKW3XnIKvEy0kFctR75a9uP2ZpxBUySY3peG6CfkY1Cib5tNRNDU8oG9EB71iqaMSNn81PnZIzq/RJGGtbCslc/T2R0ciYSRTYzoji0Cx7M/E/r5NieONnQiUpcsUWi8JUEozJ7G/SF5ozlBNLKNPC3krYkGrK0KZTsiF4yy+vkuZF1buqeg+XldptHkcRTuAUzsGDa6jBPdShAQwG8Ayv8OZI58V5dz4WrQUnnzmGP3A+fwBffI3c</latexit>
random couplings
Ex. One-qubit state

<latexit sha1_base64="APACwZP2ENWY0jSxAaQFSJMXZNE=">AAACA3icbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqDvdDBbBVUlE1I1QdOOyQl+QhDCZTtqhM5kwMxFLKLjxV9y4UMStP+HOv3HaZqGtBy4czrmXe++JUkaVdpxvq7S0vLK6Vl6vbGxube/Yu3ttJTKJSQsLJmQ3QoowmpCWppqRbioJ4hEjnWh4M/E790QqKpKmHqUk4Kif0JhipI0U2gcPIb3KfclhU449Xw6Er2ifo5AGoV11as4UcJG4BamCAo3Q/vJ7AmecJBozpJTnOqkOciQ1xYyMK36mSIrwEPWJZ2iCOFFBPv1hDI+N0oOxkKYSDafq74kccaVGPDKdHOmBmvcm4n+el+n4MshpkmaaJHi2KM4Y1AJOAoE9KgnWbGQIwpKaWyEeIImwNrFVTAju/MuLpH1ac89r7t1ZtX5dxFEGh+AInAAXXIA6uAUN0AIYPIJn8ArerCfrxXq3PmatJauY2Qd/YH3+ACujl90=</latexit>
xi = Tr[⇢ i ]
Ex. Two-qubit state
ui
<latexit sha1_base64="WRMcY5HFfVK+OLsd1cNM9XFMQcc=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lEqseiF48V7Qe0oWy2m3bpZhN2J0IJ/QlePCji1V/kzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekEhh0HW/ncLa+sbmVnG7tLO7t39QPjxqmTjVjDdZLGPdCajhUijeRIGSdxLNaRRI3g7GtzO//cS1EbF6xEnC/YgOlQgFo2ilh7Qv+uWKW3XnIKvEy0kFcjT65a/eIGZpxBUySY3pem6CfkY1Cib5tNRLDU8oG9Mh71qqaMSNn81PnZIzqwxIGGtbCslc/T2R0ciYSRTYzojiyCx7M/E/r5tieO1nQiUpcsUWi8JUEozJ7G8yEJozlBNLKNPC3krYiGrK0KZTsiF4yy+vktZF1atVvfvLSv0mj6MIJ3AK5+DBFdThDhrQBAZDeIZXeHOk8+K8Ox+L1oKTzxzDHzifP132jds=</latexit>
vi
<latexit sha1_base64="ZpWQ/fNO2o0/9vfW8rtnNTaqz2Y=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPRi8eK9gPaUDbbTbt0swm7k0IJ/QlePCji1V/kzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekEhh0HW/ncLa+sbmVnG7tLO7t39QPjxqmjjVjDdYLGPdDqjhUijeQIGStxPNaRRI3gpGdzO/NebaiFg94SThfkQHSoSCUbTS47gneuWKW3XnIKvEy0kFctR75a9uP2ZpxBUySY3peG6CfkY1Cib5tNRNDU8oG9EB71iqaMSNn81PnZIzq/RJGGtbCslc/T2R0ciYSRTYzoji0Cx7M/E/r5NieONnQiUpcsUWi8JUEozJ7G/SF5ozlBNLKNPC3krYkGrK0KZTsiF4yy+vkuZF1buqeg+XldptHkcRTuAUzsGDa6jBPdShAQwG8Ayv8OZI58V5dz4WrQUnnzmGP3A+fwBffI3c</latexit>
random couplings
0 1
x1
B .. C xi = Tr[Bi ⇢]
⇢!x=@ . A <latexit sha1_base64="IZAAAgJr54Y9g/1D3+miPfv5rjI=">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</latexit>
4N ⌦N
x 2N {B i } = {I, X, Y, Z} <latexit sha1_base64="LEbltvIu5nRQJHliqasx1kSZ8Ls=">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</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="jmXyzUPmFlhuaYe+37nc6e/Ncgw=">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</latexit>
Superoperator relation
iH⌧
⇢(t)eiH⌧
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⇢(t + ⌧ ) = e
Input: {s1, s2, …, sn}
Input injection:
At “time” k update the state of
qubit 1 (arbitrary) according to
| ψsk⟩ = 1 − sk | 0⟩ + sk | 1⟩
ρk(1) = | ψsk⟩⟨ψsk |
Input injection:
| ψsk⟩ = 1 − sk | 0⟩ + sk | 1⟩
Dynamical map
ρk+1 = e −iHΔt [ρk+1

(1)
⊗ Tr(1){ρk}] e iHΔt
Input injection:
| ψsk⟩ = 1 − sk | 0⟩ + sk | 1⟩
Dynamical map
CPTP map (contractive)

Input injection:
| ψsk⟩ = 1 − sk | 0⟩ + sk | 1⟩
The partial trace erases information → fading memory

Output layer: (part of) the

density matrix observables
Output layer: (part of) the

density matrix observables
Notice: you can have up to

2N observable. However,
this would require an
exponential increase of the
computational time (we’ll
see it later)
Quantum Reservoir computing
Virtual nodes
Timer task Narma

What determines the processing capability of the system?
Time step length?

System size?
layer size?
Number of virtual nodes?
Time step length

System size?
Time step length

System size?
Degree of
nonlinearity
Time step length

System size
Time step length

System size
Number of virtual nodes
Quantum data classification
Quantum vs classical input

ρin = ̂
(α)ρth
†̂
(α)
α = | α | e iθ
𝒮
𝒮
ρin = ̂
(α)ρth
†̂
(α) α = | α | e iθ
α, θ randomly selected
Training stage:
Yout = (1,0) if the state is entangled

Yout = (0,1) otherwise
Also the task is quantum

𝒮
𝒮
ne
hi
ac
m
ng
ni
ar
le
e
m
tre
Ex
More examples
More examples
…
Outline

networks

Quantum reservoir computing for data
classification and prediction
- Aspects of QRC:
QRC and phases of matter
When to go quantum in RC:

what kinds of quantum system are good at QRC?
Eigenstate Thermalisation Hypothesis
Closed system oscillations at any time

But it may happen that…
Starting from a physical initial state the

system’s observables reach values given by
the microcanonical (and Gibbs) ensembles at
sufficiently long times
But it may happen that…
Ex. if you start from a Hamiltonian eigenstate

this does not happens… but such a state is not
what you handle in an experiment
It is not always the case
Main reason to break it: localization (Many-body

localization, Anderson Localization)
Random Ising model
X
random couplings random field
H= Jij Xi Xj + hZi + Wi Zi
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ij
How to characterise the

phase of a quantum
system?
Random Ising model
X
ij
How to characterise the

phase of a quantum
system? Ratio of adjacent
eigenvalue gaps
Random Ising model
X
ij
Level spacing
δα(n) = | Eα(n) − Eα(n−1) |
min{δα(n), δα(n+1)}
rα(n) =
max{δα(n), δα(n+1)}
Random Ising model
X
ij
Ergodic phase:GOE
(Gaussian orthogonal
ensemble)
⟨r⟩ ≃ 0.53
Random Ising model
X
ij
Nonergodic phases: Poisson

statistics
⟨r⟩ ≃ 0.39
Random Ising model
X
ij
Regions II
and IV
admit ETH
Random Ising model
X
ij
Region I
MBL
Region I
Spin Glass
Let’s have a look at the dynamics

of local observables (output) in
different phases
All the rest
Jt Jt
X
ij
Let’s take the

QRC map

(1)
and calculate the

convergence for two
different initial
conditions
X
ij
X
ij
ap
m
C
R
e
th
of
ce
n
ge
er
nv
Co
Region I Regions II and IV Region III

Random Ising model
X
ij
ETH phase: volume-law entanglement
MBL phase: area law entanglement

Random Ising model
X
ij
ETH phase: volume-law entanglement
MBL phase: area law entanglement
Information erased by the partial trace is much

higher in ETH
Information processing capacity: higher in the thermal phase
SG ETH
ETH MBL
Performance in two benchmark tasks
Fading memory at work
QRC and phases of matter:

fading memory at work
X
ij
During each time step Δt there are two (and only two)
conserved quantities:
- H (obvious)
∏
The parity P = Zi
-
i
The thermal state (when reached) can only be a function of the
initial state, which fixes the value of the energy and of the
parity
Fading memory at work

X
ij
During each time step Δt there are two (and only two)
conserved quantities:
- H (obvious)
∏
The parity P = Zi
-
i
Such an initial state was function of the the last input and
(partially) of the previous thermal state

(1)
Ergodic region MLB region

Nonlinearity in QRC
- Quantum mechanics is linear
d | ψ⟩
H | ψ⟩ = iℏ
dt
Nonlinearity in QRC
d | ψ⟩
H | ψ⟩ = iℏ
dt
- Where does nonlinearity come from?

Nonlinearity in QRC
d | ψ⟩
H | ψ⟩ = iℏ
dt
( | ψk⟩⟨ψk | ⊗ ρ̃k−1) e
̂
−iHΔt ̂
iHΔt
ρk = e
( rk sk)
1 − sk rk
ρ̃k−1 = Tr1 (ρk−1) | ψk⟩⟨ψk | =
rk = sk(1 − sk)
Nonlinearity in QRC
d | ψ⟩
H | ψ⟩ = iℏ
dt
( | ψk⟩⟨ψk | ⊗ ρ̃k−1) e
̂
−iHΔt ̂
iHΔt
ρk = e
( rk sk)
1 − sk rk
ρ̃k−1 = Tr1 (ρk−1) | ψk⟩⟨ψk | =
rk = sk(1 − sk)
Nonlinearity in QRC
( rk ρ̃k−1 sk ρ̃k−1)
(1 − sk)ρ̃k−1 rk ρ̃k−1
| ψk⟩⟨ψk | ⊗ ρ̃k−1 =
( 0 0) ( 0 ) (rk ρ̃k−1 0 )
ρ̃k−1 0 −sk ρ̃k−1 0 0 rk ρ̃k−1
| ψk⟩⟨ψk | ⊗ ρ̃k−1 = + +
sk ρ̃k−1
Nonlinearity in QRC
(1 − sk)ρ̃k−1 rk ρ̃k−1
| ψk⟩⟨ψk | ⊗ ρ̃k−1 =
( 0 0) ( 0 ) (rk ρ̃k−1 0 )
ρ̃k−1 0 −sk ρ̃k−1 0 0 rk ρ̃k−1
| ψk⟩⟨ψk | ⊗ ρ̃k−1 = + +
sk ρ̃k−1
[( 0 0) ( 0 ρ̃k−1) (ρ̃k−1 0 )]
̂
−iHΔt ρ̃k−1 0 − ρ̃k−1 0 0 ρ̃k−1 ̂
ρk = e + sk + rk e iHΔt
Input indep. Linear Nonlinear

Nonlinearity in QRC
(1 − sk)ρ̃k−1 rk ρ̃k−1
| ψk⟩⟨ψk | ⊗ ρ̃k−1 =
( 0 0) ( 0 ) (rk ρ̃k−1 0 )
ρ̃k−1 0 −sk ρ̃k−1 0 0 rk ρ̃k−1
| ψk⟩⟨ψk | ⊗ ρ̃k−1 = + +
sk ρ̃k−1
ρk ≡ ρk(0) + sk ρk(1) + rk ρk(nl)

Nonlinearity in QRC
̂ ρ
Output: from ρk to ⟨O⟩ k

⟨O⟩̂ ρk = Tr(Oρ
̂ (0)) + skTr(Oρ
k
̂ (1)) + rkTr(Oρ
k
̂ (nl))
k
Nonlinearity in QRC
̂ ρ

̂ (0)) + skTr(Oρ
k
̂ (1)) + rkTr(Oρ
k
̂ (nl))
k
One-qubit observables
Nonlinearity in QRC
̂ ρ

̂ (0)) + skTr(Oρ
k
̂ (1)) + rkTr(Oρ
k
̂ (nl))
k
Two-qubit
observables
Nonlinearity in QRC
Observation: to have nonlinearity you need to encode

information in the coherence of the input state
̂ (0)) + skTr(Oρ
k
̂ (1)) + rkTr(Oρ
k
̂ (nl))
k
( rk sk)
1 − sk rk
| ψk⟩⟨ψk | =
Nonlinearity in QRC

̂ (0)) + skTr(Oρ
k
̂ (1)) + rkTr(Oρ
k
̂ (nl))
k
( rk sk)
1 − sk rk
| ψk⟩⟨ψk | =
This is not the case if you redundantly write the input in the
populations of more than one qubit
Nonlinearity in QRC

̂ (0)) + skTr(Oρ
k
̂ (1)) + rkTr(Oρ
k
̂ (nl))
k
( rk sk)
1 − sk rk
| ψk⟩⟨ψk | =
This is not the case if you redundantly write the input in the
populations of more than one (NE) qubit
Polynomial of degree j
A different input injection strategy
Two main ways of injecting input into the reservoir
- state (density matrix) update

Two main ways of injecting input into the reservoir
- Hamiltonian update (external driving)
A. Sannia, M. C. Soriano, G. L. Giorgi, R. Zambrini (submitted)

Hamiltonian update (external driving)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5
We need dissipation (H is not enough)

Do we need dissipation or do we have dissipation?
Dissipation is unavoidable in any experimental platform
Often viewed as the main obstacle to quantum computing

Dissipation is unavoidable in any experimental platform
Often viewed as the main obstacle to quantum computing
Its presence can be turned into a resource

Let us add the simplest dissipation term (local Lindblad ME,

Markovian)
Let us add the simplest dissipation term (local Lindblad ME,

Markovian)
Updating rule
Hamiltonian update (external driving, continuous dissipation)
Model parameters: h, J, γ
Let us compare with Fuji-Nakajima
Model parameters: h, J
Let us compare with Fuji-Nakajima
Model parameters: h, J
Dissipation rate as an extra control parameter

CD model vs FN model
Short term memory

Time series forecasting

QRC and quantum measurements
A fundamental issue in QRC: to access the dynamics of a

quantum system at different times, we need to measure
it at different times
But… Quantum measurements disturb the system

(modify its wave function)
Quantum wave function collapse
Before the measurement After the measurement

We need to access the reservoir state at any k

How do we access xk if we have measured (and altered) xk−d?

Method 1: restarting protocol
For each set of commuting observables:

- after each measurement, restart the experiment from the beginning
- for each k repeat the experiment many times (statistical ensemble)

Wash-out steps, remember the fading memory


- for each k repeat the experiment M times (statistical ensemble)
Total number of experiments: Lk × M
Length of the time series up to step k Size of the ensemble

Experimental QRC on IBM Q

Method 2: rewinding protocol
Initial condition forgotten after nwo steps (in this case 20/25)
Reservoir state only depends on the recent input history
Initial condition forgotten after nwo steps (in this case 20/25)
Reservoir state only depends on the recent input history

- after each measurement, restart the experiment from the step k − nwo
Total number of experiments: nwo × M
Wash-out steps Size of the ensemble

Method 3: online protocol (weak measurements)
Unperturbed dynamics Monitored state

vk: stochastic measurement
outcome
On average
Measurement process
Measurement results spin
time step realisation

Measurement process
Two Gaussians
Measurement results spin
time step realisation

Measurement process
Two Gaussians
Statistical uncertainty due to finite sample Nmeas

measurement unsharpness g
But also due to the measured observables (different

elements of ρ need to be evaluated)
One-qubit observables
Two-qubit observables
Method 3: online protocol (weak measurements): results
In the ergodic phase

the dynamics is strongly
polarised around z ̂
Method 3: online protocol (weak measurements): results
Short-term memory (τ = 1)
Comparing the protocols
Comparing the protocols
Solid lines
Otherwise
Optimal value of g (depends on the observables)

Comparing the protocols: Experimental resources

Beyond spins and beyond: can a linear system
efficiently act as a QRC?
We need nonlinearity at some point of the process

Do we need nonlinearity in the dynamics of the reservoir?
Beyond spins and beyond: can a linear system
efficiently act as a QRC?
We need nonlinearity at some point of the process

Do we need nonlinearity in the dynamics of the reservoir?
QRC with continuous variables
CV formalism: H → S (symplectic matrix)

First moments
Covariance matrix
(second moments)
First moments
Covariance matrix
(second moments)
σij = ⟨xixj⟩ρ − 2⟨xi⟩ρ⟨xj⟩ρ

Input injection:
Coherent state Squeezed state Thermal state

Amplitude, angle Amplitude, angle Thermal excitations
Information processing capacity
Coherent state
λ=0
Input encoded
in the amplitude
λ=1
Input encoded
in the phase
Coherent state
Nonlinear memory from a

linear network!
Coherent state
Nonlinear memory from a

linear network!
The degree of nonlinearity

can be tuned by changing
the input strategy
Nonloinearity in the input-output map
Nonloinearity in the input-output map
Photonic platform for online QRC processing
The advantage of using photonics platforms:
- Ultrafast operations/gates
- Weak interaction with the environment (even at room temp.)
- Huge systems experimentally available
The advantage of using photonics platforms:
- Ultrafast operations/gates
- Weak interaction with the environment (even at room temp.)
- Huge systems experimentally available
J. García-Beni, G. L. Giorgi, M. C. Soriano and R. Zambrini, arXiv:2207.14031

Input: product state of N Gaussian squeezed vacuum states
Classical input encoded
in the squeezing angle
Homodyne detection
Output layer:
CM of the detected state
Example of measured covariances
Ideal vs real case:
Ideal vs real case:
Infinite resources, expected values of the observables available
Finite resources, expected values affected by statistical noise

Ideal vs real case:
Infinite resources, expected values of the observables available
Finite resources, expected values affected by statistical noise

Ideal case, memory capacity
The normalised IPC

is always saturated
Notice the effect of

the BS reflectivity
Ideal case, memory capacity
Real case, M measurements
Statistical error ∝ 1/ M
A bound to remembering input in the past is given by the

signal-to-noise ratio SNR
A bound to remembering input in the past is given by the

signal-to-noise ratio SNR
When the signal (covariance matrix elements) becomes

comparable to the (statistical) noise the system cannot work
any more
Beyond spins: physical implementations of QRC
Beyond spins: the role of quantum statistics
Do different physical particles give rise to different QRC

performance?

performance?
Submitted to AQT

performance?
Differences among spins, fermions, and bosons:
- Hilbert space dimension

- Local commutation rules
- Nonlocal commutation rules

performance?
- Hilbert space dimension

D = 2N for fermions, spins; D = ∞ for bosons
Problem: simulating an infinite-dimensional space is not

feasible: we need to truncate at n = ncuto
ff

performance?
- Local commutation rules

- Nonlocal commutation rules
bosons
fermions
spins
Idea: take the same model, only change the statistics

Assess the information processing capacity
Idea: take the same model, only change the statistics

Assess the information processing capacity
Fuji-Nakajima scheme
for different particles
a = {b, f, σ} e=1 for spins, fermions
e=n for bosons

Linear memory capacity
First results:
Fermions perform better
than spins
(nonlocal
anticommutation matters)
Second results (bosons):

The input strategy matters
Linear memory capacity
First results:
Fermions perform better
than spins
(nonlocal
anticommutation matters)
Nonlinear memory capacity

Toy model to explain difference between fermions and spins
Excite one node, study the propagation



THANK YOU
for your attention
@ifisc_mallorca Facebook.com/ifisc http://ifisc.uib-csic.es - Mallorca - Spain

VCQ SummerSchool GianLucaGiorgi

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GIAN LUCA GIORGI

Institute of Cross-disciplinary Physics

Palma de Mallorca (Spain)

QUANTUM RESERVOIR COMPUTING

@ifisc_mallorca Facebook.com/ifisc http://ifisc.uib-csic.es - Mallorca - Spain

Gian Luca Giorgi Miguel C. Soriano Roberta Zambrini

Pere Mujal Johannes Nokkala Christos

Rodrigo Martínez -Peña Jorge García-Beni Guillem Llodrà

Antonio Sannia Adrià Labay-Mora

Rodrigo Martínez -Peña Jorge García-Beni Guillem Llodrà

Antonio Sannia Adrià Labay-Mora

First paper published in 2017

- Unconventional computing and artificial neural

- Basics of (classical) reservoir computing

- From classical to quantum: how, why and when:

- Unconventional computing and artificial neural

- Basics of (classical) reservoir computing

- From classical to quantum: how, why and when:

A computer is any physical object that can be

A computer is any physical object that can be

An unconventional computer is a computing

Artificial neural networks (ANNs)

Classification: assign objects to specified classes

Forecasting: predict future events based on past history

Clustering: group together objects with common features

Optimization: optimize function values in the presence of

RC is a supervised learning technique

You use (many) examples to optimise your system to

Then your system will be autonomously able to perform

Picture taken at https://www.javatpoint.com/supervised-machine-learning

Two main kinds of NNs:

Recurrent neural networks: connections allow

Recurrent neural networks: connections allow

Recurrent neural networks: connections allow

Fact: people realised y(t)

Only output weights need to be trained

x(t) = f(Winu(t) + W x(t − 1)), t = 1,…, T

Only output weights need to be trained

x(t) = f(Winu(t) + W x(t − 1)), t = 1,…, T

What is useful for?

- time series prediction (ex. weather forecasting)

- speech/handwritten digit recognition

Task: given an input, get the desired output that contains

Task: given an input, get the desired output that contains

Can be defined with a continuous input

This task requires memory (remember states in the past)

This task requires memory (remember states in the past)

ȳk = target function

This task requires both linear and nonlinear memory

k−τ … k−2 k−1 k

sk = binary input {1,1,1,0} → 1

This task requires purely nonlinear memory

Given a degree of nonlinearity d we set the class of targets

Legendre polynomials (orthogonal basis)

Capacity for an input string of size L: sum over all degrees

Capacity for an input string of size L: sum over all degrees

We’ll see examples later (in QRC)

Complex, high-dimensional dynamical system with a high

Complex, high-dimensional dynamical system with a high

Complex, high-dimensional dynamical system with a high

y(t) = Wout x(t)

Given a target ȳ(t), weights are chosen to minimize

L is the length of the