Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 106 (2024) 106875

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Ultrasonics Sonochemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ultson

Cavitation suppression and transformation of turbulence structure in the

cross flow around a circular cylinder: Surface morphology and
wettability effects
Mikhail Yu. Nichik a, Boris B. Ilyushin a, Ebrahim Kadivar b, *, Ould el Moctar b, Konstantin
S. Pervunin a, *
a
Kutateladze Institute of Thermophysics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IT SB RAS), 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
b
Institute of Ship Technology, Ocean Engineering and Transport Systems, University of Duisburg-Essen, 47057 Duisburg, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Passive methods of flow and cavitation control appear to offer some of the best prospects in the field of hydraulic
Cavitation control engineering and marine applications. In this article, we aimed at an experimental examination of the effect of
Wall roughness wall roughness/wettability on the occurrence of cavitation and turbulence structure in the cross flow around and
Wettability
in the wake of a circular cylinder in two characteristic regimes. For this, we used three test bodies with different
Visualization
surface morphologies: smooth (reference), micro-scale irregularities (rough) and regular large-scale (of the order
PIV
Statistical filtration of a millimeter) texture (finned). Using high-speed imaging to observe vapor cavities, we revealed that cavitation
Vapor fraction is noticeably suppressed by both types of roughness. Applying the method of vapor phase detection (Pervunin
Higher-order moments et al., 2021), this finding was then quantitatively confirmed through an in-depth analysis of an ensemble of
Bimodal distributions instantaneous velocity fields measured by PIV, indicating that modification of wall morphology is an effective
method of cavitation control. The procedure of statistical vector filtration (Heinz et al., 2004) allowed us to
remove outliers from the velocity fields and, thus, calculate various turbulence characteristics, including higher-
order moments (i.e., the coefficients of skewness and excess). Wall irregularities were found to significantly affect
the turbulence structure of the wake flow, but the higher-order moments downstream of the modified-surface
cylinders turned out to be unexpectedly insensitive to a change in the flow regime, as opposed to the smooth
one. Regardless of the type of surface morphology, the influence of roughness on the mechanism of formation of
large-scale vortices and their characteristics was weakened. However, it caused overall disorganization of liquid
motion in the cylinder wake, thus making local flow conditions highly unsteady. In addition, this process became
more chaotic with an increase in the scale of irregularities.

1. Introduction passage of an acoustic wave during the half-periods of its expansion

Hydrodynamic cavitation is often a harmful phenomenon in hy­
draulic engineering systems and marine applications that usually occurs
on propeller blades, ship rudders and moving parts of hydraulic systems.
It causes such undesirable effects as material erosion, high vibrational
loads, increased noise and overall reduction of hydrodynamic perfor­
mance (e.g., [54,19,27,51,36,37,56]. It is well known [21] that cavita­
tion is initiated on immersible bodies in the flow regions where pressure
locally falls below the one of saturated vapor of the surrounding liquid at
a constant temperature, which can, for example, occur because of an
increase in the flow velocity, a sudden change in the duct geometry, the
(ultrasound cavitation), etc. Various factors like turbulent flow charac­
teristics [65,69,70], surface roughness [3], temperature and viscosity of
the carrier liquid [30], nuclei density and radius [68] and the size of
vapor nanobubbles [23,24] affect cavitation inception and develop­
ment. Moreover, these parameters may also influence each other in
complex ways. At present, the mechanism of interaction of wall irreg­
ularities with turbulence and, especially, large-scale vortex structures is
not yet fully understood, for both streamlined and bluff bodies.
The literature is currently abundant in studies on a round cylinder in
crossflow. Various aspects of this problem have been examined so far,
such as pressure distribution, vortex formation and overall flow pattern,

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: ebrahim.kadivar@uni-due.de (E. Kadivar), konstantin.pervunin@gmail.com (K.S. Pervunin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2024.106875
Received 15 February 2024; Received in revised form 31 March 2024; Accepted 10 April 2024
Available online 11 April 2024
1350-4177/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/).
M. Yu. Nichik et al.
forces and torque acting on the test object, etc. For engineers, the main
practical interest was the average drag and lift coefficients under
different flow conditions. In the book by Zdravkovich [75], a functional
dependence of the drag on the Reynolds number was established and, on
its basis, a classification of five characteristic regimes of the transverse
flow around a cylinder was proposed. Achenbach [1] and Güven et al.
[26] provided experimental data on the drag coefficient for similar test
objects with rough surfaces. For symmetric bodies like a sphere or cyl­
inder with identical conditions above and below relative to the flow
direction, the effect of roughness on the lift force is obviously negligible.
However, shifting the boundary layer separation point to the rear of an
object leads to normalization of pressure distribution over its surface
and, thus, to a decrease in the drag. As demonstrated by Tian et al. [64]
and Zhang et al. [76], the mechanism of drag reduction in cavitating
flows is associated with the combined influence of both modification of
their turbulence structure and phase slip on the cavity interface. Large-
scale vortices are forced to move out of the boundary layer, as if they
were ‘raised’ above the surface [64,76], with the flow velocity profile
becoming flatter. According to Malkin et al. [46], hydrophobicity also
enhances slip on a solid surface. Thus, an attached vapor cavity and a
hydrophobic wall both facilitate flattening of the flow velocity profile,
which implies that the nature of the effects of surface hydrophobicity
and roughness on vapor formation and drag reduction are apparently
similar and associated with liquid slip on the wall. It is worth noting that
the number of articles dedicated to the effect of surface wettability on
cavitating flow is scarce.
So, irregularities on the surface of a body immersed in a fluid flow
can either reduce or increase its drag. Despite extensive advances in the
fundamental understanding of turbulence generation over rough walls,
this issue is still far from being fully resolved (e.g., see the review by
Kadivar et al. [38]). The reasons lie in the chaotic and random nature of
turbulent flows, the lack of systematic studies of their structure and the
variety of types of roughness that can potentially significantly influence
their dynamics. For example, Jouybari et al. [34] proposed a polynomial
model of surface topography with as many as 30 parameters (degrees of
freedom) which efficiency was verified on 45 kinds of rough plates.
Furthermore, the mechanisms of interaction of fluid flow with individ­
ual irregularities can be also substantially different in liquids compared
to gases because of wall wetting and phase transitions like vaporization
and cavitation. In particular, roughness can either enhance or reduce
fluid slip [46], locally increasing or decreasing the slope angle of the
mean velocity profile near the surface, which leads either to a delay in
flow separation or turbulization of the boundary layer and, on the
contrary, its faster stall. This in turn affects the hydrodynamic quality of
the test body. For example, flow separation on a hydrofoil is accompa­
nied by the formation of reverse fluid motion and, as a result, a sharp
drop in the lift and a rise in the drag.
The impact of small- and large-scale roughness on the near-wall flow
is different. When liquid is in full contact with a rough surface (i.e., no
gas or vapor inclusions are present within its recesses), which is referred
to as the Wenzel state (e.g., see [47]), small-scale roughness prevents the
liquid from slipping thanks to additional disturbances in the velocity
field induced by irregularities [46]. The larger the average height/depth
of bumps is, the more pronounced this effect becomes. However, the
build-up of gas/vapor in the surface recesses enhances the slip effect
[46] due to the alternating contact of the liquid moving along the wall
with roughness protrusions and the dispersed phase held in between,
thus making the surface hydrophobic or superhydrophobic if the ma­
terial itself is hydrophobic, which is known as the Cassie–Baxter state
[47]. In which case, the drag is obviously less (the slip is, on the con­
trary, higher) than for a smooth solid wall as a result of reduced friction
of the liquid against the formed gas/vapor cushions. For large-scale
roughness, if the height of irregularities is greater than the thickness
of the viscous sublayer, a recirculating flow occurs in the troughs (e.g.,
[38]), which results in a decrease of the drag coefficient [12]. In some
cases, streamwise vortices are induced [40], which effectively delay the
2
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 106 (2024) 106875
boundary layer separation under an adverse pressure gradient, also
reducing the drag.
Hence, liquid flow over a solid wall strongly depends both on its
material wettability (basically, hydrophility/hydrophobicity), which
affects the development of the boundary layer, as indicated above, and
therefore the structure of its turbulent wake, and on the occurrence of
cavitation. The wetting properties are, in turn, determined by the
following two factors: roughness and the level of surface energy
[35,60,42]. Hydrophobic materials have unique features, including self-
cleaning, protection against corrosion, icing and fogging, etc. [72],
which are widely found in nature, including plant leaves [6], wings
[50,17] and legs [22] of insects and animals [5]. To date, artificial hy­
drophobic coatings have been also developed and used in practice,
which are based on low-energy surfaces and nano- or micro-scale
roughness (e.g., [18,73,59]). At present, the mechanisms of interac­
tion of hydrophobic materials with liquid flows are actively studied (e.
g., see the reviews [47] and [62]). In fluid dynamics, one of the most
important advantages of using hydrophobic coatings is also a decrease in
drag of underwater bodies [25,32].
Brandner et al. [10] discussed in detail the mechanism of cavitation
inception on a metallic sphere in the form of individual vapor streaks of
approximately the same size distributed almost uniformly around the
entire circumference. The streaks present continuously at certain loca­
tions grow and merge to establish an attached cavity with a cellular-
structured leading edge. Before then, Leger and Ceccio [43] also
observed a similar cavitation pattern on a hydrophilic sphere, which
was, however, absent on a hydrophobic one. Note that this cellular
structure of the incipient cavity resembles the process of formation of
Λ-structures [9] and Theodorsen horseshoe-shaped vortices [2] at the
initial stage of evolution of turbulent boundary layer. At a near-critical
cavitation number, these vortices create low-pressure areas in a liquid
flow, where the phase transition must occur in the first place, presum­
ably producing the above-mentioned cellular structure. Since the
horseshoe vortices arise from the flow slowdown by the wall, a decrease
in the deceleration rate or, in other words, an increase in the slip length
leads to a delay in their formation or their complete elimination in the
case of insufficient extension of the surface. Boiko et al. [9] indicated
that the transition to turbulence occurs much faster on a smooth plate
than a ribbed one. Thus, an increase in the slip length on a hydrophobic
surface or, which is equivalent, a rise in the flow velocity at the wall
should result in retardation of the development of the boundary layer,
less pronounced deformation of the velocity profile and, as a conse­
quence, smaller number of the low-pressure areas.
Various passive methods of cavitation control based on these prin­
ciples were discussed in detail in the review by Zaresharif et al. [74],
including those employing the concept of variation of the contact angle.
Numerous papers have been published so far, where the effect of wall
irregularities on flow structure was investigated in detail for both a
cylinder (e.g., [71,63,55,8,77,45]) and other objects of different shapes
(e.g., [53,39,7,33,11,34]). In particular, Arndt and Ippen [4], Coutier-
Delgosha et al. [14], Li et al. [44], Danlos et al. [15] and Churkin
et al. [11] examined the roughness effect on cavitation, which is directly
related to the surface wettability, confirming that the interaction of
large- and small-scale irregularities with vapor cavities occurs in
different ways. van Rijsbergen [67], in turn, provided a detailed review
on the physical mechanisms of cavitation inception and how roughness
affects them. Leger and Ceccio [43] experimentally demonstrated that
the physical properties of the wall material significantly influence the
shape of an attached cavity and the location of boundary layer separa­
tion in both single-phase and cavitating flows around a hydrophilic brass
and hydrophobic PTFE sphere, as well as a cylinder. However, some
papers reporting on modification of the flow structure by hydrophobic
and rough surfaces contain conflicting results [13,11,38]. Thus, further
research in this direction is of great importance.
In this article, we experimentally investigate the effect of different
types of surface roughness (regular large-scale and irregular small-scale)
M. Yu. Nichik et al.
on the development of cavitation and the structure of turbulence in the
wake of a round cylinder in two characteristic regimes through high-
speed visualization of vapor cavities and Particle Image Velocimetry
(PIV) measurements of velocity fields. Using the procedure of statistical
filtration of velocity vectors [28] and the method of vapor phase
detection [52], we obtain spatial distributions of the first four statistical
moments of the flow velocity and the time-averaged vapor concentra­
tion. The layout of this paper is as follows. In the next section, we give a
detailed description of the test bodies, flow conditions and measurement
techniques. Section 3 is the primary one, where main results of the study
are presented and discussed. In Section 4, we summarize our findings
and draw conclusions.
2. Experiment
2.1. Test bodies and surface morphology
The experiments were conducted in the cavitation tunnel in Institute
of Thermophysics SB RAS which description along with the monitoring
and controlling equipment is available in Kravtsova et al. [41]. The test
section of the experimental facility is a 1.3-m long rectangular channel,
with the inner height H = 250 mm and width W = 80 mm (more details
can be found in [58]). The test objects are three cylinders of effective
Fig. 1. Visual appearance (top row), close-up view (middle row) and characteristic surface profiles (bottom row) of the (a) smooth, (b) rough and (c) fin­
ned cylinders.
3
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 106 (2024) 106875
diameter D = 25 mm and length (span) of 80 mm. Each of them
expanded over the entire width of the test channel and was tightly
attached to both sidewalls. Two of these bodies were made of a brass
round rod, while the third one was manufactured from a copper tube
with a 2-mm thick wall tightly fitted on a 21-mm diameter support. Each
of the cylinders was subject to a specific surface treatment. One with a
relatively smooth wall was produced by CNC milling and used as a
reference (Fig. 1a). The second was coated with 46 g (1150 shots) of
nichrome powder (Cr20Ni80, fraction 1–40 μm), thus creating a solid
layer of 250–280 μm thickness, in the Lavrentyev Institute of Hydro­
dynamics SB RAS by detonation spraying [66] to have irregular
morphology of micro-scale roughness (Fig. 1b). The last one was
machined on a lathe in the Bauman Moscow State Technical University
through deformation cutting (spindle speed = 1600 rpm, minimum wall
thickness = 1.5 mm, maximum fin height = 3 mm, fin spacing =
0.25–1.5 mm) [61,78] to produce a regular texture of equidistantly-
spaced millimeter-sized fins of a spiral thread (Fig. 1c).
Roughness characteristics of the test bodies were measured with a
portable profilometer Mahr GmbH MarSurf XR 1 equipped with a drive
unit MarSurf SD 26, a skidless probe system BFW 250 and a BFW probe
arm A 10–45-2/90, where ‘10’ is the height of the stylus tip in milli­
meters, ‘45’ stands for the probe element offset relative to the pivot
point at the x-axis in millimeters, ‘2’ denotes the stylus tip radius in
M. Yu. Nichik et al. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 106 (2024) 106875

microns, ‘90’ reflects the cone angle of the stylus tip. This instrument specifically to measure the contact angle between immiscible fluids,
operates according to standard ISO 3274:1996 to measure a wall profile where one of them appears as a blob. The contact angle between the
and calculate its roughness parameters. The device readings are recor­ sample and liquid was quantified with an error of 0.1◦ through the
ded and processed in the MahrWin EasyRoughness software. The tangent method built in the same software [48]. For the smooth and
measured surface profiles were smoothed with a Gaussian filter in rough cylinders, 2 μL of water at a temperature of 20 ◦ C was placed on
accordance with ISO 16610–21 (cutoff wavelength = 0.8 mm). The main the tested sample to create a sessile drop. On the finned surface, a
roughness characteristics according to standards ISO 4287:1997 droplet of 10 μL volume put on the top of the thread was unstable and,
(roughness parameters), ISO 4288:1996 (measuring conditions) and ISO with a slight vibration, immediately leaked into the troughs. In the latter
11562:1998 (roughness/waviness filter) are the arithmetical mean de­ case, its volume was then also reduced to 2 μL to observe its shape be­
viation (level) Ra , maximum peak-to-valley height Rz , maximum peak tween the ribs.
height Rp , maximum valley depth Rv , mean spacing of peaks or valleys In our experiment, the materials of the cylinder surfaces, brass,
RSm , profile skewness RSk , its kurtosis RKu and root-mean-square slope copper and nichrome, are rather hydrophilic. Another supplementary
Rdq (see Table 1). For the smooth cylinder, RSm equals exactly 100 μm as test on thin flat foils of the same metals/alloys using the above method
it corresponds to the cutting tool step. It can be seen in Fig. 1a that the applied to a 2 μL water drop showed that the contact angle for brass,
average level of roughness of the smooth surface is low and the span copper and nichrome makes respectively about 88◦ , 80◦ and 76◦ . This is
between its peaks and troughs is insignificant. The wall of the rough also confirmed by Fig. 2a, where the contact angle of the smooth brass
cylinder is chaotically micro-structured in terms of the location of ir­
regularities and their size (Fig. 1b). The surface texture of the finned
cylinder is featured by alternating skewed ribs of height h ≈ 1.1 mm and
0.36-mm length and flat grooves of 0.64-mm length in the axial (span­
wise) direction which period (step) equals p = 1 mm (Fig. 1c). Thus, the
scales of the two types of roughness differ by two orders of magnitude.
In the case where a rough surface is in contact with a flowing liquid,
it is evident that the most important effect of irregularities is a modifi­
cation of the mean velocity profile near the wall (see Introduction)
which ultimately affects the development of boundary layer, its struc­
ture, conditions for the occurrence of cavitation, etc. The Reynolds
number of roughness is a quantitative characteristic that determines the
degree of its interaction with the buffer layer of the flow. Irregularities
disturb this layer but do not practically transfer anything to the liquid
bulk, except for a change in the surface friction drag. However, we
should acknowledge that Jiménez [33], for example, indicated a stron­
ger influence of roughness on the external flow. As mentioned above,
roughness of a wall affects its hydrophobic properties which are man­
ifested by the presence, volume and shape of a gas/vapor layer between
the liquid and solid surface, as well as between individual irregularities.
This, in turn, leads to an alleviation in the effect of the rough wall both
on the buffer layer and on the flow as a whole. If the cavitation number is
close to a critical value at which cavitation is initiated, roughness ele­
ments can also act as cavitation nuclei, thereby facilitating the genera­
tion of vapor and leading to a hydrophobicity-like effect, due to the
formation of local areas of reduced pressure even in the case of a hy­
drophilic surface [4].

2.2. Surface wettability

In order to examine the roughness effect on the wall wettability, we

took supplementary measurements of the static contact angle for each of
the three test bodies with different surface morphology. For this, we
sequentially fulfilled the following procedures. Immediately before the
test, all the cylinders were cleaned and degreased with ethanol. After
installing a test sample on a linear translation stage, the wall level, angle
of inclination and curvature of the former were determined manually
and saved in the DSA3 software. In the test, a drop of water was placed Fig. 2. Photographs of a water drop resting on the (a) smooth and (b) rough
on the sample, which volume was selected individually for each surface cylinders. The blue horizontal or close-to-horizontal line illustrates the surface
level. The image parts lying under this line are reflections of the upper part and,
in the range from 1 to 10 μL depending on its morphology. Shadowgraph
therefore, do not convey any useful information. The other blue curves depict
pictures of the drop were taken perpendicular to the cylinder axis using a
reconstructed imaginary arcs of the drop boundary needed to draw the tangent
multifunction system Kruss DSA-100E (range of contact angles = (green solid line) at its base.
0–180◦ , maximum sample dimensions = 300 × 150 mm) designed

Table 1
Main parameters characterizing the properties of roughness for the smooth and rough surfaces measured over a traversing length of 5.6 mm.
parameter Ra , μm Rz , μm Rp , μm Rv , μm RSm , μm RSk RKu Rdq

smooth 1.621 11.136 4.139 7 100 –0.787 4.132 0.282

rough 6.122 33.354 16.133 17.221 211.706 0.072 3.137 0.538

4
M. Yu. Nichik et al.
wall lies in the range of 82.2–84.0◦ . The difference in the contact angle
values for the brass cylinder and foil may be due to their different de­
grees of oxidation as the former was in contact with water for a long
time. As for the micro-scale irregular roughness, the contact angle of this
surface is much higher and equals 128.6–130.0◦ (Fig. 2b). Thus, it ex­
hibits stable and pronounced hydrophobic properties, though both the
brass substrate and nickel–chromium grains are individually hydro­
philic. Meanwhile, on the cylinder with the large-scale regular struc­
tures, a drop of water was initially located on the top of the thread,
without penetrating into the grooves between each pair of the fins
(Fig. 3a). The wetting behavior of a liquid drop on a similar ribbed
surface was described in detail by Manoharan and Bhattacharya [47] for
different damping conditions. However, this state of the system is
metastable: with weak shaking or increasing the drop volume, water
slides down to fill the free spaces between the roughness elements,
thereby distinctly revealing hydrophilic properties of the structured
surface (Fig. 3b). It is obvious that, if such a cylinder is completely
immersed in a water flow, the liquid should fill the entire volume be­
tween the ribs. Hence, the presence of gas and/or water vapor inside
these millimeter-scaled channels can just be caused by the phase tran­
sition (vaporization) in the resulting local zones of low pressure and the
release of dissolved air.
Fig. 3. Photographs of a water drop lying (a) on the top of the ribs and (b)
inside the grooves of the finned cylinder. The blue horizontal line illustrates the
upper edge of the cylinder surface passing through the tips of the protrusions.
The other blue curves depict reconstructed imaginary arcs of the drop boundary
needed to draw the tangent (green solid line) at its base.
5
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 106 (2024) 106875
2.3. Flow conditions and measurement techniques
In this study, we consider two regimes of the cross flow around the
cylinders of different surface morphology as given in Table 2. In order to
change the flow conditions, we varied the Reynolds and cavitation
numbers together by adjusting the freestream bulk flow velocity U0 ,
which are respectively defined as follows:
DU0 pin − pV
Re = , σc = ,
ν ρU02 /2
where pin is the static pressure quantified by a diaphragm strain-gauge
pressure transducer at the test channel sidewall near its inlet with an
error of ±1.5 kPa, pV = 4.24 kPa [16] is the saturation vapor pressure of
the working liquid (distilled water at a temperature of 30 ◦ C in the
present experiment), ρ and ν are the density and kinematic viscosity of
the working liquid.
U0 was measured far upstream of the location of the test body by PIV
in the central vertical longitudinal section over the entire height of the
test channel, which had a top-hat velocity profile, with the initial level of
turbulent fluctuations not exceeding 1.5 % of U0 at the test channel inlet.
Table 2 also contains additional properties needed to fully describe the
flow conditions: pout is the static pressure at the outlet of the test channel
determined in the same way as pin , f is the frequency of generation of
cavitating Karman vortices in the wake of the cylinder that is evaluated
from high-speed visualization, and St = fD/U0 is the reduced frequency
(Strouhal number) of the Karman vortex street. The concentration of
dissolved oxygen in the working liquid was monitored by a Mettler
Toledo InPro 6850i sensor (measurement range from 6 ppb to satura­
tion, relative error 1 %) connected to a M400 multi-parameter trans­
mitter and maintained almost constant at about 7.4 mg/L.
High-speed imaging was performed both from the top and from the
side using a Photron FASTCAM SA5 camera (maximum resolution =
1024 × 1024 pixels, maximum framing rate = 7 kHz at full resolution)
equipped with a Nikon AF Micro Nikkor 60 mm f/2.8D lens. It was
mounted above or at the side of the test section, such that the distance
between the camera matrix and the nearest channel wall equaled 400
and 512 mm in case of the vertical and horizontal arrangements of the
visualization system. In the experiment, the image acquisition frequency
was set to 20 kHz at a frame size of 768 × 480 (top view) and 960 × 392
(side view) pixels. The optical magnification made up 0.12 and 0.18,
while the spatial resolution was 6 and 8.76 pixels/mm respectively for
the vertical and horizontal setups. The overall length of recording of
each experimental run was 1 s (20,000 frames in total). To ensure suf­
ficient image exposure, we used two high-power matrix LEDs 3F100
(maximum power = 100 W, color temperature = 6000 K, opening angle
= 140◦ ), each equipped with an individual divergent lens, with the
working level of direct current of 2.5 A and voltage of 30 V, to illuminate
cavitation structures in the cross flow around the cylinders. The angle of
illumination and position of each LED relative to the test body was
adjusted independently in both vertical and horizontal directions.
In order to measure the flow velocity, Particle Image Velocimetry
was employed. For this, a system comprised of a double-cavity pulsed
Nd:YAG Quantel EVG00200 laser (wavelength = 532 nm, pulse repeti­
tion rate = 15 Hz, pulse duration = 10 ns, maximum pulse energy = 200
mJ), a CCD-camera ImperX Bobcat IGV-B4820 (digit capacity = 16 bits,
matrix resolution = 4904 × 3280 pixels, maximum framing rate = 4 Hz
at full resolution) equipped with a Nikon AF Nikkor 50 mm f/1.4D lens
and a POLIS pulse/delay generator was used. Management of this
measurement system was implemented through a computer with the
ActualFlow software, as well as PIV data storage and processing. In the
experiment, the recording rate was equal to 4 Hz at a resolution of 3024
× 1800 pixels. The thickness of a laser light sheet produced by a sheet-
forming optical assembly to illuminate seeding particles suspended in
the flow was approximately 0.8 mm in the measurement section that
coincided with the central vertical longitudinal plane of the test channel.
M. Yu. Nichik et al. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 106 (2024) 106875

Table 2
Main integral parameters and dimensionless criteria of similarity characterizing the flow regimes examined.
Regime Surface pin , kPa pout , kPa U0 , m/s Re, ×105 σc f, Hz St

R-I smooth 106 ± 1.5 108.3 ± 1.5 9.2 ± 0.18 2.9 ± 0.06 2.4 ± 0.1 189 0.25 ± 0.01
rough – –
finned – –

R-II smooth 105.8 ± 1.5 104.8 ± 1.5 9.9 ± 0.2 3.1 ± 0.06 2.1 ± 0.08 217 0.27 ± 0.01
rough 225 0.28 ± 0.01
finned 200 0.26 ± 0.01

The distance between the camera and the laser sheet equaled 566 mm.
The physical dimensions of the measurement region were 180 × 107
mm. In this arrangement of the measurement system, the optical
magnification and spatial resolution of the camera were 0.12 and 16.75
pixels/mm, respectively. The processing and validation procedures of
PIV data are fully described in Ilyushin et al. [31]. A detailed analysis of
the measurement uncertainties is available in Nichik et al. [49].
3. Results and discussion
As noted above, along with the morphology and chemical composi­
tion of a solid wall, cavitation is also influenced by the dynamic char­
acteristics of a liquid flow which include but not limited to the cavitation
number, statistical properties of turbulence and noise level [4]. That is
why, when analyzing the effect of the surface roughness of a test body on
cavitation by comparing the results of independent experimental runs, it
is important to secure the identity of all experimental conditions, except
for parameters of irregularities. According to Table 2, this requirement is
fully met here, including the same experimental facility, shape and size
of the test body, liquid properties, flow conditions, measurement and
data processing techniques, etc.
3.1. Visual observation of cavitation
Earlier studies (e.g., [4,14,44,15,67]) revealed that roughness on
average results in cavitation mitigation. In this research, snapshots taken
by high-speed imaging show a similar trend of the vapor cavity evolu­
tion depending on the presence and scale of irregularities – cavitation
development occurs to be significantly hampered on the rough and
finned cylinders (Fig. 4). At the same time, this effect is more pro­
nounced (i.e., cavitation is even further suppressed) in the case of micro-
scale irregular roughness compared to the millimeter-scaled regular
microstructuring (cf. Fig. 4b and 4c). This finding is, however, in
contradiction with the results by Churkin et al. [11] for a NACA0015
hydrofoil, which were obtained in the same cavitation tunnel.
Churkin et al. [11] found that both a growth of Ra and Rz and a
reduction in RSm of the hydrofoil surface, whose irregular roughness was
created at the same installation and by the same method of detonation
spraying, generally lead to an elongation of the attached cavity and a
faster transition to unsteady flow conditions, regardless of the angle of
attack. This implies that individual micro-scale irregularities on the
surface of a streamlined body, like a hydrofoil, must induce relatively
strong streamwise vortices in the form of streaks that promote cavitation
in their cores. It looks especially plausible at the leading edge of a hy­
drofoil where the thickness of the boundary layer is extremely small
[41], so that these irregularities protrude into the bulk of the main flow
above the boundary layer, making this method of passive flow control
ineffective on streamlined objects [29].
As for a bluff body, such as a cylinder, the thickness of the boundary
layer over its surface grows very quickly downstream of the 90◦ point
due to the significant curvature of its shape. A rise in the level of
roughness of the solid wall in this instance must result in intense

Fig. 4. Top-view photographs of vapor structures on the surface and in the wake of the cylinders at the moment of maximum cavitation intensity in regime R-II
(Table 2) for the three types of wall morphology (Fig. 1): (a) smooth; (b) rough and (c) finned.

6
M. Yu. Nichik et al.
turbulization of the boundary layer, thus delaying its separation (i.e.,
shifting its separation point farther downstream, closer to the wake axis)
[57]. This in turn disturbs the wake flow, violating its steady pattern
and, thereby, making local conditions unfavorable for cavitation to
occur [20]. This hypothetical mechanism should be responsible for this
huge difference in the effectiveness of the considered method of passive
cavitation control between the cases of a bluff and streamlined body.
3.2. Statistical analysis of turbulence structure
In order to calculate central moments of turbulent fluctuations of the
flow field, the procedure of statistical filtration of velocity vectors [28]
was applied to the entire PIV dataset separately for either regime from
Table 2. This validation method was previously demonstrated by
Ilyushin et al. [31] to be an effective tool to remove vector outliers from
the ensemble of velocity fields, specifically in cavitating flow, thereby
making calculation of higher-order statistical moments of turbulent
fluctuations possible, which are known to be highly sensitive even to
single incorrect measurements. The representativeness of the statistical
ensembles of the flow velocity was checked comparing spatial distri­
butions of the higher-order moments of turbulent fluctuations calculated
over N = 1000 and 5000 realizations (i.e., single measurements of
instantaneous velocity fields) as shown in Fig. 5 by the example of the
excess coefficient. The first four moments of velocity fluctuations are
given by the following formulae resulting from the Reynolds decom­
position (̃
v = V + v):
V = 〈̃
v〉 − time-averaged(mean)flow velocity(first moment);
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
σv = 〈v2 〉 − dispersion of turbulent fluctuations (second moment);
〈v3 〉
Sv = − skewness coefficient (third moment);
σ 3v
Fig. 5. Spatial distributions of the excess coefficient of transverse velocity
fluctuations over and in the wake of the smooth (reference) cylinder in R-I
(Table 2) resulting from the statistical filtration of the ensemble of instanta­
neous velocity fields [28] for different sample volumes N = (a) 1000 and (b)
5000 realizations. The cylinder mask is composed of several parts as follows. Its
longitudinal section coinciding with the PIV measurement plane is highlighted
by pink contour with the diagonal hatching, while the green contour with the
inverse diagonal hatching corresponds to the frontal end surface of the cylinder
adjacent to the test channel sidewall. The tilted pink lines under the test body
depict the borders of its shadow in the measurement plane.
7
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 106 (2024) 106875
〈v4 〉
Ev = − 3 − excess coefficient (fourth moment),
σ4v
where ̃ v is the instantaneous flow velocity and v is its fluctuating
component.
As seen in Fig. 5, the fields of the excess coefficient of velocity
fluctuations in the transverse direction Evy practically coincide, irre­
spective of the sample size (cf. Fig. 5a and 5b), which leads us to the
conclusion that the ensemble volume of 1000 realizations is sufficient to
calculate the first four moments of turbulent fluctuations, provided that
the procedure of statistical filtration [28] is employed. The representa­
tiveness of the sample volume to evaluate the time-averaged vapor
content using the method of quantification of the probability of
dispersed phase occurrence [52] was verified in a similar fashion (see
Fig. 6). Besides, to ensure the correctness of computation of the vapor
fraction, we also checked the absence of correlation between successive
realizations in the obtained dataset of instantaneous flow velocity. As
visible in Fig. 7, each of the distributions obeys an exponential law,
which implies all events in the ensembles are statistically independent
[52].
As it comes from Figs. 8 and 9, the spatial distributions of the time-
averaged flow velocity are completely different downstream of the
smooth and rough cylinders, even for the streamwise mean velocity Vx
in the main part of the turbulent wake (cf. Fig. 8a.1 and 8b.1 for R-I,
Fig. 8a.2 and 8b.2 for R-II). This indicates a dramatic influence of the
small-scale irregular roughness on the flow structure. Meanwhile,
comparing both flow regimes (R-I and R-II), the discrepancies in the
mean velocity fields around the reference cylinder are significant (cf.
Fig. 8a.1 and 8a.2 for Vx , Fig. 9a.1 and 9a.2 for Vy ), while these are
noticeably smaller for the rough (cf. Fig. 8b.1 and 8b.2 for Vx and
Fig. 9b.1 and 9b.2 for Vy ) and finned ones (cf. Fig. 8c.1 and 8c.2 for Vx
and Fig. 9c.1 and 9c.2 for Vy ). It is also visible from Figs. 8–11 that, for
each cylinder, the first two moments of the velocity field – streamwise
and transverse components of the mean velocity (Vx and Vy ) and
dispersion of turbulent fluctuations (σvx and σvy ) – overall grow in
magnitude when a transition from R-I to R-II occurs, as well as the time-
averaged vapor content 〈α〉 (Fig. 12).
Fig. 6. Spatial distributions of the time-averaged vapor fraction over and in the
wake of the smooth (reference) cylinder in R-II (Table 2) obtained by the
evaluation method of vapor phase occurrence developed by Pervunin et al. [52]
for different sample volumes N = (a) 1000 and (b) 5000 realizations. The black
diagonal crosses in image (a) display the sampling points where distributions of
velocity fluctuations are further analyzed. The color mask is the same as
in Fig. 5.
M. Yu. Nichik et al.
Fig. 7. Histograms of the repeatability of vapor phase occurrence in R-II
(Table 2) at three points (0.7; 0), (1.1; 0) and (1.5; 0) shown in Fig. 5a for
illustrative purposes, where i is an index, ni is the number of i consecutive
detections of the dispersed phase in the measured ensemble of instantaneous
velocity fields.
This increase is, however, less pronounced for the rough and finned
cylinders compared to the reference one (e.g., cf. Figs. 10b, 10c, 11b and
11c against Figs. 10a and 11a). Moreover, in case of the smooth surface
in contrast to the two others, the rise of the transverse component of
velocity fluctuations significantly exceeds that of the streamwise one
(nearly one and a half times). Thus, the anisotropy of turbulent fluctu­
ations enhances, which is not the case for the rough and finned
Fig. 8. Spatial distributions of the streamwise component of the mean flow velocity around and in the wake of the (a) smooth, (b) rough and (c) finned cylinder in
the two flow regimes (Table 2). The color mask is the same as in Fig. 5.
8
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 106 (2024) 106875
cylinders. A similar effect was revealed by Tian et al. [64] and Zhang
et al. [76], where such suppression of turbulence in the streamwise di­
rection along with shear stresses was attributed to the wall hydropho­
bicity. It is also worth noting that, in those two papers, the
measurements were taken within the boundary layers on surfaces with
various hydrophobic properties, unlike the turbulent wakes behind the
cylinders with different wall roughness as in this article.
With a transition from R-I to R-II, the amplitude of the higher-order
moments (Svx , Svy , Evx , Evy ) also grows in case of the reference cylinder
(Figs. 13a–16a), while the expansion rate of the wake region with non-
zero values of the skewness and excess coefficients, which is typical of a
non-Gaussian distribution of velocity fluctuations, increases consider­
ably. As for the rough and finned surfaces, these effects are almost ab­
sent: no significant changes are visible in the distributions of the higher-
order moments, either in magnitude or in the location and extension of
the region of non-zero values (Figs. 13b–16b and Figs. 13c–16c). Here,
we especially note that Svx and Svy remain individually similar for the
two modified cylinders, not only when the flow conditions are varied,
but also for the two distinctive levels of roughness which differ by nearly
two orders of magnitude. To explain this fact, the reader should recall
that turbulent vortices, which size falls within the inertial interval of a
turbulence energy spectrum, are characterized by homogeneous
isotropic properties.
The effects of asymmetry and spotting of turbulent fluctuations
expressed essentially by the coefficients of skewness and excess are
manifested by integral vortices from the long-wave energy-containing
range and Kolmogorov eddies from the viscous range of this spectrum (i.
e., large-scale and dissipative small-scale vortices of the order of the
Kolmogorov microscale). Given that Kolmogorov eddies quickly decay
(dissipate), the above-mentioned effects reflect the influence of rough­
ness mainly on large-scale vortex structures in the wake of the cylinder.
Thus, in case of the rough wall, an increase in the bulk flow velocity or,
which is equivalent, a decrease in the cavitation number has little effect
on the structure of large-scale vortices (i.e., asymmetry and excess), and
their skewness coefficient is almost independent of the scale of
M. Yu. Nichik et al. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 106 (2024) 106875

Fig. 9. Spatial distributions of the transverse component of the mean flow velocity around and in the wake of the (a) smooth, (b) rough and (c) finned cylinder in the
two flow regimes (Table 2). The color mask is the same as in Fig. 5.

Fig. 10. Spatial distributions of the dispersion of streamwise velocity fluctuations around and in the wake of the (a) smooth, (b) rough and (c) finned cylinder in the
two flow regimes (Table 2). The color mask is the same as in Fig. 5.

roughness. surface hydrophobicity created by micro- or nano-textures pushes large-

The generation and evolution of these vortices is mainly determined scale vortices away from the wall, thereby reducing its influence on
by the presence, size and shape of the test body, as opposed to the them. Although the scale of roughness in the present study is different,
smooth cylinder. As noted by Tian et al. [64] and Zhang et al. [76], the the mechanism of its interaction with integral eddies and, therefore, its

9
M. Yu. Nichik et al.
Fig. 11. Spatial distributions of the dispersion of transverse velocity fluctuations around and in the wake of the (a) smooth, (b) rough and (c) finned cylinder in the
two flow regimes (Table 2). The color mask is the same as in Fig. 5.
influence on the higher-order moments of turbulent fluctuations is
obviously similar to that described by Tian et al. [64] and Zhang et al.
[76]. It is also visible from Fig. 13a and 13b that the fields of Svx for the
smooth and rough surfaces are absolutely different in some region at a
distance of about 2D downstream of the cylinder rear stagnation point in
both flow regimes (negative values in the reference case and positive
ones for the rough wall). The magnitude of Svy in a region of an
approximate extension of 1D immediately behind the smooth cylinder is
positive above and negative below the wake axis (Fig. 14a) in contrast to
both modified bodies, for which Svy is entirely positive across this region
(Fig. 14b and 14c).
The type of roughness affects the asymmetry of velocity fluctuations
in both directions solely by changing the length of the indicated area,
which differs by nearly 50 % (cf. Fig. 13b and 13c, Fig. 14b and 14c). In
this case, for both regimes (R-I and R-II), the distributions of the
skewness coefficient of each velocity component in the wakes of the
modified cylinders almost do not change in contrast to the reference one
(cf. Figs. 13b, 13c, 14b and 14c against Figs. 13a and 14a). This
discrepancy is evidently linked with the mechanism by which the small-
scale irregular roughness influences the skewness coefficient in the
boundary layer, as discussed by Keirsbulck et al. [39] and Bhaganagar
et al. [7]. This effect on Svx reflects a significant change in the properties
of large-scale vortex structures in the boundary layer and, as a conse­
quence, in the cylinder wake. The great influence of roughness on the
excess coefficient in both directions can be clearly observed in Figs. 15
and 16 in contrast to the skewness coefficient, for which this effect is
chiefly manifested on its streamwise component (cf. Figs. 13 and 14).
This difference is especially distinctive in both regimes (R-I and R-II) for
Evy in the wake, at a distance of 2D behind the cylinder rear edge (cf.
Fig. 16a and 16b), which is consistent with the results by Bhaganagar
et al. [7]. Similar to the asymmetry, the distributions of both compo­
nents of the excess coefficient in the wakes of the modified test bodies
are practically identical, regardless of the flow conditions, in contrast to
the reference one (cf. Figs. 15b, 15c, 16b and 16c against Figs. 15a and
16a).
10
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 106 (2024) 106875
The distributions of the time-averaged vapor fraction shown in
Fig. 12 demonstrate the effect of noticeable reduction of the vapor
concentration by roughness. It can be seen that, in regime R-I, the
dispersed phase is only present on the surface of the polished cylinder
and in the mixing layers downstream (Fig. 12a), with no vapor found
behind the rough and finned ones (not shown). In R-II, cavitation be­
comes further developed on the polished sample, where vapor already
covers the entire field of the wake flow (Fig. 12b). In this regime, the
presence of the dispersed phase is also characteristic of both modified
cylinders, with a significantly reduced vapor content (Fig. 12c and 12d).
However, it is seen that the areas within both mixing layers, where the
dispersed phase fraction takes its maximum values, are shifted down­
stream relative to the cylinder compared to the smooth sample in R-I
(Fig. 12a) because vapor must be chiefly concentrated in the cores of
strong Karman vortices. This effect of cavitation mitigation is obviously
associated with increased slip on any of the rough walls (see Introduc­
tion). This also explains the downstream displacement of vortex struc­
tures in the wake (cf. Fig. 12a, 12c and 12d).
It is observable from Fig. 8 that, for the polished sample, the region of
reverse flow is located directly behind the cylinder in R-I but it is absent
in R-II due to turbulization of the wake (Fig. 8a), whereas for the two
rough bodies this region is visible in both regimes and significantly
stretched downstream, with its maximum located at nearly 1.5D behind
the rear of the cylinder (Fig. 8b and 8c). It is important to note that the
small-scale irregular wall morphology is more effective than the large-
scale regular texture in alleviating cavitation, such that the difference
in the time-averaged vapor fraction reaches an order of magnitude.
Besides, comparing the results with those from Churkin et al. [11] ob­
tained for similar flow conditions and wall morphology, the small-scale
roughness is much more effective on the cylinder than on the NACA0015
hydrofoil due presumably to the significant surface curvature and faster
separation of the boundary layer on the bluff body. Zaresharif et al. [74]
reported that the intensity of cavitation can be reduced with the aid of
some laser-made textures as compared to polished surfaces. This is also
consistent with our measurements.
M. Yu. Nichik et al.
Fig. 12. Spatial distributions of the time-averaged vapor content and instantaneous images of cavitation structures at the moment of maximum cavitation intensity
around and in the wake of the (a) smooth, (b) rough and (c) finned cylinder in the two flow regimes (Table 2). The color mask is the same as in Fig. 5.
3.3. Distributions of fluctuating velocity
In addition to the above analysis of the flow turbulence structure,
below we consider histograms of velocity fluctuations in certain points
of the cylinder wake to delve deeper into the mechanism of interaction
between turbulence and wall roughness. Figs. 17 and 18 disclose the
anisotropic nature of velocity fluctuations in the wake as noted above.
Moreover, the anisotropy manifests itself not only in the dispersion
value, but also in the statistical structure of turbulent fluctuations (i.e.,
difference in the appearance of the histograms for both velocity com­
ponents). Particular attention should be drawn to their bimodality for
the transverse fluctuations (i.e., normal to the wall in the flow separa­
tion region) for the reference cylinder with negligible roughness. It can
be seen in Figs. 17a and 18a that, for the reference body, the distribu­
tions of the transverse fluctuating velocity vy have a bimodal shape (i.e.,
with two definite peaks) throughout the entire wake. The same quantity
in case of the cylinder with the small-scale roughness also tends to have
a bimodal appearance of its distribution, with this effect becoming more
distinctive when shifting downstream from the test body (Figs. 17b and
18b). However, this tendency is practically invisible for the large-scale
11
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 106 (2024) 106875
roughness (Figs. 17c and 18c). According to Ilyushin et al. [31], such
a two-mode form of the histograms is associated with the process of
periodic advection of large-scale vortices in the wake of the cylinder,
with the peaks of the distributions corresponding to the utmost (oppo­
site) phases of these flow oscillations.
Ilyushin et al. [31] also demonstrated that a two-peak histogram of
the fluctuating velocity is typical of unsteady cloud cavitation over a
hydrofoil. The relatively high coherence of vapor cloud detachments
allowed the authors to collate certain phases of the quasi-periodic flow
dynamic with each of the peaks of the bimodal distribution. Coutier-
Delgosha et al. [14] concluded that wall roughness in the range from
100 to 400 μm caused disorganization of the growth/reduction cycle of
unsteady cloud cavitation, with this effect become more pronounced
with increasing the level of irregularities. Apparently, such a disorga­
nization of the cloud (vortex) shedding process leads to a more chaotic
character of liquid motion in the wake of the rough and finned cylinders
and, as a result, to disruption of the phase coherence of the auto-
oscillation cycle of the sheet cavity length and cloud shedding, thus
causing a transformation of the distribution from bimodal into single-
mode. Besides, highly transient flow conditions behind the test bodies
M. Yu. Nichik et al. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 106 (2024) 106875

Fig. 13. Spatial distributions of the skewness coefficient of streamwise velocity fluctuations around and in the wake of the (a) smooth, (b) rough and (c) finned
cylinder in the two flow regimes (Table 2). The color mask is the same as in Fig. 5.

Fig. 14. Spatial distributions of the skewness coefficient of transverse velocity fluctuations around and in the wake of the (a) smooth, (b) rough and (c) finned
cylinder in the two flow regimes (Table 2). The color mask is the same as in Fig. 5.

in this case do not allow a vapor sheet to form and develop, disturbing it 250 μm, Ma et al. [45] showed that the larger the scale of irregularities
continuously, which is a possible reason of the above-mentioned sup­ on a cylinder surface is, the more effectively bistable states can be
pression of cavitation. Finally, considering roughness scales from 2 to inhibited.

12
M. Yu. Nichik et al. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 106 (2024) 106875

Fig. 15. Spatial distributions of the excess coefficient of streamwise velocity fluctuations around and in the wake of the (a) smooth, (b) rough and (c) finned cylinder
in the two flow regimes (Table 2). The color mask is the same as in Fig. 5.

Fig. 16. Spatial distributions of the excess coefficient of transverse velocity fluctuations around and in the wake of the (a) smooth, (b) rough and (c) finned cylinder
in the two flow regimes (Table 2). The color mask is the same as in Fig. 5.

4. Conclusions Particle Image Velocimetry to measure velocity fields, along with the
procedure of statistical filtration of velocity vectors and the method of
Using high-speed visualization to observe cavitation structures and vapor phase detection both developed and described in our previous

13
M. Yu. Nichik et al.
Fig. 17. Histograms of both components of the fluctuating velocity in the wake of the (a) smooth, (b) rough and (c) finned cylinder at distances of 1D (see point (1.5;
0) in Figs. 8–16), 2D (2.5; 0) and 3D (3.5; 0) downstream of its rear stagnation point in R-I according to Table 2. The color legend is the same for all the histograms.
publications, we performed an experimental study on cavitation sup­
pression and transformation of turbulence structure in the transverse
flow around a circular cylinder through surface modification. For this,
we used three identical test bodies with different wall morphology,
namely smooth one (reference), micro-scale irregularities (rough) and
large-scale (of the order of a millimeter) regular texture (finned).
Although the materials, which the test bodies were made of or covered
with, were demonstrated to be essentially hydrophilic, the rough sample
exhibited stable and pronounced hydrophobic properties thanks to the
specific morphology of its surface.
The conducted in-depth analysis of the visual data and measured
turbulence characteristics of the flow velocity, including the higher-
order moments of turbulent fluctuations (i.e., the coefficients of skew­
ness and excess) and time-averaged vapor content around and in the
wake of each of the cylinders in the two typical regimes of the cavitating
flow allowed us to conclude the following:
1. Elevated surface roughness promotes excellent cavitation suppres­
sion. For the considered wall morphologies, the smaller the scale of
irregularities is, the more pronounced this effect occurs to be, indi­
cating the high efficiency of this passive control.
2. Both types of roughness noticeably affect the turbulence structure of
the wake flow, including the mean velocity, dispersion and higher-
order moments of turbulent fluctuations. A change in the flow
regime for the rough and finned cylinders has almost no effect on the
amplitude of the higher-order moments, regardless of the roughness
scale, in contrast to the reference one.
14
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 106 (2024) 106875
3. Irrespective of the type of surface morphology, the influence of
roughness on the mechanism of formation of large-scale vortices and
their characteristics is weakened. However, it leads to overall
disorganization of liquid motion in the wake, thus making local flow
conditions highly unsteady. The larger the scale of irregularities is,
the more chaotic this process becomes.
These findings also provide useful information for design engineers
on promising materials, advanced coating and surface treatment tech­
nologies and effective roughness morphologies that can be hypotheti­
cally used in practice to improve the composition of underwater
components of hydraulic units and propulsion systems. Future research
in this area should be focused on the influence of isolated irregularities
of various wall morphologies and scales featuring different wetting
properties on the local structure of velocity field, nucleation and evo­
lution of individual vapor bubbles, their aggregation into a cavity and its
subsequent detachment. This evidently requires highly spatio-
temporally resolved measurements, distinguishing the continuous
(liquid) and dispersed (vapor) phases, to gain further insights into the
mechanism of cavitating flow control by the passive means.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Mikhail Yu. Nichik: Visualization, Validation, Investigation, Data
curation. Boris B. Ilyushin: Formal analysis, Data curation, Methodol­
ogy, Software, Writing – original draft, Writing - review & editing.
Ebrahim Kadivar: Supervision, Resources, Project administration,
M. Yu. Nichik et al.
Fig. 18. Histograms of both components of the fluctuating velocity in the wake of the (a) smooth, (b) rough and (c) finned cylinder at distances of 1D (see point (1.5;
0) in Figs. 8–16), 2D (2.5; 0) and 3D (3.5; 0) downstream of its rear stagnation point in R-II according to Table 2. The color legend is the same for all the histograms.
Conceptualization. Ould el Moctar: Funding acquisition, Conceptuali­
zation. Konstantin S. Pervunin: Formal analysis, Supervision, Valida­
tion, Writing – original draft, Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The manufacturing of the test bodies was funded by DFG (Project No.
469042952), the experiment on the cavitating flow around the cylinders
with different surface properties was carried out with a financial support
from the Russian Science Foundation (Project No. 19-79-30075-P) and
the analysis of the turbulence flow structure was conducted under a state
contract with IT SB RAS. The authors express their deep gratitude to Mr.
Mikhail Timoshevskiy for his valuable assistance in preparing the test
bodies for the experiment and Dr. Vyacheslav Cheverda for his kind help
in measuring the contact angles of the materials.
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