GIS Fundamentals:

A First Text on Geographic

Information Systems

7th Edition

Paul Bolstad & Steven Manson

University of Minnesota - Twin Cities

Eider Press
\Vhite Bear Lake,
M innesota
Et'rata.1.l.1.Stn1c1or resourm. aud othet helpful l.ttfonnation nbo\1111-t.is
book may be found ai
b1ip:/Jwww.paulbolstad.net/gisbook.b1ml. or at ,vww.paulbols1ad,org

GJS Funda.mcnmls: A firs11e:n on geographic infonnatfon S)'$lems.

7th edition.

Copyright (c) 1022 by Paul Bolstad, Steven Manson. all rig.his reserved.

Printed in the United States ofAmerica. No pan of this bool.: may be

teptoduc;ed fot dissem.in3tiou wi1bot11 pennissiou., excep1 for brief
quotation in ,wiuen reviews.

Front cover: Tempera-rure.aQomalies on June 29, 202 1 for North

America. showing the holiest temperntures ever r«:orded for Canada
(deepest reds}. mare th.in 2G°C "hove normal. Coutlesy Goddard E:u'lh
Obs<rvin:g System (GOES).

First prinJing April. 2022

Eider Press. 2303 41h S1. White Bet'l.r Lake. MN 55110

ISBN: 978-0-971 7647-5-0

Acknowledgments

We nms.1 thank many people for their contr.ibutioµs to this book. Our aim is
the one that Paul bas held uuwaveringly to for years, namely to provide a
readable. thorough. and affordable intr0duc1ory text on GIS. Although
gratified by the adoption of the book ar more titan 440 coUeges and
universities. there is room for improvemen1 with each edition. and the
theory and practice of GIS evolves. Reade.rs have offered corrections.
helpful suggestions, and enthusiastic encouragement, and for these we give
lbanks. They have led to improvements in this edition.

Many friends and coUeagues deserve specific mention. Tom Lillesand

pointed me on tbis path and inspired by word and deed. Andy Jenks. Estltet
Brown. and Laura Herrero FeUpe spent uncounted bours boning the fomi
and conteut of this book. Colle.agues, sn1den1s, and adopters 100 numerous
t·o mention have graciously shared their \Vork. as have a number of
businesses and public organizations.

Finally. this project would not have been possible save for the
encouragement and fori>earance of Rolly. Sam, and Sheryl. and the support
of Margaret. Steve would like to thank Paul for kindly inviting him on
board this great publishing adventure and, additionally. thank his family for
their suppon and his sn1dents for continuing 10 teach him things.

While many have helped in ~us edition. we've surely left many
oppornmities for improve.men1. If you have comments to snare or
improvements to suggest. please send them 10 Eider Press. '.!303 4lh Street.
White Bear lake. MN 55110, pbolstad@gmail.com. Or
smmanson@g.maiLcom.

Pmd Bolstad & Stewm }Jauso,,

Companion Resource-s

There are a number of resources available to help insm1ctors use

this book These may be found a1 the website:

www.paulbolstad.org/gisbook.html, with a mirror at

www.paulbols1adJ1ellgisbook.html

Perhaps !lie most useful are !lie book figt1tes. made available in
presematioo-friendly fom1a1s. MoSI oftlie figures used in the
book are organized by chap1er. and may be doMtloaded and
easily incorporated into common slide presenta1io11 packages. A
few grap,hics are not presem because they were used by
pennisston. we do not hold copyriglu. and could uot obtain
pem1ission 10 distribute them.

Sample chapters are ava.ilable for download, altltough figure

detail has been downsampled to reduce file sizes. These aie
helpful for those considering adoption of the 1e.x1book. or when
copies arc locally scarce.
Answers to even numbered chapter exercises. are available in a
book appendix. Answers to odd numbered exercises are available
10 iustn1<:1ors, please con1nc1 the authors.

Lecrure :and laboratory materials are available on !lie book

website. and sites referenced tl1erein. for the introductory GIS
course taught at the University of Minnesota. Lec.rures are
available, as well as laboratory exerd.ses, lab videos., -and
homeworks.

A updated tis, or errors is also provided. wi1h correct.ious. Errors

are listed by printing. since errors are corrected at each
subsequent print run. Errors 1ha1change meaning are noted, as
lhese are perhaps more serious than the distrac.ting errors in
gmnunar, spelling. or punctuation.
 iable of ConhmlS v

Chapter I, An Introduction to GIS ......................... J

fntroduction ........ ..... ................... ..................... ................ I
H'11n11.f a G/S'! ........................................................................... 1
if1t)' ff'e 1Veed G IS ...................................................................... 3!
0/S 111 Actrou ................................-.............................................. 6
GlS Compooents ........ ... .... .......... ................................... I 4
Hnrdu•tu'fl.fo ,· 0/S .................................................................... 14
GIS Softu·a1¥? ............................................................................ I-~
Opeu Geospo1,ol Co11sor1t11n1 .................................................. 15
ArcGIS ..................................................................................... 16
Q(HS ····································································· ····- ············· 16
Geo.~ledu, ................................................................................ /6
ldns, ......................................................................................... 16
AUT0CADU4P 30 •............................................................. .. 17
GRASS ...................................................................................... 17
BtndltJ• 1\l<'p ............................................................................. / 7
Spnh'nl R. P)•tho11. a11d GDA.I, .................. ,............................... 17
GlS in Organizations ..................................................... J8,
S1tlll!IUIIJ' .......... ...... .... ............. .... .................... ....................... .. /!}
Tiie Sn·11c111r11 ofnu.s Book ...................................................... 19

Chapter 2, Data Models ........................................... is

lnt.roduction ................................................................... 25
Coord111ate .S:1-.'i'te11s .................................................................. l"I
C()()td111a1es Oft o Sphere .......................................................... 28
Spl:encaf ,•$. £1/ipso1dal Eorrl, ...................................,... ,........ 31
Co,werlfus Arr to Smface D4 tn11ces ....................................... Jl
Thre.e.,D1111tt1s,o,wl. £onli·Cb1tert d C()onll11Mes ................... J.f
Geographic (Ind itlognqh'c Nt>rth ............................................. 3S-
Annbute Data a11d 1'Jpes ......................................................... J6
Common Spatial Data Models ....................................... 39
J1ec10,· Dnu, }.f()(/fll.s ................................................................. 40
Po~1go11 Jncl1mo11s m1d Bormdmy Genqrali,zo11011 .................. 4<1
l'e("Jor Topology ....................................................................... J6
Vec1or FtaWt't:t, Tabl~.s. and Srrutlltr& .................................. 50
Raster Da~, Models ............... ..... ....... ....... ..................... 51
Models and Cells .............. ............ ..... .. ..... ..................... 5 I
Rast4W Fea11n·es and Attnbwe Tables ..,..................................~ 54
A Compansou ofRosier am/ Vee/or Data Models ................ ,.. 56
Co11vttrsum Be1wee11 Rtmtr n11d Ytttor Jafodels ...................... Sl
Ra.rter Ocomeny ,md RtUnmplmg ........................................... 59
Other Data Models ......................................................... 61
TriWlgulated Irregular Networks ................................... 61
Ob;ecl Data Jilode/s ................................................................. 61
Tl11·u -D1me11.ftOMI l)(lw Alodel.s ............................................. 6:f
A/11/h'ple ~\tode/s ....................................................................... ~6
vi Tnble o(Cooteor.s

Data and File Structmes .............................. .............. ..... 67

Bhuary 11nd ASOI A'11111ber1 ............................................ ,........ 67
Poi11te1; a11d h1dexes ........................................................•......• 68
Dat,<1 Co111pnusro11 ................................................................... 70
RMJer P.r1r,111tds ....................................................................... 7 1
Co111111011 Ftle Forn,ars ............................................................. 71
Su111111l11J' ............................. . ............... ..................... . . ............. . 71

Chapter 3, Geodesy, Dat11ms, Projections ........ 89

[ntroduc1-iou .... ........................ ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ..... 89
Smfate ,md E/llpso,dal Coo,"dl11a,es ....................................... 91
C(X)1r/i11n1e Cnptull!. Coordiunte S,1:stems, nr,d J)n111111s .......... 9/
Dat,1111 £/1,psoids ...................................................................... 91
Jt.fodorn Dlrtun, Def,11f1/011 ........................................................ 93
NAmJ(lQ/1) ,....,.....................................................,.....,......... 96
,VA7'R.F2011 ............................................................................. 97
ETRS89 .................................................................................... 99
rvGSS4 DtJtll'11$ ........................................................................ 99
Leg,aCJ', Pre-Sore/lite Dalllms ................................................... 99
Dat;i,m Shifrs ........................................................................... JOO
DaiJ1111 1i"(l1JifonJ1ntio11s ......................................................... 101
Heigh1s. ................., ............................... ....... ................. 105
Tire Geo,d ............................................................................... 105
Jfe1'ffta/ Dammi m,d Helt/iii ................................................. !OS
Vdcr11r,t1 .................................................................................... 110
Dy11.a11uc He1gl11s ..................................................................... 111
l.i:H:,11/ Seo Le,-e/ Dor1u1,s ......................................................... II./
Map Projections and Coordinate Systems ................ ... I 16
Commcm Mnp Pro1ecno1IS in GIS .......................................... 111
the Slate Plane Coor</111ate Sysrem ....................................... I2.S
Umversaf T,·n ns,·0 -se Men:ntor C<Jordmote Sysrtm .............. I 17
0,1,.er C,o,,uuo,i P,v,jecn·ou.s ................................................... I 29
Com-ersio11 Among Coordi11nt11 S,11s1e111s ................................ I JO
Coo,dmoteSymm, lde11hfi&s ................................................ J JI
Th t Pubhc lm1tl S11n·e,· Sys tem ............................................. I Jl
Sun,1110,,• ............................................................................... I JS

Chapter 4, Maps. Data Entry, Editing, Output 147

Building a GIS Database .............................................. 147
l11cr-0due110,, ............................................................................ 147
A«J1rao· ,..,_ R'1SOl1n10,r ......................................................... /49
Scale ....................................................................................... J.SO
Map a11d Dara Geueralrz.at11Jt1 ............................................... I Sl
Digitizing: Coordinate Capture .............. ....... ,.............. 154
o,,-..sc,.eeu Dig1nz111g ............................................................. JS4
Field Dtgitrzr,rg .......................................................,.............. I 55
 iable of ContenlS vii

H()rdcopy DJg1hz111g .............................................................. I .SS.

C/1nrac1eris11cs o/Mamml DigUizwg .................................... I 56
Th e Mmmal Dig1hZJug Process ............................................. I 57
~V()(/e nt1d Line St1npph1g ........................................................ I ; 7
Res'1apb:g: Line SmootM11g and Tlmmlrig ............................ 159
Sea,, D1giti1.111e ......................................................................... 161
Eduu,g Geogmpl11c D() ttt ...................................................... 161
Sh,•(!13 .................................................................................... /61
Feaiw-e.s Common 10 Sa·eral Layers ..................................... 16J.
:.Vap J1.t>u11d()nts tmd Spcnnl Drrra ........................................ / 64
D1gi1nl Data 0111p111 ............................................................... J6S,
Me1adata: Data Documa1tatio11 ............................................ 16>
Cartography aod Map Design ...................................... 168
J\J()p TJ,~s .............................................................................. 168
Coordinate Transformation ........... ....... ........................ 176
Co111rol Pt>u,,s ...........- ,.......................................................... I 75
Tromfor111atio11 Equations ..................................................... 17$.
A Ca11rfot1 Wiren Ew1lua1t}ig fr<m$fo ,·,,u,1;011s ....................... 180
Con,rol Por,11 S<,11,r:C f ............................................................ I /JI
,\J11p Pro1ecno11 ,,s. Tra11Sf orma110,r ....................................... JS!
S11111111t11., · ......... , ..... , ., ........... , ............. , .................. , , •..... •.. .... ... J81,

Chapter 5. GNSS and Coordinate Surveying ... 191

.ln.lfOduction ...............................................,................. I 93
GJVSS Bastes .............................................................. ............ /9,J
GNSS Sigriols ......................................................................... 196
R(1nge Dl$/(1ftCU ..............................,........................... ,......... 197
Pos111onal C}11ce,·1ai,1ty ........................................................... /98
Sources of Range Er,'Or .......................................................... 19$.
Smt llitc Geome" )' n'1d Diluno11 ofPr«fJ;cu ........................ 20()
Differential Correction ............... ......... ... .... ................. 204
Real-rime Differeutral Pos1rro11111g ......................................... 106
Real- nme Kmemot,t ond Vi'r111ol Refenmce S1nr1011s ............ 107
IVMS, Augmem1mo11, and Smellue-btt.scd Con-ecr,ons ........ 108
Precise Poi,rt Posir,oni,rg ...................................................... 1()9
A Ca11t10,i 011 Doru,ns ..........................................................,_ ]()9
GNSS Applications ............................ .............. ....... ..... 11 l
Aeld D1gittz11111g ..................................................................... 211
Smgle-Fi'r ,,s A,v.waged Accuroq .......................................... 11<1
F,eld D1gi11zmg Aca1ra0 · a11d Efficiency .............................. l 15
Rn,igofittder h1regr12r,011 ......................................................... 119
ONSS Hei'g ht ,,tensurement ................................................. U O 04

G:VSS n ·acku1g ....................................................................... 121

Optical and Laser Coordinate Suiveying .... ..... ............ 224
$"""""')"................................................................................ 119
viu Tnble o(Cooteots

Chapter 6, Aerial and Satelliie f1nages .............. 241

Basic P.riaciples ............ ....... ...................................... ... 241
Aerial [mages ............................................................... 245
Atnal ,\/app111g ~ ·s1CJ1,s "'"""''""''"""''""''""''"'"''"'"''""' Z4$
Digital Aerial Can,eras .......................................................... 147
Lens n11d Ca111e.1·a Di.s,orc,on ............. _,,,................................ 149
A,nal /,i1nge Spntu,I Accuroc;i, .............................................. 150
Terram a11d Tri, Dfa1ortro11 w Aerial /mazes ......................... 251
Sre,-eo Pltorogropl11c Cow1rage .............................................. 155
Gec>men1c Con"<tclio,, ofAerial Images ................................. ]SS
Small ()i1ma1med Aenal Veh,clu: Dro11es ............................. 261
Plu,to J,iterpreta/lou ............................................................... 163
Satellite Images ............ ....... .......... ....... ....... ....... ....... ... 266
BMJCPnucrples o/Smellue Image Scam1c,·s ........................ 265
H1gl1·Resolmio11 Sate/l,Je S)•stems ......................................... 268
M1d·Rl!solutto11 Satellite s_,.rtems ........................................... 171
SPOT ...................................................................................... 17 I
Landsat ......................... ,......................................................... 271
Se111111e.l ................................................................................... l7J
Con1'Se.-Res()/rmo11_, Glolx,I Sorel/mt Sysrem.r ......................... 2N
Oll1,e,· S)'slcnts ...................... ,................................................. 17)
Sate//Ue lmaees 111 GJS .......................................................... 277
Aina/or Sare/Ille lmbges: WTuch ro Use? ............................ 178
Airborne liDAR .......................................................... 180
hnage So111-ces ........................................................................ 183
$1111111101 )1 ................................................................................ 234

Cbapter 7. Digital Data .......................................... 293

Introduction ............. .......... ....... .............. ....... ............... 293
:\lap Sen'fte$ ,:r. l.Ae<il/.1·Stored Ol,Jn ................................... 194
Global Digital Data ............. .......... ............................... 295
Global Spntial Dorn h,j,nstrnct11re ........................................ 197
Ope11 St,.eet i\lap ..................................................................-297
Olf14r General DM1nb1111011s .................................................. 29$
Nntionnl, Prom1cia/lS1are, and Local Digital Data .............. 199
Digital Data for the United States ................................ 300
Nafto11nl Spottal Data lujfostmctm·e ..................................... .MO
T/1e. U.S. l\'ot1011nl Jlap .......................................................... JOO
D1g:11a/ EleiYltton Data ....................,...................................... .JOI
1{__1·dJ'081'llpluc Data ............................................................,... 303
l/lgJ,.Resol111io11 D,gua/ lm"g~ ............................................ 306
,VAJ.P D1g1ca/ l11u1gilS .............................................................. .307
Natio11al Land Co,·er Data .................................................... 308
NA.SS CDL .............................................................................. 310
C·CA.P ••..........••...................................................................... Jl l
Nanonal Jf'et/a,,ds h1wmto1)1.................................................. 311
 iable of ContenlS

D1gunl Soils D(Jta .................................................................. 314

Digital Floodplnm Darn ........................................................ 31.i
Cl,mate. OeologJ; and 01/~r E,mro,mumtal D(lta ............... 317
Digital Census Datn .............................................................. 318
Su11111u11,1• ................................................................................ 11J

C bapter 8. Attribute Data and Tables ................ 325

Introduction ..................................... .............. ....... ....... 3 25
J)(lrDbau Compo11em s Dud Chn,.ac1"nst1t3 .......................... 317
Relat1011al Databases ............................................................. 330
P,,,,,a,J•Operators ................................................................. 331
Hybnd Dmabase 0(>.SJghs 111 G/S .......................................... l3'1
Selection Based on Attributes .......................... ............ 335
Th e Restrict Operator: Table Quenes ................................... 33S·
Joining Tables .................................... ..................... ..... 340
Pnmnty Keys mid Jo,ns ......................................................... 340
Fo,vng11 Keys .......................................................................... 34!
Co1u:n1e11a1ed Ke)'S ................................................................. 34$
.J\lulti-tnble Joins .....................................................................t.J6
N,onnal Forms in Relational Databases ........... ............ )48
Keys a11d F11t1tnot1al Depende,ic.,es ....................................... 348
Tiu: First n11d Seco11d Normn.1 Fon11s .................................... JS()
The Tlurd Nonna/ Fom, ........................................................ 15).
SllJIIIJllll.V ................................................................................ J.5.ii

C hapter 9. Basic Spatial Analysis ....................... 36J

J.ntroduction ................................................................. 361
h1pul, Opera/fo11s, and Output ............................................... 361,
Scope ...................................................................................... .JOI/
Selection and Classification ............... ......... ............ ..... 366
Set Algebra ............................................................................. .166
Boofea11 Algebra _,, ................................................................ 36$.
SJ)l)n'nl Sel e.cno11 Opcr1111011.1 ................................................. 370
Clns$,fiMrt01t ......................................................................... 375
Data-defined C/nssificanou ................................................... J77
The Mod,fiablt A.rtrtl U 111 P'f'oblen, ..................................... 381
D.issolve .............. ....... ............ ....... ....... ........................ 384-
Armlmte A.ggregn1io11 i11 n Ois5oh·e Opcrnt1011 ............. ,..... ~ .J86
Proximity Functions and Buffering ............................. 388
Buffe rs .....................................................................,.............. 189
Raster 811ffe1·1 ........................................................................ J90
l·'ector Buffers ......................................................................... J90
Overlay ........................................................................ 394
Vecto,. Ol·ttrlt1)' ....................................................................... 39.;;
Cl,p. f,i;el's«.r. tmd Umo,i: SpeCJnl Caseso/0.·e,.Jay ........... J97
A P,'Oble111 "' Ve.ctorQ,•(JJ1a,, • ................................................. ./01
 Tnble ofCoote1ns

RM1er 0\'0rln,v ................................................................,...... J04

An £ .xample Spatial ,foo{,•sis ................................................. J06
Nct,vork Analysis ................................ ........................ 410
Geocod111g .............................................................................. J / 6
S1ttl'llil(ll)I ................................................................................ 4/S

Chapter 10. Topics in Raster Analysis .............. 435

Introduction ................................................................... 435
Map Algebra ................................................................ 436
Local F'unctions ............ ................................................ 440
ft.lnfht111nncol Fu11cilot1s ........................................................ .J:10
J.A,gica/ Operont>us ................................................................ .J4 J
Reclassificat,011...................................................................... 4./4
J\ftJSJed Funcflo11s .................................................................... 446
Rosser Cltp oud Oi'Cl'lny ........................................................ J47
f:1tZZ)' 1\lemberslup n11d Raster Dl·erlay ................................. J50
Neigbb-Orbood, Zonal. Distance, and Global Functions 452
Zonal Ft111c 1101,s ..................................................................... 459
Cos, S11Jf(IC6$ ......................................................................... 460
Su,rJ1110J'J' . .............. ., ................................................... ...... ...... J64

Chapte r 11, Terrain Analys is ............................... 473

Introduction ....................... ....... ............ ....... ................. 473
Slope (llld A.speer .................................................................... 475
Hydn,logk Ftmctio11s ............................................................ JSl
Conto11r l1,res .......................................................,............... 49/
Profile. Plots ........................................................................... 493
11'-"''slteds ............................................................................... 49,I
Shaded Re.li~/Mops ............................................................... 495
Terrt1111 A11a(,·,is Sofo1•ore ...................................................... 496
$111111110,~· .............................. , ................................................. J9 7

Chapter 12, Spatial Estimation, Core Areas ..... 509

Introduction .......................................... ....... ....... ....... ... 509
Sampling ....................................... ....... ........................ 511
S1J1r,pln1g Porte,•1ts ...................................................................$II
Spacial .lnterpolatioa Meihods .............. ........................ 514
:Veare:u Neighbor Jme,polnriou ............................................. .t / 6
Fu:ed Rod111.s- Lo~al A,-eragmg ............................................ 517
/lll'erse Dtsumce Weigl,ted Jmet'poltmou ............................... 5 19
Spli'nes .................................................................................... $]2
Spatial Prediction ................................... ...................... 514
Spt.1110/ Regtess,011 .................................................................. 528
Trend Sut:foce cmd S,mple Spana/ Regnw 1011 ....................... J.19
K,-igi,ig mid Co-Kn'gmg ......................................................... S10
Pred,ct,011 Accuracy ............................................................... 514
 Table of ContcnlS xi

C()re Area Mapping .......... ... ................ ................. ....... 536

Afeau Center fl,ul .~tea,, Circle .............................................. $J6
Co,n:ex Hulls .......................................................................... 53'/
Clwracttr1S11c H11/I Po~\>gom ••.,............................................ 5J9
Ken,d .~fapp111g ..................................................................... $40
nme·Oeograpllic Demit)' Estimnh'ou .................................... 546
55(}
Su,111110,y .............................................................................. "

Chapter 13, Spatial Models and Modeling ....... 561

Introduction ........ ....... .......... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ... .. 561
C:inograpluc Modeling ........ ....... .............. ....... ............ 565
Des1g11i11g a Carrograpluc Model .......................................... 566
W€1ghtmgs and Ra11ki11gs ....................................................... 567
Ro11Jn11gs 1J-11l1t11 o ·,ror,o ....................................................... 568
Weighti11g Among Cntel'in ..................................................... 570
Cartogropluc Models: A .Detm'/ed £\ample .......................... 57J.
Scnptu,g a11d ,,t<Jdels ............................................................. 581
Simple Spatial Models ................................................. 582
Spatjo.Teruporal Models .. ........................................... 585
Call-Basetl Alodels ..............................................,............... ." 587
£,·ample I: Proc.ess-Ba:wd Hydrologfc Models ..................... 588
£,:ample 2: LANDIS. a Srocliosttc Model<,/ F<Jl'.Ul Change , 590
L-1.NDlS Des1g11 Elements ...................................................... 591
Su,1111101,1· ................................................................................ 591

Chapter 14, Data Standards and Quality ........... 605

Introduction ............. ..................... ............................... 605
The Geosponal t«lmology CompeteJJcy Model ........... " .... " 606
Spnr,a/ Data S1a11da1ds .......................................................... 6()7
Data Accuracy .. .............. .............. ....... ....... ................. 609
J)ocume11tu1g Sponnl Dof(J AccurflC,' .................................... 609
Posihonal At'curacy ............................................................... 6 11
Accurac.v Calc11/n11011s ........................................................... 611/
Poslttounl Accuracy S1a11d'1rds .............................................. 6 16
Erl'ors in Lmear or Area Featm-es ......................................... 6 19
Attnb11teAccurog 619
1 . . . . ... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ... . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .

En-or P1-opag,1n()11 ,,, Spotrnf AJ,n~rs,s .................................. 621

su,11111a,r .............................................................................. " 011

C hapter 15, New Developments in GIS ............ 627

Introduction ......................... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ..... 627
GNSS ........... .............. .......... ....... ....... ....... ....... .._ .... ..... 628
FL..:ed n11d Jfob,le TJ,,u~D,me.11s,o,wl MtJppwg ................... 6JO
Ground Based Pos1tionmg ..................................................... 63Z
D.atum Modenti.zation .................................................. 63,f
~ii Table of Cooteuts

Improved Remote Sensing ....... ....... ............................. 636

Tl11.te Di,11e1ts io,u1/ GIS, £wen'or r:md lmei·ior ..................... 619
0

Cloud-Based GlS .............. ....... ....... ..... ........................ 642

O~nGlS ....... ................... ....... ....... ..... ........................ 643
O~n Standards for GIS ....................... ........................ 643
Open Source GJS .................................................................... 644
A H>·b rid ,\lode/ ...................................................................... 645
Su'1u11a,,· ................................................................................ 645

Appendix A: Glossa1y ........................................... 649

Appendix B: Useful Conversions ...................... 66i
w,g,1, .................................................................................... 667
Aret'I ........................................................................................ 667
Angles ..................................................................................... 667
Scale ....................................................................................... 667
State Pla11e Zo11u ................................................................... 668
Trigo110,,1e1n·c Relnnonslt1ps .................................................. 669

Appendix C: Answers to Study Questions ....... 675

Clu,prer J ............................................................................... 675
Chapter 1 ............................................................................... 676
Chapter 1 ............................................................................... 681
Chtrpter 4 ............................................................................... 685
Chapter 5 ............................................................................... 689
Chapter 6 ............................................................................... 691
Chtrpter 7 ............................................................................... 694
Chapter S ............................................................................... 695
Chapter 9 ............................................................................... 69'!
Chapter JO ............................................................................. 706
Clu,pter II .............................................................................. 709
Chapter l l ............................................................................. 714
Chapter 13 ............................................................................. 718
Chtrpter 14 ............................................................................. 720

1 An Introduction to GIS
lntrodutction
Geography llas always been important
to humans. Stone.age hunters anticipated
1he loca1iou of lbeir quarry. early explorers
lived or died by 1heir knowledge of geogra-
phy, and currenl societies work and play
based on lheor unders1aoding of who
belongs where. Applied geography. in 1be
fonn of maps and spatial infom1ation, has
served disco,,e,y, pla.CU1ing. cooperation.
and conOic1 for a1 leas11he past 3.000 years
1
(Figure 1-1). Spa1ial informa1ion bas a gre,11
impac.t on our lives by helpLng us produce
1be food we eat lbe energy we bum. 1he
clothes we wear. and 1he diversious we
eJIJOy.
Because spa1ial infonna1ion is so
important, we have developed tools cal.led
geographic infom1a1ion systems (GIS) to
help us organize spatial da1a. We will use
1he abbrevia1ion GIS 10 refer 10 bo1b singu-
2 GIS Fundamentals
lar. system, and p.lural, systems. Some GIS
components are purely technological: these
include space-age data coUectors. adv~nced
communications networks. and soph1sucated
computing. Other GlS componeo1s are very
simple. for example. a pencil to acid-verify
a paper map.
Key 10 all definitions of a GlS are
"where" and "wha1.•· GlS record the abso-
lute and relative location of features. as well
as the propenies and anribmes of those fea:
hires. Mount Everest is in Asia. Timbu\...1U 1s
in Mali. and the cruise ship Titanic is at the
bonom of the A1lru11ic Ocean. A GlS quanti-
fies these loca1ions by recording their coor-
dinates. numbers that de.scribe position on
Ear1b. The GlS ,nay also note the height of
Mount Everes1. the population of Timbuktu.
or the depth of the Titanic. and many other
defming characteristics of spatial fearures.
What Is a GIS?
A GlS is a 1001for making and using
spatial infomuuion. Among the many defini-
tions of GlS, we choose:
Figur(' 1· 2: OlS ~llow us to aoalyzc imponaot geognivbic features. The ~tcUitc ~ge at 1be tentc:T show&
a forec,tcd lll'Ca in \V«:tcm 01'<l,Oll. with a patcb\\-otk o(lakes. for«';S'. c:1~1~. alptn~ zoocs. and dcsnu. A
GIS in:t>· aid in a1Juring 1n.1st1un11.blc rccre2tion, timber h,:n•ett, awito1unc11t11.l pro1cc11c11t, 11od other bellefits
(co1.1t1ct.) · NASA).
A G!S is n compurer·based sys rem 10 aid
;,, 1/,e rolfection, moimenouce. sromge.
aualysi.s, ourp111, n11d distribmion ofspa-
tial iuformn,;011.
Wbcn used wisely. GIS can help us live
heald1ier, wealthier, and safer lives.
Each GlS user may decide what fearures
and attributes are important. For example,
forests are good for us. They may prole<:I
water supplies. yield wood, harbor wildlife.
and provide space to recreate (Figure 1-2).
We are concerned about the level of harves.1,
the adjacent land use, pollution from nearby
inch1s1ries. or where forests burn. Infonned
mana~ement requires knowledge of all these
related factors and. perlrnps above all. the
spatial arrangement of these fac1ors. Buffer
strips near rivers may protecl water supphes.
clearings may prevent 1he spread of fire. and
polluters upwind may hanu our forests. A
GlS helps us analyze tl1ese spa1ial internc-
tions. and is also particularly useful at dis-
playing spatial da1a and analysis. A GlS is
often the only way to solve spatially-related
p1oblems.
 Chapter 1: Introduction lo GIS 3

Why We Need GIS bon dioxide and nitrogen~1wo of humanity's

GIS use bas become mandatory in many
seuings. GIS are used to fight crime. J>rotect
endangered species. reduce p~lluti~n. cope
wi1h namral disas1ers.1rea1 ep1dem1cs. and
improve pubUc beahh: GIS are instrumemal
in addressing some of our most pressing
societal problems.
GIS tools in aggregate save billions of
dollars annually in the delivery of goods and
services. GIS regularly help in the day-to,
day management of many natural and man-
made resourc·es, including sewer. water.
power. ltllnsp,onation networks. and package
delivery. GIS are at the bean of one of the
most impona:nt processes in U.S. democ-
racy. d~adal re-drawing of U.S. co.ngressio·
nal districts. and hence the d1stnbuuon of ra:<
dollars and oa.ber government resources.
GIS are needed in part because hunmn
consumption has reached leve.Js suc.h that
many resources. including air and land. are
placing substantial limits on human action.
The fim 100.000 years of human existence
caused scant .i.mpac,s on the world's
resources. bu1 in the past 300 years humans
have pem1anemly altered most of the Earth's
surface. The atmosphere and oceans exhibit
a decreasing abilil)' 10 benigttly absorb car·
primary waste products. Sill chokes many
rivers. and there are abundasu examples of
smoke, ozone, or other noxious pollutants
substantially harming public health. By tlie
end of the 20th cenniry. most lands south or
the boreal region had been fum1ed, grazed.
cut. buill over, drained. flooded. or other·
wise altered by humans (Figure I ·3).
GIS help us identify and address envi,
ronmental problems by providing crucial
infonnation on where problems occur and
who are affected by them. GIS help us iden·
tify the source. location. and extent of
adverse environmental impacts. and may
heJp us devise practical plallS for monitor·
ing, managing. and m.itigatjng envirorunen·
tal danmge.
Human impacts on the environment
have spurred a mong socieral push for the
adoplion of ClS. Conflicts in resource use,
concerns about pollu1ion. and preca\nio,!s to
protect public health ha\'e led to leg,slauve
mandates that explicilly or implicitly require
1he tonsideratioa of geography. The U.S.
Endangered Species Act (ESA) is a good
example. The ESA requires adequate protec·
1ion of rare and threatened oigarusms. This
emails mapping the available habi1a1 and

Figure 1·3: The cn,·i.romneotal impac~ "T0U£bt by b\Uurutt ba,·c accelmttcd in man~· p,atts 0(1bc world
d · lhc .st ccnnU'\l. Tltcse ~ tellitc lnui;es f'roin 2000 (up~ le~) 10 2013 (lower ngl.,;.1t) show.,
,~'ln1J.!1Sc., du~ 10 die o,-cn~ or "':1.tc:r. Oi\'cnion (or urig.,ttoo has cld1royed II f!C:~t fi~h(b'Y• 1bc
«onomic ~~ for many 6Cas-idc co1rnutm1tacs.. (HS n13)' be used 40 docw1K"nl cba.ngc. nubg~tc mage.
aud cffectinl)•maoagc out natural l'C.$0Ute" (courtesy NASA).
4 GIS Fundamentals

f igurt- 1-4: GIS 1111)' aid ia:i dis:utC':t' 11uclitnm1 :.nd rcco,•ay. This s:ucllilc i1uaic Jhows the C11mp (ll'e,
wb,cb con, wucd 1uOS1 of Par.idisc, Califomi1', in No,·anbcr 201S. Emcr,a1cy response o.l)d 1,c:m,gcr•tcnn
rcl.>ui.lding efforts may be impro,·cd by "}Mti11l cbtii collectioo and ru~1ly11s (courtesy NASA),

an.,lyzing species range and migration pat-
terns. relative 10 human land use. GIS use is
manda1ed in other endeavors. including
emergency senices. Oood protection. disas-
ter assessment and management (Figure 1-
4), and infrastruceure development.
Public organizations have also adopted
GIS because it aids in governmental func-
lions. Forexample. emergency service ve.lti·
cles are regtllarly dispatched and ro111ed
using (ii$. E9 1I GIS matches the caller's
address to the nearest emergency service Sh\·
tion. a route is generated based on the street
network and traffic, and emergency crews
dispatched in a fraction of the pre-GIS times.
Many businesses adopt GIS for
inc-reased efficiency in the delivery of goods
aod services. Retail businesses locate stores
based Oil a numbero(spatially related fac-
tors. \Vhere are the polentiaJ customers'?
What is the spatia.l distribution of competing
businesses? Wher.e are potential new store
local ions? \Vhat are traffic flows near cur-
relll stores. and how easy is ii to park near
and access these stores? GIS are also used in
hundreds of other business applications. 10
route vehicles, guide advertising, design
buildings. plan construction. and sell real
estate.
The societal push 10 adopt GIS bas been
complemented by a 1ecbnological pull in the
development and application of GIS. Thou-
sands of lives an<! untold wealth have been
lost because ship cap<ains could 1101answer
the simple question. "Where am r?"
Remarkable positioning technologies. gener-
ically known as Global Navigation Satellite
Systems (GNSS). are now indispensable
tools in commerce, planning, and safety.
The tecluiological pull has d:eveloped on
several fronts. Spa1iaJanalysis in particular
bas been helped by fasier computers with
more storage. an<i by the increased intercon-
nectedness via mobile.networks. Mosl real-
world spatial problems were beyond the
scope of all but the largest organizations
until the 1990s. GIS computing expenses are
becoming an afterthought as costs decrease
 Chapter 1: Introduction to GIS 5

and perfonna.nce increases at dizzying rates.

Powerful field compuiers are lig)uer. faster.
more capable-.and less expensive. so spatial
data display and anal~,is capabilities nmy
always beat band (Figure l·S).
In addition to the computing improve.
meats and the development of GNSS. cur·
rem "cameras" deliver amazingly detailed
aerial and satellite images. lnjtially,
advances in image collection and in1erpreta~
1ion were spu.rred by World War £I aod then
the Cold War because accurate maps were
required, but unavailable. Tumed toward
peacetime endeavors. imaging technologies
now help us 001p food and fodder, hous,s
and highways, and most other natural and
human-built objects. Images may be rapidly
convened to accurate spatial information
over broad areas (Figure 1-6). Many tech-
niques have been developed for extracting Figurt" 1-5: Pon.able CODlJ.)11tin.3 i:s one c:uruplc
of d~c 1cduK>loJic2I pull driving 0 1.S 11dopcion
infom1atio11 from image data. and also for (c:OW1«yCogm130.).
ensuring this information faithfully rep·
resents 1Jie location. shape. and characteris·
tics of feanires on the ground. Visible light.
laser, 1hem1al, and radar sca1U1ers are.cur-
rently being developed to further increase
the speed and accuracy with which we map
our world. Thus, advances in these three key
1ecbnologies- imaging. GNSS, and com·
p11ting - have substamially aided the devel-
opment of GtS.

Figm·e l ·6: I.mag" hlk~ fi-o1n aircrn.Aand s.atdlitcs (left) pro,idc a rkh~c of dat,i. which 1nay be
in1crprc:1cd :tiJd co11,·cncd 10 i.u(onu111ion t1bot1t 1hc Ear'lh's wrl'11cc: (ri~1t).
6 GIS Fundamentals
GIS In Action
Spatial data 1'te widely applied 10
improve. life. Here we describe examples
that demonstrate how CilS serve.s humanity.
Marvin Matsumoto was saved witb the
help of GIS. The ~-year-old hiker became
lost in Joshua Tree National Pruk. a 300.000·
hectare dcsen laodscape famous for its dis-
tinct and rugged terrain. Between six and
eight hikers become lost there in a typical
year. sometimes fatally so. The U.S.
National Park Service (NPS) organizes
search and rescue: opera1io11s due to the dan·
ger of bypotltemtia. dehydration. and death
(Figure 1-7).
The search for Mr. MatSumoto was
guided by GIS. Search teams electronically
recorded and transmitte.d 1eam location and
progress. Position data were assimilated at
field GIS center. tvhich then updated maps
of the search a.re.a. On-siteincide.nt managers
used these maps to task appropriate teams to
unvisited areas. Grouud crews oould be
assigned to complex areas that ti.id been
searched by helicopters. but con.tained vege-
tation or 1e.rrain lhst limi1ed visibili1y from
above. Mal"\•in was found on the fifth day.
alive but dehydrated and wil.h an injured
skull and back from a fall. The search team
was able to radio its precise location to a res-
cue helicopter. Another day in rile field and
Marvin likely would have died . .a day saved
by lbe effective use of GIS.
GIS are also widely used in planning
and enviromnemal protection. Oneida
County is located in oonbem Wisconsin. a
forested area characterized by exceptional
scenic beauty. Tlte cowuy is in a region with
among the highest concentrations of fresh-
water lakes in the world. a regio 11 Lhat also
suppons a growing permanent and seasonal
human populations. Retirees. urtan exiles.
and vacationers are increasingly drawn to
Figure 1-7: Sc-.trcb2nd R SCUC
opennio1u1. such 0.$ lhc ent fot
?,.,fanin M2tsun1010 (uepcr left,
imct), are fJ)alial actinti~5.
Se11rchcrs mu~t combine infonna-
1io11 oi, where the 1011 pc-rsoii WM
111,1 s.ccu, likely routes of tr.wd,
tm'lps of the areas ~lrcad't'
searched. time last acarch.cd. and
2\'3.ilit:blc rcsourcei 10 cff'etli\'d y
m0lu11 1111.c.irch crunp,,ign (cour-
1«)' Tom Pattcnoo. USNPS).
 Chapter 1: Introduction lo GIS 7

the scenic and recreationaJamenities avail·
able in Oneida Coun1y. The seasonal influx
ahnos1 doubles the total co1u11y population
e.ach summer.
Population growth has caused a boom
in constmction and threatened 1he lakes that
draw people 10 !he county. There is a bigb
number of nearshore houses. hotels. or busi-
nesses. $e,epage from septic syste,ms, nmotf
from fertilized lawns. or erosion and s.edi·
ment from cousiruc,tion all decrease lake
water quality. J_ncreases in lake nutrients or
sediment le-ads to turbid waters, reducing the
beauty and value of1be takes and nearby
propenies.
In response 10 this problem. Oneida
County implemented a Shoretand Manage-
ment GIS Project. Tltis project helps protect
valuable nearshore and lake resources. and
provides rut example of how GIS tools are
used forwater resource management (Figure
1-8).
Oneida County has revised zoning and
other ordinances to protect shoreline and
lake quality. and 10 ensure compliance witb·
out undue burden on tando,.,ners. The
county uses GIS teclu1otog)' in the mainte-
nance of propeny records. Propeny records
include infonnation on the owner. tax value,
and any special zoning considerations. The
county uses these digilal records when creat-
ing parcel maps: processing sale. subdivi-
sion. or 01her parcel trn..nsac1ious: and
integraling ne.w cL1ta such as aerial or boat·
based images to help detect property
changes and zoning violations.
GIS may also be used to administer
shoreline zoning ordinances. or 10 no1ify
landowners of routine tasks. such as septic
system maintenance. Northern lakes are par·
tiet1larly susceptible to nutrient pollution
from oearshore septic systems (Figure 1-9).
Timely maintenance of each septic system
must be verified. The GIS c.10 automatically
identify owners out of compliance and gen-
erate an appropriate notification.
GIS has helped the U.S. Fish and Wild-
life Sen•ice manage the recovery of 1he Gray

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Figure 1· 8:: Pated llUoru,:uion cntcl'<"d iu a OJS may subs-1autUIJly improve go, -ai1mtt1t kf'lices. Hi:tt,
imn~cs of dte $borclitic t11kcu fron\ bike \'Jlt)J11gc points MC" combined wilb digi111l mnps of 1bc shOTt"linc,
buildings. aud ~r«I bou.nOO.ries, The imngc ind~ lower lcfl WM obtained from tbc 1oc.a.tiou s.bown H-'
light dot nc:l!f the ccnic:r of the 6,gtlR: (courtesy Wiscoru..in Sc" Grant institute and UCOF).
8 GIS Fundamentals

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Flgua-e 1·9: G(S may be used co ,tr-:amline 1;0,·enuncn1 function. Herc. septic systems not compliaot
wit~ pollmioi:i Pl'C''«uiou ordilllUlCcs att idc:ruific:d by 1.iaJit ei~lc:s (courtesy \Vl$C<>m-iu Se:a Gr\tut
l11.s11tu1c :ind UCOF).

Wolf (Cn11is /11p11:s) in 1be lower 48 s1a1es of

1he Uniled States (Figure t-10). Wolves
were h1u11ed 10 a rtDlllam pop11ta1ion in
northern Minnesota. Given protection in
1974. lhe population has rebounded 10
nearly 6.000 wolves Iha, are spread across a,
leas, 11 sia1es. GIS helped in many phases of
the recovery, including identifying suitable
habi1a1. moni1oring pack loca1ioo lbrough
1ime. mapping prey abundance and areas of
high potential conflict with humans due to
land use (e.g.. ranching). assessing 1he
impacis of range recovery on 01ber resources
(deer and other game). and n..1tural limits to
range expansion
Relati\'ely new spatial dala capture
technologies are used 10 help in wolf recov-
ery. Animals arc tranquilized. fined wi1h sa1-
elli1e 1mcking collars. and released (Figure
1-11). These collars may cre~le an hourly
record ofwolfloca1ion. giving precise infor·
mation on habitar occupancy, movement.
hunting vs. resting time. denning sites, and
dispersal. More d~1a are provided in a few
weeks by 1hese sa.1elli1e 1mcking collars dtan FlgurE" 1- 10: Agmy wolf. onc:of :\ fcw 1-ucc:c:u-
were possible with decades of collection fully rcco,·e ~d cndlt.ngm:d specie,:, ;rc:s:torcd witb
1hc: help of ors (counesy Sp1nus Ari· Photos).
 Chapter 1: Introduction lo GIS 9

Harvest isn't aUo,i.'ed in U.S. National Parks,

bui may be on adjacent lands, e.g.. Siate and
Naiiooal Forests. Removing pack members
may affec:1a pack's ability to group hunt.
reproduce. or defend 1heir territory. Wolves
may respond to hunting pressure by moving
further into parks, in tum displacing adjacent
packs. Analysis of pack loca1ion and move-
mems during tria I hunting a.ad trapping may
help guide a sustainable recovery.
GIS are widely used to impro,,e public
health. Air pollution is a major cause of sick-
ness and dtatll primarily from nitrogen and

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Figure 1- 11: Wolf recovery im'Oh'<• tn:u)quil·
iz:ing aod fi11in,: wok« with tracking c:C)ll.llf'S.
These PfO\idC" detailed locatiou and u>0,·em<n1
dM.a. a.id a bcttct undmt11ndi.nJ ofwolf habitat
rcquircmaitt (courtc$)' NPS).
using lhe older. radio-based technologies
they replaced.
Scientists at lhe Voyagetus Wolf Projec1
have been tracking wolves 10 bener under-
s1and !heir behavior (Figure 1-12). Part of
wolf recovery and de-Lis1ing may include
bu ming and ttapping seasons iu some areas.
sulfur dioxides. carbon mouoxide. ozone.
and small panicles from oil. gas. coal. and
wo<Xl combustion. Primary sources are
power generati01l factories. and iransporta·
tion (Figure 1-13). Small particles Lodge in
the lungs. causing inflauuuation and reduc-
ing Lwtg func1ion (Figure I· 14). Alveolar
macrophages attempt to isolate Ibis material.
but air pollution levelscommonly exceed the
Lung's capacity for self-cleaning. Damaging
particle concentrations are typically higher
in urban areas, or near traffi~, power plants,
and other pollution sources. GJS helps map
concentrations. idemify sources. and plan

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tup«tivcly}. ~ay be combined to hcl"p uudmtand bow bc-$110 UWtage the Gray Wolf(couricsy \Oya-
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10 GIS Fundamentals
improvements. Airpollu1ion shaves JO years
off of1be life span of about 200.000 people
in the United States each year. and is respon-
sible for the death of7 million people world-
wide each year. It also causes increased
sickne.ss. hospilalization. and medical costs
Iha, annually reach in10 the billions of dol-
lars. A reduc1ion in air pollution has been
shown to significantly reduce hospitaliz..1-
1ion. childhood aslhma. and 10 increase life
expectancy.
f igu l"f' 1- 14: Snail :Ur polluL-iOJ1 p:tr1i<:1e.1 (Mrk
ipots. ~bovc) lodge in Mlg, ~nd c~u,c lifc.Joo:1g
dainagc {cour1«y Ncphron).
Figure- 1- IJ.: Ait pollu·
tiQo from power pUnis
o.ud vehicles is still a
sia.oificanl bc-ahh hazard
(couttciy M. Riyll ru~
II~ Stnt.e of C,hfonn:a).
Reducing sickness and deatlt requires
identifying areas of high expoStcre. particu-
larly for \'lllnerable populations. Effective
managemen1 requires an es1lmate of how
much a decrease in pollution will increase
health. Scientists have focused o n these
questions over lhe past decades, and can
map exposures both over broader areas and
at increasing level of spatial detail.
Air pollution may be mappe<I from sa1-
ellites. as the chemicals and p.1rt icles change
lhe optical properties of air (Figure 1-15,
top). A number of satelli1e ins1rume,us. cul-
minating in the Ozone Mapping and Profile
Suite (OMPS), have been launched over the
past 30 years 10 record air quality. Painstak-
iog engineering. testing. and comparison to
ground and airbome measuremen1s have
verified instrw.nem accuracies. This has led
to a long-term record of poUuumt concentra-
tions, and improved understanding of the
sources and dynamics of pollutants regions
and 1he globe. These data allow measure-
ment of peak and chronic exposure to pollut-
ants for different populations. They show
persisten1areas of high expoS11re (Figure I·
15. top), some concentrated in dties. large.ly
due to automobile tra tlic. and others over
large areas. e.g.. the Midwes1. due to large
coal-fired power plants and industrial
 Chapter 1: Introduction to GIS 11

Average Concentration (2001·2006), Small Particles (PM2.S),119/ml

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0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Decrease in fine particle air pollution (11g/m3)

Fig\111' 1-15: Scientists al NASA h,a,-c dc..,.doped rucll.ods to map ~irpollution .iaoss .:ontiocnts on
a daily basis~ which may b¢ anragcd 10 cstllnatc chronic cxpos:un: (lop), Tiic« spatial da1a may be
combined \\~i1h snidic.s on hl1.n:ui rcspoitk to air pollution {bo(tom) :md lite loc:mon o( ,.,l1i1et11blc
populn1ioi1s 110 itnpro\'c public bultb and reduce medicill coses (c01111c,)' EPA. USA).
12 GIS Fundamentals
sources. Some areas are particularly prone to
high concentrations due to surrounding high·
lands. e.g.. the Ce111ral Valley of California
or Salt Lake City, Utah.
Work by heal,lh scientists bai identified
the impacts of afr pollution on target popula-
tions. Increased rotes or asthma, lung dam·
age. and death observed in smaller sn,dies or
individual cities can be expanded to broader
areas through the combination or data in
GIS. For example. combining health and
population data with satellite exposure
records has helped e.s1ima1e the increase in
life expectancy with a decrease in air pollu·
tion. Legislation passed in the 1970s resulted
in a measurable improvement in air quality
across the United States. Progress bas been
var~1ble across the countcy. witb some popu-
lations seeing laiger reduc,tions. Scientists
measured the decrease in death mies in con>·
par-able populations. and es1ima1ed an a\ er-
age 2-year increase in life span for each
10 µg m3 reduction in exposure (Figure I·
15. bottom).
F1gure l · 16: Tow·~blc 1;.amplen help measure air poUution (or i.11dividual W'Ccts. al \'arious tmtlie dcnsi·
1ic:s and types (co11:nc:sy J. M.,rsbll1J).
Additional work has focused on air pol-
lution a1 greater geog;apbic detail. in pan 10
better quantify aod manage individual e:<po·
sure and risk. Dr. Julian Marshall and collab-
orators a1 the University of Minuesota have
developed systems 10 sample p<>llutant con-
cen1rations at very fine spatial intervals.
towing an air sampling system behind a
bicycle through a rnnge of trnffic densities.
road types. and neighborhoods (Figure 1-
16).
Satel.lite positiooiog was syncb.roniied
with video and air samples, and these com.
billed with spatial data on road networks.
popu•ition density. land use. and other fac-
tors. Sta1istical models were then developed.
These allow detailed estimaies of pollutant
conce111rations. even down 10 the individual
street (Figure 1-17). Such estimates may in
tt1m help reduce air pollution. plan bicycle
1
or pe<lestr•,n corridors. separate the pollut-
ant loadings due to cars vs. trucks. buses or
other large vehicles, and manage llllffic or
__
infrastn1cnire to rech1ce b\unan exposure.
.,
__
_
--·
--·
,_,
,.._
-
- Ot--
 Chapter 1: Introduction to GIS 13

'
A
Flgurt t .. l 7; fine-<ktailcd &~rial e,:tinJ.11te$-
of partic:ulru:c air poUu1auts (cow1«)' J. ).far·
shall).
14 GIS Fundamentals

GIS Components
A GIS is composed of hardware. soft-
ware. data. humans. and a set of organiza-
tional protocols. The developmenc and
integration of these componeuts is an itera-
tive. ongoing process. The selection and pur-
chase of hardware and software are often the
easiest and quickes1 steps in creating a GIS.
Data collecrion and organization. persorn1el
development. and 1he establishment of pro-
tocols for GIS use are often more difficult
and time-constuufog endeavors.
Hardware for GIS
A fast computing. large data storage
capaci1ies, and a high-quali1y. large display
fom, 1he l~1rdware fom1da1ion of nios1 GIS.
although the computing and storage are
increasingly distributed across network and
0010 the data processing cloud (Figure 1-18).
Fast compu1iog is required because spatial
analyses are often applied over large areas
at higl1 spatial resolmions. Calculations are
often repealed over tens of millions of1imes.
corresponding 10 each space we analyze in
our area of interest Even simple operations
may lake subs1an1ial lime on geoeral-pur-
pose computers when applied to large areas.
and complex operations can be unbearably
long-runniug. While advances io compu,e
speeds during lhe pas! decades have subs1an-
1ially reduced the time required for most spa-
lial analyses. computaiion times are still
long for a few applications.
Disuioo1ed computing is increasingly
possible wid1 faS1er and broader i111erne1.
cellular. and wifi networks. Large data sets
may now be stored remotely and! served over
cellular or wifi networks. and computations
may be migrated 10 local or cloud.based
sen•ers (Figure 1·18). This ne,,vork i11tegra-
1ion often brings added comptexiiy and new
layers of software. and organizations must
weight 1rade-offs between local and distrib-
uted GIS sys1ems.

stand-alone
GNSS/GPS
CIO<Jd
cellular computing,
data storage
network
_ .i \
-
. i ((<s
~
...·· \~ 8'
local
network ' Bluetoo1h Q

phone or field
wiri
server
=-
oomputer with
GPS/GNSS
......
'·,\
\
\
portabl& oomputOf

desktop computer
............
Figul't' 1- 18: ors :ire u-"Cd i11 "nu1gc of co11lpuli11J cm·i.r(11uneut1 and nctworl: configunitioni, (f'Otll s1ia:nd·
.alone $)·i.tcrns to li:illy clood-bn.scd compt~iog t.nd &tn .s:torngc.

While muich hardware used iu GlS is
general-purpose and adaJllable for a "ide
range of tasks. !here are also specialized
hardware components designed specifically
for spatial data collectio1L GIS require coor-
dinate data 10 define geographic features.
such as roads.. rivers, and parcels. GPS/
GNSS. field cablets, and other speciali2ed
equipmem. described in Chapters 4 an 5. aid
in data entry. Recent increases in wireless
communications substantially improve data
input. allowing us 10 connect these mobile
devices to existing GJS while in the field,
improving data entry via computers, tablets,
phones. and GNSS/GPS units.
GIS Software
GIS software provides the tools 10 man-
age, analyze. and effectively display and dis-
semina,e spa1ial information (Figure 1·19).
GIS by necessiiy involves the collec,ioo and
manipulation of coordinates. We also must
collect qualitative or quantitative infonna-
tiou on the uouspa1ial attributes of geo-
graphic features. We need tools to \~ew and
edit these data, manipulate them lo generate
Data ootry
• manual eoo<dinate capture
-altribute capture
• Digital coordinate capture
-data import
Editing
- manual point, lille and area
feature editing
- manual attribute editing
-automated error detection
and editing
Data management
· oopy, subseL me19e data
• versionlng
• data registraliofl and projection
-summarization, data reduction
· doa.m1entation
-compression
- indexing
F igure 1- 19: func:1ions COllllUOtlly pro,-idcd by GIS softwarc.
Chapter 1: Introduction to GIS 15
and extrnct the information we require. and
produce tlte materials 10 communicate the
infom,arion we have developed. GIS soft-
ware pro\lides the specific tools for some or
au of these tasks.
There are many public domain and com-
mercially available GJS software packages,
and many oftbese packages originated at
academic or government-funded research
laboratories. The Environmental Systems
Research lnstirute (ESRI) li11e of products.
including ArcGIS. is a good! example. Much
of the foundation for early ESRI software
was de,·eloped during lhe 1960s and 1970s
at Harvard Unjversity in the Laboratory of
Computer Graphics and Spatial Anal}~is.
Alumni from Harvard included these in
commercial products. and ltave developed
additional methods and integrated new aca-
demic research in the five decades since.
Open Geospatlal Consortium
We wiU briefly cover lite most common
GIS software. bm first wish 10 introduce the
Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC). Their
effons have eased sharing across various
Analysis
• spatial query
· attribute query
• interpolation
- oonnectiv!ty
- proximity and adjacency
• buffering
- terrain analyses
• boundary dissolve
-spatial data overlay
- moving window analyses
- map algebra
Output
- map design and layoul
• hardcopy map printing
• digital graphic production
-export format generalioll
• metadata output
- digital map serving
16 GIS Fundamentals
GIS softwares and computer operating sys-
tems. Standards tor data formats. documen-
tation. program il!lteractions. and
transmission have been developed and pub-
lished (""'w.opeogoospatialorg). and lists
of s1andards-complia111 software compiled.
These common standards ease community
adoption and reduce bllrrie~ 10 switching
among softwares. Compliance with the stan-
dards is a plus from a user's perspecti\'e.
ArcGIS
ArcGlS is by some measures the most
broadly deployed GIS. and provides a near-
comprehensive set of gooprocessing func-
tions, from data entry Lhrough analysis to
mos, forms of data output They provide
desk1op. emerprise. and cloud-based ver-
sions. ArcGIS supports multiple da1a 1ypes
and stn1c1ures. and literally uiousands of
possible operations 1ba1 may be applied 10
spatial data. Subs-tantial training is required
10 mas1er the full capabilities of ArCGIS.
ArcGIS provides wide fle~ibility in how
we conceptualize and model geographic fea-
tures. For example. elevation data may be
stored in at least four major fom1a1s. each
with attendant advantages and limitations.
There is equal Oec<ibili1y in the methods for
spa1ial dara processing. This broad array of
choices. while responsible for the large
investment in time required for mastery of
ArcGIS. provides subs1amial aoalylical
power.
QGIS
QGIS is an open.source software proj·
ect. an ini1iati\le under the Open Source
Goospa1ial Foundation. TI1e software is a
collabora1[\le effort by a co1111nmt.ity of
developers and users. QGIS is free. stable.
changes smootl1ly 1hrougb time. witl11he
source code available so that it can be
ex1ended as needed for specific tasks. 11 pro-
vides a graphical user interface. suppo11S a
wide variety of data types ru1d fomt.ats. ru1d
nins on Unix. Ma.cOSX, and Microooft Win·
dows opera1ing s~'Slems. As wi1ll most open-
source software, the original offering had
limited capabilities. \Vi1b an average of
approxima1ely 1wo updates a year sinee
2002. QGIS provides a large number of
basic GIS display and analysis functions. An
interface has been developed whh GRASS.
anotheropen.source GJS wilh complemen-
1ary an.,ly,ical fimctions, bur lhar tacks as
straightforward a graphical user imerface.
GeoMedia
GeoMedia and related produc1s are 1be
popuL,r GIS sui1e from Hexagon Geospatial.
GeoMedia offe~ a complete set of data
entry. analysis. and ou1pur 1ools. A compre-
he.nsive set of editing tools may be pur-
chased. including rbose for auto1na1ed da1a
emry and error de1ec1ion. da1a developmem.
data fusion. complex analyses. and sophisti-
cated da1a display and map composition.
GeoMedia also provides a comprehen-
sive set of tools for GIS analyses. Complex
spa1ial analyses ,nay be perfonned. includ-
ing queries. for example. to fiud features in
1he database that match a SN of conditions.
and spatial analyses such as proximity or
overlap between feanires. World Wide Web
and mobile phone applications are well sup·
ported.
ldrlsi
ldrisi is a GIS system developed by the
Graduale School of Geography of Clark
University, in Massachusetts. Idxisi differs
from the previously discussed GIS software
pac.kages in that it provides botll image pro·
cessing and GlS functions. Image daln are
useful as a source of informa1ion in GIS.
There are many specialized software pack-
ages designed spe.cifically 10 focus on image
dato collection. manipulation. aod output.
Idrisi offers much of tl1is fimctionaliry while
also providing a large suite of ipatial data
analysis and display functions.
A suite of tools for Earth system model-
ing has been developed on u,e Idrisi plat-
fonu. and combined in 1be Ten-eset software
system. Ftmclions include land change mod-

eling, habirat and biodiversity modeling, and
climate change adaptation.
AUTOCAD MAP 30
AUTOCAD is the world's largest-sell-
ing computer drafting and design package.
Produced by Autodesk. Inc. of San Rafael.
California. AUTOCAD began as an engi-
neering dral\i ng and pru11ing tool. A brood
range of engineering disc.iplines are sup.
ported. including su"•eyu,g and civil engi-
neering. Surveyors have traditionally
developed aod mainlained the coordinates
for property boundaries. and these are
among the most important and often-used
spatial data. AUTOCAD MAP 30 adds sub-
stantial analytical capability 10 the already
complete set of data inp111, coordinate
manipulation., and data output tools provided
byAUTOCAD.
GRASS
GRASS. the Geographic Resource
Analysis Support System. is a free. open-
source G IS that runs on many platfonns. The
system was originally developed by the U.S.
Anny Construction Engineering Research
Laboratory. Dul was discontinued by the mil·
itary. and taken up by an open-source project
to maintain and enhance GRASS. The soft-
ware pro\~des a broad array of raster and
vector operations, and is used in both
research and ~ppLicatioos worldwide.
Detailed infonna1ion and the downloadable
software are available al
hnp:/lgrass.osgeo.org.
Bentley Map
Bentley Systems has developed spatial
an.1lysis software for mobile device through
enterprise levels, with a strong focus°'' flex-
ible. integrated infrastnicrure design and
Chapter 1: Introduction lo GIS 17
development Bentley includes a general set
of 1ools, including field data collection. pbo-
tognunmetry. sophisticated map co111posi-
1ion, database management, analysis, and
reporting. Bentley products are partit11larly
focused on the built en,•irornment. including
road, building, utility. and o'lher large con-
stniction design. plaDlling, a11d management.
Bemley also suppons industry-specific
tools, including mining and power genera-
tion systems and networks.
Spatial R, Python, an.d GOAL
Geueric programing. pr«essing. and
statistical analysis tools may be combined 10
provide most GIS functions~ and inc.lude
newer analytical methods not available in
common commertial packages. R is an
open-source software project with many spa-
tial packages. These support a rich set of
spatial operatioos. particularly for spatial
estimation. Python is a general-purpose pro-
graming language with several available
spatial libraries. Notable among them are
Shapely, Geopaudas. and pySAL. containing
a large set of spatial functions. GDAL is a
standard set of spatial input/output and data
processing functions. which! may interface
\\1th both Rand Python. Together, these
tools support sophisticated OIS anal)~is.
This re\~ew of spalial data software is
incomplete. There are many other software
tools available wh.icb provide tmique. novel.
or particularly cle\'er combi:nations or geo-
processing functions. Maptixude GIS. Wbi1e-
box GAT. Micro1J.111ges. Sn1'111world.
Manifold GIS. ILWIS, Map'Window, PCI.
and gvSIG are just a rew additional software
packages with spatial data capabilities. In
addition, there are thousands of add-ons.
special-purpose roots. or specific modules
1ha1 CO!llplemem tltese products.
18 GIS Fundamentals
GIS in Organizations
Allhough new uws often focus on GIS
hardware and sofnvare components. we
must recognize !hat GIS exist in au iosti1u.
1iona1contexi. Efl'ecth•e use ofGIS requires
an organization10 support various GJS ac.tiv-
ities. Mool GIS also require trained people 10
use them. and a set of protocols guiding bow
the GIS will be used. The institutional con-
text detem1ines what spatial data are impon-
ant. how these da1a will be collected and
used. and ensures that the results of GIS
analyses are properly interpreted and
applied. GIS sbar~ a common cba.racteristic
of many powerful technologies. If not prop-
erly used. GIS may lead to a significant
waste of resources. and may do more harm
than good. The pr,oper instimtional resources
are required for GlS to provide all its poten-
tial benefits.
The physical world
Decide and act
Flgurt 1· 20: OlS e,i;.is:t in an Ulititu1ional co11tex1. Effective use of GlS depends ou a set o(
protocols and aa1 Ulle;ration into tllC d:ua eollc<tioo. anaJysis. ckeision. and actioo loop o(.au
orpni2.'lliou..
GIS are often employed as decision sup-
pon loots (Figure 1-20). Oa1a ar~ collected.
entered. and organized into a spatial data.
base. and analyses perfonned to help make
specific decisions. The resuhs of spatial
analyses in a GIS often uncover 1he need for
more data. and there are often several itera-
tions through 1he collection. organization.
analysis, outpul. and assessment steps before
a final decision is reached. It is imponant to
recognize the organizational strucrure with.in
wltic.t11he G!S will operate. and how GlS
will be imegrated into the decisi.on.mak.ing
processes of the organizatio,~
Define
prot ocols
-
Collect and
\ edit spatial data

One first question is. "What problem(s)
are we to sol,,. with the GIS?" GIS add sig-
nificant analytical power dirough the ability
to measure di.stances and areas. identify
vicinity. analyze networks. and tlirougb the
overlay and combination o( different infor-
mation. Unfortunately. spatial data develop-
ment is often expensive. and effective GIS
use requires specialized knowledge or train-
ing. so there is often considerable expense in
constructing and operating a GIS. Before
spending this time and money. tltere must be
a clear idemification of the new questions
that may be a.nswered. or the process, prod-
uct. or service thai will be improved. made
more efficient. or less expensive through the
use of GIS. Once the ends are identified, an
organization may detem,ine the !e,•el of
investment in GIS that is warranted.
Summary
GIS are computer-based systems that aid
in the develolJlment and use of spatial data.
There are ma:ny reasons we use GIS. but
most are based on a societal push. our need
to more effectively and efficienlly use our
resources. It also responds to a technological
pull. our inre,est in applying new roots to
previously insoluble problems. GIS as a
technology i, based on geographic infonua-
tiou science. and is supponed by the disci-
plines of geography. surveying, engineering.
space science. comprner science. canogra.
phy. statistics. and a number of other.;.
GIS are composed of both hardware and
software components. Because of the large
volumes of spalial data and the need to input
coordinate values. G!S hardware often have
large storage cap<tcities. fast computing
speed, and ability to capture coordinates.
Softwue for GIS are unique in their ability
to manipulate coordinates and associated
at1:ribute data_ A number of software tools
and packages. are available to help us
develop GIS.
While G!S are defined as tools for use
with spatial data. we must siress the impor-
tance of the iustinnional context io which
GIS fit. Bee.ause GIS are most often used as
Chapter 1: Introduction lo GIS 19
decision support tools. Lhe effe.ctive use of
GIS requires more than the purchase of hard-
ware and software. Trained personnel and
prolocols for use are required if GIS are to
be properly applied. GIS may then be incor-
porated in the quesrion-<ollect-analyze-
dec.ide loop when solving problems.
The Structure of This Book
This book is designed 10 serve a semes-
ter-long. 15,week course in GIS at the urti-
versity level. We seek to provide the relevant
information to create a stro11g basic founda-
tion on which 10 build an undemanding of
GIS. Because of the breadtb and number of
topics covered. students may be helped by
knowledge of how this book is organized.
Chapter I (this chapter) sets tlie stage. pro-
viding some motivation and! a background
for GIS. Chapter 2 describes basic data rep·
resentations. It ueats the main ways we use
computer.; to represent perceptions of geog-
raphy. common data structu,es, and bow
these structures are organized. Chapter 3
provides a basic description, of coordioa1es
and coordinate systems. hov•1 coordinates are
defmed and measured on the surface of the
Ear1h. and conventions for converting 1hese
measu.remenls to coordinates we use in a
GIS.
Chapter.. 4 through 7 treat spatial data
collection and en,ry. Dara collection is ofieu
a substantial task and comprises one of the
main activities of most GlS orgru1iza1ions.
General data collection metliods and equip·
ment are described in Chapter 4. Chapter 5
describes Global Navigation Satellite Sys-
tems (GNSS). a conunon teclmology for
coordinate data collection. Chapter 6
describes aerial and space-b.ased images as a
source of spatial data. Most historical and
comemporary m•ps depend in some way on
image data, and this chap1er provides a back-
ground on how these data are collec1ed and
used to create spatial data. Clulprer 7 pro-
vides a brief descrip1ion of common digital
data sources available in the United Stales,
their fomiats. and uses.
20 GIS Fundamentals
Chapters 8 through 13 treat the anatr-,is
of spatial data. Chapter 8 focuses on ann·
bute data. anribute tables. database design.
and analyses using attribute data. Attributes
are half our spatio! data. and a clear 1mder-.
standing of how we stn,cture and use them is
key to effective spatial reasoning. Chapters
9, 10, II. and 12 describe basic spatial anal-
yses. including adjacency. inclusion._over·
lay, and data combination for the ma~n data
models used in GlS. They also describe
more complex spatio-temporal models.
Chapter 13 describes various m:ihods for .
spatial prediction and interpola11011. We typi-
cally find it impractical or inefficient 10 col·
lect "wall-to-wall," spatial and a1tribme da1a.
Spatial prediction ~lo~vs us to ~xtend our
sampling and provide mforo-,uon for
unsampled locations. Chapter 14 describes
how we assess and document spatial data
qualiiy, while Chapter 15 provides some
musings on current coodi1ions a.ud funire
trends.
We give preference to the ~1tema1ioa.11
System of Units (Sf) throughout this book.
The SI system is adopted by most of the
world. and is used to specify distances and
locations in the most common global coordi-
nate S}~tems and by 1110st spatial d.ata co!lec-
1ion devices. However. some English uuus
are culturally embedded, for example. the
survey foot. or 640 acres to a Public land
Survey Section. and so these are 1101 con-
vened. Because a large portion of 1he target
audience for this book is in the United
States. English units of measure often sup·
plement SI units.
 Chapter 1: Introduction to GIS 21

Suggested Reading

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Couvis, C..L.. Jr. (Ed.). (2001). Co11stnn11011 Geogr(lphy: Case Studit$ m GIS.. Computer
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Day. 8 .. B:runer, J.. Moser. A. (20 17). Goospatral Data and A11olys1s. S<-bastOP'ol CA:
O'Reilly.

Dent. 8 .. Torguson., J.S., Hodler, T.W. (2009). Ca,.tography, Tl,emnUc Map Druig,r. 61h Edi-
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Dodge, M ..• McDerby. M.. Turner. M. (2008). Geogrnpluc l'fsuoli201to11: Co,icepts. Tools, 011d
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HakJay, M_ (2010). Interacting wit/1 Geospatial Teclmologies. New York: Wiley.

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toring. Em•1rom1umral Science DJtd Tedmo/og;: 45:9194-9202.

Jotutson. S. (2006). Tlte Ghost Map: the Story ofLondon~ .Uost Te.rrify1l1g Epfdemic, aud
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Kre$$e, W., Danko. D.M. (Ed.). (2012). Handbook of Gtogrnpluc ln/om,ntio,J. Oordreclu:
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McHq. I. (1995). Destg11 ,nth Nmm-e. New York: Wiley.

MiUspaugb. U .. Thompson.. F.R. m. (2009). Models/or Plom11"g IJ,f/dllfe Co,,se.1'\'nffo11 m

£(1rge Ltwdscapes. Amsi:erd.im: Elsevier.
22 GIS Fundamentals

Mueller. T.. Sassenrnth. G.F. (20 IS). GJS Appl1cl1110,is m Agncul1111·e, f'Olume 4: Co,i.rerwm'on
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National Research Cowieil ohhe National Academies (2006). Be;·ond MtJpp111g: MiJ.em,g
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National Academics Press.

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Somres GJS. New York: Springer.

Shelito, B.A. (20 12). hmr,ducuo,, 10 Geosporiol Teclmologies. NewY<irk: W.H. Freeman.

Singl«on. A.O.• Spie lnuu. S.E •• Fokh. O.C. (20 1S). Urbo11 A110(,•11r:s. Los Angeles: Sag~.

de Smith, M .G .• Goodchild. M.F.• Longley, P.A. (2007). Geospntwl A11alysas: A Comprelten·

smr Gmde 10 Pnnciples, Ttc.li,11q11es. a11d So/llm1-e Tools. Lcice$·ter: \Vinchcl$ea. Press.

T heobald, 0 . M_ (2003). OIS Co11cepls and An:GIS Me.lfuxls. fort Collins: Conservation
Pla.uuing Technologies.

Tillman Lyle, J. (1999). Des1g11/or H11mn11 ECOl)'Stems: Lm1d.fcnpe. Land Use. and Natuml
Resoun:es. Washington: lslaod Press.
Wegmaru:i.. M .• Leutner. 8 ., Dech, $. (20l6). Remote S,msi11g and GIS/or Ecologis1:s: Using
Open Source Software. E."(eler: Pelagic Publishing.

Wise. S .• Cragli:a. M. (Eds.). (2008). GIS a11d Evidc11ce-bn.red Poirer Mnl.·illg. Boe.a Raton:
CRC Press.
 Chapter 1: Introduction to GIS 23

Study Questions

1.1 • Why are we more imcrcs1ed in spatial data 1oday than 100 years ago?

1.2 - You have probably collected. analyzed, or communicated spatial data in one
way or anolber during tbe pasi montl1. Describe each of these sieps for a specific
applica1iou you have used or observed.

1.3 - Ho,v are GIS hardware different from most other hardware?

1.4 • Describe the ways in which GIS software are differem from otl1er computer
software.

1.S . What are the limitations of using a GIS? Under what conditions miglu the 1ecb-
nology hinder problem solving. rather than help?

1.6 . Are paper maps and paper data sheets a GIS? Why or why not?
24 GIS Fundamentals

2 Data Models
Introduction
Oa1a in a G!S represen1 a simplified ,iew
of physical emiries - the roads. mouolains.
accident locations, orotJ1er features we care
about Our d~1a record spa1ial loca1ion and
nonsparial properties.
Each enlity is represented by a spatio/
object in a G!S. defining an emi1y-objec1 cor-
respondence. Because every computer system
has limits. we can 1t save the exact geography
or all cbarac1eris1ics offearures. As illumaied
in Fi_g,ire 2-1 , we may s1ore land cover as a
set of polygons, wi1h polygons of a1 leasl 30
square me1ers.. We may record da1a lha1
define each land cover. vegetation l)pe. own-
Flg,u~ 2-1: A p.'hytit2I cntit>' it; 1tpn«ntcd by l\ s.p:ui:i.l <>bjctl inn. GlS. Herc, fakc-s (d:u-k IIIJ'C'M in dtc pho.t()o
grnph) and otbc:r land eo,-cr types are rcprcacoted by polygon, in 1:be data layen on 1bc rig!Jt.
25
ersbip. and land use. Smaller polygons and
unrecorded characteristics such as value a.re
not included in this representation.
Adata set's spa1ial de1ail and essential
characteristics are subjecti\·ely chosen by the
da1a developer. The de1ail r<quired by a sur-
vei•or will be differem 1bau 1ha1 for a land
pla(U)er. The essential characteris1ics of a for-
es! would be differenl in the eyes of a logger
1han those of a hunter or biker. No representa-
tion is tmiversally better than any 01her. and
tl1e G!S developer seeks 10 defioe objects dial
support the imended da1a uses. a1 Ille desired
level of deiail and acc,~acy.
'
. .,
•••
t
0
~ .
26 GIS Fundamentals

Real world
Data model
J••·, . / Data
strucwre

"• x
12
y
• .,
t
- . •
•. ' 5.8
8.9
3.o
7.l

ID Meo Type
Macihine
l 16.3 PUB code
2 7.9 PEM
3 12 1 8 u 1001 1101
00110110
4 10 l PVS 10110100

Flautt 2-2: Lends ,o( abs:IJ':lctiou in 1hc r¢p~sciuation o( spatjaJ C11ti1i«. TI1c l'Cal world is rcp~tcd in
rucccui\•cly 111<nc m:.c:11inc<o1rq,:uib1c bu1bwna..nlr obicutt (on:nt.

A sparia/ data model (Figure 2-2) may tive data layers. Through analyses we may
be defined as 11te objects in a spatial da1aoose combine da1a 10 create a new data layer: for
plus the relationships among 1hem. The 1erm example. we may identify areas that have
''model.. is fraught with ambiguity because it high elevation and join this information with
is used in many disciplines to describe many 1be soils daca.
things. Here. a spacial daca model provides a
formal means of repre.senting and manipulat-
ing spatially referenced infonnation. In Fig·
ure 2· l. our data model cousiscs of a se1 of
polygons recordimg 1he edges of distinct land
uses, and a (not shown) set of variables asso-
ciaced wi1b each polygon. The da1a model is
the most recognizable level in our computer
abstraction of the real world. Data structures
(bow we organize the infon11a1ion in the
computer) and binary machine code (how
we record it) are successively less recogniz-
able bm more co1npu1er-compatible fonus or
the spatial d.11a (Figure 2-2).
Most GlS store our dam as a set of lay-
ers (Figure 2-3). Each layer organizes 1be
spatial and attribute data for a kind of carto-
graphic ol>jec1. and are often referred to as
thematic layers. An example GIS dacabase
might inc.Jude a soils data L1yer. a population
data layer. an elevation data la)>er. and a fla:utt 2..J: Spatiaidllta 11tt often stOttd llU q>Mlte
roads daca layer. The roads layer contains tltc:matie: layc:n, with objec,s grouped b:u.c:d on :.
only roads data. including the location and 5Ct of prope11i«, e.g.. w~tcr, ronds. o:r faod cover,
properties of roads in the analysis area. or some otbc:ragrced-upon set.
lnfonnation on soils, poLi1ical boundaries.
and elevation are contained in their respec-
 Chapter 2: Data Models 27

Coordinate Systems
Coorrli11mes are used 10 define 1be spa- (3.2,15)
tial location and extent ofgeographic objecis 15 (8.4.10)
(Figure 2-4). A coordinate most often con-
SiSIS or a pair or triple, or nwnbers 1lul1 spec-
A""l'rbulU
ify locotion iu rela1ion to an origin. The y 10 , , , • 13'7
coordinates quantify the dislance from the ,:; J~ftt'. v.~

origin wbeu measured along standard direc·

tions. Spatial data in a GIS most often use
·~ ,, IC-,, ! iool--lM

coordinate p.1irs, Xand Y, in a Canesian
coordinate sys1em, named after Rene Des-
cartes. the system's origiuator. These pairs
define data on a planar. two-dimensional
surface. The two-dimensional surface is usu-
ally based up,oo standardized metliods of
mapping 1be ground surface lo a flal map
surface (discussed in Chapier 3). Typically.
a11ribu1e daia complemeo111te coordina1e
da1a for carto:gr.iphic objecis. These auribme
data record the non-spa rial components of rut
object such as a name. color. pH. or cash
value. Keys. Labels. or 01her indexes are used
so tl1at lhe coordinate and attribute data may
be viewed. re la1ed. and manipula1ed
1oge1her.
Planar. 1wo-dimensional(2-D) Cartesian
coordinate systems define two 011hogo110/
(13.7 1)
5
(5 8.2.l)
0.0\ 5 10 15
origin x
Fi&ot•t 2-4: Coordinate and attn"butc data arc
used 10 rcptescm c:iuitics.
axes (right angle. or 90°), fomting a plane
(figure 2-5). We specify a Y-axis. usually
aligned at or dose 10 a nortlt-south direction.
and an X·axis. usually align,ed at or near an
east-west directiOtL The Y-axis is often
referred to as a ,,or1M11g ,1.ris and values
increase upwards in a grid north direction.
The x-axis is often referred 10 as an eosii11g
a:ris with values increasing 10 the right

2-D Cartesian Coordinate Systems

0
v

0
M

0
N

-0

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 x
Flan~ l -5: ~ 2-D coordinate system dcfio" X and Y a.,es (left paocl i.u figw-c abo,-c). and ~i(y coordi·
1uuc loc:uioi11s by tbcsc X-Y pdlN. Cootdiiutc nah.1cs incn:-asc ll) ria)uwntd (X) :ud upw.t1td (Y) du'C'CliOlU,
:md lines of consll\UI X Or Y ,·:tlucs mny be 11,kd 10 ~id in loc:uion Oii innpt (tight. abo,"C:).
28 GIS Fundamentals
We must be careful when making mea-
surements on our Oat. 2·0 surface. These
measuremen1s un:avoidably diston relative
locations, because the Earth's true surfac-e
approxima1es a sphere and hence is curvoo.
We can keep errors small by limi1ing 1he
area over which we use our flat map. As the
mapped area ge1s larger. !he error increases
to amoun1s we usually can'1 ignore. Specific
conversions from 3-0 to 2-0 coordinate sys-
tems and methods for managing dis ton ion in
Oat map systems ru-e discussed in Chap1er 3.
Coordinates on a Sphere
When we map over larger areas or when
we need lhe highest precision and accuracy,
we often use a three-dimensional. sphel'ical
coordinate sysrem. H_jpparcbus. a Greek
mathematician of the 2nd century 8.C .. was
among lhe first IC) specify ioca1ions on lhe
Earth using angular measurements on a
sphere. Our familfar Gecgn,pltic C(J()rt/imue
System uses two angles of rotation. the lon-
gin1de 0,). and !he la1imde ($). and a radius.
R. to specify locauions on Earth (Figure 2-6).
The longitude measures east.west distances
around the polar Eanb axis. Zero is se1 for a
line th.11 passes through England, and 1he
distance angle is positive eastward and nega·
tive wes1ward (Figure 2·6). Lines of equal
lougirude are call~d meddlans. and are ori-
ented north-south_The zero longitude. aJso
known as the Pn·me Men·d;m, or the G,.ee,,..
wich A1eridio11. was first specifioo 1brough
the Royal Greenwich Obse!\'lltory because
they had amassed lhe best early measure·
me.uts. but the Prime Meridian bas now
shifted about I02 meters (335 feet) east of
the Greeuwicb Oll>servatory as measure-
meuts improved. ·1ec1onic pla1es shiftoo. and
convention changed.
Asecoud angle of rotation. measured
along north-south planes that intersect the
poles. is used to define a la1i1ude. Lalitudes
are specified as zero at the Equator. u,e Line
encircling 1he Ea11h that is equidistan1 from
the North and Sou1h Poles. By convention,
latitudes increase 10 maximum values of 90
degrees in the 11011h and south. or, if signed.
frnm -90 at 1he South Pole to 90 at 1he North
Pole. Lines of constant la1itude are called
parallels (Figure 2·6).
Geographic coordimues do 001 fonn a
Cartesian sys1em becaiise the meridians
c,onverge. A Cartesian system defines lines
on a righi-:1ngJe, planar grid. Geographic
coordina1es ocC11r on a curved surface. and
the longitudinal lines cross at tbe poles.
This convergence means the distance
spaimed by a degree of loogimde varies
from approximately l 11 .3 kilorroeters at the
Equator. to Okilometers at the poles. In
conltllSL 1he ground distance for a degree
ofla1itude varies only slig)itly. from 110.6
kilomelers at the Equa1or to 111.7 kilome-
1ers a, the poles. The slight difference wilh
la1in1de is due to a non-spherical Earth.
something we'll describe a bit later.
Convergenceca11ses distorti<>n because a
degree of latirude spans a grealer distance
near 1he poles than a degree of i<>ngimde.
For example. "circles" with a fixed radius in
geographjc units, such as 5°, are not circles
011 tlie st1rfate of the globe, witli di~tortion
grea1es1 at the poles (Figure 2·7. left). They
may appear as circles when the Earth's sur.
face is ..unrolloo .. and ploned 011 a Oat map
(Figure 2-7. right). b1111rea1ing spnerical
coordinates (la1imdesllongitudes) as Carte-
sian coordfoates creales an inherently dis-
1orted map. NOie lhe distorted sbape of
A.LHarctica in Figure 2-7. right.
Because the spherical sys1cm for geo-
grapltic coordina1es is noo-Canesian. pla-
nar fommlas for area, distance, angles, and
olher geometric properties used in a Cane-
sian coordinate system shou.ld not be used
with geographic coordinates. Are.as are
usual!y calcula1ed after convening 10 a pro-
jec1ed sys1em. described in chap1er 3.
There are two primary conventions
used for specifying latitude and loogimde
(Figure 2-8). The first uses a leading letter.
N. S, E, or IV, 10 indica1e direction, fof.
lowed by a number 10 indicate location.
Northern latitudes are preceded by an N
and southern latitudes by an S, for exam-
ple. N90°. SI0°. Lougimde values are pre-
 Chapter 2: Data Models 29

Roto-t1on axis at the geogr aphic

Nor th Pote. ).•?, 4'•90
Porollels. Eost-West
lines of equol Geogroplic
IOll!ude (,j,)
porlqln:
)..0. 4' .o

U-
1

fi&"rt- l-6: Cc:m,·eu1iom wben n:fc1Ting to geographic Ultitudes Md lo11gitudC$. Mcridian!i arc lines nllUting
nortb-soutb tba1 ba,·c coustant looajrud«. ParalMs arc Imes: n.wning cast·WC61 lb:u ban: ~.Stant latitudes.
Latirudc i:s ZC':f"O Olt 1bc Equator. Loniirude is zero on tbc Ottcnwicb Mcridi.,11111,d undci1.ncd at 1.hc poles.
b,cc.,usc all longitlld-iual mcridi!l1'5 iJ1tc111a:1 1licn: (i. • ? in tbc figure).

F1;urt l -7: Gcoat9phic coordi.na.t« o" a spbcrie11I (left) aild Car1csian (ri,ht) rcprCklltati.on. Notice that ..cir-
cles'' dcfotcd by ll 5 d~c nridiwi do 1.ot forut circles on the E:uth 's SW'f:ncc nc11t 1hc polc-s, 11.t shown on tht-
sphcric.il representation (left figwc), but :ippca.r a, ci.rdc$ iu the dislorted Cn.ttcs:ian pie.I of gcogr,ip!i..ic coordi,.
11atcs (riaht), This figure illu!itratcs both that a) tbc sur!aoce disua:)Ce for a tmit of 1011.gitude changes depending
on your location on Earth, a.iKi b) 11 Cat1c.s-Uln plot o( $C03N1phic coordinates is biahly dist01tcd.
30 GIS Fundamentals
ceded by an E or W, for example WitO".
Longin1des range from Oto 180 degrees
east or west. Note 1ba1 the east and west
longitudes meet at 180 degrees. so that
E 180° equals W 180°.
Signed coordinates are 1he second com-
mon way to specify latitude and longitude.
North Pole
Nil0 , £84<>
--"P-~·11· OC:s.,.
S62", E35
·62' or.35..,
SOIJ1h Pote
Fleurt 2-8: SpheriC;J1J coord.i1utc~ of Luimdc :lnd
longitude 11.-re IUOtil often C:<prc$.SCd "' directiom11
(NJS. .E/W). or as si,p~ numbers. Latinidcs arc
positi\'c uorth, ncl*tl\•c. soutk lontitudcs arc posi·
li\'c call, m::pti,·c \'l.'cs.1.
3600 to circle the sphere
60', or 60 mroU1es. for ecch degree
60·. or 60 seconds. for each m1Mte
FiJ.Ul'f' 2-9: Tiicrc tire 360 dcgrccs io a C01n,Jilc1c cin:lc. with c.icb dcgru composed of 60 mit1ll lc1, :,,ud c.-c:!1
minute e,,owpos,:d of 60 s«onds..
Northern la1in1des are positive and southern
latin1des are negative. and eastern longitudes
positive and western longimdes negative.
Latitudes vary from -90 degrees to 90
degrees. and longitudes vary from - ISO
degrees to 180 degrees. By this com•ention.
the longitudes "meel'' at the maximum and
minimum values, so -180° equals t 80".
Spheric.al geographic coordinates are
often recorded in a degrees.minutes.seconds
(OMS) notation: N43° 35' 20" for 43
degrees. 35 minutes. and 20 seconds of lati-
tude. In OMS, each degree is made up of 60
minutes of arc. and e.acb minute is in mm
divided into 60 seconds of arc (Figure 2-9).
This yields 60 times 60. or 3600 seconds for
each degree oflatitude or longirude. Spheri-
cal coordinates may also be expressed as
decimal degrees (DD). When usi ng DD. the
degrees take the usual - ISO to ISO (longi-
n,de) aud -90 to 90 (latinide) rru1ges. but
minutes and seconds are reported as a deci-
mal portion of a degree (from O to
0.99999 ...).
Con1·ersion be!IV~il DMS aud DD is
shown in Figure 2-10.
,.•
3600
•
Sooth Pole
 Chapter 2: Data Models 31

Spherical vs. Elllpsold al Earth

DD fr()m OMS
00 • 0 , M/60 • S/3600 Wllile we often describe the Eanh's
e.g. shape as a sphere. it is bene.- approximated
OMS • 32° ;5· 28' as an ellipsoid. A sphere is a solid objecl
00 • 32 · 45/60 • 28/3600 defined by a center location and an equal
• 32 • 0.75 • 0.0077778 radius in all directions. An ellipsoid is an
• 32.7577778 approximately spherical solld, but with
unequal radii along tl,e axes. Spheroids and
ellipsoids may be viewe<I in cross-section.
OMS from DD revealing their diffe.renre in shape (figure 2-
0 - Integer port 11 ). The Eanh 's shape is best viewed as an
M ~ integer of <.fecimol port x 60 ellipsoid flanened in tile north-south direc-
S • 2nd dec,mol x 60 tion. This flattening is quite small. approxj.
e.g. mately one pan in 300. Tra1isla1ed to human
00 • 2~.93547 scales. this is abo111 an 8 nun (J/301h of an
0 • 24 inc.It) flanening in a basketball. While diffi-
M .. 1nt eger of first decimal x 60 cult to observe directly, it is large enough 10
• 093547 x 60 distort common gecxletic measurements and
• integer of 56.gg_ navigation on the surface of the Ean.h Many
• 56 __.,..- navigation and measurement estimates have
S • 2nd decimal x 60 two sets of fonnulas. o~ a11 approximation
• 0.1282 ' 60 • 7 692 based on a purely spherical _globe. and a
so OMS is more complicated and precise set based on
24° 56. 7.692' an ellipsoidal shape.
Fi.f UIT ?·10; Examples forcom·crting between
Dr••lS and 00 cxpr«1--ioi11o of spbcrieal coordi- Note 1ha1 the words sph.eroid and ellip-
nates. soid are often used i111ercltangeably. GIS
software often prom)lls the user for a sphere
or spheroid when defining a coordinate pro-

Sphere Ellipse -- (x-x,,)' (y-y. )'

R2 = (x-x.)' • (y-y0 ) ' 1 o' • - t>'
-
pole:

e.Quotor equator

flatten ng
factor f
·-
O- b
0

pole pole

Fi111rt 1-11: Sf.hcricial (left) \'S. c:llipsoitbl (right) appro:c.im111io11.1. of the Earth's $b11pc.A sphere bas 3 sin·
gk 1'3dius. whi can ellipse ha.s ditTcm11 radil along the semi-ruajoraod «mi-minor axcf. The splcroid wd
cllipso1d C80 be tbouatu of u rouuioa: these two basi.c: sbapts around the polara.,:is to ttcatc solid fia:urcs.
32 GIS Fundamentals
jection. and then lists a set of ellipsoids, with
differing polar and equa1orial radii.
There have been several estimates of tJ1e
"best" Eartl, radi~ bes1 in !he sense 1ba1 tlie
average height of the solid earth surface is
zero when 1aken across the globe. Eratosthe-
nes ofCyreue provided a remarkably accu·
ra1e es11maic of1he Eanh's radius more 1han
2,000 ye.ars ago, but improvements in tech-
nologies allowed repealed. increasingly
accura1e measureane,us 1brough 1he Jaie-
l 900s. when the current values were
adop1ed.
Today. 1be bes1estima1e for a is
6,378, 137.0 me1ers (m), and for b
6.356.752.3 m. A mean value of 6,367.444.7
m is often used for spheroids. bu1 so111e1imes
lhe value for a is adop1ed, 6,37$, 137 m, or
jus1 6.378 km.
Converting Arc to Surface Dis-
tances
At limes we need 10 calcula1e 1he dis-
tance on the surface of the. Eanb. For exam-
ple. I mighl have ·1wo Joca1ions 1ha1 differ by
10 seconds of arc. and wish 10 es1una1e lhe
disrance between them. We c.an approxi111ate
the surface distance on a cirde or sphere by
1be formula:
d = r. a (2.1)
where d is the approximate ground distance.
r is lhe radius of the cirde or sphere. and 0 is
1he angle of li1e arc (Figure 2-12), There is a
more complicated formula for ellipsoidal
surfac!s, bul Equa1ion 2- 1 is acceptable for
many 1~s1ances where we need an approxi-
mate distance.
f igure 2-12 shows an example calcula-
tion of arc Jeuglh, using 1be average radius
for Eanb. No1e 1ba1 equation (2. I) applies 10
a genenc arc angle. measured ill! thedirec-
1iou oftbe spanned arc. witliotn regard 10 lhe
lalinide/longin,de sysiem. Subs1i11ning la1i-
tude values will result in a reasonably accu-
rate ans\\rer. but subs1itutiug longitude
values. anywhere bul along 1he Equaior will
result m an error. This error will be small
near 1he Equa1or and lal)(esl near the poles
due 10 longinldal conveience. The forum!~
1s best used as a first approximation of dis-
tance spanning generic arcs. and not using
Jongimdinal conrdina1es unless they're near
1he Equa1or.
. N?1e 1ha1 1be angle should be specified
m radian measure. defined as 2m radians per
d • rocbu:s • fJ
where Ois meosured In rochans,
with
I rodlon • 57 2957°
GMm CJn Ecrth radiu, or 6,378.131 m, how
much distonce Is spanned by 10~ <i! <lt'C'>
Arc• 10·13600· 11° • o.oozm1a'
..o.002nna0/57 2957 degl't~s p~r fOdlOn
• O000048481435 r<ldions
o • 6J78137m • o .oooo, a,a1<35
• 309 2 meters
Fia;nl'\' ?-12: Example eo.l~ulo.1ioa of 1he approx.i-
cn111e $url'll!cc dis.1ancc spaoocd by 11n a.re,
 Chapter 2: Data Models 33

Convertfng degrees to radians:
30.1487 degrees is
30.1487 I 57.2957795
= 0.52619 radians
Converting radians ta degrees:
l.284 radians is
1.284 x s1.29sn95
• 73.5678 degrees
FJaurt 2.. 13: Co1wcnion between rad.Utn 11nd
degree :angle unite.
the 360 degrees. or approximately
51.2957795 degrees per radian. Radian mea-
sures are ru.1 altemative to degrees, and scale
the rotation by the radius of the circle. You
may easily cooven bc(ween radjao and
degree uni1s (Figure 2-13). Many spread-
sheet. online, and app programs by default
use radian measure. and subs1iru1iug degrees
will lead 10 errors.
Also note that the arc angle between two
locations is ofte11 no, accurately de1ennined
by subtracting their geographic coordinates.
due to the convergence of longitudes. This
fommla is generally accurare for la1i1udinal
differences. bin only closely approximates
longitudinal distances near the Equator.
because the lo11gi1ude lines converge ac the
poles. As !hey converge. the difference in
longitude becomes less than the arc angle 9
i111be fom1ula.
Thegrenr circle dfsumce fommla should
be used for the most accurate estimates of
cbe surface distance oonvee111wo points
(Figure 2-14). Agrenr circle is defined by
any plane that i111ersec1s a globe and passes
through its center. All meridians are great
circles. while t.be Equator is the only line of
constant la1itude that is also a gre.at circle. A
great circle distance is cbe sborcest path on
the E.inh 's surface between two poims. and
long-distance airline routes .approximate
great circles. AS wicb all trigonometric for-
mulas. yon should know if your calculations
expect degree or radian measures as input,
and couven accordingly.

Great Circle Distance

Spherical opproximotk>n
Consid~r two poin1s on the Earth's S"Urfoce.
A with lotirude. longitude of ($, . J., ). end
B with lat,rude. longitude of ($ 8 • ,,8 )

The greot circle distoru::e between points on o sphere is given by the formula
d • r 2 sin 1J[(sin'<¥» • cos($, ) cos($0) s,n
2(~)]
'M'lere d ,s the shortest distance on the surface of the Earth from A to 8.
r Is the Earth's radius. opproxfmalely 6378 km, ond ~·¥
ore the cfrfference-s
betvl<?en point lotrtudes and longitudes. dNided by two.
As on example, the d1stonce between Paris. Fronce, and Seottte, USA. is:
Lolotude. longitude of Por,s. Fronce, 48 864716°. 2.349014°
Latitude. longitude of Seattle. USA • 47.655548°. - 122 JaJ20•
2
d , 6378·2 s1n 14!(s,n (0 604584))-cos(<8 8647J6)·cos(47 6555•8) sin'(62 36107)]
, 8.'043 6558km
Fla:utt 2· 14: ,Calculatiou of the _vcat circle distance bc-twcco poiuu:.
34 GIS Fundamentals

Three-Dimensional, Earth-Cen·
tered Coordinates
There is an al1ema1e. 1hree-di111ensional
(3·D) Canesian representation of coordi-
nates for locations. on or abo\'e Earth (Fig-
ure 2-15). This is commonly used in
geodesy. the scieace of1be Eanh's shape.
size, and ph)-sical dynamics d1at underpins
all coordinate measures. Geodesy is at !he
heart of map projections (Chapter 3) and sat-
ellite positioning (Chapter 5). fundamental y
building blocks of G!S.
The 3-D Canesian system typically
x
places the origin mearor at the utaS'S center of
the Earth. This Canesian system is aligned Soum Pole
with the Z axis through the geographic Nonh
IOngrtOOe, kltitudt from known 3-!> Cort~slen
Pole and !he X and Y axes forming a plane
on the Equator (F ig11re 2-l 6). The positive i~. 9;i • F ( Xc,,.Yp,Zo)
X·axis iu1ersec1s the ellipsoid where latitude 3 ·0 CortcllM from known IOll'l)(lt:. longttl.ld<
and longitude values are both zero, and !he ••. v•. z.. o o.,. e. >
positive Y-axis intersects the ellipsoid at a Fla:urt 2-16; Fonnulas ex.isl 10 eon,·e:11 bct\,-ecu
longitude of 90 aod latinide of O. known sehcrie:LI ;co , bic cootdu.l.a1cs (111.litudc
t1nd longitude on 11 $ 1eroid) :tml COTft:i])Olldiuj
Mathematical formulas allow us 10 cal- 3·0 CMc~an <: 10.,1·cs ($ce 11ppendl.'C. C).
culate any x. Y. and Zgiveu any latimde.
longintde. and Earth radii (Figure 2-16).
Each latitude/longinKlelradius coordinate in
1he geographic system corresponds to an
3-D Cartesian Coordinate System X-Y-2 triplet in 1he 3-D Canesiao coordinate
z system. T11ese fommlas are commonly used
by geodesists in the most precise surveys.
but are also embedded in many softwares
that conven between different versions of
y our coordinate data.
There are 1wo dilferelll se1s ,of equations
forconver1ing from geographic 'to J.D Car.
x 1esian coordinates. one assuming a spherical
~ origin.
X•Y•Z•O
Eanh. and a more accurate one assuming an
ellipsoidal Eanh. Ade1ailed discussion of
1hese is best leti for an ad,oancoo co,irse, so
fonnulas are uicluded in Appendix C for ref-
erence.

Geograph le and Magnetic North
There is often confusion be1ween Mng-
neiic North and Geographic North. Mag-
netic North and Geographic North do not
coincide (Figure 2· 17). Magnetic Nonl1is
the location towards which a compass
points. The Geographic North Pole is 1he
average nonhem location ofche Earth's axis
of rota1fon. If you were standhtg on 1he geo-
graphic North Pole with a compass. it \\,.ould
poinc approxi:macely in lhe direclion of1he
Bering S1rai1s. In addi1ion. Magne1ic North
"wanders" lhrough lime. by JOOs of kilome-
ters over che historical record. and has
recemly increased ics nue of shifc (Figure 2-
17).
Because Magnecic North and cbe geo-
graphic North Pole are noc in die same place.
a compass does not point towards Geo-
graphic Nonb when observed from mosc
Magnetic
North
Chapter 2: Data Models 35
places on Earth. The compass will usually
poinc ease or wesc of Geographic North.
defining an angular difference called the
magnetic de.clinariou. Oecli11ation varies
across ct,e globe. and also bas varied lhrough
cime as Maguecic Noni, wanders.
Our geographic daca are alruoscne,•er
referenced wilh respect co Magnetic North.
Because Magnetic North wanders. is in a
different direc.tionacross the globe relative
co constan, lines of latimde 3nd longirude.
aod can vary substantially due 10 local
anomalies. it has been used historically for
in.field navigatfon mlher 1han as a reference
against which coordi.nares are defined. Geo·
graphic North is used because ic is stable
cbrougb cime. predictable. can be reproduc-
ibly measured. and cied to crcller Eanh-
defiued conslants.
201z
Greenland
36 GIS Fundamentals

Note that our defmitioo of Geographic Object. Spotial doto.

North is the average northem location of the
Earth's axis of rotation. We say a\le.rage
because the Earth wobbles, or nutates. on ils
axis. This means the axis location varies
slightly, within a circle al>om 9 meters (30
fee.t) across, so Lhe northern pole location is
always wilhin this circle. The nutation has a
period of 433 days. with the pole remming
back to its original location over that lime.
Attribute Data and Types
Attribute data are used to record the
no,i.spatial cbaractcriscics of an cntiry. Anti·
butes. also called items or w,rlnbles. n1.c1y be
envisioned as a list of ch.'lracleristics that
describe feamres. Color. deptll. weight.
owner, vege1atio11 cype. or land use are
examples of variables that may appear as
attributes. Attributes record ,.,.Iues: for
example. a fire hydram may be colored red.
yellow. or orange., have I to 4 flanges. and a
pressure rating of any real number from Oto
12.000.
How anributes are associated wi1h spa·
tial feamres depends strongly on the data
model we choose.. and often differ by the
phenomena we represent. We often represent
attributes for con1inuous fcamres (tempera-
ture. average annual ra.infall) in a different
manner than discrete features (prope.rty par-
cels. ceU towers). Co11unon anribme storage
methods are provmded in the following sec-
tion on dala models, bul we will preview lhe
general outlines here.
While there are many ways to store auri-
bute data. two general conceprualizations are
most common. In the first. anributes are
often presenled in tables and arranged in
rows and colunms (Figure 2-18). Each row
corresponds to a spatial objec.1. and each col-
umn corresponds to an att:ribule. Tables are
often organized :u,d mauaged using a spe·
cialized compmer. progr.uu called a database
mru1agemeot system (DBMS. described
more fully in Chapter 8). Data are often
stored in a primary table that is closely
linked to the spatial coordinmes 1ha1 also
fite: hydront hydrants in o distric1
·~ .. l•-t-....
A"nbl.rte data·
properties o~ hydrants
ID Flo,iges Color Roting
~..:.
1 3 red high
z 3 red nigh
3 z green low
4 3 red m,d
- ~
- -
Flz urr 2-18: Attnl>utcs urc typic?IIY cn\isioned.
in a table. with object, ammgcd tn row1, and attn·
btLtcs aJiancd in colUllUU.
characterize feamres, witli ad<li1ional tables
that may be linked 10 this primary table. This
structure is common when we represent dis-
crete features.
Attributes for continuously changing
variables are often concep111ali2e<I and stored
more simply. as a collection of ~in~le values
assigned 10 regularly-spaced locattons. e.g.,
elevation mapped on a grid (Figure 2-19).
There ,nay not be a table associated with the
layer, bul if one exists. lhe table often con-
tains summary infonna1ion about the layer.
such as number of observations or average
value of the variable. rather 1han an explici1
linkage between a table entry and a specific
geographic location.
AHanributes can be categorized as
nominal. ordinal. or imervaVratio auributes.
Nomiunl auribute.s are variables that provide
descriptive infonnation about an object The
color is recorded for each hydraut in Figure
2- 18. Other examples of nominal data are
vegetation type, a ci1y nam~. the ?Wn~ of a
parcel, or soil series. There 1s no 1mphed
order. size. or quantitath1e information con-
1ained in nominal anribtUes.

Nominal attributes may also be images.
fdm clips. audio recordings. or other
descriptive infom1a1ion. for example. GIS
for real estate often have images of the
buildiugs as pan of the database. Image.
,,ideo. or sound recordings store<! as anri-
butes are sometimes referred to as "'8L08s'·
for binary large objeCfs.
01di1111/ amibures imply a ranking by
tlteir values. An ordinal attribute may be
descriptive. s11clt as high. mid. or low. or it
may be numeric; fore.'<ample. an erosion
class with values from I to 10. The order
refleclS only rnnk. and not S(ll!e. An ordinal
value of four has a higher rauk than two. but
we can't infer that the attribute value is twice
as large.
fmermllrario 11trrib111es are used for
numeric items where both rank orderand
absolute difference in magnitudes are repre·
sented, for ex:ample. the number of flanges
f la1.11~ 2-1.9: An eic.runple c:onlinuous wrfocc, a depiction of light inlcns-ity from .i,n elc,;.a1io11 ,~irfocc.
CkM-sl-y solarCUCfgy~0«1cd from the ,urface is «ti.mated across the landscape as II re;a.l (intcr\'al/nitio)
munbcr; and ttndcrs an impression of , urf:tc:c shape.
Chapter 2: Data Models 37
in the second column of Fig,.ire 2.18. These
data are often recorded as real numbers on a
linear scale. Area. length. w,eigltt. beiglll. or
depth are a few examples of attributes that
are represented by intervaVl'.8tio variables.
Items have a domain, a range of values
they may take. Colors might be restricted to
red. yellow. and green: cardinal direction to
north, south. east. or west: and size to aU
positive real muubers.
The anribute type and domain define the
kind of operations that may be appropriately
applied 10 1ba1 anribute. 11 ust,ally makes Lit-
1le sense 10 calculate the average value of a
nominal attribute. e.g .. the average name for
a set of counties oraverage colorof an
image. Mis-applying fimctioos merun for
intervaVrntio attributes to nominal orordinaJ
anributes is among the most couunon errors
in spatial dma analysis.
38 GIS Fundamentals
We may perfonn inappropriate calcula-
1ions on intervaVratio data. sometimes quite
sub1ly so. Consid<r a hig)lly accurn1e 1em-
perature measurement g.rid, with data save.d
10 1he neru:es1 0.0000000 I degrees. The
ma1bemarlcal mode. 1he mos1 freq11en1 value
in 1he data se-1. may not be informative
because high precision means 1ha1 al01os1 all
values have very low frequency. Most rem-
peratures may occur one or two times in the
da1a. e.g. 22.00000000 and 22.00000001
degrees are considered different. 11 may be
more appropriate to bin the data into 0.10-
degree imervals and 1hen calcula1e 1he mode.
One mus, bear in mind anribu1e da,a l)'J)e.
domain, and characteristics when manipulat-
ing spa1ial da1a.

Common Spatial Data Models
All spatial data models arc based on a
conceptualization. As an example, consider
a regional map that defines roads as line~.
We conceive of eacb road as• linear feature
that fits into a s-ni.111 number of categories.
These Jines oonuect cities and towns that are
shown as discrete points or polygons on the
map. Road propenies may include only the
rood type. e.g.. highway or local road. The
roads have a width represented by a line
symbol on the map: however. the scaled road
width may not represenl the tme road width.
All state highways are represented equally
although tliey may vary. Some may have
wide shoulders. others not. ordi,~ding barri-
ers of concre1e. versus a broad vegetated
median. but we may choose 10 omit this vari-
ation. fitting a ll highways inlo one class.
There are rwo main concepmalizations
used for digit.,! spatial data. The first defines
discrete objects using a wtc1ordma model.
This model uses discrete elements such as
points. lines. and polygons 10 represent the
geometry ofreal-world entities (Figure 2-20.
left).
Fam1 fields. roads, wetlands, cities. and
census tracts are exrunplesofentities tl>at are
often represeoted by discrete vector objects.
Points are oft.en used to define the Jocations
Vector
points
y •
•
• ••
line
area
x
Chapter 2: Data Models 39
of"small" objects sucb as wells. buildings.
or ponds. Liues may be used to represent lin-
ear objects, for example. rivers or ronds. or
to enclose polygons. which identify area
objects. Starting points and ending points for
a line are sometimes referred 10 as nodes.
while imennediate points in, a line are
referred 10 as ,-ertfces.
Vector objects are discrete. A forest may
share an edge with a pasture. and this bound-
ary is represented by lines. In truth., a forest
edge may grade into ame, of=s and
shntbs. then sbmbs and grass. then pure
grass: however. in the vector concepltializa-
tion. a line between two land cover types
will be drawn to indicate a discrete. abmpt
transition. Lines and po.ints .have coordinate
locations. but points have no dimension. and
lines 1ia,·c no dimension perpendicular to
their direction. Are.a features are defined by
a closed. conuee:,ted set of liues.
The second common conceprualization
ideutifies and represents grid cells fora
given region of interest. This concepmali:za·
tion employs a ro$1er data model (Figure 2-
20, righl). Raster cells are arraye.d in a row
and column panero to provi<le ,;w,iU-10-
wall" coverage ofa study region. Cell values
are used 10 represent the type or quaJi1y of
Raster
40 GIS Fundamentals
mapped variables.. Raster models are often
used wilh variables that may change contin-
uously across a region. Elevation. mean tem·
perature, slope, average rainfall, cumula1ive
ozone exposure. or soiJmoisture are exam·
pies of phenomena that are ofteu represeuted
as continuous fiel.ds. Raste.r representalions
are also sometimes used to represent discrete
fean,res. for example. class maps of vegeta-
tion or political units.
Data models are often imerchangeable
in that many phenomena may be represented
by many data models. For example. eleva-
tion may be represented as a raster surface
(continuous field) or as a series oflines rep-
resenting contou.r.s of equal elevation (dis.--
crete objects). Da.13 lllay be convened from
one model 10 ano1ber. for example. the loca-
tion of contour lines may be detennined by
evaluating the ras.,er surface. or a raster data
layer may be derived frolll a set of comour
lines. These conversions entail some costs
both computationally and perhaps in data
accuracy.
The decisiou 10 use eillier a raster or
vector lllodel oft~n depends on our concep-
n1alization of the objects and t.he most fre-
quent operations perfotllled. We think of
elevation as a continuous variable. and slope
is more easily detem1ined when elevation is
represen1ed in a raster data set. However.
discrete comours arc often the preferred for·
mat for printed ,naps. so the discrete concep-
tualization of a vec.tor data model may be
preferred in some cases. The best dam model
for a giveu application depends oo the most
common operations. the experiences and
views of the GIS users. the form of a,'llilable
data. and tbe influence of tbe data model on
data quality.
Other. less common data models are
sometimes used. A triangulated irregular
network (TIN) is one such model. employed
10 represent surfaces such as elevations.
through a combio.ation of point, line, and
are-a features. We will introduce and discuss
less common dam models later in tltis chap-
ter.
Vector Data Models
A ,iector data model uses se1s of coorcti-
nates and associated attribute da.ta to define
discrete object.s. Groups of coordinates
define ct1e location and boundaries of dis·
crete objects. and these coordinate data plus
their associated attributes are used to create
vector objects represeming tlte ,~al-world
entities (Figure 2-21). ln the most common
vector models. there is an attribute table
associated with each vector layer. and a sin-
gle row in the table correspondi11g to each
fe.ature in the data layer. These vector layers
are said 10 contain si11gle-partfea111res,
because there is a single geographic object
for each row in the table. with one to several
coluums in each row. All values in a coJwnn
have tlte same type. so for any given colunm.
all entries n1ight be ordinal. or interval ratio.
or a BLOB. or some otl,er defined type. An
identifier value. or ID. is typically included.
and 1his value is often unjque wi1llin the
lable. with an unrepeated value assigned for
each row and corresponding fearnre.
There are three basic types of vector
objects: poims. lines. and polygons (Figure
2-21). A point uses a single coordinate pair
10 represent the location of an e111ity that is
considered to have no dimens.ioo. Gas wells.
light poles. accident location. and survey
points are examples of entities often repre·
sented as point objects. Some of these have
real physical dimension. but for 1he purposes
oftbe GIS users. they may be represented as
poillls. In effect this means 1he size or
dimension of the entity is not iu>ponant.
only its loca1fon..
Anribute data are anacbed 10 each point.
and 1hese attribute data record tbe im1>0nant
non.spatial characteristics of the point enti-
ties (Fig\lte 2-21. top). When usrug apoint 10
represent a light pole. important attribute
infomiation might be the height of the pole,
1he type ofligbt and power souwe. aud the
last date tile pole was serviced.
Linear features are represenled as lines
in vector data lllodels (Figure 2··21. mid).
Lines are most often represented as an
ordered set of coordinate pairs. Each line is
 Chapter 2: Data Models 41

Points

•
4
•
I
•
ID Tower Nome
1
"""' 1010 ...
Heinh1 Formo1

•2
J
'3
•;
VNOU
m
WO. .
BBC
.., .......
55.S
,eo.o
O'A"'

l.12.J
"""" 1V
CJ0,.$<41

Lines

4 7 10 Name
6 1
2 '""'"'l>n>nch"""'
8 J
• """~""'
Stq>t F'O"tt

•'
Md1 8t'ool,-
2 M(tdMCtl-Sromt' Crttk
1 LOl"lf.R A.IT'1

• ......,. """""
Polygons
10
' _... ld1M Nome
HcdSOl'I Holl
Floors
M
R00f Type
r1cn. u:cieo 10,
2
3
•
•'
-
G.,lforc Tc,l'flOtoqy BIUcJ

"""'Sldo'
h\fnd SC.<tnc.n SdQ.
Aomn,.rn;'hOt'I
o~·c s~,, ~"''r
''•••
''
10
1, .0
•••
tw!"'<d 9(Jl, ·~,
llo'I. ~ , r l
flo1w $Nlltd IQ!'
pr!(lled 12/12, Tilt
i;t!Ct\td 6/JZ, meic
IIO'I. Relcd 10'

•'
•
Grc,,tl!clrn Towtr
61(11....,.•.,, S<.•nc.u &:-
10

••
prlched 9/J?, "lC
pr!c.llc!S i2/12. 111c

Fl.;,urt- 2~21: An u21i1p!c of tbc m<W! c01ruuon ,·ccror d.,tn model t1mct\lJ'Cs. Cicogr.,piUc fe:itutts cowist of
pom1$. Lines. orpolygo1n. "ilh ucb fe11.t\lf'C corre,]>Ooding to 3 row in" table with OJI idcnlificr (ID) and II set
of anribi.11« amycd w colulUllS.

made up of Line segments that nu, between
adjacenl coordinates in the ordered set.
Attribu1es in a table correspond to line seg-
ment Cul'\'Cd linear emities are most often
represented a:s a collection of short, straight.
line segments, although cun·ed lines are at
times represemed by a nia1hema1ical equa-
tion de.scribing a geometric shape. The line
starting and ending points are often called
nodes. and i,nenuediate points used 10 repre-
sent the li_ne shape are called vertices.
Area entities are most often represented
by dosed polygons (Figure 2·21. bonom).
These polygons are fonned by a set of con·
nected lines. either one line with an ending
point that connects back to tlte starting point.
or as a sci of lines corutected stan-10-end.
Polygons have an interior region and may
entirely enclose other poly~ns in this
regjotL Polygons may be adjacem to other
polygons and thus share "bordering.. or
"edge.. ltnes with otlter polygons. Allribute
data such as area. perimeter. land cover 1ype.
or coumy name may be linked to each poly-
gon.
42 GIS Fundamentals
Nole that there is no uniformly superior
way to represent feacures-. and we may repre·
sent tbe same feattures as points. lines. or
polygons (Figure 2-22). Some feature types
may appear to be more ''naturally.. repre-
sented one way: manhole covers as points.
roads as lines, and parks as polygons. How-
ever, in a very decailed data set. the manhole
covers may be rt'Presented as circles. and
both edges of the roads may be drawn and
the roads represented as polygons. The best
representation depends on the detail. accu-
racy. and intended use of 1he data set.
Vector layers sometimes have a many-
to-one relationship between geographic fea-
tures and table rows (figure 2-23). defining
,mtlti·partfeauo-es. l.n these instances. many
Multiple Representations:
Buildings as point. line. or
area features in
o doto layer
Fia11N' 2. 22: Tilc snmc o\,jcc.l• sully be rcprcs.c11, tcd by poir1ts, lioc$, or polygo113. depending ou,our ,icw of
and intended use fe>r tbe da.1.1.
spatially distinct features are matched with a
row. and the row attributes apply to all the
distinct fearures. This is common when rep-
resenting islands, groups of buildings. or
other clusters of features that make up a per·
ceived whole thing. These muhi -1>0rt fea-
tures beuer represent our percep,lions of
entities in some contexts.
Multi-part feanrres may also be used for
large data sets. for example. when millions
orpoim obsel'\'ations are collected a\ltomati-
cally with laser scanners. Tables: are often
slower to process than point geographies.
and so reducing the table size by grouping
points into muhi·part featwes may shorten
many operations.
points
• •
•
•
• •
•
•
oreos
 Chapter 2: Data Models 43

Multi-port Features
2

ID Count y Area
,-0 Bristol 73.5
I Newport 286.5
2 Providence 1,121.9
3 Kent 455.6
4 Washington 912.3

Single -port Feat ures

ID Couniy Area
O Bristol 73.5
1 Newport 243.5
2 ' Newporl 14.8
1 3 Newport 24.8
4 Providence 1, 121.9
-
5 Kent 912.3
6 Washingt on 884.7
-
7 I Washington 27.6
-

f la:w·" 2-23: Eluunplc of uiulti-pMt and sil1Jlc-pat1 fcarutrt. H«c. cow11ics for Rhode ls.l:tud. a suite lU
dte E11$1cnt U .S.A., 11rc shown vtitli one table cuJry f0r acb c()W1l>' (top), with n1uhi p.1r1 fe111urcs in a
0

fayer, aud witll oac t2blc Clltl}' for c.1cb distllict polygon {bottom), with only s:inglc~pnrt fcati.ares in the
layer. Nore that c.alcuU11ioos. aoal.)"sis. and intcrprccation inay dilfcr for multi-part v.s. single-part fca -
"""-
44 GIS Fundamentals
Care is warranted when convening
multi-pan feamres 10 single-pan feamres.
The most common problems arise for aggre-
gate variables in polygon layers. such as
total conn1s. For example. population data
are often delivered by census areas such as
states. Many slates, e.g.• Hawaii, have sev-
eral pans and are represented by a mul1i-pan
shape. The population is associated with tile
aggregated set of polygons comprising the
state (Figure 2-24). When convened to sin·
gle-pan shapes. tile anribuics are often cop-
ied for each component polygon. ln our
example. all single-pan polygons will be
assigned the anribute values for the mulli-
part feature. in effec1repeari.ng counts for
each part. Subsequent aggregation or calcu-
lation across the population column may
result in error.
Attributes for convened shapes may be
corrected. If com!)onent data are available.
they can be assigned to each of the single·
part features. If not. then some weighting
scheme may be available. for example, if
!here is a correla1ion be1ween area and
count. Until they are reviewed and appropri·
ately adjusted. single-part attributes deri,•ed
from muhi-part fea tures should be used with
caution.
- ~ ID State populot.
" lw I 231 Hawaii 11.419.461
(,
~(j)
,P~
LJ
fi&m~ l-24: Multi-g>nr1 to siogle·p:u1 c<:11\'crtiou m~ lc~d 10 cn'Qrs in 1tsbs,cquent 3:nal)'$,li bcct1Alk :ittributcs
may be copied from tbc origin:1.L multi.part chas-1,:r (left). to each siui.le·~ compooe111 (ri~1)~Or:mity.
swm. or- other dr:11\~ec:1 ,·nri.t1blcs should lrcqUC'ody be rt-cakuUl1r:d (or smgk-pan fr:a11ns. bu1-0ftcu arc ooc.
l'Ciuhing i.n m'OT$.
Polygon Inclusion s and Bound·
ary Ge nera lization
Vector data frequently exhibit two char-
acteristics: polygon inclusions and boundary
genemliza1ion. These chamcleristics arc off.
ignored. but may affect the use of vec1or
dat.a. These concepts must be understood.
their presence evaluated, and effects
weighed in the use of vector data sets.
Polygou iuclusiou.s are areas in a poly-
gon that are differe111 from o,e rest of o,e
polygon. but stiU part ofit. lnelusions occur
bec.ause we typically assume an area repre-
semed by a polygon is homogeneous. bu1
tllis is often mnr11c. as illustrated in Figure 2-
25. The figure shows a vector polygon layer
representing raised landscaping beds (o).
The general anribu1es for the po lygon may
be coded: for example. the surface type may
be recorded as cedar mulch. The area noted
in Figure 2~25b shows a walkway 1ha1 is an
inclusion in a raised bed. This walkway bas
a concrete surface. Hence, this walkway is
au unresolved inclusion within lite polygon.
r-~ ID State popv!at
1 Hawaii 1.419,461
QJ~ 2 Howal, 1.419 461
3 Howoi1 1.419.461
~ 4 HOWOII 1.419.461
5 Howoli 1.419,461
d 6 Howou 1,419.461
7 Hawaii 1.419.461
 Chapter 2: Data Models 45

fle,u rt 2..15: Ex:amplcs of p<!lygon inchtti<nli ($idct\•t1.lk inclu.sio11 it! Bowel' bed sltO\\'tl in O and b), :and
lxn• id.,~· g1mcnliz,tic:m (C) in .i vcclor cbtn model. TI,c,e appro,ximatio1u typicnllf oc:cur 95 .1 conicqucute
ofadophng ~ \""'°' r<:presentatioo. aod their irup~ts mmi be co1uidcted wbc:n u.smg v«t<lf data.

One solu1tioo creates a polygon for each
inclusion. This often is 001 done because ii
may take 100 much effon 10 ideniify and col-
lec,t the boundary location of each inclusion,
and 1here rypically is some lower limit or
m inimum mapping uuit. on the size of
objects we care to record in our data. lnclu·
sions are preseni in some fonn in many poly-
gon d.11a !aye!$.
Botmdal), geuemli:atfrm is the incom·
ple1e represeutation of boundary locations.
This problem stems from the typic.al way we
represem linear and area fearu.res in vector
data sets. As sllow11 in Figure 2-25c. poly-
gon boundaries are represented as a set of
connected s1raigh1-line segmenls. The seg-
menrs are a means to uace the boundaries
separaling different area features. for curved
lines. these s1raigh1 line seg,.uenis may be
viewed as a sampling of1be 1me curve. and
there is typically some deviation of the line
seg,uen1 from ,he ·~n,e·•curved boundary.
The amount of generalization depends on
many factors, and should be so small as to be
u11imponao1 for any inteude-d use oflhe spa-
tial cL1ta. However, since many data sets may
have unforeseen uses or may be obtained
from a 1hird pany. 1he boundary generaliza-
tion should be recognized and evalua1ed rel-
ative to the specific requirements of any
gil'eu spatial analysis. There are additional
fomis of generalizaiioo in spatial data. and
these are described more thoroughly in
Chapter 4.
46 GIS Fundamentals
Vector Topology
Vector data often contain vec10,· 1opol·
ogy, enforcing strict co!lllectivity and record-
ing adjacency, and planarity. Early systems
employed a spaghetti data Jl\Odel (Figure 2·
260). iu \\1lich Hoes m.ay not intersect when
they should. and may overlap without con-
necting. The spag;heni model severely ~mits
spatial data a113Jysis and is linle used excep,
for veiy basic dat.a entry or translation.
Topological models (Figure 2·26b) create an
intersection and place a node at each line
crossing. record connectivity and adjacency.
and maintain informstion on the relation-
ships between and among poims. lines. and
polygons in spatial data. This grea1ly
improves the speed. accuracy, and utility of
many spaiial data operations.
Topological properties are conserved
when converting ,•ee1or data among com·
man coordinate systems. a common practice
in GlS analysis (described in Chapter 3).
Polygon adjacency is an example of a topo-
logically invariant propeny. because the list
of neighbors for any given polygon does not
change during goome1ric stretching or bend·
ing (Figure 2-26. band c). These relation-
ships may be recorded separately from the
coordinate data
a) spaghetti b) topological
L6
L6
L4
L3
Topological vector models may vary,
and enforce particular 1ypes of t<>pological
relationships. Pln11m· 1opology requires that
aH features occur on a two-dimensional sur-
face. There can be no overlaps among lines
or polygons in tbe same layer (Figure 2-27).
When planar topology is enforced, lines may
1101 cross over or under 01her lines. At each
line crossing there must be an intersection.
The left side of Figure 2·27 shows non·
planar graphs. In the ,op left figure. four line
segmen1s coincide. At some loca1ions the
Jines intersec1 at a node. shown as white-
filled circles. bm at some locations a line
passes over or under another line segment.
These lines are nonplanar. The top right of
Figure 2-27 shows planar topology enforced
for these same four line segments. Nodes are
found al eac.h line crossing.
Polygons can also be non-planar. as
shown atthe bottom left of Figure 2-27. 1\vo
polygons overlap slightly at an edge. This
may be due to an error: for exan,pie. the two
polygons share a boundary but bave been
recorded willl an overlap. 01 lllete may be
two areas that overL'1p in some way. Iftop.o-.
logical planarity is enforced. these two poly-
gons must be resolved into three separate,
non-overlapping polygons. Nodes ate placed
at the intersections of the polygon boundar-
ies (lower right. Fig,ire 2-27).
c) topological -
warped
L6
1
Pl
P2 1'3
2

Nonplanar
Line
11ode
crossed _
tines
I
Polygon
overlop 2 3
area
fiaul'(' 2-27: Nonpliwar aod plallllT topology i.n linu "od polygons.
There are. additional top-01ogic.a1 con.
stmc1s besides planari1y tlm1 may be speci-
fied. For example. polygons may be
exhaustive, in that 1here are no gaps. boles.
or ..islands" allowed. Line direclion may be
recorded. so 1hat a "from" and 1'10" node are
identified in each line. Directionality aids
the repre.sentation of river or street networks.
where there may be a namrnl Oow direction.
There is no w1iform set of lopological
relationships lhat are included in all 1opolog-
ical data mod.els. Different vendors have
incoiporated different topological inforrna-
1ion in their data stmctures. Planar topology
is often included. as are representations of
tu/joce11cy (which polygons are next to
which) and com1ecffriry (which lines con·
nect to which).
Some GLS software create and maintain
detailed topological relationships in lheir
data. This results in more complex and per-
haps larger data slmcn1res. bul access is
often faster. and topology provides more
Chapter 2: Data Models 47
Planar
node
consistem. '"cleaner'' data. 01her systems
maintain little topologkaJ informn1ion in the
da1a strucrures. but compute and ac, upon
topology as needed during specific process-
mg.
Topology may also be specified be1ween
layers. because we may wish to enfore-e spa·
tial rela1ionsbips between eo1i1ies that are
s1ored separately. As an example. consider a
data layer !lull stores property Lines (cadas-
iral data). and a housing data layer that
s1ores building footprints (Figure 2-28).
Rules may be specified that prevent poly-
gons in the housing data laycer from crossing
property lines in the cadastral da1a layer.
This would indicate a building that crosses a
property line. Most such ins1ances occur as a
re.sull of small errors indata entry or mis,
alignment among data layer$. Topological
restrictions between two data layers avoid
these inconsistencies. E.xceptions may be
granted in those few cases when a building
truly does cross property lines.
48 GIS Fundamentals
[ ] housing data foyer
/\/ properiy fine data toyer
•
dlsollowed
D Point topology is often quite simple.
OYC::r1op
Figurr- 2-28: Topo.logic:ll ni.let 111..,y be cuforocd
tteroH <bl.A lnycl"l. Mete, rules Ul~)' be , pecifo:d to
a,·oid ow:rbp be:n,;-cc:o objects in di.ffcrc1u laycrs,
There ore mo:ny other types of topologi·
cal constraints that may be enfotted. bot11
wi1hin and between layers. Dangles, lines
that do not connect to other lines. may be
proscri~ed, or limited 10 b¢ gm1cr or less
than some 1hresho ld length. Lines and points
may be required to coincide. for example,
water pumps as p,oims in one data layer and
water pipes as lines in another. or lines in
separate layers may be required 10 intersect
or be coincident. While these topological
rules add complexity to vector data sets. they
may also improve the logical consistency
and value of these data.
Topological vector models often use
codes and tables ro record topology. As
described above. 11odes are the staning and
ending points oflines. Each node and line is
given a unique identifier. Sequences of
nodes and Lines are recorde<I as a list of idea·
tifiers. and point. line, and polygon topology
recorded in a set of tables. The vector fea-
tures and tables in Figure 2·29 illusrnue one
form of this topological coding.
Many GIS software systems are written
such tlmt the topological coding is not visi-
ble to users, nor directly accessible by them.
Tools are provide,d to ensure the topology is
create<I and maintaine<I. that is, there may be
directives that require that polygons in two
layers do not overlap, or to ensure planarity
for all line crossings. However. lhe topologi·
cal tables these commands build are often
guile large. complex. and linked! in an
obscure way. and tlterefore bidden from
users.
Points are typically independenr of each
other, so they may be recorded as individual
identifiers. perhaps with coorrunates
included. and in 110 JX1nicular order (Figure
2-29. top).
Line topology typically includes sub-
stantial strucrure and identifies 211 a mioi-
mwn the beginning and ending points of
each line (Figure 2·29. middle). Topology
may be organized in tables, in<l\lding line
identifiers, starting nodes. and e:nding nodes
for lines. Lines may be assignedl a direction.
and the polygons to the left and right of the
lines recorded.
Polygon topology may also be defined
by tables (Figure 2-29, bottom). The tables
may record the polygon identifiers and the
ordered list of connected lines th.at define the
polygon.The lines for a polygon form a
closed loop. so the staning node oftbe first
line in the list also serves as the ending node
for the last line in the list.
Topological models greatly enhance
many vector operations. Adjacency analy-
ses are reduced to a "table look·up'', a quick
and easy operation in mos, software sys-
tems. Assm11e the city is represente<I as a
single polygon, and we seek all :neighboring
polygons. Adjacency analysis reduces to I)
scanning the polygon 1opology table 10 find
the city polygon and reading tl1e list of lines
that bound the polygon. and 2) scan:ning this
list of lines. accumulating a list ofall left and
right polygons. Polygons adjarent to the city
may be identified from this list. List searches
on 1opological tables are typically much
faster llt.1n searches involving coordinate
data.
Topological data models olten have an
advantage of smaller file sizes, targely
because coordinate data are recorded once.
For example, a nontopological approoch
 Chapter 2: Data Models 49

Features Index and Topology Tables

Points •a "R Pol!J! IQ I!. :.'.

Q 32.7 •S.6
•r R 76.l 1,.s
•s s 22.1 HU

'
Line.s " '
.. Line Begin End Left Rlghf
•• • .m Jl9ll ll2la. ~ =
• ,,
• II l
• •2 ...
...
A

" 19
12
52
...
2 3 8
A
A

13
Polygons Polygon
14
ll! Llnll

!3 • A
8
11.12.52.53.5-'
52.53.19.15.1.A.13
19

f i;,u.rt- 2· 29: An example of ,,:,:tor feo.lUR$ and cotTCsponding topolo,&y l$blc$. lnfo11J1J1tion ou 1hc
adJaccucy. coonccth·icy. and otbc=r$fN!tial rclatiousbip, may be stored 111 topology tables. and joined
10 fc:111.l«s by Uldiecs, bC1't' rcprct.en1cd by ,-alues i.u the ID columns..

often stores polygon boundaries twice. Lines
52 and 53 a11he bouom of Figure 2-29 will
be recorded for both polygon A and polygon
B. Long. complex boundaries in polygon
data sets may double their size. Tllis
incre.ases both storage requirements and pro-
cessing.
There are limitations and disadvantages
to topological vector models. First. there are
computational costs in defining the topologi-
cal stmcrure of a vector data layer. Software
must detemline the connectivity and adja·
cency inforn'8tion. assign codes. and build
the topological tables. Computational costs
are typically quile modest with current com·
puwr technologies.
Second, che data must be very "clean; •
in that all lines must begin and end with a
node. all lines must connect correctly. and all
polygons must be closed. Unconnected lines
or unclosed polygons will cause errors
during analyses. Significant human effort
may be required 10 ensure clean vector data
because each line and polygon must be
checked. Software may help by nagging or
fixing ''dangling" nodes that do not connect
10 other nodes. and by a111ous11ically idemi-
fying all polygons. Each dangling node and
polygon may then be checked, and edi1ed as
needed to correct errors.
Limitations and 1he extra editing are far
outweighed by the gains in efficiency and
analytical capabilities provided by topologi-
cal vector models. Mauy cumnl vector GIS
packages use topological vector models in
some fonu.
50 GIS Fundamentals

Vector Features, Tables, and
Structures
As described-earlier. geographic fearures
are associated wirb oonspa1ial attributes in
vector models: tables are used to organize
the anribu1es. tn most GIS software, we can
most easily view 1be tables and a graphic
represe.nration ofthe spatial data as a linked
table and digital map (Figure 2-30. top).
Most GIS employ underlying file stmc-
tures 10 organi2e components of the spatial
data. An e.xample organization is shown in
the bonom half of Figure 2-30, whe.re the
topological elements are recorded in a linked
set of tables. in tltis example one for each of
the polygons. lines. and nodes and vertices.
Most G!S maintain the spatial and topologi-
cal data as a single or cluster of linked files.
This internal file stmcmre is often insula1ed
from direct manipulation by the GJS user,
but underlies nearly all 5Pa1ial data manipu-
lations. A user may directly edit or otherwise
manipulate table values, usually- with the
exception oflhe ID. and the underlying
topology and coordinate data a.re accessed
via requests to display. change, or analyze
the spatial data components. Dau layers
may also indude additional infonnation (not
shown) on the origin, region CO\'·ered. date of
creation. edit history. coordinate st1te111, or
other charac1eristics of a data se·1.
Note that 001 all GJS store coordinate
and topological data i11 no1Habnlar file
struc.ture-s. Coordinates. points. lines~poly-
gons. and other composite features may be
siore<I in tables similar 10 anribntc tables. It
is premarure 10 discuss the detaiIs of these
spatially euabled databases. because they
are based on something called a relatio11al
data model, described in detail i11 Chapter S.
Faster computers suppon th.is generally
more flexible approach. allowing simpler
and more transparent access across different
types of GJS software.

Geogrophic Deprction
User's View
Attribute Tobie
&\ I It>
t .
.....
16.8
I 2 ~ 2 little 22.2
3 m,d tM_
,~, 103 4
''"' 20.7

2
4 3

107
"--- -·
108
on Ur.cs
l 101.J0.1_--._
\'-· 2
3
t02, t09, ..
103, l04, ...
104, t07,...
,-~.
4

Topology &
Coordinate
Structures
Hidden from -
N&V

.,,.
21

..
T,P<

'
•
•
"
x
12'4.7
2022
16.3
u,.,
..
y
~~
1009
J5.5
ll.2
/r~;
'
l . ::
J02:
Nodes & Yer-Tied
!IS, 47, 48, 49, 50, ·-
7J, 72, 73, T~ . 1,, ·-
35. 21. 2Z. 23, 24, _
9<. 79.60,8l,8Z,_
- ·----· - ·-..--..•. __
User's View \ - - _ , .-
//
·-
Fi.gun 2.JO: Fc.;rnuu in :i tOPol~c::11 tb111 l:iyc~ 1ypic:ally b.:i,•c ll 011c,to--o1!.c: rcltl1i~nsh!J! Wi)h ctllricll iu 1111
associ.ilc:d :ittribl.tc: tnble, TI>c: nttnbute t3blc typ1caUy ~nlams n coluuw ",th 11 1,1mquc: ,dc:1111.fic~. Of 10. for
each fea~ . Topology :tnd coordinate da~ are ofi~o luddc:n &-o.ru th~ user. bu1 lu1ked.10 dt< ottnbu1e lf!d
j'c:Of.tl'lpbic: fc:irut:'C's tbr<)t1aJ1 poimcn al'ld mdc:x \'ftn.11blc:s. ducnbed m l11c: Da!11 and file: Slrtlc:IUl'C"s srt1100.
fatcr in 1bl$ ch11pi:c:r.

Raster Data Models
Mo dels an d Cells
Rasrnrdma 111odelsdefine !he world as a
regular se1 of cells in a grid ~nem (Figure
2-31). TypicaJly. these cells are square and
evenly s~ced in !he Xand Ydirections. The
phenomena or entities of imerest are repre-
semed by attribute values associated with
each ceU loca1ion.
Raster dat.a models are 1he natural
means to represent 11continuous·· spatial fe.a.
n,res or phenomena. Elevation. precipita-
tion. slope. and pollutant concemration are
examples of continuous spatial variables.
These variables cbarac1eris1ically show sig-
nificant changes in value over broad are.as.
The gradients can be quite sleep (e.g.. al
cliffs). geuile (long. sloping ridges). or qui1e
variable (rolling hills). Raster data models
depict these gradients by changes in !he val-
ues associated with each cell.
Raster data sets have a cell di111e,1slo11,
defining dte edge length for each square cell
(Figure 2-31). For example. 1he cell dimen-
sion may be specified as a square 30 meters
on each side. The cells are usually orien1ed
parallel 10 the x and Ydirec1ions. and lhe
coordin.1tes of a corner location are speci·
fied.
y l11e cell dimension also affecis 11te spa-
I cell
. dimension
\..,coord,notes of lower-left cell
x desired accuracy and precision for lhe daia
Figure 2..31: l:mport::uu ddi11illg chm-:.c1c:ris1ics of
II rnstcr~tn mode),
Chapter 2: Data Models 51
When 11te cells are squru-e and aligned
\\~th the c.oordi1mte axes. the calculation of a
cell loca1ion is a simple process of coumiug
and mulliplica1ion. A ccll loca1ion may be
calculated from the cell size. k'flown comer
coordinates. and c.el.l row and cohuun nwn-
ber. For example. if we know the lower-left
cell coorditmle. all other cell coordinates
may be deiennined by !he formulas:
N.,.11 • N,ow-1<n • row • cell size (2 2)
E,.,1• E1ow.1en • column • cell size (2.3)
where N is 1be coordina1e in, 1be nonh direc-
1ion (y). E is 1he coordinate ;n <he east direc-
tion (x). and the row and column are counted
stnning wilh 2ero from the tower left cell.
There is often a trade-off between spa.
1ial detail and da1a \'Olume in easier da1a se1s.
The number of cells needed 10 cover a given
area increases four times when the cell size
is cu1 in half (Figure 2·32). Smaller cells
provide greater spatial detail. but a11be cos,
of larger data sels.
1ial precision of the data set~ and hence posi-
tional accuracy. The cell coordinate is
usually defined a1 a poio1 in lhe center of1be
cell. The coordinate applies to tbe entire area
covered by the cell. Positional accuracy is
1ypically expec<ed 10 be uo bener 1han
approximately one-half lhe cell size. No
matter the true locatfon of a fe.ature. coordi·
na1es are lrullca1ed or rounded up 10 <be
nearest cell center coordinate. Thus. 1be cell
size should be no more tharu twice the
layer represented in the ras,er. and often i1 is
specified to be smaller.
Each raster cell represe111s a given area
on the ground and is assigned a value 1.ha1
52 GIS Fundamentals

100 meter. 4 cells 50 meter. 16 cells 25 meter. 64 cells

a) b} c)
Fiaun.• 2.J2: Tbc number ofcclb in a 11l$'.lcr dn.1a set dc:peod3 on 1hc cell ~zc. F«ll' a gi\'Cll lll'Cll. a lioear
d«rease in cell size: caus« an cxpoocuti.al incrcas<c i:o cell 11uruber. e.g .. ba.hing tbe «U size: c:.auses a
four fold increase-in cell number.

may be considered 10 apply to the entire cell.
If the variable is unifom, across the raster
cell, the value will be correct O\'er the cell.
However. under most conditions there is
within·cell varicniou. and 1lle raster cell
value represe.nts the average. central. or most
common value found in the cell. Consider a
raster data set representing average weekly
income with a eel.I dimension tlmt is 300
meters (980 feel) on a side. Further suppose
that there is a raster cell witl, a value of 71 O
pesos. The entire 300 by 300 meters area is
considered 10 have this value of710 pesos
per week. There may be many households
within the raster cell that do not earn exactly
7 10 pesos per week. Howe\'er. the 7 10 pesos
may be the average. the highest point. or
some-other representative \'alue for 1he area
covered by the ce·ll. While raster cells often
represent the average or the value measured
at the center of the cell. tltey may also repre-
sent tl1e median, maximum. oranothe.r statis-
tic for the cell area.
A raster data model may also be used to
represent discrete data (Figure 2.-33). for
example. to repre.sent land cover in an area.
Raster cells typically hold numeric or single-
letter alphabetic characters. A coding
scheme defines what land cover type the dis-
crete values signify. Each code may be
found at many raster cells.
Raster cell values may be assigned and
interpreted in a1 least seven ditferem ,vays
(Table 2-1). We have described three: a ras-
ter cell as a point physical value (elevation).
as a statistical value (average income). and
as discrete data (L1nd cover). Raster values
may also be used to represent points and
•• • o r
'
,, • • ., • •
• • • •, ' ' , • • ., • •
• • • ' ' , • • .,• • •
• • •t r '' '' ,, • • ., • •
•• •' •• • •
• • -• • .
•h h' ht ''h h' •'h ' • h0 .,h •h •h
f
f

An alternati\'e interprelation of the ras-

ter cell applies !be value to !be central point , ' , u •• • ., • a h

' ' r u u •• •• •a .,., •• •a

f u u u
of the cell. Consider a raster grid comaining f
elevation values. <:ells may be specified as ' ' r • • • ., • •
I f f
200 meters square. and an elevation value f f f f
'
assigned to each square. A cell with a value o • agriculture u • developed
of S.000 meters (26.200 feet) may be t = fores1 r • ,rver
assumed to have chat value at the center of h • highways
the cell. but tltis value will nor be assumed to flgurt 2...33: Oi&ttctc or catc;oric:al data may
apply to the entire cell. be rcprcscntcd by codes in :l 11\ltcrdtlt:l b>'tt.
 Chapter 2: Data Models 53

Table Z-1: Types of data represented by raster cell values.

Data Type Description Example

pOintlO atpha.oumerfc 10 of closest point hoSpilal

one o atpha-t1umetlc 10 01 Closest line neares1 road

cootlguous alpha-numeric 10 for dominant region state

region 10

Class cocJe alpha.numeric code tor general class vegetalion type

tabte ID l'V.Jmerlc position in a table row

physical anabg numeric va!Ue represenUng surface value e1eva11on
siaUstfcat vam numericvalue from a statJstical tuncilon populatlon
density

lines. as the l:Os of lines or points that occur
closest to the cell center.
Point and! line assigmnMt to raster cells
may be complicated when there are muJtiple
features within a single cell. For example.
cell vah.1e ass ig:mneot is straightforward
when there is. only one light pole in a cell
(Figt~e 2-34, near A). When there are multi-
ple poles in a single cell 1here is some ambi-
guity. or generalization in lhe assignment
(Figure 2-34. near B). One common solution
represents one feature from the group. and
retains infom,ation on the auributes and
characteristics of that feature. This entails
some data loss. Another sol11tion is 10 reduce
lhe raster cell size so that there are no multi·
pie fean~s in a cell. This may result in
impractically large data se1s. More complex
schemes may record muhiple instances of
features in a cell, but tbese 1hen may slow
access or otherwise decrease the mility ll1a1
comes from t'.he simple rasrer stmcture.
Similar problems may occtir when there
are multiple line segments within a raster
butes must be assigned (Fig1lte 2-34 C).
Since attributes are assigned by cells. some
pr~edctice 1m1s1 be es1ablis.bed. wi!h 011e
line assigned a higher priority.
Rasier cell assignment also may be com-
plicated when representing what we rypi-
cally think of as discrete, unifonn areas.
Consider the area in Figure 2-35. We wish to
represent a,is area \\i lh a raster data layer.
with cells assigned to one of two class codes.
.A • /
. .
, B \ l
. '
(
.
.
J

I
- \
'
)~

cell, for example., when linear features such

as roads are represented in a raster data set. f'iaurt 2.J.& : R.t, lcr cell AHignmcnt rcq\1ires ckci·
When ~vo or more roads meet. they will do sious wbc:'fl mulripk objc,ccs occur io the same
so within a raster cell, and some set of attri- cdl.
54 GIS Fundamentals
flgu i? 2..35! RMl~r cdl iwitJ?nct11 with l'l1i.i1'.cd
lancbc.:ipci. Upln11>d 1trc:ts nrc hgli.1cr gi'C')·t .
water the darkest grc)'I,
one e.ac.h for land or water. Water bodies
appear as darker areas in 1be image. and 1he
ras1er grid is sho"" overlain. Cells may con-
tain subs1an1ial areas of both land and water.
and the proportion of each class may span
from zero 10 100 percent Some cells are
purely one class a od the assignment is un~m-
big11ous: for example. the cell labelled Am
the Figure 2-35 contains only land. 0 1bers
are ambiguous, such as cell B (water) or O
(land). Some are nearly equal in !heir pro-
portion ofland and wa1er. as in cell c.
One common method to assign classes
for mixed cells is called ""faner-iake-all'",
The cell is assigned the class of1be larges,
area type. Cells A. C, and DwouId be
assigned 1he land class. cell e 1he wa1er
class. Ano1her op1ion applies preference in
cell assignment. If any of an •·important'"
1ype is found. the11 the cell is as.signed tl1a1
value. regardless ,of 1he propomon. If we
spec.ify a prefere11ce for water, then ~ lls 6.
c. and Din Figure 2-35 would be assigned
1he water 1ype. and cell A 1he land 1ype.
Regardless of the assismment method
used. Figure 2-35 illUSlralCS IWO pheUOl(lena
when discrete obJects are represented usmg a
raster da1a model. First. some areas thnl are
not the assigned class are included in some
raster cells. These "i.nclusions" are inevi1:a-
ble because cells must be assign.ed to a dis-
cre1e class. 1he cell boundaries are rigidly
placed. and the class boundaries on the
ground rarely line up \\;th the cell boundar-
ies. Some mixed cells occur III nearly all ras-
ter layers. The GIS user m_us1acknowledge
1hese inclusions. and consider their impact
on the inieuded spa1ial analyses.
Second, differences in class assignment
rules may substantially aJ1er tlie dalB layer.
as shown in our simple example-. In more
complex landscape.s. there will be-more
potential cell types. which may increase the
assig,unem seosi1ivi1y. Decreasing the raster
cell size reduces the significance of classes
in the assignment rule, bul at the cost of
increased data volumes.
Raster Features and Attr ibute
Tables
Ras1er layers may also lswe associated
at1ribu1e tables. This is most common when
nominal data are represented. bu1may also
be used wi1b ordinal or il11en'l1 l/:r.11io daia.
Just as with topological vector data, features
in the ras:1er layer may be linked! to rows in
an a11ribu1e table. and these rows may
describe tbe essential nonspatiat characteris-
tics of1he feamres.
Figure 2-36-0 and b show data repre-
sented in a raste.r model. Figure 2-360 shows
a mscer data set that maill(ains a one-to-one
reL11ionsltip between raster celli and in the
data table. An additional colwnn, cell-ID,
mtLSl be added 10 uniquely identify tacit ras-
ter location. The corresponding anribu1es
IDorg. closs, and oreo are repeated for each
cell. Noie that the area values are the same
for all cells and thtLS all rows in ·11te table.
A one-to.one correspondence is rarely
used wi1b raster data se1s because it often
would require an unmanageably large size ?f
auribute 1able. This small eMmple results m
LOO rows for the attribute table. bu1 we often
use raster data se1s wilh billions of cells. If
we insist on a one-to-one cell/attribute rela-
tionship. the table may become 100_large.
Even simple processes such as s.onmg.
 Chapter 2: Data Models 55

searching. or subseuing records become pro·
hibitively tune consuming. Display and
redraw rates become low. reducing the tnil·
ity of these da1a. and decreasing the Hkeli·
hood that GIS will be effectively applied.
to avoid these probtems. a many.to-one
relationship is usually allowed between the
raster cells amd tlte anrib111e table (Figure 2-
36b). Many raster cells may refer to a single
row in lhe a1tribu1e cohunn. This subSlrut·
tially reduces the size of the anribute table
for most data sets. although it does so at the
cost of some spatial ambiguity. There may
be multiple. ooncomiguous patches for a
specific type. For ex.1mple, the upper left
and lower right portion of the raster data set
in Figure 2-36b are both of class 10. Both
are recognized as distinct fe.atures in the , 1ec·
1or aud one·tO·one raster representation., but
are represented by the same .attribute entry in
the many-to-one raster representation. This
reduces the size of the anrib111e table. but at
rhe cost of reducing its flexibility. Many.to-
one relationships effectively create multi·
pan areas. The data for the represented vari-
able may be summarized by class: however.
these classes may or may not be spatially
contiguous.
An alreruative is to maintain the one·tO·
one relationship. b11t to index all the raster
cells in a contiguous group. thereby reducing
rhe number of rows in the attribute 1able.

o) Roster. one-to-one attribute table

(cell l is uJ>P<r-lefl corner)
A A A A B 8 18 BBB cell-ID JD<,rg ctoss ar,,a
A A A A B BB 8 ' 8 B 1 A 10 0.8
A A A A B B 8 1 8 B. B 2 A 10 0.8
A A A B B B e s' s B 3 A 10 0.8
A A A c c B B' S B B 4 A 10 0.8
.c; cccc DOO DD 5 a 11 0.8
ccccc D D1 D D D 6 B 11 0.8
c c c c c D D D D D 7 -I B 11 0.8
c c:c c c D Di D E E
c c c c c D D E E E

Li.oo I e 10 0.8

b) Roster. many-to-one attribute table

10 10 1• J( 11 11 11111 ,11111 class oreo
10 10 10 10 11 11 111ll 11 11 10 18.4
10 10 10 10 11 11 u:11 11111 11 24 0
10 10 10 11 11 11 11111 11 11 15 216
10 10 10 15 15 11 11 11 11 11 21 13.6
15 15 15 15 15 21 21121 21 '21
15 15 15 15 15 21 21121 21 21
l:i 15 15 15 15 ll 2l' Zl Zl 21
15 15 15 15 15 21 21,21 10'10
15 15 15 15 15 21 21 10!10'10
Fia,urt 2,.36; R.ta$1crd.111l modcU rnnly m,1int11in 1hii;~mc·I0•011c rcl:ition,hip bctwcm oclb and allri·
but« (o). bcc-~u.se &able access and pcifonnancc u~i.aUy a;uffcr, A many-to-one rclatioosb.ip between
cells aud table rows is adopted more often (b).
56 GIS Fundamentals

This requires software to develop and main-
tain the indices. and to create them a,td
reconstinue the indexing after spatial opera-
tions. These indexing schemes add overhead
and increase data model complexity. thereby
removing one of ~,e advantages of raster
data sets over vector data sets.
A Comparison of Raster and Vec-
tor Data Models
The question often arises, "\Vhich are
better. raster or vector data models?" The
answer is neither and both. Neither data
model is better in all conditions or for all
data. Bolh have advantages and disadvan-
tages relative to each other and 10 additional.
more complex data models (Table 2-2). In
some instances it is preferable 10 main1ain
data in a raster model. aJ1d in ochers in a vec-
tor model. Most data may be represented in
both. and may be conver1ed among data
models. As an example. land co\'er may l.>e
represented as a s.et of polygons in a vector
data model or as a set of identifiers for cells
in a raster grid. The choice often depends on
a number of factors. including 1he predomi-
nant type or dala (discrete or continuous),
1be expec1ed 1ypes of analyses. available
s1ora,ge, tbe main sources of input data. and
the expertise of the human operators.
Ras1cr aa1a mo<lels exbibi1 :;everal
advantages relative to vector data models.
Fir.:1, rasier data models are particularly suil·
able for representing 1bemes or phenomena
that c.t1:mge frequently in space. Each raster
cell may contain a value different than its
neighbors. Thus, trends as well as more
rapid variabilily may be represented.
Raster data s11Ucrures are generally sim-
pler than vector data models. panicularly
when a fixed cell size is used. Most raster
models store cells as sets of rows. with cells
organized from left 10 right. and rows s1ored
from top to bouom. This organization is
quite easy to code in an array s1rt1cture in
most computer lruiguages.
Raster data models are often faster in
layer overlays. A raster cell corresponds 10 a
given localion. Oata in different layers align
cell-10-cell over this location. Overlay
involves locating a grid cell and comparing
the values found in other layers for the s.1me

Table 2-2: A comparison of raster and vector data models.

Characteristic Raster Vector

data structure usually stmple usually oompfex
storage require- large, ror most <lata sets with· smaller for most data
ments out compression sets
coordinaie conver. may be slow due to data vol- simple
sloo umes, and require resampUng
analysis easy for conUnuou$ data, $Im. prefeffed tor network
pie for many layer comblnatlons analyses, many other
spatial operations more
complex
spatial pre<::l$1on floor set by cell site limlled onty by posi.
tlonal measuremenls
accessibility easy to modify or program, due olten comple·X
to simple data structure
dlsplay and C>utpul gOOd for Images, but dlsct@le maplike, with conlinu-
features may show ·stalrstep· ous curves. poor for
edges images

location. This cell look-up is quite rapid in
most roster daia s1n1crures.
Finally. raster da1a struc.tures are the
mos1 practica.l method for storing. display.
ing. and manipula1ing digiial image da1a.
such as aerial photographs and satellite
imagery. Digital image data are an important
source ofinfonnation when building. view-
ing. and analy?ing spatial databases. Image
display and a.nalysis are based on raster
operations 10 sharpen details on u,e image.
specify the brightness. contras!. and colors
for display. and 10 aid in 1he extraction of
infonnation.
Vec1ordata models provide some advan-
tages relative 10 raster da1a models. First.
vector models often le.id 10 more compact
data storage. porticularly for discrete objects.
Large homogeueous regions are recorded by
1he coordinate botmdaries in a vector data
model. These- regions are re.corded as a set of
cells in a raster data model. The perimeter
grows more slowly than the area for most
fean1re shapes. so the amounl of data
required 10 represent an 4reA iuaeases umtli
more rapidly wid1 a raster data model. Vec-
tor data are much more compact lhan ras1er
data for most !hemes and levels of spatial
detail.
Vec1or data are a more natural means for
represeming 11e1w01ks 31\d 01het connected
linear features. Vector data by their namre
store information on intersec.tions (nodes)
aod 1he linkages be1ween 1hem (lines). Traf.
fie voh1me. speed. tinting. aod other factors
may be associated with lines and intersec·
1ions 10 model many kinds of networks.
Veclor data models are easily presented
in a preferred: map format Humans are
familiar with continuous line and rounded
curve represe-nlations in hand- or machine-
dnl\',;n maps. Ras1er da1a often show a ·•stair·
step" edge for curved bo1mdaries. panie11-
larly when 1he cell resolution is large relalive
10 the resolution at which the ras1er is dis·
played. Vecior data may be ploned wiu,
more vis.uaUy appealing continuous lines
an<l rounded edges.
Chapler 2: Data Models 57
Vector data models e.ase the calculation
and storage of topological infom1a1ion.
Topological infonnation ai<ls in perfonuing
adjacency, connec1ivity, and otheranalyses
in an efficient manner. Topological inforl.Jl3·
tiou also allows some fom1s of automated
error and ambiguity detection. leading to
improved da1a quality.
Conversion Between Raster and
Vector Models
Spatial daia may be convened between
raster and vector data models. Vector-to-ras-
ter con\•ersion involves assigning a ceU
value for each position occupied by vector
feamres. Vector point feamr,es are typically
assumed to have no dimension. Points in a
raster da1a se1 must be represented by a value
in a rasler cell. so poims have at least the
dimension of the rasterc.ell .after conversion
from ,iec1or-10.ras1er models. Points are usu·
ally assigned 10 the cell cootainiug the point
coordinate. The cell in whic·h the point
resides is given a number or other code iden·
1ifyiog the poim feature occurring at the cell
location. If 1he cell size is too large, two or
more v•ctor points may foll in the same cell.
and either an ambiguous celJJ identifier
assigned.. or a more complex numbering and
assignment scheme implemented. lypically.
a cell si.ze is chosen such 1ha1 the diagonal
cell dimension is smaller 1han the distance
between 1he two closest point fearures.
Vector line feamres in a data layer may
also be converted to a raster dala model.
Raster cells may be coded us ing different
criteria. One simple method assigns a value
to a cell if a vec.tor line intersects with any
pan of the cell (Figure 2-370. left). This
ensures the m.aimenance of ,connected lines
in the raster fonn of the data. This assign-
ment rule often leads 10 wider than appropri·
ate lines because several adjacent cells may
be assigned as parl of lhe line. panicularly
when 1he li.ne meanders near cell edges.
Olher assigomem rules may be applied, for
example. assigning a cell as occupied by a
line only \\11e11 1hecell cenl'er is ne-ar a vector
Line segmem (Figure 2·3 7o. right). ''Neat"
58 GIS Fundamentals

may be defined as some sub-cell distance.
for instance. J/3 a1e cell wid1h. Lines pass-
ing tbrough die comer of a cell will 001 be
recorded as in the cell. TI1is may lead to thin-
ner Linear fea1ures in 1be ras1er da1a se1. but
often a, 1he cos1 of line discon1inuities.
The output from vector•tC>-rasler conver-
sion depends on the algorithm used. c,,en
though you use 1he same input. This brings
up an important poilll to remember when
applying any spatial operotion. The 0111pu1
often depends in subtle ways on the spatial
opera1ion. Whal appear 10 be qui1e small dif-
ferences in lhc algorithm or key defming
parame1ers may lead to quite different
results. The ease of spatial manipulation in a
GIS provides a powerfol and often easy-10-
use sel of 1ools. The GIS user should bear in
mind that these tools can be more efficient at
producing errors as well as more efficient at
providing correc1 resulls. Until sufficien1
experience is obtained with a suite of algo-
rithms. in this c.ase vector.to-rnsterconver-
sioo. small. con1tolled 1es1s should be
performed to verify 1he accuracy of a given
method or set of constraining parameters.
Up 10 this poin1 we have co"ere<I vcc1or-
10-raster data conversion. Oata m,'ly also be
convened in the opposite direction. from
raster to vector data. Poim. liue. or area fea-
1ures represented by raster cells are con-
verted to corresponding vector data
coordinates and srmcmrcs. Point fearures are
represen1e<I as single raster cells.. Each vec-
tor point feature is usually assigned the coor-
dina1e of the corresponding cell cemer.
Linear features represented .in a rasler
enviromneo1 may be converted 10 vector

a) Any cell rule

b)
Roster Cell cent er 01nts Smoothed line

....
...
...
Fi&11J? 2..J7: \'ceto1~to-rnJter co1,,·cnion (o) nnd rastcr-to-vcctorcom"ffSl011 (b). In 4, cells ~re anigncd
in a raster if lh~ intersect with a con,·ertcd ,·cctor. llte left-and ri~t panel, show bow two assignment
rules rcsuh in difrcrciu ra,tcr coding !)Cat lioes. Pancb in b s.bow how raster data may be converted to
, ·cctor fonnn1s. atid n'l~' i,wolvc lin"e s.moo1.bing or ot11cr opcmti<>'lll to remove the-- sll'lit•t tcp," cff'ett.

Jines. Conversion to vector Jines typically
involves ideu1ifying the cominuous con-
nec1ed set of _grid cells tha1 fonu 1be line.
Cell centers are typically taken as the loca-
1ions ofvenices along the line (Figure 2·
37b). Lines may then be "smoothed" using a
ma1hem,1tical algorithm to remove the "stair-
step" effect.
Raster Geometry and Resam-
pllng
Da1a often m1is1 he resampled when
convening between raster and wctor data, or
changing the cell size of a raster data sel
(Figure 2-38). Resampling in,•olves reas-
signing the cell values when changing ras1er
coordinates orgeometry. Resampling is
required when changing cell sizes because
1he new cell centers will 001 align exactly
with old cell centers. Changing coordinate
sys1ems may change~ direction of the X
and Yaxes. and GIS systems often require
Input roster ..·····\•,
...
·.
,>,••
. ..
\:···-' ..······'
,
...
.......,····
Chapter 2: Data Models 59
thal the cell edges align with the coordinate
sysiem a.,es. Hence. the new cells often do
not correspond to the same locations or
extents as the old cells.
Common resampling approaches
include lhe ueau.s, neighbor (laking the out-
put layer value from the nearest input layer
cell center). biUuear ;me,polaHon (distance-
based averaging of !he four nearest cells).
and cubic com·o/mion (a weighted average
of the sixteen neares1 cells. Figure 2·38).
An example of a bilinear int·erpolation is
shown in Figure 2·39. This algorithm uses a
distance.weighted average of the four ne.1r-
est cells in the input to calc.u late the value for
the ou1put. The ,tew ou1pu1 location is repre-
semed by 1he black post. Initially. the height.
or ZOU? value, oftbe oulput loc.atioo is
unknown. Zout is calculated based on the dis-
tances between the outpm locations and the
inpul locations. The djstance in the Xdirec-
tion is denoted in Figure 2-39 by d1• and the
dis1ance in 1he y direction by dz. The values
flJUtT 2-38: R.1.s1c:r ttsampli.n3. Whcu 1.bc
oncn1:uior1 or cell site or t1 ra1,1cr d.atn sci i1
cJuiogcd. outpul cell ,Wu.cs nrc calcul-11tcd
baJ<:d on tlt-c ,closC'SI (nc.arcsc oci3bbor). four
1lt11rcs1 (bifo1c11.r illlt:rpobtio,)J, 01' ti.xtccn
dos.est (cubic com-olu1-ion) inpul cell n1luC'$.
Output
raster
60 GIS Fundamentals

z 2 _•6

,,
/ z,.4.6
"---z..,
7. __,_
/ • ..,
i.;
,_ -
z, ff
~!
"--------===-==-==-- .:..__:=-::::-=:__ .:::-=:_::.__:~8.s
What Is the value of Z a;1 ? x

z•• Z, • (Z, - Z,)' d I z, • 14 • (46-1.4)' 2.9 • 326

t 5

Z" • z, · (21 • Z2)' d 1 z, • 4 • (LJ)' 29 • 5.16

t 5

Z~. • z. •(Z, • Z.,)'d 1 Z~, • 3 26 • (516 • 3.26)' 2 2 • 4 I

c 5
Fla-urt 2~39: Til<: biJinc:lt il'ltcrpolrnfon method UkS: a disttltlCc--wcigbtcd a.,·cni;c: to atti$Jl the 0111put
, -afuc, ZOUf, b:iied on inpu1\'aluc-1, 21 through 2 4.

in the inplll are shown as gray pos1s and are
labeled as 21 1hrough z,. lmennedia1e
heights Zb and~ are shO\\-n. These repre-
sent the average of the input values when
taken in pairs in the x direction. These pairs
are z, and Z2• 10 yield Z,.. and Z3 and z,. to
yield z 0. z. and Z0 are then averaged 10 cal-
culate z..,.using 1he distance dz between the
inpu1 and output locations 10 weigb1 values
at each inpm loca1ion. The cubic convolu-
tion resmnpling calculation is similar. e.xcept
that more cells are used. and the weighting is
not an average based on linear dlis1ance.

Other Data Models
Triangulated Irregular Networks
A 1ri1111g11/111ed irrog,dm· 111uwork (TIN)
is a data model commonly used to represent
terrain heights. Typically. the x. y, and z loca-
tions ror measured points are entered into tlte
TIN data model. These poims are corutected
such that the smallest triangle possibJe spans
any three adjacent points. The TIN forms a
connected ne1work of triangles (Figure 2-
40). De/11,mny Triaugles are created such that
the Line c:ros.s~ugs are avoided. Triangulation
idcnrifies the com·e,-gem citcle for a set of
three poin1s. defined as a circle passing
through all three points. A triangle is drawn
only iftbe co,responding convergent circle
contains no other sampling points. Each tri-
angle defines a facet of uniform slope and
aspect over the triangle.
The TIN model typically uses some
form of indexing to connect neighboring
points. Each edge of a triangle connects 10
two points. which in tum each connect to
other edges. These co,uiectious continue
recursively until the emire network is
spanned.
o int facet
Chapter 2: Data Models 61
While the TIN model may be more com-
plex than simple raster mod.els, it is often
more efficietll for storing terrain data in
areas with \latiable relief. Rclath1ely few
points are required to repres-ent large, fL,t, or
smoothly continuous areas. Many more
points are desirable for rugged terrain. Sur-
veyors often collec1 more samples per unit
area where the terrain is highly variable. A
TIN easily accollllllodates tl1ese differences
in sampling density. resulting in more.
smaJler triangles in 1he dense.ly sampled
area.
Object Data Models
The objecl da1a model is no altcrnarive
for stmcturing spa rial da1a. A main goal is 10
raise the level of abstraction so that the data
objects may be conceptualized and
addressed in a more narural way. Objects are
often geographic features. with spatial and
anribmedarn associated with 1be objee1. e.g..
a city object may include inJonnation on tl1e
city boundary. streets. building locations,
waterways. or other features in organized
Fia:urt 2-40: ATIN data roO<kl
edge ddincfl n SCI of ndjacc1.u 11'iangk.i
O\"Cr III U IUJ)lc: •pace (left), $.Jlmplc-
pointt-. facc:tf.. and ,cd,g.cs are compo·
ncots of TIN data models. Triangles
~re pl11cc:d by CO!l\' citel'lt cirdc-s.
TI1csc- i.11lcl'$Cc l 1bc· \-Crticct of~ lri·
angle and contain oo other possible
\"('rticcs (below).
occeptoble.
convergent ctrcles
...---.....' \
--
\unocceptoble circle ·
conto1ns o somple point
62 GIS Fundamentals
data structures. Vector topology could be
included. incorpnrated within the single
object Object model approaches have been
adopted by at least one major vendor of GIS
software and are applied u1 a number of
fields.
Object models for spatial data often fol-
low a loglcol model. a user's view of the rcaJ
objects we portray with a GtS (Figure 2-4 t ).
This model includes all the ·'thu1gs•· of inter-
est. and the relationships among 11te,u.
Things. or objec1s. might include power
poles. traasfonners, powerlines, me1ers. and
customer buildings in a city. and relation·
ships among 1hern would include a crnns-
former on a pole, lines be1ween poles, and
meters at points along the luies. The logical
model is often represented as a box·and-line
diagram.
Most object 01odels define the proper·
ties of each objec·t. and the. relationships
among objects. Pipe objects may have a
diameter. materia I type. and be connected 10
valves and tanks. The pipes may be repre-
COUNTY
name
6
OWNER
nome
stote
watershed dlstrtet
address
p one number
PARCEL
) Some proponents claim object models are
tox ID number
location
size
value
fiJu1't 2-41: Objects io a GIS database may Ix
conecprualizcd in ii. diap;rruu. or toai,cal mockIo(
how llicy lll"e rd.Aled. Hctt, lhnc- l))>"Of objects
arc- rc-prcscot«l. with 0 \\1lffl ~101ed wi1h p.i,r·
,eels. and pan:el, as-sociatcd "';1h ,cou:nti«.
sented by lines and the valves by points, but
these vec1or elements are enhanced in the
object model because the specific pipe and
pipe propettie.s may be linked 10 the specific
valve anacbed 10 a given location. Object
models can have i11heritn11ce. automatically
transfering properties within classes of
objec1s. We may crea1e a generic val\le
object witlt a maximum pressure rating.
cost, and material type. We may create
val\le subclasses within this class. e.g.. emer.
gency cut·off valves. primary control valves.
or shunt valves. These subclasses will inherit
all the propeny variables from a generic
valve in that each bas a cost. ma:.ximum pres-
sure. and material. but each subclass may
also have additional unique propenies.
Figure 2--42 shows an example of an
object data model for hydrologic basins and
related stream foarures. Tbe top fiame shows
feanires: in this example basins. sul>-basins,
a stream net,vork. and features on the stream
network such as sampling statiOllS. The bot-
tom panel shows die feature types. anributes.
and propenies in 1heobjec1 model. Nole 1ha1
there are both object propenies and topologi·
cal relationships represented. and that multi·
pie feature types may be represented in the
object model. The object data model bas
b<llh advantages and disadvantages when
compared to tradition..11data models. Some
geographic entities may be naturally and
easily identified as discrete units for partict•·
lar problems. and so may be narurally
amenable to an object·orienled approach.
more easily implemented across. a wider
range of da1abase software, partiicularly for
complex models. However. object data mod-
els are less usefi>I for representiug cootinu·
ously varying features, such as elevation. In
addition. for many problems. object defini·
tion and indexing may be quite complex.
Software developers h.we had difficulty
developing generic 1ools 1ba1 may quickly
implement object models. so there is an
added level of specialized training required.
Finally, we note that d1ere is no widely
accepted. formal def01i1ion or ,vbat consti·
lutes an object data model.
 Chapter 2: Data Models 63

Objects

•
Stream net Stations
•
•
• • •
•

Schematic Diagram
Bo sin ·a
Wotcrreorurc
Wole,-10 IW'o1 ushed I
Sob·bosi.n
Woter(eofure
Water IO
l~a:=I
WoterCocle
WoruCode:
~ -b

R:ourePoin 'c
Bosinttorurt RouteFtoturt lr'IUD
8cslnl0 RovtetO
BoW1Area
RouteT~e ul t i Dom
GO Olf"II

Str<lom nel s101ions

Streomreoture S1reomlunct1on WOTtrleot\ll't
•• IFlowMeosurej
J1.1nc.riot1IO Water-IO
StreomJO
StreomCode Wote.rCode:
1senthlc.l
ReodvlcJme Streom$(:gment •
SC9mcn,10
't I
- ReochnGrN
Bonkwidlh
Topolog col Constraints.
·a - AouteAre:o.s must be contained wrtht11 Bos1n
'b • RouteUnes must be on Slreomsegmenf
·c • RoulePo,nrs mus, be on Routeunes
'd - Streamse9me.n1s must be in $Ub-bos1n
·e • Stanons must be on Streomsegmem
Flau1•r 2-·U : Objcc:1-orie:utcd data u»dcls allow us to encapsulate complex objcc:ts 1lud may be a combiiu-
tion of lU:UW diffanll fc~IUf('.S 1l1MJ fc:tturc l)'pct. while cxplieid)' idnu1f)i1,g die a nbcddc-d comp!c-:<ity i.n n
stiutdord \"'-)' C(lustrainl.$ $'11th as t(lpolc,gic.al rcta1io1uhips acrou obj«tt may nlso be rcfWcseotcd,
64 GIS Fundamentals

Three-Dimensional Data Models
GlS in built environments are increas·
ingly integraiing three-dimensional (3-D)
infonnation such as building heights, roof
shapes. and other heigb1,rela1ed characteri.s,
tics (Figure 2-43). This is in part to support
analysis. and in part to generate visualiza.
,ions from at or near ground-level. for exam,
pie. building apperu-ance from a nearby road.
Improved data e-apture allows for the rapid
development of J.-0 data Iha, musi be inte-
grated imo an appropriaie data model.
Several 3-0 data models have been pro-
posed. with ''Vector-like" models more com-
mo,~y applied 1han "raster-like.. models.
The lauer employ the concep1 of voxels, or
volume eleme,us. esseniially cubes of a
fixed dimension. :Flat or baseline areas lMwe
zero voxels stacked over the surface. with a
requisi1e number of voxels ·~1acked" a, each
rasier cell 10 represent heigh 1. Wliile easy 10
access and simple for all the reasons a rasler
sel is, they also suffer from the same draw.
backs, particularly the trade-off between pre-
cision. or voxel size. and data volumes.
Many alternative "vector-like" 3-D
models have b~n propose<!. many defining
a body element, in addition to 1he standard
point, line. and polygon elements. Points are
used to create lines. lines for polygons. and
polygons to create bodies. Muell like 2-D
vectors. 3~0 vectors add indexiug schemes.
with 1he added complication of n z coordi-
nate to any element abo\•e the base plane of
the data layer.
One 3-0 model. developed by Bentley
Systems. is called a rea/iry 111es/1 (Figure 2-
44). It combines a tltree-dimensional trian-
gulated irregular ne1work with a.n image-
based texture surface to create realistic rep-
resentations ofJ-0 feamres. Complex 3-0
surfaces can be eff'icienlly represemed.
demanding less storage space, \vhile proper-
ties like material or color can be associa,ed

-··---
·-
·--
·-
·-
··-
--
···
.·-
=-
·--
··-

f lautt 1-ll: ~ e.<crunplc of3-D St>Jiti:L! dtlta displtl.ycd for 11. n:gioo in Gcnntmy. The third dllncniioo ftids
u1 mn.ny pla.wm1g and a1$C$S'lncnt h.11,c1101l$. llud i11 becoming common iri mimagiog 1hc built c1.wironmcn1
(cour1csy City of Heidelberg and ilie Vai\·mity of Heidelberg).
 Chapter 2: Data Models 65

with each of the triangular faces. A com-
pressed raster ''texture s11rface" 11tay be
wrnJ)ped around me 3-D TIN. yielding sub-
stantial detaiL The images may be com-
pressed. using methods described later in
this chapter. to reduce data volumes.
While vector 3-D models are becoming
common. no ooe model form orstaodard bas
been widely adopted. Three-dimensional
GIS products have become quite mature, for
example. the 3-D SP"tial analyst and 3-D
CityEugine products from ESRI are full-fea-
tured, stable. productive tools, supporting
Stan to finish worktlows. from 2-D 10 3-D
data conversion. 3-0 spatiaU data ingestion.
processing and organiza1ioru. and output to
project. video, and in1ernc1i,·e Web services.
Three-dimensional G!S processing tools are
available from other ve.ndor.s. and as a plug.
in forQGIS.

Fiat1rt 2-.W: .An c:un1ple of a rcali1y m«b as a J.-0 ruodcl. Surface gcomcl:t)• is recorded i.u a J.-01ri1U1gu-
latcd imj.UW' network.. while a corrcspondin; ''texture.. ,ur&cc is projcc:tedou to oorrcspondina f.accts
(courtesy Balltlcy Systems).
66 GIS Fundamentals
Multipl e Models
Digiial data may often be represented
using any one of several data models. The
analysl musl choose which representation to
use. Digital eleva1ion data are perl1aps the
best example of the use of multiple data
models to represe-nt 1he same theme (Figure
2-45). Digital representations of terrain
height have a long history and widespread
use in GIS. Ele.vation data and denved sur-
faces such as slope and aspect are important
in hydrology. transponation. ecology. uroan
and regional planning. utility routing, and a
number of 01her activities that are analyzed
using GIS. Because of this widespread
importance. digital elevation da1a are com-
mo1tly represented in a number of data mod-
els.
Roster DEM
Vector contours
fi&nn" 2-45: 0.1tn n:ay often be- rcprc~cutcd in 1,c,"Cnl dal.'1 models. Oigitaf clcv:r.1ion d:it11 arc C01JUJ1()1tl)' rq>-
rcscnted in n1,5ter(OEM). vector (cootOU1$), '-Lld TL!I{ data models.
Raster grids, TINs. and vector conlours
are the most common data stn1c1uresused to
organize aud store digital elevatfon data.
Raster and TIN data are often called digirnl
elemriou models (DEMs) or digital te,roiu
models (DTMs). and are conunonly used in
terrain analysis. Contour line.sare most often
used as a form of input or as a fallliliar foan
of 011tpu1. Historically. hypsograpby (terraui
height) was depicted on maps a~ contour
lines (Figure 2-45, bonom left). Contours
represent lines of equal elevatiou. typically
spaced at fixed elevation inter!a Is across the
mapped areas. Bec.ause many 1mponant
analyses are more difficult using comour
Jines. most digital elevation data are stored
using rasteror TIN models.
Detailed view of
roster cells
6-45 650 654 658 6SJ 64&
664 666 610 67i 668 609
67& W 694 69) 6,89 680
7'03 708 71<1 7tJ 719 716
11$ 13? 738 74'4 7-4$ 7ll
no 139 '"" '149 1,a 71~
 Chapter 2: Data Models 67

Data anid File Structures

Binary and ASCII Numbers
No matter which spatial data model is
used. the concepts must be uanslated imo a
set of numbers stored on a computer. All
infom1ation s~ored on a computer in a digital
fonna1 ruay be represented as a series of O's
and J's. These data are said to be stored in a
binary fomtal, because each digil may con.
tain one of two values. Oor I . Binruy nuu1-
bers are in a base of 2. so e.ach successive
column of a n umber represents a power of
IWO.
We use a similar column convention in
our familiar ten-based (decimal) numbering
system. As am example. consider the number
47. which we represent using two columns.
The seven in the first column indicates tl1ere
are seven uni1s of one. The four in the tens
column indicates I.here are four tmits of ten.
Each higher column represents a higher
power of ten. Tl1e first column represents
one (I o0• 1). lhe next colwnn represents tens
(I 01=10). the next column represents hun-
dreds ( 102=100). and upward for successive
powers of ten. We add up the values repre-
semed in the colullllls 10 decipher the muu-
ber.
Binary numbers are also formed by rep-
reseniing vah1es in columns. In a binary sys-
tem each column represents a successively
higher power of ~vo (figure 2-46). The first
(rightmost) column represems I (2° = I ). the
second column (from right} represents twos
(2 1 • 2), the third (from right) represents
fours (2· = 4). !hen eight (i3 = S). sixteen (24
- l6). and upward for successive powers of
1wo. Thus. the bi11ary number 1001 rep-
resents the decimal muuber9: a one from the
rightmost column, and eight from the fourth
column (figure 2-46. left).

Binary columns Equivalent numbers

binary decimol
00000001 1
00000010 2
00000011 3
00000100 4
00000101 5
00000110 6
00000111 7
00001000 8
00001001 9
00001010 10
.... ....
Flam-e 2---46: Billa.J)' rcpr«eutation of dc:ci:iual muub,c,ti.
68 GIS Fundamentals
Ead1 digit or colunm in a binary number
is called a bit. and eight columns. or bits. are
called a 1>)1e. A byte is a common unit for
defining data types and numbers. for ex.1111.
pie. a data file may be referred 10 as contain·
ing 4-byte integer numbers. Tl,is means each
number is represented by 4 bytes of binary
data (or 8 x 4 • 32 bits).
Several bytes. are required when repre.
senting la,ger nwnben. For example. one
byte may be used to represent 256 different
values. When a byte is used for nonnegative
integer numbers, 'then only values from Olo
255 may be recor<led. This wiU work when
all values are below 255. but consider an ele·
vation data layer with values greater than
255. If the data are not rescaled. then more
than one byte of storage is required for each
value. Two bytes will store up to 65.536 dif·
fereot numbers. Terrestrial eleva1ions mea·
sured i.n feet or meters are all below this
value, so two bytes of data are often used to
store elevation data. Real numben such as
12.19 or 865.3 typically require more bytes.
and are effectively split, that is, two bytes for
the whole part of the real number. and four
bytes for the fractional ponion.
Bi.nary numbers are often used to repre·
sent codes. Spatial and attribute data may
then be represented as text or as standard
codes. rrus is panicularly common when
rasrer or vec1or data are convened for expon
or unpon among <li!ferent GIS software sys-
tems. For exampLe. ArcGIS. a widely used
GIS. produces se"eral export fonruus tliat
are in text or bina.ry formats. ldrisi. another
popular GIS, supports binary and alphanu-
meric raster fomiats.
One of the most common number cod-
ing schemes uses ASCII designators. ASCD
stands for the American Standard Code for
lnfom1ation lnte.rchange. ASCH is a stan.
dardi2ed. widespread data fon11a1 that uses
seven bits. or the numbers O through 126. 10
represent text and other characters. An
extended ASCII, or ANSI (American
National Standards lt1Stin11e) scheme. uses
these same codes. plus an extra binary bit to
represent number:s between 127 and 255.
These codes are then used in many pro-
grams, including GIS, particularly for data
expon or exchange.
ASCII codes aJlow us to e.asily and w1i-
fonnly represent alphanwneric cbaracten
:mch as lciwrs. p11ncnia1ion.othC'I" characters.
and munbers. A$Cll conve.rts binary num-
ben 10 alphanumeric cluu-acters through an
index. Each alphanumeric character corre-
sponds to a spec.ific number bel\,.'een Oand
255, which allows any sequence of charac-
ters 10 be represented by a number. One b)1e
is required to represent each character in
extended ASCII coding, so ASCII data sets
are typically much la,ger than binary data
sets. Geographic data in a GIS may use a
combination of binary and ASCfJ da<a stored
in files. Binary data are 1ypicaUy used for
coordinate infommtion. and ASC!l or other
codes may be used for attribute data.
Pointers and Indexes
Data rnes may be linked by fi!epoimers.
;,,dexes. or other strucn1res. A pointer is an
address or index that connects o.ne file loca-
tion to another. Pointers are a com.moo way
to o,ganize infonnation within :u,d across
multiple files. Figure 2-47 depicts ru, exam-
ple of the use of pointers to organize spatial
data. In this figure. the polygon is composed
of a se.1ofline.s . Pointers are used to link the
set of lines that fom1 each poJygon. There is
a pointer from each line 10 the next line.
fonuiog a chain tbat defines the polygon
boundary.
Pointers help by organizing data in such
a way as to i.mprove access speed. Unorga-
oh:ed dala would require time.conswning
searches each time a polygon boundary was
to be ideotified. Pointers also aUow efficient
use of storage space. In our example, each
line segment is stored only once. Several
polygons may point ro the line segment, a$ it
is typically much more space efficient to add
pointers than to duplicale ihe line segment.
Shopefiles are a common vector spatial
data format that uses an index 10 link files.
Shapefiles were originally developed by
ESRI as a way to store point. line, and poly·
gon feanires. although they ba"e since been

memory address
coordinates 1.9 5.10 8.8 11 _3
Al
A3
A2
FJaure M7: Poinrcrs lltc used 10 Ofl:tilltt \'ttfOI' d11.1~. Poi.ntctt t ~ rcd11ndi111.1 s1orngc: 11.1.d
ii)cT~SC speed of 11«e$$,
adopted as a common fonuat for data inter·
change and analysis. Shapeftles are sup-
ported by most other GIS softwares that
process vector data.
Shapefiles represent layers with a clus-
ter of files. Each file has the same base name
but a different filename extension. indicated
by a suffix. for example. the ".shp" in the
filen.,me i.1xmndary.shp.·· A transportation
data layer stored in shapefile format might
have the base name of roads. with differem
suffixes for different files:
roads.shp
roads.shx
roads.dbr
roads.prj
etc.
The first three files above are all
required to represent a vector data )ayer
using sbapefi.le~ These files are connected
using indices. munbers that identify coDl\ec·
tiOD$ ;ind groll!pings for various components.
The .shp files co111ain the coordinates that
represent each road. organized by line seg-
ments. There is general infonnation for each
segmenl, and Lhen a list of coordinates and
other data for the segment. This is followed
by general information for the next segment.
Chapter 2: Data Models 69
l Arc Al
0011 O!OC 0101 0110 )
pointer
f Arc A2
Oty OddN:SS 1000 1001 1010 )
ool'd1notes 11.J 9.0 0.2 pointer
+Arc A3
memory oddt'tss 1110 1111
pointer
coordtf'lotes 0.2 1.9
and another list The roads.sh.'< file conlains
indices that point 10 the segment records in
the .shp files. based on these- identifiers. TI1is
speeds access, avoiding a search in the .shp
file each 1ime it links segmems in a rood.
The roads.dbf file also uses an index 10 poiut
to 1he combined roads in 1he .shp and .shx
files. A group of segments may be used to
fomi a line. and associated with a set of anri-
butes stored in a .dbf file.
Because pointers and in.dices are key
elemenls in organizing the s..patial data. alter-
ing them directly will usually cause prob·
lems. Typically. these indices are created by
1he software during processing. and updaled
as needed when data are added, modified. or
analyzed. Poimers may be ,·isible. for exam-
ple. the O!D colunms in the .dbftables used
with shapefiles. but manually changing the
values will often n,in the data layer. You
should know the identity and use of pointer,;
in your data sets so that you don't change
them inadvertently.
Pointers~indexing, and multifile layers
are not limited 10 vector data. Many raster
formats store a majority of the cell data in
one file. and additional, linked information
in an associated file. You m11St be careful
when transferring a data lay·er 10 include all
the associated files. For exa,nple. c.opying
70 GIS Fundamentals
the roads.shp and roads.dbffiles to a new
loca1ion does not copy a usable dara layer.
The software expects a .shx file: an incom-
ple.te file set is often useless.
1\vo more complex smicrurcs are com-
mo,i ESRI Geodatabases and the Open Geo-
spa1ial Consortium (OGC) GeoPackage.
These are propri~tary and open staudards.
respectively. for storin_g bo1h vector and ras-
ter data aud topologies in an i11tcgrn1ed fash-
ion.
Data Compression
We often compress spatial data files
because !hey are large. Oat.a compre.ssion
reduces file size while maintaining 1he iufor·
mation contained in tbe file. Compression
algorithms may be lossless. in that all infor-
mation is maintained during compression, or
lossy. in lhat some lnfonnation is lost. A
lossless compression algorithm wiH produce
an exact copy when a file is compressed and
decompressed. A lossy algorithm will alter
the data on a compre-ssion-dec-0mpression
round lrip. Lossy algoritluns are most ofreo
used witil image darn. where substautial deg-
radation still leaves a useful image. and are
uncommonly app.lied to thematic spatial
da1a. where auy d~ta degradation is typically
not tolerated.
Data compression is mos, ofien applied
to discrete raster data. for example. when
representing polygon or are.a information in
a raster GJS. Therre are redundant data ele·
Roster
9 9 6 6 6 6 6
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
9 9 6 6 6 6 7 7
9 8 9 6 6 7 7 5
r'~1,1rt- ?-t8; R~ut·lcn{lh coding is ;a com1noa ~od rcl11-1h·cly simple metbc,d forcompf"5in.g f3.Sler
data. The: left nuinbcr to I.be nin-lw.gdt pair i.s 1hc number of «Us in the nm. and 1hc right is tllC «U
\'a!uc. Thus. the 2:9 lisicd tu the stllrt oftbc firu Linc indicates II n1.11 of lcna.t11 two fot 1.bc cell ,-aluc 9.
menls in raster representations of large
bomogenous areas. Each raster cell within a
homogenous area will have 1he same code as
most or all of the adjacent cells. Data com.
pression algorithms remove much of this
redundancy.
Ru11·le11gth coding is a co1wnon da1a
compression method. This compression
technique is based on recording sequential
runs of raster cell values. Each n m is
recorded as the value found in the se1 of
adjacent cells and 1he run leogtru. or number
of cells with the same value. Se'i.1en sequen·
1ial cells of l)'pe A might be liste<l as A 7
instead of AAAAAAA. Thus. seven cells
would be represented by two characters.
Consider the data recorded in Fi.gure 2-48.
where each line of raster cells is represented
by a set of rw1-length codes. In general. mn-
length coding reduces da,a volume. as
shown for ll1e 1op three rows in Figure 2~S.
Note that in some instances, run-length cocf.
ing increases the data volume. 111os1 often
when there are no long nu1s. This occurs in
the last line of Figure 2-48. wile.re frequent
changes in adjacent cell values result in
many short nUls. However. for most the-
matic data sets containjng area infom1a1ion.
nm-length coding substantially reduces the
size of raster data sets.
There is also some data access cost in
run-leng1h coding. Standard raster data
access involves simply counting the number
of cells across a row to locate a g iven cell.
To locate a cell in nu1-length coding we mus1
Run-length codes
7 2:9, 5:6. 1:7
6 8:6
2:9. 4:6, 2:7
1:9. 1:8. 1:9, 2:6. 2:7. 1:5

sum along the run-length codes to identify a
cell position. This is typically a minor addi·
tional cost. b,n in some applications the
trade-off belween speed and data volume
may be objectionable.
Quad rree representations are another
raster compression method. Quad trees are
similar to run-length codings in t11a1 they are
most often used to compress raster data sets
when representing area features. Quad trees
may be 1hough1 of as a rasttr data strucmre
with a variable spatial resolution. Raster cell
sizes are combined and adjusted within the
data layer 10 fit into each specific area fea.
nire (Figure 2-49). Large raster cells that fit
entirely into o ne unifom1 area are assigned
the ,,,.Jue corresponding to that area: for
example. the three largest cells in Figure 2·
49 are all assigned the value o. Successively
smaller cells are then fit. halving the cell
dimension at each iteration. again fitting the
largest cell th.at will fit in each uniform are.a.
This is illustnned in !he top-left corner of
Figure 2·49. Successively smaller cells are
defme<I by 1pli11ing ·'mixe<I cells.. into four
quadrants. and assigning the values o or b 10
uniform areas. Titis is repeated down 10 the
smallest celJ size that is needed to represent
uniform areas at the required detail.
The varying cell size in a quad tree rep-
resentation requires more sophisticated
• •
• computer screen. A raster data set 1,000.000
• pixels across bas 1.000 times the data that
• pixel horizontal resolution. :However. dis-
• •
Flautt 249: Qnad tttc comprcu:io11.
Chapter 2: Data Models 71
indexing than simple raster data sets. Point-
ers are used to link data elements in a tree·
like strucrure. hence the name quad trees.
There are many ways to structure the dala
pointers. from large 10 small. or by dividing
quandrants. and these methods are beyond
rhe scope of an in1roductory text. Further
information on the s1ruc1ure of q1,ad trees
may be found in the references at the end of
this chapter.
There are many other dma compression
methods that are commonly applied. LZW is
a lossless compression metltod commonly
applied 10 image and raster data sets. partic·
ularly GIF iumges and TIFF fomtats. JPEG
and wavelet compression algorithms are
often applied to reduce the size of spatial
data, particularly image or other data,
although as implemented these are lossy
algorithms. Generic bit· and byte-level com·
pression methods may be applied to any files
for compression or communications. There
is usually some cost in lime 10 the compres·
sion and decompression.
Raster Pyramids
We some1imes inten1ionally increase the
size of our rasterdata sets wjthout increasing
the resolution in a process known as p)•·a·
miding. We create pyramids. to increase dis-
play speeds when \~ewed al' small scales
(..zoomed out"). Long redraw times often
hinder use of k1rge data sets. particularly
when ponning frequently. When displayed at
very small scales. the cell size of a data set
may be smaUer than the resolution of the
can be displayed on a moniror with 1.000
play software must wade through all
1.000.000 data elements in a row 10 pick die
I cell in 1.000 to display. While clever soft-
ware ran help, there are limils to bow much
we can spee<I up the redraws.
Pyramiding in effect saves subsampled
copies of the cells at various resolmious. ln
our example above. pyramids may do the
equivalent of saving every t·wo. every four.
72 GIS Fundamentals
e\'ery 10, every 30, and every I00 cells, all
wi1hin ll1e same ras1er data set. The software
then compares the display scale to die
dimensions of the data set. and chooses the
most appropriaie ,cell resoluiion 10 display.
Redraws are much (aster, and transparem to
the user.
Nole 1bai we say pyramids "in effecl''
save copies of cells at various resolutions.
This is !he simplest me1bod, but often no! 1be
most efficient for space or speed of access.
Sophisticated indexing may be used to point
10 the cells a, !he appropriaie resolutions.
No1e that pyramiding comes at a cost.
both in !he size and complexily of !he rnsler
data set Indexing schemes complica,e the
simple rasier data simcmre, and !he software
mus1 be able to navigate the indexing
scheme. Already large raS1er dala se,s may
be infla1ed from a few percen1 10 several
times, although in practice it is typically less
1han a doubling o.f size.
Common Fiie Formats
A few file formats are commonly used
10 siore and traosfer spa1ial data. Some of
these file structures arose from distribu1ion
fonnalS adop1ed by go"eou11emal agencies,
01bers were specified by software vendors,
and some have been devised by standards.
making bodies. Some knowledge of !he
iypes and propeniesof1hese file fonnats is
helpful 10 tl1eGIS practilioner.
Common geographic data fonnats may
be placed into three large classes: raster. vec-
1or, and anribu1e. Ras1er fonnats may be fur.
ther split into single-band and ornhi-band
file iypes. Multi-band rasier data selS are
most often used to store and distribute image
data. while single-band raster da1a sets are
used to siore bolb single-band images and
nonimage spatial data. Table 2-3 summarizes
some of 1be moSI common spa1ial data for·
mats.
Mos, GIS softwares provide some utili1y
for data impon and e.xpon from Slandard for-
mats
The Geospalial Dala Abs1rac1iou
Library (GOAL) provides a u1iliiy to rrans-
late among many common vec1or and raster
file fom1a1S. This free u1ili1y is flexible, and
often can be used 10 ex,end 1be reach of
commercial packages. by firs, using GOAL
to convert files from unsupported to sup-
poned 1ypes. and !hen imponing 1hese into
rbe 1a,ge1 software.
Summary
In !his chapeer we have described rhe
main ways of conceptualizing spatial enti-
1ies. and of representing tl1ese enti1ies as SJl'l·
tial fearures in a computer. We c·ommonly
employ two conceptualizations. also called
spatial da1a models: a raster da1a model and
a vector data model. Bo1h models use a com-
bination of coordinates, defined in a Carte-
sian or spherical systent and anribu1es. 10
represent 0111spa1ial fean,res, Fearnres are
usually segrega1ed by lhematic type in lay-
ers.
Vecior da1a models describe 1he world
as a se.t of point, line, and area fea tures.
Anributes may be associated wiu1 each fea-
nire. A vector data model splits that world
into discrete features, and often supports
1opological relatiooships. Vec1or models are
most often used to represent features that are
considered discrete. and are compatible with
vector maps. a common ou1pu1 form.
Raster data models are base,d on grid
cells and represen, !he world as a "checker-
board." with uniform values within each
cell. A raster data model is a narural choice
for represen1ing fe.atures that vary continu·
ously across space. such as tenip,:ramre or
precipitation. Oata may be conv,erted
between raster and vector data models.
We use d.11a structures and computer
codes to represent our conceptuaJizations in
more abs1racL but compu1er-corupa1ible
fomis. These Slmcmres may be op1imized 10
reduce storage space and increase access
speed. or to enhance processing based on !he
namre of our spatial data.
 Chapter 2: Data Models 73

Table 2-3: Common format$ for spatial da1a.

Type a11dsou1·ce Extension Chara~erisUcs

(R=Raster, V=Vector, A=AttntxJte, l=lmage)
Comma Separated .C$V Common ASCII text fofmat used to <11s.1nibute: attriw1e
VoliJe eoo often w<oor infcrroo:ion (A. V).

OXF, Auto0e5' .dxl Ot&wt~ oxctwio• file, an ASCII Of bireryfllo for

exct..nging spabal <ilta (V)

OWG, Au1o0est .dwg 1-JoU..·e b(nary 1..6 used by Au10De$k IO s10re goo-
gmphic data and <fmww,gs n AutoCAO (V),

Geodalabase,. ESRI .gdb, .mdb ESRlcool8Wlef tor many data types(R. V, A. I)..

GooJSON.- .json•.ge,oj.son Open sh'IOOard kw ropcesenb.ng ond d1$play11-., Si!ll)Je

standard geographic fearures (V. A}

GeoPad:age, open .gpkg Open siaodard for represent11g vectot and raslerdata,
standtwd conlC)&·bble with SOfile tR. v, A)

GeollFF. o;ien stan.. .TIF. TIFF All exlension for georetetencing Aldus-Adobe ptibic
®<d cl<lm8in TIFF format (R).

GPX. open siandard ,gpx Aspecifice,1ion based on XMLfO< t>osic: GNSS dal8 (V)

lmogne. EROAS img Muttt>and capable mage formal {R)-

ln\erchaoge, ESRI eOO ASCII lex! r..e fOf veck>r and idertifying attribute dala
cv,
Keyhoh Malhlp I.an. KMl. XMI. extension for displaying and annotating features
guago, GooglO 8lld imagos CV. I, !'J.

lAS.ASPR;S lAS t.esei P()f'I clood data storage (V>

Shape619, ESRI .shp, ,shx, dbf, ,Pf), Three or more binary flies that include lhe vecto, coor.
&~ OChOrs dl"l8IO, atttlbulo, endo!Mf informiat(ln (\I).

TIGER. US. Census 'Oro:wY. sttzz v

sot oS flies by S. CGflSus areas, xx js e sl81e COClo.
man area code. n nunbers forvanou:s file types r,/,
!'J
MIFIMID, "'taplnfo .mif, mid Map Interchange i;-te, vedOr and raster data transpoo
trom Maplnfo (V, R),

NetCOF. OGC .C<lf M&chine-ndependent data fofmats f0t sdenlific: data

8ffllyS (R. A.11.

NLAPS. NASA vanous tn & d:reaory arnego d8t& from vanous landsat se101uos. in a SQOC•·
fi9d c&-ectory struduf& (I. R).

SOTS, U.S. Govern- oone Ss)atial Data Tf8Mfor Si&ndard, specdtG:s the spat.ial
menI objecl'S, attribules. reference sys1em (R, V, A)
74 GIS Fundamentals

Suggested Reading

Arctur, 0 .• ZeLler. M, (2004). Desig11iug (;eodnrnbnses: Cnse Studies 111 (;IS Daw
Modeli11g. Redlands: ESRJ Press.

Batcbeller. J.K.. Gittings. B.M .. Dowers. S. (2007). Tue perfonnance ofve<:lor ori-
ented data storage in ESRI's ArcGIS. Trm1sncrio11s i11 GIS. II :47-65.

Batty. M., Xie. Y. (1991 ). Model structures, exploratory spatial data analysis. and
aggregatioo. Jmemational Joul'nal of Geographical htfon11atio1t Sys1ems. 8: 29 1-
307.

Bhalla, N. ( t 991). Object-oriented data models: a perspective and comparative

review. Jo11r11a/ of/11/ormariou Science, 17: 145-160.

Bognslawski. P.. Gold. C.M.. Ledou.,. H. (2011). Modeling and analysing 30 build-
ings wi1h a primal/dual data stn1cture. ISPRS Jo,m,al ofP!torogrt1111me1ry aud
Remote Se,,si11g. 66: 188-t97.

Bregt. A.I<.. Deoneboom. J.. Gesiok. H.J.. van Rauden. Y. ( 1991). Determination of
ras1erizing ,error: a case srudy with die soil map of The Ne1berlands. /111er 11nrioua/
Journal of (ieogMphical !11fo1111a1iou Systems. 5:361-367.

Carrara. A.. Bitelli. G.. Carla. R. (1997). Comparison of techniques for gene.rating
digital terrain models from contour lines. lnternational Journal of Geographical
J1,fon110Hon Sysrems. 11 :451~73.

Congalton. R.G. (1997). Exploring and evaluating the consequences of vector-to-ras-

ter aud taSlll?r.to~vector COU\'ersiou. Phorogrnmme1n·c £11gi11eeri11g aud Remote
Se11si11g. 63:425-434.

Downs. R.M. ( t 998). The geographic eye: seeing through GIS. Tro11sac1io11s i11 GIS,
2:111- 121.

Holroyd. F.. Bell. S.B.M. (1992). Raster GIS: Models of raster encoding. Cr,111p111ers
1111d (;eoscie1,ces. t 8:419-426.

Joao. E.M. (1998). Causes a11d Co11seq11e11ces o/Mnp Ge11ern/i;atio11. Londou:

Taylor and Francis.

Kumler. M.P. ( 1994). An intensive comparison of triangulated irregular networks

(TINS) and digital eleva1io11 models. Cariogrnphiro. 31: 1- 99.
Langram. G. (1 992). Time in GeograpMCfll !u/on11a1io11 Systems. London: Taylor and
Francis.
 Chapter 2: Data Models 75

Laurini. R .. Thompson. D. ( L992). F,mdnmemnls o/Sp01ia/ lufon11mio11 Sys rems.

Loudon: Academic Press.

Lee. J. (1991 ). Comparison of existing methods for building triangular irregular net-
work models of terrain from grid digital elevation models. luforna;Jcnnl Journal
of Geogl'apl,;ca/ /11fon11atfo11 Sysrems. 5:267- 285.

Masser. I. (2005). GIS World,: C1eati11g Spntial Data !11fra,tmc111res. Redlands:

ESRI Press.

Nagy, G.. Wagle, S.G. (1979). Approximation of polygonal maps by cellular maps.
Comm1111icatio11s ofthe Association of Computational J\lachiuery. 22: 518-525.

Peaker. T.K.. Chrisman. N. (1975). Cartographic Data Structures. 71ieAmerictw Car-

tographer. 2:55-69.

Peuquet. D.J. ( 1984). A coucepmal framework and comparison of spatial data mod-
els. Cortographicn. 21:66-113.

Peuquet. D.J. ( 1981). An examination of techniques for refonnani11g digital carto-

graphic data. Part II: the raster-to-vector process. Ca11ographica. 18:375-394.

Piwowar. J.M., LeDrew, E.F., Dudycha. D.J. ( 1990). Integration of spatial data in
vecior and raster fommis in geographical lnformai.ion sysl'ems. lmen,atlonal
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Rana. S. ( 2004}. Top<>logicnl Daw Srmcrure.sfor Su,faces: An b11r·oducrio1110 Geo-

grnphical lufonumiou Scleuce. New York: Wiley.

Rigau.,. P.• ScboU. M•• Voisard. A. (Eds.). (2002). Spatial Database.,: with Applica-
tion"" G!S. New Yor.k: Elsevier.

Shaffer. C.A., Samet. H., Nelson. R.C. (1990). QUILT: a geographic infomiation sys-
tem based on quadtrees. /memntioun/ Journal ofGeographical J11/o·n11atfon Sys·
/el/IS. 4:103-132.

Slocum, T.A., McMaster. R.B., Kessler, F.C.. Howard. H.H. (2005). Thematic C111·-
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Tomlinso11. R.F. (1988). n,e impact of the 1tansition from analogue to digital carto-
graphic representation. 11,eAmericnu Cnrtographe,; 15:2490-.262.

Tuan. A.N.G. (20 13). Overview or three-dimensional GIS data models. /111er11atio11al
Journal ofFut11re Computer aud Co1111mmicmio11. 2:270-274.
76 GIS Fundamentals

\Vedhe, M. ( 1992). Grid cell size in relation to errors in maps and inventories pro·
duced by computerized map processes. Photogmmmetric Engineering and
Remote Ser,siug. 48: 1289-1298.

Wilkie, 0., Sewall, J., Lin. M.C. (20 11). Transfonniog GIS data into functional road
models for large.scale traffic simulation./£££ Transac;ious 011 Jlis11a/i:a1io11 and
Co111p11te,· Graphics. 18:890-901.

Wise. S. (2002). GIS Bnsics. New York: Taylor & Francis.

Worboys. M .F., Duckham. M. (2004). G/S: A Comp111i11g Perspectil'e. 2nd oo. Boca
Raron: CRC Press.

Zeiler. M. ( 1999). Modeling 0111· World: The £SRI Guide 10 (ieodatabnse Design.
Redlands: ESRI Press.

Zhi-Jun. !... \Veller. D.E. (2007). A s1ream network model for integrated watershed
modeling. E111;,-o,1111e111nl Modeling nud Assessme,11, DOI: 10. 1007/s 10666-007-
9083-9.

Zlatanova. S .. Ralunan. A.A.. Pilouk. M. (2002). Trends in 30 G!S Oevelop,nent.

Journal of Geospntial £11gi11eeri11g. 4:71-80.
 Chapter 2: Data Models 77

Study Questions

2.1 • How is an entity different from a carrograpbic objecl?

2.2 - Describe the successi\1e levels of abstraction when representing real-world spa-
tial phenomena on a comp111er. Why are there multiple levels. instead ofj us, one level
in a spatial dat.a representation?

2.3 - Defute a data model and describe lh.ree primary differences between the two
mos, coruruonly used da1a models.

2.4 - Cha.raclerize the following lists as nomjnal. ordinal, or intervalfratio:

a) I.I. 5.7. -23.2. 0.4. 6.67
b) green. red. blue. yellow. sepia
c) while, Lighl grey. dark grey, black
d) extra small. small. medium. large. ex,ra large
e) forest woodland, grassland. bare soil
I) I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7

2.5 . Characterize the following lists as nominal. ordinal, or iuterval/rat'io:

a) Spmrs. Citizens. Reds. Homeis. Baggies. Toffees. Potters
b) pinch. handful. bucket bushel. tnickload
c) 6.2. 7.S. I.I, 0.5. 19.3
d) gram. kilogram. metric ton
e) Mexico. Canada, Argemina. Guyana. Martinique
f) small. smaller, sm1llest
..

2.6 . lndicate which of the following are allowable geographic coordinates:

a) N45° 45· 45" b) longitude -127.34795° c) S96° 12' 33"

d.) E 66° 15' 60" e) \V-1 2°23'55" f) N 56.9999°

2.7 • Indicate which of 1.he following are aUowable.geographic coordu1ates:

a) Nl45° 45' 12" b) latitude -62.34795° c) S I no• 52' 43"

d) S 49° 15' 60" e) N 89° 59· 59" f) S -46.6000°

78 GIS Fundamentals

2.8 - Convert the following degree measures to radians:

a)47.2837° b) 155.724° c) - l ll.2045°

Convert tire following radian measures lo degrees:

d) 0.0042 e) -l .26 f) 2.25037

2.9 - Convert t·he following degree measure.s to radians:

a) 102.83° b) -21.533° c) 92.045°

Convert 1h,e following radian measures ,o degrees:

d) l.52 e) 0.014 f)0.37

2.10 - Complete the following coordinate conversion table, converting the listed
points from degrees-miuu1es-secouds (OMS) 10 decimal degrees (DD). or from
DD 10 OMS. See Figure 2- 10 for 1he conversion fonuu la.

Point OMS Decimal Degrees

I 36°45'12" 36.75333
2 114°58'2"

3 85°19'7"

4 14.00917
5 275.500001
6 0.99528
7 183°19·22·
 Chapter 2: Data Models 79

2.JJ - Complete the following coordinate conversion table, conve.rting lhe listed
poims from degrees-minutes-seoonds (DMS) ro decimal degrees (DD). or from DD
10 OMS. See Figure 2-10 for rhe conversion formula.

Point DMS Decimal Degrees

I 97•45·10· 97.75278

2 122°10·2·

3 15•0·12·

4 322.19861
5 152.65583

6 5.75
7 23°12'50"

2.12 . Calculare rhe radian and surface arc distance. in mere rs. assumi11g an Earth
radius of '6,378. 1kilomerers.

Arc Angle Arc

Point (d..:. deg•) Radians Distance (m)

1 1.0 0.01745293 111.318.8

2 0.01666667
3 0.000277781
4 3.216 11111
5 0.5
6 00125
80 GIS Fundamentals

2.13 - Calculate the radian and surfac-e arc distance, in meters, assuming an Earth
radius of 6.378.1 kilometers.

Arc Angle Arc

Point (dee deg,) Radians Distance (m)

1 0.07083333 0.00123628 7.885.l

2 0.036111111
3 0.25138889
4 3.0
5 10.0
6 0.75

2. 14 - Assume a spherical Earth with a radius of 637S.Okm. Calculate the gre.at circle
distances from St. Paul. Minnesota. latitude 44.9537°. longitude -93.09°. to the fol·
lowing points:
a) Chicago. latimde 41.8781°. longitude -87 .6298°
b) Reykjavik. latitude 64.1265°. longitude -21.8 174°
c) Buenos Aires. latirude -34.603 7°. longitude -58.3816°

2. 15 - Assume a spherical Earth with a radius of 6.378.0 km. Calculate the §feat cir-
cle distances from St. Paul. Miru,esota. latinide 44.9537°. longinide -93.09 . to the
following poims:
a) New York. latin,de 40.7128°, longitude -74.0059°
b) Paris. latimde 48.8566°. Jongimde 2.3522°
c) Tokyo. latitude 35.6895°. longimde 139.6917°

2.16 - \Vhat is vector topology, and why is it important? What is p.lanar topology. ruld
when might nonplauar be more useful than planar topology?
 Chapter 2: Data Models 81

2.17 - Identify 1he number of times each of the following 1opologica1 rutes are broken
for the bt,ildillg outlines (red/darker) aud property parcels (green/light) polygon lay-
ers. Note that all layers are semi-transparent so that you may identify overlaps.
········· - · .. ···j ** ...... - - - - - · ·
••
..
•
.•'
.•
..•
•

a) Bulldiugs must not overlap.

b) Parcels must 1101 overlap.
c) Pattels mus, not have gaps.
d) Buildings must be enlirely within the porcel layer.
e) A building must not span a parcel boundary.
82 GIS Fundamentals

2. 18 - Identify the number of times each oftlte following topological rules are broken
for the building outlines (red/darker) and properry parcels (greenlligbt) polygon lay-
ers. Note that all layers are semi-transparent so that yo11 may ide11tify overlaps.

:•----~ ---------a•___----,:

I
•I
II
I

~-,.;,~--,~l-..-~.-
1 ,,
•
I
--1-·=:-1 I

I I I
I I
I

•• •
: I
I I I
I

:.
I
I
I
• • '
..........·:
' ..
I
I
I
I

I
I
•---
_____..
I
I
I
I

a) Buildings must not overlap.

b) Parcels m11s1not overlap.
c) Parcels must not have gaps.
d) Buildings must be entirely within the parcel layer.
e) A b11ilding must 1101 span a parcel boundary.
 Chapter 2: Data Models 83

2.19 - Draw multi-part and single-part tables fo r the United Kingdom, recording the
labeled coun1ties.

2.20 - Draw multi-part and single-part tables for Italy. recording cite Italian mainland
and labeled nllljor islands.

s-1',_r,ntond
~ Itoly

2.21 - \Vbat are the respective adva1.11ages and disadvantages of vector data models
vs. raster data models?

2._22 - Under what conditions are mixed cells a problem in raster data models? In
what ways may the problem of mixed cells be addressed?
84 GIS Fundamentals

2.23 - List the labels (A. B, C, etc.) of raster cells that would be assigned as water
(dark. blue) and not laud (light. green) under a majority coverage mle.

,... ;
·-·····~·······t·
4 ·• ~· .. !· ... ;,

-=·=-~ ~---- ~-.,_., ._'_,_.

2.24 - List the labels (A. B. C. etc.) of raster cells that would be assigned as water
(dark, blue) and not land (light, green) under a majority coverage rule.

...... .. ....
~

:
: .
,. .'
••
 Chapter 2: Data Models 85

2.2.S - The following figure shows change in raster resolution. combini.1.1g four smaU
cells on tbe Jell 10 create an output for each corresponding larger cell on the right. Fill
in the cwo rasters 011the rigl11. for the in1ervaVra1io data (top}. and the nominal data
(bottom). Assume null values are not ignored, and a majority rule for nominal data.

2 2 1 1
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2
4 5 3 null1

a a a a
a a a b
a b a b
c c c d

2,26 - The following figure shows change in raster resolmion. combining four small
cells on the left Lo create an output for each corresponding larger cell on the right. Fill
in the 1wo rasters on ct,e right. for the i111erval/ra1io data (top). and ct,e nominal data
(bonom). Assume null values are 1101 ignored. and a majority rule for nominal data.
2 2 I 2
null 2 2 2

1 null 4 3
3 null 3 4

a a b a
a b c b
null c c c
c c c c
86 GIS Fundamentals

2.27 . Comple'le the one-to-one (top) and mruty-10-one (bonom) raster tables in the
figure below:
attnbute table
(rows first,Sforl
upper left corner)
cell-lO t· count
2 2 3
>-
2 2 2
- I
2
2
2
I
I
I z I 2 3 I

' s 3 3

3 I
attribute table
2 2 I I cell· IO COUl'\1
2 2 2 2 I 4
2 8
I 2 I 2
s 3 3
' 5

2.28 . Co,nple'le the one-to-one (top) and many-10-one (bonom) raster tables in the
figure below:
at t r ibute t able
(rows first.start
5 7 2 3 3 upper-leH corner)

4 7 cell· ID count
9 10 6
5 I
8 8 3 4 3 7 I
2 I
7 7 4 4 3
8 7 4 3 2
2 1

5 7 2 3 3 attribute t able
7 cell·ID count
9 10 4 6
2 2
8 8 3 4 3 3 ()

.
7 7 4 4 3
8 7 4 3 2
 Chapter 2: Data Models 87

2.29 - Wbat is a triangulated irregu1ar network?

2.30 . What are the main concepts behind object data models. and how do they differ
from other data models?

2.31 - Why do we use binary numbers in computers?

2.32 - Express the following base IOnumbers in binary notation:

a) I b) 23 c) 256 d) 4
e) II t) 10 g)3 b)20

2..33 - Express the foltowing base 10 numbers in binary notation:

a) 2 b)8 c)9 d) 17
e) 0 t) 128 g) 22 h) 19

2.34 - Express the following binary numbers in base IO notation:

a) OIOI b)OOOI c) 111 1 d) OOIO I IO I
e) 1101 t) 1011 g) 10000001 h) 1111 11 11

2.35 - Express the following binary nwnbers in base l Onotation:

a) ii iO b) iOO! c) OO! i d) j(>(>(>(>JOI
e) 1000 f) 1010 g) 10010001 b) 11 110000

2.36 - Why do we need to compress data? Which are most collllllonly compressed.
raSler data or vector data? Why?

2.37 - What are poimers when used in the context of spatial data. and bow are they
helpful in. organizing spatial data?
88 GIS Fundamentals

2.38 - Write the ntn·length coding for each of the rows in this raster:

b b 0 0 0 c 0 0 0

c c b b d d d 0 0

b b b b b b b b b

e c f b a d f b 0

0 s a f f f b b 0

2.39 . Write tlie run-length coding for el'Ch of the rows in this raster:

c c c c a 0 a a 0

0 0 b b d d d 0 0

,e e e f f f f f e
<l 0 a 0 a 0 0 a a
c c a 0 0 b f d e

3 Geodesy, Datums, Map Projec-
tions, and Coordinate Systems
Introduction
GIS are d ifferent from orher infomia-
tion systems because they iuclude coordi·
nares. Proper use of GIS requires
understaoding bow coordinate systems are
established, how coordinates are measured
on !he Eanb 's curving surface. and bow
these coordinates are convened for use in
flat maps. This chapter introduces geodesy.
rhe science or measuring Earth shape and
loca1io11s1 and map p,.ojectio11s the tmns-
1 nide and longitude coordinares on a Cane-
fomlation of coordinate locations from the
Earlh's curved surface 0010 Oat maps.
As described in Chapier I. GIS prac1i-
1ioners commonly use two kinds of coordi·
nare sysrems. The firsr is a spherical
coordinate system with latitudes and longi-
rudes on the surface of an ellipsoid-shaped
globe. Geodesis,s meaSl~e. combine. and
optimally estimate a se.t of latirude/longi-
tude coordinates using our most accurate
and modem technologies. Taken rogetber,
the precise coordinates at these high-accu-
racy points and the malhema1icaHy speci-
fied globe define ageodelic datum. Datums
are the fouodarion of sub5equenr posirions.
wi1h all other measurements made relative
10 datums.
Spatial data spanning large distances
are ollen specified in la1itude/longit11de
coordinares. Tn,e surface disiance. flight
distance and direction, and large areas are
more accurnrely specified when facroring
in the Eanh 's, cuivamre.
89
Most d.1ta and analysis ill GIS use two-
dimensional, Canesian coord inate sys·
rems. These systems are created via map
prcjectio,,s. 1be sysrema1ic ma1hema1ical
rendering of latitude/longit'ude coordinates
from 3-D spherical sysrems 10 2-D Cane-
sian systems. Every map projection must
distort surface geometry in some way due
10 lhe Eanh's curvature. When we plo1 la1i-
sian system. "straight" lines will appear
curved and polygons will be dis1or1ed. This
dis1or1ion may be diffkull to de1ec1 on
maps that cover a small area. but the distor-
tions become apparem as tlie mapped area
grows. We Limit the dis1onioo error by
carefully se.lectiog our map p.rojec1ions,
and by limi1ing the area over which we
apply any one given map projectiO>L We
1.ailor the type. number and extent of our
map projections to manage positional error
according to our sparial error 1olernnce.
Historically. rhe irregular shape of the
Eanh and sparse. m1connected S11rvey net-
works were large sources of t.mcenainry in
defining coordinate systems, coupled wilh
limits on our measuremenr tochnologies.
For centuries we assumed a spherical or
ellipsoidal shape for the Earth. but depar-
mres of lhe real Esnh shape from lhese ide-
alized globes led to different .es1ima1es of
coordinate locations. Surveys were difficuh
over large areas, depending on oprical and
laborious physical measurements. In one
section of the Great Arc survey across
90 GIS Fundamentals

India, over half the surveyors died of illness,
acciden1s. or preda1ion. As our measure-
ments and analysis slowly improved. we
were able to quantify and integrate Eartb•s
irregular shape, and our positional estimates
and acc11racies improved thro11gh time.
Wl1e11 sufficient new survey data accn1e.
we perfonn network-wide datum adjus1-
me111s. The datum adjustment reconciles
errors across the set of measuremenls, weed·
ing out blunders and mathemaiically disU'ib-
uting uncertainty across the network. A
datum adjustmen~ is viewed as our best esti-
mate of measured locations 11p to that time.
Each datum adjus.tment results in a re-calcu-
lation of coordinates for all existing datum
points. as new pofots influenced the esti·
mates of previous loca1ions.
Coordinate systems are also compli·
cated by large 1ectonic crnstal movements.
Continent-sized plates on tlte Earth's surface
drill, rotate, and rise or fall. meaning all
coordinates change tl1rough time. Prior to
the l 960s, we viewed the continents as static
because we couldn' t detect contifiefilal dlifL
Widely·aYllilable technologies now provide
centimeter-level accuracies over global dis-
tances. so most orus can measure and adjust
for tee.tonic plate movements. \Ve must con-
sider the epoch, or time of positional mea-
sure me 111, to accurately place coordinates.
There is another factor tbat adds confu.
iion. We may choose many diffc-rem ways 10
project coordinates from our curved Earth
ellipsoid onto a Oat. Cartesian map surface.
We choose different map projec1ions 10 man-
age this spatial distortion. Jnterp.reting a data
set's coordinate system can be confusing
without knowledge of map projections.
An example may help. Figure 3- l shows
the location of a U.S. survey ma.rk. a pre-
cisely surveyed and monumeme-d point
Coordinates for this point. measured by fed-
eral aod srate govemment surveyors. are
shown at tbe top right of the fig,.ire. There
are four different versions of the latitude/
longimde location for this point. The GIS
practitioner no,y well ask. which latinidel
longitude pair should 1 use? This chapter
should allow you decide.
Note that there are also several versions
of the Cartesian x and y coordinates for the
point in Figure 3-1. The differences in the
coordinate.values are too great to be due
solely to datum diffe.rences or measurement

Coordinotes for o From NGS Geodetic Doto Sheet

Point Locot,on Lot,tude (N) Lor,g,tude (W)
NA083(2011) 44 .!12321510 093 O~ !8 28267
NA083C2oon " 5123230,. 093 05 58 zsoo1
NA.083(1986} .u 572322,os 0930S '8'2747J
NAD8J(l996) .u 57 23 2304.7 093 05 58 27944
x v
SPC MNS
SPC MNS
)17,778 ,:n
1.o,2.s1s o~
871.048 ~2
2.857.765 91 .,,.
MT

UTMIS 4,978 ll7250 492.ISO 128 Ml

From Doto Layers;

x y
MN·R<ms~ 513 ,415~2 160,414 12? •Ff
MN·Aomscy 17.S,19$31S •8 893966 MT
SPC !,IJ,lC
SPC MNC
890.195838 95.819 719
2,922,352 206 314. 365 2-01 ..,,.
MT
LCC 542153 586 18.266 33< MT
Flp1•t 3-1: An example of diffcrcut coordinate ,'8.lues for the w.mc poiut, from a Nitiooa.1 Geodetic StU'\·c-y
(N'GS) dat11 sheet llnd Crou, di3:i121I dat11 laym. We often find multiple l:ui1udellonf;imdc \'llhKii (turvcyor
cllt.,, lap). or X :1nd Y ,·nhKs for 1hc u mc poinl (11.lrt"C"}'Or d.1111, or from cbl11 l:tyfff.. bouom).
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems
errors, but racher, are due prim1rily
.. to the
map projection used.
We want spatial data in any analysis to
properly align. so we usually u-ansfonn all
da1a 10 an id~mical coordinate system. This
means all data are expressed in a coordinate
system using the same datum, of the same
epoch. and if applied. using the S.'llne map
projection. In our example., we might specify
all data should be in tlte SPC MNS meters
coordinate system. based on the
NAD83(201 I ) datum. for epoch 2020.0. If
not, da1a may not fall in their proper relative
location. Faihire 10 adjust for datnm and
coordi1m1e system differences is the root of
many errors in spatial analysis. As a rule,
you should know 1hecoordina1e system used
for all of your data, and conven all data 10
the same coordinate system.. for the same
time period. prior 10 analysis. In some cases
we may get away wid1 improperly selected
coordinate systems or ignoring datum or
epoch differe.uces. e.g.. when our positional
error tolerances are several meters or tens of
feet and our dala are collec.ted over a short
time period. As positioning 1ech110Jogy
improves. we can make increasingly accu-
rate and precise measurements. so in many
cases the measurement date becomes
imponam. Tbis chapter describes bow we
define, measure. rutd convert among c.oordi-
na1e systems.
Surface and Elllpsoldal Coordl·
nates
La1i1udef.longi1ude values are defmed on
a reference el.lipsoid. While we make most
of our measuremenls at or ne.ar the surface of
the Eanh. we 111a1berua1ic-ally 1rnnsfer the
Jatin,des and longin1des 11p or down from the
measurement localion onto the ellipsoid
(Figure 3·2). The ttansferring line is at right
angles. or "nonnal.. 10 the surface of the
ellipsoid. All of our horizo111al measure.
111en1s must be reduced 10 the ellipsoid sur-
face.
We apply the same latitude aJld Jongi·
n,de 10 all pojms along 1he nom,al line
through thee llipsoid. a ray from the ellip-
91
Ult11uae11~ tuct.:
-rtd;i<:ec, 10. CC' Ct•
ftnte en int , e l l ~
Po;rs on o i"l~ o·
O tlg111 av]!~
fO tl",c (lhP$dd shOrt 1h(
some lot1tuce/Jo<ig1tudie
Ongan. 0.0. AeO" rl-~
I moss c;cntcr c;>f lf!C Earth
Flgul"f' 3~2: Sutf:.e< 1Ue11Suttn1Cllll :ll'C'
·'rcdiiced'' do\\,1Wnrdi 0 1)tO 2 chosen clliJ>toid
di:i«dy below ot abo\·c die mC3$urcd focntion,
soid up through our surface point All
objects on this ray "ill have the same lati·
mde and longimde. for example. a poiUJ on
1he ground and a plane flying above 1ha1
point. Nore that because of ellipsoid eccen·
1ricity, tl1is surface-perpendicular ray does
not past through the origin, ,except for in a
few special locations (poles and equator).
Modern Coordinate Capture,
Coordinate Systems, and Datums
Positions on or near the surface of the
Eanh are referenced to an ellipsoid with a
specified origin and major/minor a"tes. and
in equivalent Eanh-centered. three dimen-
s.ional. Canesian coordinate systems - the X.
Y. and Z of 3-D systems described in Chap-
ter 2. A specific. defined version of a 3-D
system wi1b a set of defined! rx,int loca1ions
is calle.d a dawm. Datums u.nderpin all geo-
graphic measurements. Dattuns are
improved through time (Fig:ure 3-1) and dif·
fer by polity. so dala in diffe.rent datums may
001match correctly.
Mos, CIS cfata colleclion today relies
directly or indirectly ou satellite-based posi·
tioning systems. such as the U.S. Global
Positioning System(GPS. described u1detail
in Chapter 5). or more generically one of
several Glolxtl Na,iga1iou Satellite System
92 GIS Fundamentals
(GNSS). Coordinates measured by GNSS
are provided with reference 10 a specified
danun. GNSS al.low the rapid. acc,,rate col-
lection of localioos. me.asured against a
datum. any time we bavc a clear view of the
s~-y. Data intelJ)reted from aerial or satellite
images depend on GNSS because drones,
planes. and satellites usually detennine their
locations from GNSS.
A set of Continuous Operating Refer-
ence Stations (CORS) in the U.S. provides
coordinates in a damm labeled as
ITRF(xxxx), wl,exe ITRF stands for the
!n1ema1ional Terrestrial Reference Frame.
and xx.xx represents a version munber. In
mos1 of North America. much collected data
are convened to a different darum. currently
one labeled as NADSJ(yyyy) system. where
yyyy is a version designator. e.g. by a name~
NADSJ(CORS96). ora year. NAD83(1996).
Other GNSS (Russ•1n GLONASS. Chinese
BeiDou, European Galileo) typically report
in an !TRF versioo. and may be transformed
10 different local <I arums. How we develop
danmis, why we have different datums, and
how we convert among datums are
explau,ed in >Ile following sections.
Datum Ellipsoid s
Horizontal geodetic da11uns are defined
with a reference ellipsoid and a set of datum
points specified on that ellipsoid. We refer-
ence all other locations to this eUipsoid and
datum points. To establish a datum, we need
to determine the size, shape, and orien1ation
of the Earth's ellipsoid. orieot a latinidetlon·
gitude system on this ellipsoid. and establish
the precise locations of our datum points.
Errors or uncerta i.nties in tbe reference ellip-
soid or the datum points sci a limit oo the
accuracy of any S'ubsequenl rueasureme111s.
so geodesists (scientists speciaLizing in mea-
suring the Earth) :strive for millimeter-level
accuracies,
Hmnans have long labored 10 esti_mare
the size and shape of the Earth. The Ancient
Greeks deduced the Earth ·s shape was a per-
fect sphere. and were among the fast to
quantify the sphere's size. They measured
Flautt 3-J: Me11surc:rucnts oiadc by EratostJ,c:u<s
to dctC'ml.inc the: circumfcrct1cc of tbc Earth.
locations on tl1e Earth's surface relative to
1be Sun or Sia.rs. reasoning tllese provided a
stable reference frame. Measuring against
celestial bodies uoderlies most geodetic
obsef\1ations taken over the past 2,000 years.
Eratosthenes perfom,ed early measure-
ments of the Earth's circumference. He
observed ll1a1 on one day each ye4r, the noon
sun was directly overhead a1 ancient Syene.
near present-day Aswan, Egypt. bec.ause it
reached the bonom of a deep well. He also
observed tha1 805 km nonh. at exactly the
same date and time. a vertical post cast a
shadow. The shadow/post combination
defined an angle that was about 7"!2 •• or
about i150tll of a circle (Figure 3-3). Eratos·
thenes deduced that the Earth m·ust be 805
multiplied by SO. or abom 40.250 kilometers
in circwnference. His estimate is within 4%
of modern estimates.
Mathematicians in the J700.s posited
that centrifugal forces should ca:use tl,e
equatorial regions of the Earth ro bulge.
Tiiey proposed the Earth would be bener
modeled by an ellipsoid, a sphere slightly
flanened at tbe North and South Poles (Fig-
ure 3-4). As noted in the figure and in Chap·
ter 2, the ellipsoid has hV<i characlerislic
dimensions: the .semi·majm· axis. the radi us
a in 1he equatorial direction. and the .semi-
minor axis, the radius bin the polar direc-
tion. This difference in polar and equatorial
radii is also described as a flanening factor.
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 93

shown in Figure 3-4. There was substantial Earth's curvature was greater near the Equ.1-
disagreemeui on the exis1ence and amoun1 of tor than a1 higher la1i10des.
n.,uening. Comple.,. repeated. aod highly Measurement effons through the 19th
accurate me.asurements established that an
ellipsoid was 1he best geometric model of and 20th cenmries led 10 a S<lt of official
ellipsoids with vario11$ equawrial and polar
the Eanh ·s surface (Figure 3-S). because 1he radii. Because early surveys could not span
the oceans. ellipsoidal para111e1ers were fit
for each co1umy. con1inem. or comparably
Ellipsoid
pole
l • ~
.. , . (y-y.i
"' large survey area. The Clarke 186o ellipsoid
was conunonly used in North America. and
is Oaner than 1he ellipsoid ,ve use 1oday. The
Bessel ellipsoid. common ill Europe. also
specified radii somewl1a1 diiferen1 than
1oday's bes, global estimates.
Since the 1980s. impro1r.red me.asure·
mems have yielde<l extremely accura1e
global measurements. Ellipsoids such as 1be
fl,otte,ung
GRSSO provide a "best" overall Iii to
foctor observe<! measurements across the globe.
and are now widely use<!.

pol<
Modern Datum Definition
Fiiu1•t .l-4: Au ellipsoidal model of tltc Eat1h's To create a darum. we must complement
tMpc.
our accurate ellipsoid by establishing a lati·
mde/lougimde net on the Earth ·s surface.
An ellipsoid is defined ,n port and estimating the coordinates for a set of
by two radii. o and b predsely measured datum poinls in this net.
His1orically. we've established our la1imde/
We may use the relotionship longinide S}~tem relati\'e to far-off stars. We
d • r · I) •o estimate rod11 use celestial bodies because their relative
positions are invariaOJ 1hrougll time: the
O• ~ angle measure<! be1ween tw() stars is
a, unchanged over the course of human histoiy.
By making precise measuremen1s to stars
from differem locations on Earth we can
w e establish the relative position of points on
~ ....,/
the E.anb's surface. Our zero longimde
.... \ n passes near 1he Greenwich Observatory
6
N ,
·, ...
;
..•.
,,.,,,••' } because it was the first place with a large
l ._ : ······ 0 enough ca1alog of celes1ial measurements 10
•. :: ... d,
"J· .. .. calcula1e latitudes and longi'mdes over much
e, .. s of 1he Eanb.
Establishing latimde/loogimde lines and
measuring point c-oordiua1es is complicated
Fia:m~ 3-5: Two arc5 i.llustratc the: su.r&cc m~- because 1be Earth sys1em moves in mulliple
s,11e:1ncnis aod c11kult11ioru med co cttim1uc the dimensions. The EMth spins 011 its axis. with
scroi,nujor and sc:ini,mil\Or 1U.c1. 11,c: art some precession or "wobble." while a1 the
length, m.1y be mc:.isorcd by , urfocc sun·~·,,
11od the angle$ from a,tronomical obsc:r,aoom. same time orbiting the Slut. Although
unknown prior 10 o,et 960s. large 1ectonic
94 GIS Fundamentals
plates slide, 1wist. and tilt through time over
the surface of the Earth. so any object fixed
to the surface of the Eanh moves relative to
mosl other fixed objects.
Before we discovered plate tectonics.
we assumed the conlinents were stationary
and 1ha1 we could establish a la1i111de/lougi·
tude grid, fixed for au time with a zero lon-
gitude passing through the Greenwich
Observatory. Most points were considered
static. and the main problems were thought
to be improving 1,ueasu.rement density. accu-
racy, and coherence across all continents.
The discovery of large plate moveme,n com-
plicated this notion. Figure 3-6 illustrates
point movement across time periods. called
epochs in geodesy. II shows a cominuously
operating. f.xed OPS station's drift through
time. in th.is case moving more than a meter
(3 feet) over 26 years. GIS data collected
with an unknown epoch over this period
could diverge by <>ver tliree feet from the
Point Pos,toor,, Epoch
and Shrf1 through time,
Trek Point, Orange
County, CA
106 cm, or
3 .47 ft at
N•OOZs·rw
\ (DORIS). and Gloool Naviga1io11 Sa1elli1e
...~
\ /
Fia-u1•t 3-6: Au cxa:inplc of coordioatc drift with
epoch. ot 1ncti1u1etun11 1imc. T11c coordi~tcs for
a pttciuly S1m'c)'t c.lP,0i111 shift dsJ?uJb time, wid1
the epoch for each pomt shown ~dJa,c,:nt to loc~·
tion (councsy R. Maher. KDM Maidi.an).
same point measured at a different time.
Mis·alignmem will be greater for fumre
measurements. and any data collected a1 dif-
ferent times won't overlay correclly. Oigi·
1i2ed locations of power poles o,igh1 end up
three feet into a road in an independent
streets layer. or buildings might .appear to be
in rivers.
Given plate movemems. how do we
establish a coherent datum framework for
measuru,g locations across 1be globe? Mos,
countries are adopting 1.he concep1 of
dynamic datums and fixed epocb position·
ing. where we keep 1rnck of the-epoch of
coordinate measure so tbat data may be
transformed to a common time. ·w e measure
the location oflhe con1inems through time 10
millimeter accuracies and we can calculate
the shift of coordinate locations from any
one time period 10 another using veloci1y
models. These models are based! on a series
of measurements of the speed and direction
of drift for a network of poin!S. AS with dead
reckoning. we can extrapolate funire posi-
lion based on pasl velocilies ru1d din:clions,
filling in gaps between point re-.measure·
ments. Our data can then overlay to within
the accuracie.s of our me.asurements. as
we've removed most of the posi tionaJ differ.
ence due 10 tectonic plate mo,•eoiems.
Most modem datums are at their base
dependem on a global measure,nent infra-
simcmre that consists of four main systems
(Figure 3-7): Very Long Range Baseline
Interferomeuy (VLBI). Satellite Laser
Ranging (SLR). Doppler Ort>itography by
Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite
Systems (GNSS). These systems allow us 10
precisely locate point locations and shifts on
tectonic plates through time.
VLS I may be viewed as the base mea-
suremeuJ in es.1ablisbing our datums. A
global network of 3o+ radio telescopes
receive signals front distant quasars (Figure
3-7). The radio signals vary so that a specific
pa11en1 released a1 10 by the quasar may be
recorded at different limes across the globe
(1 1 through t~). Correlated signal analysis
allows calcula1ing the relati"e position
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems
Fundamental Measurements for the
ITRS/ ITRF Systems
~ VLB I ~
DORIS ;::/ ,
@
SLR ~
~NSS
SLR , ?
@ GNSS
GNSS~
between these radio telescopes at any one
1ime to within millimeters, or hundredths of
inches. Funher. VLBI and related technolo-
gies can measure station velocities. both
absolutely, ai!ld between any one s1ation and
any other. This provides highly accurate
measurements of 1.he Earth's rotation and
variation, the orientation of the polar axis.
the relative positions of the stations on the
conrinems. aod crustal movements. again. all
at millimeter ac<:uracies.
These positional measurements are aug-
mented by othersystems, mosl notably
DORIS. GNSS. and SLR. The DORIS sys-
tem measures Doppler silifts in signals sem
to satellites. t\'hich allows us to precisely
locate appro,ciruately 100 ground stations.
GNSS mcamre signals broadcas1 from con,
stellations of satellites to networks of lnm-
dreds of fixed receivers s1a1ioned across the
globe. quami:fying station location through
time. The SLR measures laser travel 1imes to
and from orbiting satellites to estimate SLR
95
QuDSclfS
VLSI
~
antenna
DORIS
vl
sat. ant.
SLR
®6)
s.1t. ont.
~
satellite
station locations and mo,•ements. particu-
larly venical changes associated with crustal
defonnaiion. ai near milHmeu~r levels.
Taken together. these measurements are
the backbone of the lmematioual Terrruuial
Reference~,,,.,,, (ITRS), and allow 1he cal-
culation of the recognized global datmns
known as lb.e J111ema1io11al Ten-estrial Refer·
e11ce Fr(Tme.s (ITRF). mentioned earlier.
These reference frames defi:ne the precise
locations and velocities of sunions as darum
poims relative to a standard larirude/longj-
tude nel, at a gi\'en point in time (Figure 3-
8). This last qualification is imponant. that
the points are only specified at a given point
in time. or measurement epoch, because the
system is dynamic: the stations are all mov.
ing relative 10 each other. \\'e can quamify
the velocities and directions: of each mea.
surement point. iu effect quantifying conti·
ncntal drift (Figure 3-8). We can
approximate where any point was at a previ.
ous time by applying these velocities to posi-
96 GIS Fundamentals

Fi&m·(' 3..$: TcclC)l1ic pl~lcs for ~ port:ion of the Ear1h. ~nd :a , ubsct of mcas1u-cd po$itioo$ iom the CTR.$,
t.bowUlg tbc m<:a~wcd direction and relative ,·clocity ofthifts. Note that the n:locit)• and direction of shitt$
vary subs.autially ,.,.;thin and runoug pbtcs.

tional measurements. subtracting to adjust

for intervening drift. ITRF datums are caku·
la1ed periodically. and include es1imates of
both the positions and velocities of all points
so that we may combine data across different
measuremem epochs.
Differe nt versions of the ITRF are noted
by their year of calculation. for example.
ITRFS9. ITRF90. ITRF91. Each includes
the X, Y. and Z location of each measure.
ment station and the velocity of each sta1ion
in three dimensions. Before VLBI and
related teclu1ologies. panicularly GNSS. we
had no accurate way to widely. iuexpe-11·
sively accoum for 1cc1onic coordinate shifts.
GNSS changed tha~ aod we must now
record botl1 lhe location and the time of mea,
surement ifwe are 10 precisely establish
positions within a danun. and 10 compare
loca1ions through time.

NA083(2011) f i: u,rr J-~; A C0111i11uo1.1sly Opcrntiog Rcf"c1K."C

Sta1ion (CORS). used lo collect bigb-accurn.cy
The NADS3(20 11) is the most recent. posi1ional ancas:urc1ue:11t:s iu the U.S. ~coW1 ci)'
official horizontal darum in the U.S. It is NOAA).
based on a comprehensive analysis of GNSS
data. combined with continent.wide surface
surveys. Central ro tbe darum are mellsure..
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems
ments fro m fLxed GNSS measurement instal-
lations, e.g. the U.S. Co11tinuously Operating
Reference Stations (CORS. Figure 3-9). a
network of several hundred fixed GPS sta-
1ious disrribu1ed across the Nonb America.
or the Canadi.an Active Control Stations
(CACS) in Canada. where the datum is
known as NAD83(CSRS). NAD83(201 I) is
based 011 the GRSSO ellipsoid. but rite cemer
of the ellipsoid is offset by more than a
meter from our bes1 estimate of the Earth's
center of mass. Tllis was adopted to maintain
consisteJtcy witb preceding d:tnuns. and to
reduce addj1ion.1.l computations and confu.
sion among users.
The NAD83(2011 ) includes recalculated
locations of t'111S of thousands oflegacy
'"passive" control poinis. the traditional stan-
ing points for most local surveys. These sur-
vey marks were monumented l'O serve as
local staning points. or be11ch m(lrks when
part of precis,,e vertical surveys. Marks often
consist of a metal disk embedded in rock or
concrete (Figure 3· 10). Their coordinates
and other charat1eristics are maintained,
often in an online,accessible database. The
median network accuracy for control points
was reponed as better than I cm.
There are a series of horizontal danims
released for North America between 1989
and 2007 thal were precursors to
NADS3(20 1L). remarkable given that almost
sixty years passed between prior dan1m
Fi.aut•t .,l..10: A bronze disk used 10 mouumclll 11
sun·cy mntk.
97
updates. This is because GPS became widely
available toward the end of t he 1983 update.
TbeGPS data had higher aC'Cttracies than
those measured using traditional methods.
with improved speed and lowtr coses. How-
ever. a nationwide integration of e.xisting
sur\leys and new OPS observations was
untried, with unknown cost and speed. In
response. NGS collaborated! with states 10
creale limited-area High Accuracy Reference
Networks (HARNS), also known as High
Pre,;ision Geodetic Networks (HPGN). Geo·
erally, there is a different NAD83(HARN)
for each state or small groups of states. The
HARN and subsequent NAD83 uation";de
adjustments are largely satellite-based. and
mark lhe transition from physical and op1ical
surveying 10 GPS/GNSS surveying. As the
GPS·CORS network was extended. it
allowe.d more frequent datum improve-
m'1lltS. and geodesists assimilated the new
data and me1l1ods into a coherent continental
analysis. over a series of datums:
NAD83(CORS93). NAD83{CORS94).
NAD83(CORS96). NAD83'(NSRS2007).
and finally the NA!>$l(20i i) we use today.
Note that the NGS and others sometin1es \!Se
altemative designations with only the darum
date. e.g .. NAD83( 1996) is ,equivalent to
NAD83(CORS96).
NATRF2022
The United States is t11111sitioning to a
set of sateHite-OOsed, dyn(lmic refereuce
frames, called the Nonlt American Tern?S-
n'ial Referonce Frame o/2()]1
(NATRF2022). T11is system is substantially
different from tl1e NA083(201 I). and differ.
ent from but related 10 tl1e ITRF. As with the
ITRF. the NATRF2022 also integrates tirne-
dependency in darum points, and is based in
pan on ITRS measurements. to detem1iue
positions. The system identufies darurn
points with epoch coordinates. reporting
point locations for a specific date/time. and
calculates periodic updates {or the point
coordinates. e.g .• ar five or ren year da1es.
Praclitioners may use epoch.coordinates as a
basis for subsequently positioning surveys or
98 GIS Fundamentals
digitizing points. lines, orpolygons, and
may adjus1 10 a s1andard epoch.
NATRF2022 will also identify continu.
ously measured dauun poims. providing
near real-1ime coordinates and \'eloci1ies for
a se.t ofloc.atfons. Most of these locations
will coincide with CORS bose s1atious. If
using appropriate GNSS/GPS teclu1ologies.
new field data ma.y reference the CORS bose
stations directly. calculating positions for the
current 1ime and date. The epoch may be
recorded in the m.etadata. and positions may
be easily adjusted. to an epoch corresponding
to other data.
The NATRF2022 and ITRF coordinates
typically are 001 lhe same. although they
both at their base i11clude measurements
from the 1.ntemational Terrestrial Reference
System. The ITRF uses a larger set of Sia·
tions to estimate con1inen1al plate dynamics
and average the pfate movements. and hence
the two systems use different relative point
velocities. The U. S. NGS adopts a conven-
tion that reduces coordinate velocities in
Nordi A1netita. and bente leng11ieus Ille
interval between required coordinate recal-
culation. Some backgromJd helps understand
this choice.
If all our modem datums beld the longi-
tude fixed for a zero line tltrough the Green·
wicb Observa10ry. tben all other point
coordinates across tbe globe would drift wilh
the continents, some quite rapidly. and in
different directions. Drift would be tower in
England. and largest for tbe plate mo,•ing
fastest relative to England. This wouldn't be
the bes1 choice for most cow1tries. because it
would require more frequent calculations of
new positions. For example, in projects
where accuracies of 30 cm would suffice.
with a Greenwieh-fixoo Olongin1de. the con-
tinental drift wouM surpass conunon accu-
racy threshold in .a decade or less. and data
will mis-align much sooner for much of the
globe. We could l>ack-calculate to a stand.1rd
epoch so tliat data matche<l but would have
to recalculate any time data were collected
more than a few years apan. incre~1sing work
and the c.hance for confusion or errors.
for this and other reasons. neither the
ITRF nor the NATRF2022 maiutain a zero
longitude through the Greeimicb Observa-
tory. Rather. both the NATRF2022 and ITRF
systems adop1 latimdenongitude nets tied to
celestial frames. These latimde/l;ongimde
nets have an origin al !he mass c.enler of the
Earth. spin around the pole, and orllit the
Sun according 10 precise measurements and
models. We might think of lhese as imagi-
nary \\ire frame of latitude and longitude
lines that are tied 10 the mass ce11ter oftbe
Earth, with the tectonic pla1es sliding under
the wire frame. The zero longitude passes
near. b111 DOI through the Greenwich Obser-
vatory. ruid this loogimde drifts slowly
through time, as the plate containing the
Greeu"icb ObserVlltory drifts uuder our lati·
tude/longinide frame. All points will drift
with their plates.
A main question is to what do we attach
the latitude/longimde wire frame? The larg-
est NATRF2022 datum is tied 10 the main
North American Plate. meaning chat in a sta-
listical sense the net mo\'ement for a set of
points distributed across t11e Nonh American
plate averages to zero. Points Oil this plate
will move. but by small amounts. and bal-
ance each other out across the plate. This
yields relatively slow velocities for points ou
lhe main plate. yielding measured c,oordi-
nates that have small epoch differences for
longer periods. Titere is a less frequent need
to adjust NATRF2022 coordinate locations
on the main North American plate to accounl
for coutinental drift. Under this scheme.
coordinates on other plates move al rela-
tively higher velocities. but the NATRF2022
is designed for U.S. territories.
The ITRF datums are different. Move-
ments are averaged globolly. so '!be swumed
movement of a set of points distributed
across all lbe Earth's large plates is zero.
This means that even though the ITRf and
NATRF2022 may inilially align. 1hey will
diverge over time. At some time in the
future, the government bodies " 'ill have to
adjus1 for this divergence. bm tbat is pro-
jected 10 be seve.ral decades hence. given the
estimated rates of dive.rgence.
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems
ETRS89
The Ett"'1em1 Tel'resrr'iol Reference Sys·
1e111 of 1989 (.ETRSS9) is the most common
positioning base over much of Europe, and
the origin for many national damms on atat
continent 11 r.akes a parallel approach to the
NATRF2022. in d1a1 the system is tied to the
main European 1ec1onic plate. and is based
on ITRS measurements at epoch 1989.0.
This maintains low coordinate velocities
across this main European plate. As wilh
NATRF2022. this means lime between
adjustments for continental drift is extended
when working on the European plate. Coor·
dinate shifts measured by ITRS may be up 10
centimeters a year. while in the ETRSS9
they are typically millimeters per year. Data
may be 1rans!ormed 10 a common epoch so
1ba1 they overlay correctly.
There are several updates to 1he
ETRSS9. with new and refined coordi1m1es
measured in 2000. 2005. and 2008, and !here
will likely be periodic additional adjust·
meo1s. These are based on the ITRS and the
EPN. a pemianenl network of GNSS stations
spread across Europe. in much lhe S.'llne way
as the CORS s1a1ions are 1be basis for posi·
tionin_g in North America. By convention,
the updated danuns are labeled
ETRF2000(R.xx). where xx is the year of
adjustment.
WGS84 Datums
The World Geodetic System of1984
(WGS84) is a third set of datums, developed
and primarily used by the U.S. Depanmem
of Defense (DOD). II was introduced in
1987 and is u.sed in most DOD maps and
positional da1a. The datum is periodically
upd.11ed. e.g.. WGS84(1 674), and
WGS84(G I7,62). and there will likely be
more adjustments in Ille filntre. The ITRF
and WGS84 damntS have been aligned since
1995. and caa be considered equivalent for
most. bm 1101 au. G!S applica1ioos. Differ·
ences betwttJl these datums are generaUy
only a few ce.nlimeters since 1995.
99
Legacy, Pre-Satellite Datums
While many cow1tries bave or are in lhe
process oftransilioning to sa1ellile·based,
dynamic datums as described above, some
new data and most existing da1a use coordi·
na1es referenced 10 older. legacy danuus.
GIS user should be famjliar with bolh new
and old danuns until we co11ven all our old
data and collect aU our new data in the new
dynamic datums.
Geodetic surveys in 1he 18th and 19th
c-enn1ries combined ground :surveys wil.h
op1icaJ astronomicaJ observations to develop
danuns. Figure 3·11 shows an e.xample sttr·
vey, employi_ng a network of in1erlocking tri-
angles 10 detem1ine positions at smvey
stations. Trianguhnion surveys relied oo
optical angle measureruem and few surface
distance measurements, an advantage given
surface measurements were difficult and
expensive when many danu;ns were ftrst
developed. Triangulation also improves
accuracy: because there are multiple mea-
surements to each survey station. tbe loca-
tion at e.ach station may be compute.cl by
various paths.
A survey
~B station
survey leg
G
Fljttrt 3· 11: An eXAtUplc tnl'ln3t1b1iol) tuJ'\'C)'
m:twork. New posi1ions m,,y bc1 c::ikulntcd \'i:t
t"'3rious path&. rc:,·ealiog bluodm aud ioc:«-asiag
the acc:Uf'D.ey o( the sur,·c)'cd pc:,,sitious.
100 GIS Fundamentals

Although rarely encountered today, Datum Shifts

there was a U.S. S1andard Damm in use up
to the early 20th cenrury. replaced by 1he
Noni, A111el'icm1 Daf/1111 if / 927 (NAD27).
The NAD27 was the firs, network-wide Je,ist
squares adjns1mem. fixing a surwy station
in Kansas as a sta.rting point.
Its successor was lhe North American
00111111 of 1983 (NAD83). first released in
1986. Because there ,vere several rapid
upda1es due 10 tile rapid adoption of GPS.
we place a modifier in parentheses afler 1.he
NAD83 designator. NADS3( !986) indica1es
the original version. the darum adjustment
with limited GPS observations. The original
NAD83(1986) used an Eanh-centered refer-
ence. rather than fixing a surface station as
with NAD27. Coordinate shifts from
NAD27 to NAD83( 1986) were large. often
tens to hundreds of meters. Jo most
instances. the coordinates changed because
our measurement methods and number of
stations improved. As described above. there
were several iterations of1be NADS3
danmis over the following decade.
Ahnos, all locations have dulferent coor-
dinates when specified in differe111 dan,ms.
The latitudes and longitudes change because
newerdatum use different. usuaUly impro,·ed
data. methods. and models. Objects appear
to shift datums and mis..align across daltuus,
sometimes significantly so.
Figure 3-12 illustrates datum shifts at a
well-measured NGS mark. The ITRF/
WGS84 and currem NAD83 datum coordi-
nates can differ by as much as two meters.
even though they are both based 0,1 modern
sarelli1e and other accurate measure.incnts.
Aoy analysis with accuracy requiremeo1s
smaller than the datum shift will be unreli-
able. Our underlying darum shifts are larger
1bao our acceptable error specification. We
should be careful itt convening all data to the
same damm when combining data from dif-
ferent sources.
Notice rhat the datum shlft between the
legacy NAD27 and NAD83( 1966) is quite
large, approximately 40 meters ( 130 feet),
typical of the up 10 hundreds of meters of

Examples of Datum Shifts

Successive do1um tronsformohons for New Jei-sey control point , Bloom J
Dat um Long,·ude (W) l otltude(N) Sh,ff(m) ~
0 0 1
N>.027 7,tO 12' 38M2r .t:00 47 076.'531') I '""'j(J"'II I
36
N-'083(1~86) 740 li!' Z 39240• ,0° ,, 112n•· ) 3
OO.C Ai)WGS8.t(C1162)
NA08J(HARN) t.tO IZ" Z 3'K>6't' .c.:;,O 47 112762" <:1wG.$$.f.(C-11,o)
005
z
NA063(CORS9~) 7Ao lZ' 39009·
'
•• , , 1129-w)
~ .-
NA083(Z007) 7A0 1Z' l..J39n· ,(()0 AT I 1Z9t2• ) O OI
NAC83(2011) :,4012·z3sse>r , "• , r, 1~:.•.)) ~::
W(;$81{Gl1!10) 7.40 IZ' Z J97ZO" 00 7 11.,.,..,
WC$84(Ct76i) 740 IC Z:39716• ,ego 1.T 116021" ) OOJ NA08J CORS%
~ 1!12001
1936 ••• 4>2011
- 'fiAAN

f
NA027

0 10 2() 40
Meters
Fi&lll't 3-U : Datum shifts in the ..»ordinates of a point for some ~rumon dllnmu. Note that !:be cstitwitc of
coordina1c po1itioo shi.tu approxim:udy 36 m from 1hc NAD27 GO t.bc NA.083(1986) danun. wlli.Jr: lhr: tbifls
2inoni NAD83 \'r::r$iou• 11.rr: 0.05 1n0r lr:u. Tbr: sbifi: 10 \VGS84(01 lSO) is aliO shown, here :l))pro.<timntd )•
().9S m. Cnkuln1ions o.re b:ucd on NOS data dtccts. NCAT. and HTOP softw.itrc.
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 101

shifts fromearly, regional datums to modem,
global datums. The figure also shows 1be
subseq11e111ly smaller shifts for NAD83
datums throug h lime. and relatively larger
dis1auce between NAD83 and WGS84/ITRF
datums. The figure doesn' t show 1he rela-
tively laige shifts from the NA083(201 I) to
the NATRF2022. bu1 is expected 10 be simi·
lar 10 1he shift from NAD83 10 WGS84.
Datums shifts associated with datum
1rausfonnations have changed wilb each suc-
cessive daruin reali.zation. as summarii.ed in
Figure 3· 13. Several datum pairs are cousid·
ered equivalent for many pwposes. The
WGS84(G730) was aligned wilh !he ITRF92
damm. so 1bese may be substinned in dan,m
transfonuations requiring no better than cen.
time1er accurades. Similarly. !he
WGS84(GI 150) and ITRFOO datums have
been aligned, and may be.substituted in most
subseque111 transforu1a1ions.
While locations in ~,e NA083(xxxx)
and 1be ITRF/\VGS84 da1wns conunonly
differ by over a meter. dan,m shifts internal
to these groupings have bec-0me small for
recent datums. Differences between

YEAR NAD WGS ITRF

Pre- NA027
1980

1986 ITRF88
!TSF I
~In~
~ 10 I m O<IC" to ltw
• )'(:In, Chol\)U ol
1989 NA083(HARN/HPGN) a'"'""
I \ , WGS8A(Gno)
:ir ks.s.

1
I
&Jf~2~.
1994 :,:Z':;'""· .,,,._,.,."'
Mi;pro2'0crn upto2mccn
be~...ccn Oil t.:AO 8J
I
-WGS84(G730) - "'"' -
<lOtm
· ITRF92

I ~ 'NGst, '*1!tm11 WCS8"4(C$}'])

1998
2001
,

,,::I3:RS96)
/

"'"'"'''" coos......
tu.Oe3 l"t'Cll.~ 9r.f'ICl'd ry
\ '-WGS84(G873)

\ !
WGS84(Gll50)- & !MOO
::c:~,
-~:'°'~ ITRF94

-
ol,;ncd. dffcl"MC.n
ITRFOO
I
I
2 CfflOI" .CU

l ..., ....,....,
DfTWHl'I INS
ITRF05
2011 NAD83(NSRS2007) ..,,.
:mr
/'''""'"'"" ITRF0 8
I
2012
I
NA083(CORS2011)
Zmer<'n
, - dt'UCF"« ,
'-.. WGS84(Gt762)
I
1
dffC"l"ICtt \.P
~
,o z"'
tr.!Mf 10 ~ MTiITTOll
\

,
I
!TRF14

2022 NATRF2022 - :.•J::';'::;!:.,-::~·-

,me
Mlh
Future ITRF ond WGS84
wt lo ICC10IIC tin! I

Flgurf' 3-13: This gr,,tphic $~11nlll«ritc:$ the e,-ohnion of the three nui1i families of d.1t'Wn1 used in N0rth
Ammc.,. AJ tl1c datums b~·e been adjl1stcd. borizootal p<>sition,,l cliffcicnc« betw«o a.u.n·ey marks b"vc
varied. witlllll the nmges shown. ..Alig:ocd'' d11turus(c:.g:., WGSS4(01150) and ITRFOO) may be coosidCTCd
equi,'llkn1 for-mos1 putpOkS \\1tcn applyini cl.an.nu tnuufom'3tioits.
102 GIS Fundamentals
NAD83(HARN) and NADS3(xxxx) datwus
may be up to 20 cm. but are cypically less
than 4 cm. so these danun realizations may
be c-0nsidered equivaJen.l if accuracy limits
are above 20 cm. The different~ between
NADS3(CORS96) and NAD83(2011) are
often a few c,en1imeters, as are. the differ.
ences among ITRF realizations.
We must e1nphasize a few points about
datums. First, different datums specify dif-
fereot coordinate systems. You do no1 e.,pec1
coordinates for any physical point to be the
same when they are expressed relative to dif·
feren, danuns.
Second. different versions within a
danim family are different danuns.
NAD83(1996) is a different realization than
NAD83(20t I). and ITRFS8 is different 1han
ITRF05. The datum is incompletely speci-
fied unless tbe ve:rsion is noted. Many GIS
data sets refer to a datum without the ver-
sion. for example. NAD83. This is indeter-
minate and confusing. and shouldJ1 ·, be
practiced. it forces tbe user to work wil.h
a,nbiguil)I. which leads to blundtrs.
Third, coordinates specified relative 10
officially adopted datums in most coun1ries
change through ,•ersions. The NATRF2022
positions diverge from NAD83(20 l l ) posi-
tions by I to 1.5 meters for mosl poinls in
North America. The NAD83(1986) datum
realization is up to two meters differeot than
the NAD83(CORS96). Differences in datum
realiza1ions depend on the versions and loca·
tion on Earth. Data may 001 overlap cor-
rec,tly for differenl datum versions. even if
you use siandard ,datums es1ablisbed for a
country.
Finally. all data layers used in an analy-
sis should be converted 10 tlte same danim.
unless you are certain that the shifts between
datums are smaller than the accuracy
requirements for your analysis. You don·,
need toconven all NA083(CORS96) data 10
the NAD83(20 ti) dattun if your accuracy
requirements are 1.5 meters. as 1be danim
shift is rypically a few centimeters, but you
do need to con\'en NAD83(CORS96) data to
ITRF(2008) when applying the same error
threshold. You should verify die magnitude
of datum shifts between any dallllll pair. and
apply a danim transformation if the shlft
approaches your error tolerance.
Datum Transformations
Converting coordinates from one datum
10 another is t}]Jically done usin,g a datum
t,rmsformntlon. A danim transfonnation
provides the latitude and longi1ude of a point
1n one darum when we know lhem in another
darum: for example. we can calculate the lat-
itude and longitude of a survey mark in
NAD83(201I) epoch 2020.00 "·hen we
know these geographic coordinates in
ITRFOS epoch 2020.0 (Figure 3-14).
Datum transformations are often more
complicated when they involve. older
datums. Many olderdatums were created
piecemeal to op1itnize fit for a country or
continent. so simple formuL1s often do not
exist for transfonnations among many older
daru,ns. Specialized danm, lfansformations
may be.provided. us1mlly by gO\'l!nunent
agencies. As an example. in the 'United
States, the National Geodetic Survey created
NCAT. a danun transformation tool 10 con-
vert between various NAD datums.
Transformation among ne\ver danuns
may use more general mathematical trans-
fonuations between three-dimensional. Car-
tesian coordin.11e systems (Fig11re 3-14).
Transformation equations allow conversion
among mos, NAD83. WGS84. and ITRF
geographic coordinate systems. .aud are sup-
ported in large part by the improved global
measureme111s described in the previous few
pages. This approach incorpomt,es a shift in
the origin. a rotation, and a change in scale
from one datum to another.
A danuu transformation is typically a
m~rlti·Step process. ln past times, empirical,
gnd-based methods have been u.sed because
many early datt1ms were DOI strictly derived
from coherent malhematical surfaces. Later,
a J\1olodei,sAy 1ra11iforma1ion was common.
using a system of equations \\itb three or
five parameters. More currendy.. a Helmen
rra11sfor11urtfo11 is employed using seven or
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 103

to
)(. Y. Z
z

cl""' d) rotate
x·.v·.z·
Z'
Z' :'
/ •
•• >.: •••
z'
... ··~.. ...i.··.··'.··-
- ~ ::;.,,____, ..
.,. Y'

..x·.... ...•
.
y•
)('
•
:,
ti;urt 3-J,1; Applic.,tioo of 3 modem 00.twn trnmfoniution, Oc:ogmpbic coordii1,11tcs (longitude. A. and
la1m1dc. (,) ate tninsfom1cd 10 a uew datum. b)•o) couwnion from scoarapbic to Cartcslan ~diuatcs lU
the old d.11.t\1.111 {d\tOU3b a sci ofcqu.1t-i01li th:u arc l'lOI d1own), b) appl>•illt al'l oritin shift,<) 11eAI.U11,
d) rotnting tbcsc f.hificd coordin.,t~ llOO e) converting a.hue lattct datum Cnrtcsuu, coordinates. X. Y. z·,
to the longihllie and latitude. ')..'. (i. in tbe t:1rget datum.

14 parameters (Figure 3-14). First. geo-
graphic coorc!linates on the source datum are
convened from longirode (1..) and latirode
(cj,) to X. Y, and Z Cartesian coordinates. An
origin shift (translation). rotation. and scale
are appLied. This system produces new x·.
Y . and z· coordinates in tbe 1arget datum.
These x·.Y'. and Z' Cartesian coordinates are
then convened back 10 the lougintdes and
la1in1des (): and f) in the target datum.
More advanced 01etl1ods allow these
seven transformation parnme1ers to change
through time,. to account for tectonic and
other shifts. for a 101al of 14 parameters.
These methods are incorporated into soft-
ware that c.alculate 1.ransfom1ations among
modem datums, for example. the Horizou1al
Tirue-Dependen1 Positioning (HTDP) tool
available from the U.S. NOS
(""'"·ngs. no aa.govrroo LS/Htdpi
Htdp.shtml). HTDP converts among recem
NA083 dan,nis and most ITRF and WGS84
datums.
Because of tectonic plate movement. the
most precise geodetic measurements refer to
the epoch. or ftxed time period. at wbich the
point was measured or datuL1l fit. The HTDP
software includes options to calculate lhe
shift in a location due 10 differem reference
darums [for example. NAD83(CORS96) to
IVGS84(GI 150)]. the shift due to different
realizations of a damm [for.example.
NAD83(CORS96) 10 NAD83(2011 )]. 1be
shift due to measurements in different
epochs (for exan1ple. NA083(CORS96)
epoch 1997.010 NAD83(CORS96) ei>och
2010.0). and the differences due to all three
factors.
Summarizing key insights. datums rep-
resent our best estimate of weU~measured
coordinate locations at a given time. and
coordinates in one datum may differ from
coordinates in tlle previous datum for the
same poims. These diffel'l.~>ces may be small
and ignored with little penalty in some spe·
cific instances. typically wh.en the changes
104 GIS Fundamentals
between datums are smaller th.an the spatial
accuracy required for our analysis. However.
many da111m shifts are quite large, up 10 tens
of meters. One sltould know tJ1e magnitude
of the datum shifts for the area and datum
transfom1a1ions of interest.
Second. we should use the appropriate
da111m transfonnation. There is no generic
transfom1ation between NAOS3 and
WGS84. Rathcr.11,ere are transfonuations
between specific "crsions of each. for exam-
ple. from NAOSJ.(CORS96) to
WGS84( 1I 50). Our default practice should
be to use die proper da1um 1ransfonruuion.
for the proper version. 10 transform all data
to the same datwn.
Finally. GNSS positioning i·s good
enough that we can measure the change in
position over relatively sbon 1ime periods.
so the same feature measured at two differ-
ent da1es. even with the same dacum. will
have two differem sets of coordinates.
Unless proven othenvise, all data should be
couvened to the same coordinate system,
based 011 the same danun. at the :same epoch
date, or time period. We must note the epoch
of data collection, and convert all data 10 a
standard epoch. uuless we know that the
coordinate drift is less than accwacy needs.
If not, dalll may misalign. We should record
the original danam under which ·1he data
were collecte<I, and d1e iype andl method of
any datum transfonnation applied to the
data.
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 105

Heights
TheGeold
We often need 10 specify the eleva1ioo of
objec1s. e.g.. ·10 measure slope. drop. or visi·
bility. We adopt a gravity.related vertic.al
reference called a geoid as a s1aniog poinl
for measuring heiglus (Figure 3· IS). We
don1 t use the ellipsoid as a height reference
because Earth densi1y and hence gravi1y
varia1io11s cause regions 10 dip below or
bulge abo\'e a reference ellipsoid. The
world' s oceans. our historical reference for
heigb1. approximaiely follow a gravi1a1ion·
ally·defined geoid surface.
The geoidal surface ""Y
be 1hough1 of
as an imaginary sea thal covers the entire
Eartn. affected only by Earth's gra,;1y. This
geoid rises above or dips below lhe Eartli's FJaurt 3~1.S: lkpic1ioos oftbc. E:uth ' s lf!"''i1y
field, M c"im..,tcd &om 5tltcUitc musurcmcnl$.
ellipsoid by up 10 I00 me1ers across 1he Tbe, c sliow 1be uodulation1,, g~-11dy e:<aJgCl'3tcd.
globe (Figure 3-16). Allhough ii may al 6rs1 iu the Earth's a,nwity. and hence the a:co1d (cour-
seem diflicul110 believe. me "average" tesy Unl\•usiiy of Texas C«itcr for Space
R.c•cn:n:b, nnd NASA) .
ocean surface near Iceland is more limn 150
me1ers ''higher" than the ocean surface

Fta,u.,. 3~16: Owid~1 bei1lu.1: \'lll)' :tcrou tbe globe. This figure depicts potiti\'e gcoi<bl beiilus in lig]Hcr
tones (gcoid above die elhpsoid) ru.d oeg11.1h·e 1-eoi<bl heights in darker lonet. Note lhat geo1clal beig.l11s ~re
posi1h·c for large arc-u ocar Iceland and lhc Philippines (A aod S. rc,spccti,·ely). while large ucgatin: values
att found south of India (C), Coiuinnual nnd OOU1nry botdo"S arc sho,,,, in ,,1lite.
106 GIS Fundamentals

nonheasl of Jamaka when measured relative The geoid is a measured and interpo-
10 our mathema1ical ellipsoid. Since gravity lated surface: uulike an ellipsoid . the geoidal
pulls in a direcrio:u that is perpendicular 10 surface is not defined by a simple mathemat-
the geoidal surface. and !he pull of gravity ical equation. We use a number of metJ1ods
near the ellipsoid surface is stronger in some to measure the geoid, historically with trigo-
areas than odiers. these geoid variations rep- nometric le,•eling. and more in modem times
resent persistent bulges and dips in the mean with various types of grm·imete,-s (Figure 3-
ocean height above and below our mathe- 17). These devices me&S\lle the absolu1e or
matically-defined. ellipsoid. Variation in relative gravitational force. and are placed or
ocean heights due to swells and wind-driven
waves are more apparent at local scales, but
are much smaller than the long-distance
geoidal undulations.
We define a geoid using a three-dimen-
sional eq11lp()le111inl surface. along which the
pull of gravity is a specified constant. or
more precisely. the gravita1ional potential
energy is at a con:stam. We refer 10 an equal
pull of gravity when describing the geoidal
equipotential surface, a familiar non-mathe-
matical description. Geodesists use the more
precise, physically defined term gra1'irn-
1io11al potential. r.-elated
to the amount of
work required to rnove au object against 1be
Earth's gravitatioruil force. Pure water in a
lake or ocean. absent wind or other forces,
will have a surface that c:onfonns to a gravi·
tational equipolemtial surface. Absent these
other forces, the gravitational force 1'leve1s·· Fls;urt .l.17: A po11.1blt fic:ld p,'1nte1cr, a:ii iru1n1,
the water. u1eut used for meauiriog gnm.1ationol force MII
field loe,atiou (l)a,id Morutiaux).

ellipsoidal height = orthometric height • geoidal height

h=H+N
ground surface

H ___.,,--- Orthome1nc
·
height
e\\ipsoidOI ne,g'nt ~ -- ~ ---------••'?.eoid

,
,,,,.-------- ,l N ~- ·;;:;;,;,;;~;-···-_,
ellipsoid. e.g. GRsao fl \,
_... -- ----- ,/
'·
Flautt J..18: EUipsoitbl. or1bome1ric, 1\nd gcoi:d.'1.I bc:igJus a.re in1c:m::btcd. Valucs for N are highly cx..,j•
gcrnted in this figi.u-c - Ibey .are typic:.all)' much leq: than H , We use this formuln lo c~lcul~tc ortbometnc
hcipu (elC'\-atioo) when we know d1e elli.psoidal Ji.eight (coomionly from OPS). and g,eoidal bciglu (from
uatioillll models).
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 107

c.arried on or above the Earth's surface. surfaces (figure 3· 19). This height line may
Recent iucreases in airtiome gravimetry and bend due to small undulations in the equipo-
various sateUjte systems have substantiaUy tential surfaces. The height paths are 001 tile
improved our measurements of the geoidal same as a straight line normal to the ellipsoid
surface. and up to the surface. and not the same as a
Sec.ause we have two refe.rence sur- straight line tltat is nonnal to the geoid sur·
faces. a geiod and au ellipsoid, we also have face at 1he slarting point. bu l lhe differe.nces
two different kinds of heights. Elevaiion is between these paths are usu.ally quite small.
typicaUy defined as the distauce above a We emphasize that a gooidal surface
geoid, often caUed height above meau sea usually differs from the average sea height
level. but more unambiguously referred 10 as measured a1 ru1y one location. A local mean
the crtlr<Jmetric height (Figure 3 -IS). sea level may be h.igher or lower 1ban a
Heights above an ellipsoid. or ellipsoi· global mean sea level becau,se 1100.g.ravita·
dal heights (or height above ellipsoid. HAE), tioual forces sttcb as persisteoi winds. ocean
are used in some coordinate system cakula~ currents. temperature. and salinity variations
tions and for some global navigation systems cau cause persistent locally high or low areas
such as GPS. but ellipsoidal heights are not in the oceans. These non,gravitlltional differ-
our standard way to measure elevation. ences in height can be up 10 a meter (3 feet).
These heights are illustrated in Figure 3-1 S. perhaps small on global scale. but significant
with the ellipsoidal height labeled hand for local or regional measti<ements. Our
orthometric height labeled H. The difference geoid follows a gra,<itational equipotential
between the ellipsoidal height and orthomet- surface which best matches. in a least
ric height at any location is shown in Figure squares sense. mean sea level when aver·
J. 1Sas N. and bas various names, including aged across the globe. The local, long-term
geoidal l,eig/,1 and geoidal sepam#o11. average sea height is differem from the
global spatial averaging of sea height
Onhome1ric heigh1s are defined as 1be defined by a geoid at many locations.
verticaJdistamce measured from a reference
geoid to tile ground surface. along a line that
is at right angles to ioterveniog equipotential

equipotential surfaces
orthometric height .. . . . .... .~
)i
.. .. .
.... ~ .. . .
..... i" . _. :"'.:.-... -.
---. . ·•·.. •. . . . .
.. . .. . .. .. .. . . . .. ... .. .. ... . . .....·..
. . ......
. ....
•.
.
. ..... . . . . ...... • . ... . . . ...
. ,-
.. r : .......·,.. ··~ .._. . .
., . ... -·. . . ..
. . .. . . . ... . . - . ..._...-~ .
-
•
. - ·- •.

. .· ... ...
- ":

............ ., ..... .,. -·. · ··., . .......... . .. : .. .

··.··
• .. • • • • ,.. .: ..-.,.;i; • • ........ -;· • • -. . . •
. . . . . ".
..:.,: ellipsoid ·, •
..............
• • . .· . . . .
"";-- . ~-·· • ·• ·. ,
..
. . -~··.
.. .. ;
....
'· ··-.
• •. • . . ,
. .. . . . .. . . .
·:· -~.•.
.. •

.. .. -. ·, . . . . . .. .. . . . . . : . .. . -: .
- geold, W •conston1 volue~.c·.i.~--~-·- ~-- - - - - - - ·
"
0
.

Figort- J-19; 1'Ceigb1& in. North America are refc:reo«d to~ geoid. corm-pondiug to a givm equipotential ,ur-
facc. All the points Oil ao equipotential sudacc luwe the: saiue ira\'itatiorul puJI. Surfaces m11y be c1wi1ioocd
as faye11 with d ec~ :uing l trcngth lll di$tllnCc inc-re211cs from the E2.11h ' 1 m.,.u center: Heights arc uru11ll>•s~c·
ifted o., 011lio1n-etric, mc-.inin~ 11t ri~11 anslc, to nU cquipotcn1:ial , 1.1rfnces along 11lcir p;ath: BccAtlSe potenMl
sutfae<s may tmdula1c. orthoructric J>Clghts may be cur, ed liuc&.. although urua.lly only slig)ldy so.
1
108 GIS Fundamentals
Vertical Datums and Heights
To specify heights we define a reference
surface called a ,,enical dntum, and specify
orthometric heighls relative to that surface.
Modem venical datums l}']lically idemify a
specific geoid, although they may choose
surfaces that average across regions, so do
strictly follow tbe geoid surface everywhere.
We measure gravity 10 estimaie the specific
geoidal surface. and c.arefully measure orth-
ometric heights on the ground surface. For
example, Canada and the U.S. defined the
equipotential surface at a gravity value of
W0= 62.636.856.0 m•s·2
as the reference for their future vertical
damms. and strive to measure lhis surface
with sufficient accuracy to specify heights
across Nonh America.
Governmems have often adopted
.. hybrid" geoids that combine their own pre-
cise venical surveys with gravity measure-
ments and models. primarily due to historic
gaps in gravimelric measurements, and also
10 ill3lth IO!!g-tefiil pffittice. In illail!llliid
Australia. heights, are relative to measure-
ments averaged over 30 tidal gages spread
along the coast, because they have an
approximately I-meter decline in the geoid
height relative to tidal gage measurements
from the northeas.t 10 the southwes.tem part
oftbe country. Tlleirvenical damm is
related to be deviations from a specific
geoid. Various European countries adopt
base points near clilferem long-term tidal
gages. or if 1.andlocked. for points related 10
gages in adjac-ent countries. Because tJ1e
zero height may dlilfer. you must be caref\11
when mixing standard heights ac.ross coun-
tries.
The most current damm in the U.S. and
Canada is also a hybrid danm1. combining
gravimetric and surface measurements in the
official venical damm. They combine past
1dgo11ome1ric let~liug smvt9s (Figure 3-20)
along witll current gravimetric measure·
ments to establish a vertical reference. Trig-
onometric leveling starts at a known
elevation, often a seaside bench mark. Dis·
tances and elevation differences are pre-
cisely meas.ured from there to other points.
Vertical angles and surface distance mea-
surements are used 10 estimate horizooatal
and vertical distances at a series of points.
Over short distauce. the relative heights can
be measured with millimetric ac·curacies.
Tens of thousands of kilome.ters of vertical
leveling over more than a ceorw:y have pro·
vi<k!d the relative heights for thousands of
points with.in North America.
However. because leveling is difficult to
adjust for gravimetric variation between sta·
tions. and because gravimetric measure.
mems have historically been sparse. long-
distance leveling nelworks provi<le relative1y
imprecise onhometric heights over the entire
network. Recent improvements in measure·
ments and analysis have revealed continental
biases in height measurements and geoidaJ
surface estimates in North America. leading
to current efforts to increase the density and
qua lily of gravity measurements to better
specify the geoid.
The current reference geoid~ named
GEOIDI 8. tOillbifles GNSS dMa. sa1elli1e
gravimeuy. and airborne measurements with
some lrigonometric leveling data. T11e
NASA GRACE mission. launched in 2002,
measured the distance between a pair of sat-
ellites as they orbited the Earth. The satel-
lites were pulled closer or drifted farther
from the Earth due 10 variation in the gravity
field. and precise inter·sate.l,lite distances
allow highly accurate estimates of gravity.
Because the orbital path changes slightly
each day. over time we obtained nearly com·
plete Earth coverage. The ESA GOCE satel-
lite launched in 2009 used precision
accelerometers to measure gravity-induced
velocity change. Combined, the GRACE and
GOCE observations substautiaUy in1proved
our estimates of the gravitational field aod
geoidal shape. averaged over large areas.
Short-distance variation in gravity fields is
provided by surface or airbome measure-
ments. In the U.S.. the GRAV·Omeasure-
meot campaign qi.,ntified local anomalies
by flying gravimeters over sparsely mea-
sured or highly variable regions. Together
with surface gravimetry. we've subslantially
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 109

horlzontol diST011-Ce .. h
............................................................................
•

~ measured ong e
oonzonu1l ond vtrt,col
• d,sronce-. h or:d v, may
be colculoted by;
h • d · C.OS(U)
v. cl . sill ((I)

Flg11tt ~20,: Lc, ·d ing ~ttn'C)'$ Olien cniploy optic:al 111<':\fl.trcmcnlt of \'ez1ical 1\ng:fc (a.} with u\dlstu·c ·
mc1115 of suril!CC d.ist3JKC (d) and bio,,·fedgc of trigooomc:tric rcfotionsltips to c~lc1.1fa1c boriiout.al di$--
tanec (h) and Ycrticll.l di&tai)Cc (v).

improved our mapping of gravita1ion1l .. sur-
faces in 1be p.as1 20 years. These measure-
ments led to a seriesof geoid e.stimates and
vertical datum improvements. with the most
current named the North American Venicai
Damm of 1988 (NAVDSS). based on
GEOID20tS.
As with horizontal darums. there are
various "lega,cy'' vertical dan1ms, oo longer
s1andard. bu1 imponant to know about
because heights may be referenced to these
datums. The National Geode.tic Vertical
Datum of 1929 (NGVD29) was the first
widespread danuu in North America. based
almost entirely on trigonometric leveling
from seaside benchmarks. This was replaced
by the first version ofNAVDSS. using
hybrid geoid named GEOI003 and associ-
ated with the NADS3( 1996) horizonllll
datum. and hru been subsequemly improved
to the curreo1 GEOIDIS. Each successive
improvement. integra1e.d increasingly den.se
and accurate gravimetric measurements with
improved horiiomal measuremems and
analy~is. primarily from belier GNSS.
Care should be taken ,,11e11 combining
height data referenced 10 dil'rerem ,·enical
danims. panicularly due 10 rnulliple geoid
updates nea.r the turn of ~te 21st century.
Vertlcal danuns are 1ypicaiiy deveioped ut
concert with horizontal datums. so we
should pair our horizontal/v,ertical datums
when combining/convening coordinate data
(Figure 3-21). 1ha1 is. we should conven our
horizontal data to a standard datum. and our
vertical data 10 1be corresponding ,~nical
datum.
Al ibis writing. the U.S.. is estimating a
new modern global geoid. n,imed
GE0102022. defining lite g_eopotential field
1ha1 best approximates global mean sea level
a1 a coruis1en1 data collec1ion epoch. In addi·
tion. three refined. regional. gridded models
,,~Ube fit for North America and overse.as
territories. These are called n1odels because
we measure geoidal heights a1 poiois or
along lines al various pans of tlte globe. but
we need geoidal heights everywhere. Equa-
tions are $la1is1ically Fil to relate 1he mea·
sured geoidal heights lo geographic
coordinates. Given any set of geographic
110 GIS Fun(l.amentats
coordinates, we may then es1ima1e the onho·
metric height
The GEOID2022 will be integral to a
new North Ameriocan vertical datum, called
the Nonh American-Pacific Geopo1emial
Datum of2022 (NAPG02022). This work is
in concert with developing the hori2001al
NATRF2022 da11un. and will hannonize
horizontal and ve11ical positioning. The new
ver1ical datum wi ll integra1e exteusjve new
airborne gravity s.urveys of the entire U.S.
with pre,~ously d:at.a to yield a geoid surface
wi1h estimate accuracies within I cm.
The NAPGD2022 vertical datum will be
a substantial improvement, but wiJI signifi·
cantly alter heights across North An~rica
(Figure 3-22). Ne-wer. more accurate mea-
surements revealed acontinentaJ bias in
geoid heights. tilting from over 1.2 meters (4
NGV029, no geoid
with
NAD27, NAD83(1986)
NAVD88, GEOID03
with
NA083{1996)
NAVD88, GEOID09
with
NAD83(NSRS2007)
NAVD88, GEOID12B
and GE01018
with
NA083(2011)
NAPGD2022
with
NATRF2022
Flau"' .l, 21: Rcc,omninidcd p1titini for bori,
iootnl .ind \"fflic:11cbt1.1m11 in North Amcrie11.
ti) in Washington state to zero in Florida.
There are also significant local anomalies in
height due to measurement error and spar-
sity, and geophysic.al dynamics such as post-
glacial rebound. earthquakes. and sea level
rise. This means all heights will change.
some by more than a meter (3 feet) when we
adopt the new heigh1 datum.
The NAJ'GD2022 is a conceptual shift
in how we ,,~U measure heights going for-
wards. Past practice measuroo h,eigbts from
eslablished physical benchmarks. GNSS
systems such as GPS now allow· us to rap·
idly. accurately. and inexpensively deter-
mine ellipsoidal heights at any point on the
surface of the Earth. When combined with
ao accura1e model of geoidal heights. we
may then use the method in Figure 3-lS 10
calculate orthometric height Cu,rrent tech-
nologies will yield centimeter-level height
accuracies quickly. a1 relatively low costs.
everywhere. This reliance on GNSS will
grea1ly increase the speed and accuracy of
determining elevations. but is dependent on
an accW111e model such as tltal produced by
the NAPG02022.
VDatum
Given that venical datums and associ·
ated geoids change 1tirough time. the United
States National Geodetic Survey (NGS) has
created a tool, VDarum. 10 estimate conver-
sions among vertical da11Uns in the U.S.
(Figure 3-23). VOanun calculates the verti-
cal dilTerence from one datum 10 another a1
any given horizontal coordinate location and
he.ight. Conversions are provided between
the I929 and modem datums, between
WGS84/ITRF and NAVO dalUttlS. and
between various ellipsoid versions within
the NAV088 da1wu.
Because tbe vertical danun shift will
vruy as a function of position, a latitude and
Jongih1de musl be provided. and because the
shift may also depend somewhat on eleva-
tion, a venical height entered. As shown in
the example in Figure 3·23. the shifts can be
quite large. particularly when converting
between NAVO and WGS84/ITRF. and also
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 111

from NGV01929 to NAVDSS datums. The .J 24.1636. and approximately a I0-meter

vertical datum shift typically changes slowly height. One elevation is measured relative 10
with distance. so one offset may be suitable theGEOID96 version of the NAVDSS. and
for aJI height shifts o\'·er a few to tens of the other usu,g the GEOID l2A version. I
square kilometers. The an1oun1 of error and can use VDa1u10 to calculate tl1e vertical
"safe.. distance to span varies by region. so height shift due 10 this differ<nce in geoids:
the magnitude of the transformation should at lhat coordinate and height, it estimates a
be verified at several points across any new 3 l c10, or approxi10ately l foot. increase in
snKly area to S<"e how broadly an offset Lllay height between these rwo geoids. This
be used. means I would have 10 add 3 l cm to all my
VDanim Lllay also be used to estimate 96 heights before combining them ";1b my
shifts in heig.hl among geoid versions. New I 2A heights.
geoid surfaces have been estimated approxi·
,nately eveiy three years since 1996 for
Nonl1 America. and heights at any given
point will change between geoids. If heights
relative 10 differem geoids are to be com-
bined. one set of heights must be adjusted to
match the geoid of the otl1er. This is typi·
cally achieve(! by adding an offset calculated
from the models included in VDanuu.
As an example. I may have two eleva.
tion data sets. both in Eureka, California,
near a point with latin,de 40.8019. longitude

Approximate predicted change from NAVO 88 to new vertical datum

P.'NU\ONl<l"....... - o f , t tu.\'ON·,- · ~ 1 .... 1,.;~-.HG\f'_,_.,

App,......_.n
O•t""-"'
H.o(NC-..,

, - ... ,_ - oeoii
_.... ' ....... O~DO
u~ a;,,
\ ,µ,--vr:. - 01,ioo,
- ,.,.,or!;
- ll,lg I

f i&unJ.21:: £,cpcctcd shift io heights when cOO.Ugiug from tbc NAV08:S to NA.P002022 (cour1csy
!<GS).
112 GIS Fun(l.amentats

Dynamic Heights Jake may have a different e.levatfon on one

We mus, disc·uss another kind of height.
called a dy11n11,;c l1eiglt1, because it is
important for certain applications. Dynamic
heights measure (he change in gravitational
pull from a given equipotential surface.
Oy11amic heights are importanl when inter.
ested in water levels and Oows across eleva.
lions. Points 1hat have the same dynamic
heights can be thought of as being al the
same water level. Surprisingly. poin1s with
the same dynamic heights often have differ-
ent orthometric heights (Figure 3-24). To be
clear, two distinct points at water's edge on a
large lake often do 1101 have the s.1me eleva-
tions: often. they are different onhomerric
heights alxlve ollr reference. geoid. Since
orthometric heights are our standard for
specifying elevati.on. 1his means water may
indeed flow uphil.l relative to our standard
height measurement or as confosingly. a
shore than on the opposite shore.
To tmdersland why water may flow
uphill (from lower to higher ortbomelric
heights). it is imponant to remember how
orthome.tric heigltls are defined. An orlho-
metric height is the distance. in the direction
or gravitaiiooal pull. from the geoid up 10 a
point But remember. the geoid is a specified
gravi1y value. an ·•equipotential·· surface.
where the puU or gravity is at some specified
constant. As we move up from tl1e geoid
toward the surface, we pass through other
equipotential surfaces. each at a slightly
weaker gravirariooal force. until we arrive at
the surface point. But these gravity surfaces
are not always parallel. and may be more
closely packed in one portion of the globe
than another.
There are two key poinis. Firs,. water
spreads out to level across au equipocenti.al

NOA.Ai Ya,k.,10..U,, lm·n f ~ · v),4--------------.,,...-,.,..,

H0!1u.n&al tnilonMdon
......
oatu111: ~[t;::::
w> 'w::::========~l~·l ltfAOl)Ql>11110011CORS111iHAAHJ- IIOfWIAIL.l • I
eoo...s,.aem: (Geoor1C1111Co.----.u......1 I•] 1~ClOlllill*.tD11tNtJ l· I
Unit

Il

l• llllAW•
...... l· I
· ~ ·-·
O.tum: t.NGVD 1t2t
[!Miff' ll!n) l• ((.-tm) l· J
,.,,..._ ., ....... 0 -
r, G((m mocMt: 0 ...... - jGlOI011A l· I

i.,,- ~,
..
-
lOIIQlluda: ~ 124 1'636
-eo--
,g--~
Q flle~I
0 16tlllS
......
- • eh~•----' ....
Fia,U1~ 3,2J: An Cltamplc o( the application o(tbc ,·mica! danuu tn1nsJ01matiou soflwan: VDarum.
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 113

surface, absenl wind, waves, and other fac.
tors. The wat<?t level in a s1ill bathtub. pond.
or lake has tb.e same equipotential surface at
one end as another. Gravity ensures this.
Second. the equipotential surfac-es are closer
together wbeu nearer 1he mass center o(
Ean.h. A.1; 1he equipo1en1ial surfaces con-
ve:rge, or become ;,denser," I.be wa1er surface
seems 10 dip below our fixed onhome1ric
height
Because water foUows an equipotential
surface, and because the Earth's polar radius
is less than the equatorial radius, the onho-
metric heighr.s of the water surface on large
lakes are usually different at the north and
south ends. For example, as you move far·
1her nonh in the Nonhen> Hemisphere. the
equipotential surfaces converge due 10 the
smaller polar radius with increasing gravita-
tional puU(Figure 3·24). An onhome1ric
height is a fixed height above the geoidal
surface, so 1he northern orthometric heigh!
will pass through more equipotential sur-
fac.es than the same orthometric heigh! at a
more southerly location. An. onhomeiric
height of the water surface at the soutl1 eod
of the lake will be higher than al the n0f1h
end. For example. in Lake l\.1ichiga1l a large
lake in Nonh Aruerica, 1.he ele\'ation of the
1he water surface. at the south end is approxi-
mately 15 cm higher than the elevation of
the water surface at the nonh end.
Dynamic heights are most often used
when we're interested in relative lteigbts for
water levels. particularly ov·er large lakes or
connected water bodies. Because equal
dynamic heigJns are at 1he s.ame water level,
we use them when interested in accurately
representing hydrologic dr<rp, head. pres-
sure. and 01her "ariables related 10 water lev-
els across distances. But these differences
can be confusing when observing bench
mark or sea level heigh1s. aud mtderscore
again that our height referet1ce is no« mean
sea level. but rather an estimated geoidal
surface.

! Identical orthometrlc heights

H • 1202.5
equipotential surfaces

- · . -.----·· ):\, ) y..~

:.·.,
. ......... .
-" ._
I ~
- - ·-· i~e~~,c~~
• • ~~~~
• _....---
e.--
u,·- -· .... . - : J, \
:~:ght-::::::;;.:=;!(
' : ..•:,."••
I ·•
.
•
. • •
*I() - ••• :.. • ••••,-~ ,
•·:~'.'-;"-,.'>"';::;;::.,.__:.;::...=:_;;;----<' .. o·•
• ..N . , •
•'T'"
..... · ..• 2N · ;:·:- ..
.:.i·:..
. . . . . . . . . . . . - .. • O
~
.·, ,••
.... .
• • • •: .• • • .• • " ~· •, • • • ·, • • "'II -·._.:-·:,r•1,ll, '
.,. .-·-,w. :r ••"" ··--·•'
. • •• •.•-•••:-"'•-;-·•t•.•~•• ...._;,,,·•··~
.- . ..
. . •. - -•.--
. - .
. .
.. ... • . ·-..I
.. . -
• '•
H•,•·

.- ...
·- ---.. . .. .
• -
"''-" -------v-
. . ...-ir-- --,-. · 9•"'d
·-. . . •. . .
- . • ---- ~-.----
• ·- -.
f lgurr 3...2-4: An iUu,1.rl'llion o(how d)'t'l.1inic hei;h1s ruwl ort1toincttic bcigbrs in:1.y diffct, ~)d bow
cqu~) ord1oe>otctric heights 111:iy c:<>1TCq,ond to di.ffc:rcnt heights 11bovc the wiiitc:r lc:,"c:I 011 a 111.fi:C: M:c.
8ec-~usc c:quipotc:utial 6'.urfaces com·crg;c, tbc water kvcl al tbc northern aud soothcm el'.trcru« of a
lake will baYc diffc:l'C'ot ord10mc:tric bc:13bu. Dynam.ic bc:iai1t&aod water levels att cqu.al across au
c:quipo.1cntiilll sur&cc.
114 GIS Fun(l.amentats

Local Seo Level Datum for Seattle, Puget Sound. WA

All figures In reer. obove lcx:01dorum (!ell s,ole) 12
or NAVD88 (right scale)
Lcx:ol Meon High Woter • 10.49 f1 ~ s 15

Local Mean Seo Level - 6.64 ft. above

the local seo level O he . and
4.3 ft above the NAVD88 0 height

--LOf;OI Mean Low Water - 2 83 f1

rcc1 __- o
•••
--... NAVD88 O height - 2.34 rt above local O obcM:: ft~t

' - - - - - - ~ - local Mean Low-Low Water .. 0 heigh1

oo~:-=sa
o .z.3,

fi&11rt' J-25; Anilhn:1:n11ion of mean 6Cll lC"\-cl .and otbC1' mc•un, .111 n NOAA long·tcnn ttd.tl gage.
Note tba1 the 1ncao sea. JC\·cl at d:us station i.s 6.64 - 2.34. or4.3 feel abo,-c the NAVDSS zero h¢iglu,

Local Sea Level Datums
Warer height measurements along the
U.S. coast are typicaHy reference to local sea
level darums. As note<! earlier. mean sea
level is not zero for almost all pou1ts along
North America 's coastline. Elevations are
measured relative to a geoid. Zero ele,•,nion
coincides with zero mean sea level at only
one standard coastal station in Canada, near
the centerof the continent. Variaiions in
gravity, currents. s alinity. tides. aod wind
produce me~,n sea levels that are different
from zero by up to several meters (!Os of
feet) around the rest of the cominenral rim.
But we still need ·10 know the ocean level
along rhe coas1Line for ""'"Y practical pur·
poses. including cons1niction. flood protec-
tion. aod water managemenr. \Ve have
esrablished a network of long-term. refer-
ence measurement stations along the coast-
line. We precisely measure both sea level
and the station orthometric height so that we
can tie our suu,dard elevation to local water
heights.
Data for measured tidal stations are
available from the NOAA web page:
https://tidesaudcurrents.noaa.gov
These sites report mean sea level, as well as
mean high. low. and extreme water levels
(Figure 3·25). Most imponamly. they also
repon the NAVOSS orthometric heights for
each 1idal station. allowing a conversion
from local sea level heights 10 standard onh-
ometric heigh rsused to specify elevation.
Figure 3-25 shows data for a station in
Seattle measured since 1$99. Mean sea level
has a local reference height of 6.64 feet,
meaning the sea level averages thai height
above lhe long-tenn measuremeut of a given
law water height. The NAVOSS .height at the
same point is 2.34 feet. which yields a sea
level height of 6.64 - 2.34. or 4.3 feet. As
strange as it may seem at first. the mean sea
level at this Seanle sration bas 3JJ elevation
of 4.3 feet. Any point nearby that has an ele·
vation less than 4.3 feet will be below sea
!eve~and will likely nood frequently if there
is access to the sea. Local coi,stntction.
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 115

water level measureJnenls. or otJ1eractivities
depeuden1 ou. sea level will reference 1his
staiion measurements. and 1he 4.,-fooi off-
set between mean sea level and seaside orth-
ometric beigln1s.
This mean sea level offset varies by
loca1io11. for example. Pon Sau Luis. CA.
bas a ven.ical offse1 of 2.7 fee1. and Vaca
Key. FL. has an offsel of -0.8 feet When
beiglus of sea le\'el are impor1an1 for au
analysis. projec1s should reference die near-
est local sea level datunt
116 GIS Fun(l.amentats
Map Projections and Coordinate Systems
Damms tell us 1he la1i1udes a11d lo11gi-
rudes of features on an ellipsoid. Most spa.
1ial analysis are on Canesisn surfaces. so we
mus11ra11sre, geogmpruc cootdina,es from
the curved ellipsoid 10 a nai map. We do d1is
via a map projecrio11, a systematic rendering
rrom 1he curved Eanb 10 a Oa, map.
Nearly all projec1ions are applied ,,a
exac, or i1era1ed matheruaiical formulas 11,a,
convert geographic la1irude/longin1des pro-
jec1ed XNs (or easlingslnorthings). Figure
3-26 shows 011e of the simpler projec1ioo
equations. be1wee11 Mercaior and geographic
coordinates. assuming a spherical Earth.
These equa1ioos wo1tld be applied for every
Conversion from geographic
(/on. lot) to projected coordinates
Given longrtude = )., lat itude = ,p
(oil angles m radians)
Mercator prajecl,on coordinates
ore:
X =R · ()- .).:,)
y " R · In ( ton (nl 4 , <j>/2))
where R is file rodius of the sphere
ol mop scole ( e.g.. Ear th's radius).
In is the noturol log function. and
).:, is lhe longitudinal origin (Green-
wich meridian)
Inverse equot,on. from x . y to
).., ,p:
).. = x/R , J..o
,P • (11/2) • 2 · ran" 1[e-y/RI
Fia:ui~ .l-26: Forru.ula, are kno"1l f« m0$t
projections that p:ro,idc exact proj«tcd coor-
di1121cs. if tbc l111i'hidc$ 11nd lo11gin1dc$ 111'<
known. Thi., c;umplc shows 1he fomml;as
definiltl; tbe ~krca1or projei;tion for ft sphere.
poi111. verte.,. node. or grid cell ln a da1a set.
converting the vector or rns:ler dala feature
by res111re from geographic 10 Merca1or
coordinates.
Notice that 1here are parame1ers ,ve
mus, specify for 1his projec1ioo- here R. the
Earth's radius. and )"o. the longin1dinal ori-
gin. Differe.nt values for these parameters
give differe01 values for 1he cooroina,es. so
even though we may have the Sc'lme kind of
projection (transverse Me.rcator). we have
differe111 versions each time we specify dif·
ferent parameters.
Projec-1io11 equa1io11s mus1 also be speci·
fied in the "bac~,vard" direciion,. from pro-
jec1ed coordinales 10 geographic
coordinares. The projection coordina1es iu
1his backward. or "inverse." direction are
often much more comp1ica1ed tban the for-
ward direction. but are specified! for every
commonly used projec1ion.
Most projectjon equatjons are much
more complicated 1ban !he u-aos·verse Mer-
cator. in pan because most adopt an ellipsoi-
dal Earth, and because the projections are
iui1ially 01110 simply curved smfoces. and
then 01110 a plane. Th®kfully. projection
equations have long been standardized. doc-
umeo1ed.1llld made widely available through
proven progmrumiug libraries and projcc1ion
calc.ulators.
Note 1ba1 eacb projec1ion defines a Car-
tesian coordinate system and hence creates
gn·d north, a third version of the nonhem
direction. in addi1ion 10 geograpltic and
magnetic nonbs. Grid north is the direction
of the Ya"is in a map projection. and often
equals or nearly equals 1he direc1io11 of a
geographic meridian near the center of the
projected area. Grid north is iypically differ-
em from geographic and magnetic oonh for
mos< of the projected region.
Mos1 map projections may be ,1ewed as
sending rays ofligh1 from a projec1ion
source through the ellipsoid and onto a map
surface (Figure 3-27). In some projections.
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 11 7
mop
ellipsoid
• usually small near 1he poinrs or lines of
Flanrt 3-27: A cooccpnial ,·iew of a map projcc-
tioi1..
the source is not a single point however. the
basic process iu\1olvcs tllc systcma1ic rrans-
fer of points from the curved ellipsoidal s111-
face to a flat map surface.
Distonions are unavoidable when mak-
ing flat maps becauseofthe transition from a
complexly curved Eanh surface to a Oat or
simply curve<l map surface. Portions of the
rendered Eal1b surface must be compressed
or stretched 10 fit 01110 the map. Th.is is illus-
trared in Figure 3-28. a side ,;ew of a projec-
tion from an ellipsoid onto a plane.The map
surface in1ersec1s the Earth a1 1wo locarions.
11and 12• Poi111s roward tl1e edge of Ille map
surface. sucb as Dand E. are stretched apan.
The scaled map disran<:e between d and e is
grearer tl,an t.he distance from D 10 E mea-
sured on the surface of the Eanli More sim-
ply put the d israoce along the map plane is
grearer tlian tlle corresponding disrance
along the curved Earth surface. Conversely,
poinrs such as Aand B 1ba1 lie in berween I 1
and I 2would appear compressed 1ogether.
The scaled map disran<:e from a 10 b would
be less 1han the surface measured distance
frolll Ato B. IDistortions ar I 1and I 2are zero.
Figure 3-2$ demonstrates a few impon-
an1 facts. First. distortion may differ u> sense
across 1be map. Parts of1he niap niay have
compressed areas or distances rela1ive to the
scaled Earth's surface measurements. whiJe
orher pans may have expanded areas or dis-
tances. Second. the.re are often a few points
or lines where distort.ions are zero and where
length. direction. or some 01her geomerric
property is preserved. Finally, distortion is
intersection. and increases with increasing
distance from the points or lines ofintersec-
1ion.
Differe01 map projecrio:ns may dis1on
1he globe in differenl ways. The projection
source. represe111ed by the poim a1the mid·
die of rhe circle in Figure 3-28. may change
localio.ns. \Ve may project an to different
shapes. and we may place rhe projection sur-
face at di.fferem locations ar or near 1he
globe. If we change any of these 1hree fac-
tors. we will change bow or where our map
is distoned. The type and amo1U1t ofprojec-
lion dis1onion may guide lhe seleclion of lhe
appropriare projecrion or limi1 the area pro-
jecroo.
Figure 3·29 shows an e:xample of dis1or-
1ion wirh a projection onto a planar surface.
but from above rather than 111e side view in
A
I'
I, ,,,,. ellrpsoid
4,,,. surface
• mop
projection surface
•1tght" source /
d,stonce Ob < A§ E
distance de > OE
Flipi1·e 3-28: Distortion dutin3 inap projccciou.
Tlus side \'ic\\' shows bolh cxptuuion t1ud conl..
prcuion of llfC.aS on .1 plon,, r mnp.
118 GIS Fun(l.amentats

Figure 3.2s. This planar surface intersects
the globe at a line of m1e scale, the solid c~-
cle shown in Figure 3-29. Disionion
inc.reases away from the line of true scale.
with features inside the circle compressed or
reduced in size. ,«hile foam res outside the
standard circle are expanded. Calculations
show a scale error of -1% near the center of
the circle. and increasing scale error in con-
centric bands outside the circle to over 2%
near the outer edges of the projected area.
An approxinution of the distance distor-
tion may be obtained for any projection by
comparing grid coordinate distances 10 g,~at
cfrcledisrances. A great circle distance is
defu1ed on the su.-face of the spheroid or
ellipsoid (Figure 3-30). The circle distance is
the shortest p.1th li>etween two points on the
surface of the ellipsoid. and by approxima-
tion. Earth.
Figure 3-30 illustrates the calculation of
both the great circle and projecti.on. or Cane-
sian distant~ for two poims in 1be sou1bcrn
U.S.. using the spherical approximation for-
mula introduced u1 Chapter 2. \Ve use a
spherical approxunation of the Eanh's shape
because il is accurate enough for illus1:ration.
The difference between I.his simpler spheroi-
dal method (equal polar and equ~torial radii)
and an ellipsoidal method is typically much
less 1han 0. l%. and always less ihan 0.3%,
so typicaUy less than 50 cm (15 f~t) in our
example.
Projected (canesian) coordinates in this
example are in the UTM Zone I 5N coordi-
nate system, and derived from tbe appropri-
ate coordiruue transformation equations.

/
/
,/
--- ----
/
/

I' I

'
I
r
\
\
--..... ~
I
I
\ I
' I
' ' ',

Flgurt 3-29: Approxim111c- Cfl'OI' due to projection distonioo (or a sped.fie oblique 111tfeoppbic proj«-
1ion. A pbnc- intcnl«ti the itobc :u :1. i ~ndsrd cif'('lc. This suul&rd c-irtlc: de finct" li.nc-of1ruc sc-:1.Jc,
where there- i, no didancc distortion. Oistor1io11 incren.scs away from tbi, llnc. ,md ,wic:, from · 1% to
o,·cr 2% in this example (adapted from Snyder. J9S7),
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 119

Amted with 11te coorWnales for both pairs of
points in bo1h lhe geographic and projoc1ed
coordinates. we can calcula1e tbe distance in
the two systems. and subtract 10 find the
length dis1orUou due 10 projec1ing from lhe
spherical surface to a Oa1 surface.
No1e !hat web,based or olher software
may report incorrect distances. because they
may use a spheroidal approximation. use dif-
ferent Earth radii, or may use compu1ation-
ally efficiem b\lt more approximate fonnulas
or algorithms.. so it is best 10 calculate the
values from tl1e original fornmlas 10 ensure
accurate resi1ats.
A straight line between two poinls
shown 011 a projoc1ed map is usually no1 a
straight line nor the sbonesr pa1h when trav-
eling on the Earth's surface. Conversely. the
shoriest dis1ance be1weeu poinls on lhe Earth
surface is likely to appear as a curved line on
a projected map. Tl1e distortion is impercep-
1ible for large scale maps and over short dis.
tances. but cxis1s for mos1 1,nes.
Figure 3.31 illustra1es straigh1 line dis·
1onion. This figure shows tbe shonest dis·
tance path (the-great circle) beiween Seattle.
USA. and Paris, France. Paris lies almost
due east ofSeanle. bm lhe sbortes1 path
1racesa route nonh of rut eas:1-we.st line. This
shortest path is dislorted and appears curved

Great Circle vs. Projected Distance great c1rclE

Spherical Approximation
Using the great circle formula from our
example ,n Chapter 2.

A with latitude. longitude of (qiA· ).A}, and

B, with latitude. longitude of (<Pa, "5)
The greet circle distance from point A to point B is given by the formula:
A corresponding to Baton Rouge, LA= 30.4877456°. -91.1693348°
B corresponding to Houston. Texas = 29.7507171°. -95.370003°
d • 6 .378·2·sin·I J(sin2(0.368514)),cos(30A877456),cos(29.7507171).sln2(2 !003341))
• 412.681 km
Grid distance (VTM Zone 15N coordinates):
Grid coordinates of Baton Rouge. LA =675.708.2, 3,374,258.0
Grid coordinates of Houston. Texos • 270.816.1. 3.293.516.3
5
dg • [(X'A - Xs) 2 •{YA · Ysl2l°
=[(675,708.2 - 270.816.1)2 , (3,374 ,258.0 - 3,293,516.3)2)°·5
= 412.864 km
distortion ,s 412.681 - 412.864 • -0.183 km. or o 183 meter lengthening
FIJutt 3..JO: Enmpk ca.kul:ul011 o( the diit:UlC'c distor1iot1 due to a map proj«,i-ou. The a,'dll circle and
god disttlllCCi, 3TC c:omp.,rcd for 1wo poinu 011 lb.c ~h 'uurfacc, tbc fin 1 mc,isuting Along 1bc cun•cd S\IT•
face, lhc second on 11K projected $"Urface. The differeoce iu tb«e two mea.iur« ;, the dista.Jice di,1or1ioo dt,e
to the map pro;«tion. Cakulations of dtc: 3ttat circle distaucc:s arc: approximate. due to the anttruption of a
spbt1'Clidal rathc:r tJui:n ellipsoidal Eardi. bu1 rue :u wont wi1hin 0.1,• of the true ,•n.Juc nl0;11g the: ellipsoid.
Note thn.t \'2riou1 grc:1.1 cin:le di,113.nc:e calcul1Mors .trc a\'nilable ,;l\ the Wor!cl Wide Web, .n11d these ofteu
don·1specify the: fonm1J3 Of" Earth radim vahies use:d. so dilfe:re:111 great cirdc di.staiK:cs may be pro,;<kd.
120 GIS Fundamentals
. ..,,
(
(
or
Fia:utt J.Jt: Curved representations , i:rn.igbt liucs are a nunifcsmion of projc:1:tioo distonion. A great
circle ptuh. s.bown 31:bo\·c, is tbe shor1cn totUc when Jlying Ctoin P;1tii to Sc-im k. 11:od comsnonly nppcan
dis-lortcd whco displnycd.
by the Plate Carree projection commonly
used for global maps.
Projectioos may also substantially dis-
ton the shape and area of polygons. Figure
3.32 shows various projections for Green-
land. from ao approximately ''\utprojected"
view from space through geographic coordi·
nates cas1on a plane. 10 Mercator and trans-
verse Merca1or projections. Note ~,e
changes in size and shape of the polygon
depicting Greenlamd.
Most map projections are based on a
dea·elopnbles ,oface. a geometric shape onlo
which the Ea.nb's surface is projected.
Cones. cylinders, and planes are the roost
common developable surfaces. A plane is
already Oa1. and cones and cylinders may be
mathematically "cuf' and "unrolled" 10
develop a flat surface (Figure 3-33), Projec-
tions may~ characterized according 10 the
shape of the deve lopable surface. as conic
(cone). cyliudrica/ (cylinder). and a:i111111ha/
(plane). The orientation of the developable
surface may also change among projections:
for example. the axis of a cylind:tr may coin-
cide with the poles (equatorial), 1he a.xis ,.nay
pass through the Equator (transverse). or be
at an angle (oblique).
Note thal while the most common map
projections used for spatial data are based on
a developable surface. many map projec-
tions are not. Projections with names such as
pseudocylindrical. MoUweide. s.inusoidal
and Goode homolosine are exa,nples. These
projeclions often specify a direct mathemali-
cal projection from an ellipsoid <>nto a Oat
surface. They use mathematical forms not
related to cones. cyliuders, planes, or other
three-dimensional figures. and may change
the projection surface for dilferem parts of
the globe. but generally are usecl only for
display, and not for spatial analysis, because
tl1e coordinate systems are uot stric1ly Carte·
sian.
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 121

b)
,.. ""' ""' .,.,, ..,.., ,... ..... ,..
..... ....

-\ ..
,..,.
..... -.....
. .....
. ~
:-_, r;j,df ...,.
""' ""' .....
.. --J- --; >
l . • . ,::. ..,.., ,... """

d)

- - - - l:'wlrlCl'I

fiaurt J..Jl: M..ip projci:tio1u: C""o di.s1on 1he shape and .area of rcatures. M ill11s1rntcd " i•h 1bese v.iriou,
projoctioos o:f'Grcentand. U'Oln •) approximatcl)' uoproj«tcd. b) j<:O~p1i.ic coordinate,; on a plane. c) a
i'.\kre:Hor projection. ,md d) ll tr.t1U1\'c:rtc Mertlltotproj «tion.

projection
surfoce

\..._ developoble)
Cylindrical s1.;rfoc.e Conic
Flautt 3,..33: Projcc::tion , urfacct are dcti,"C'd from cur,:cd ·•<1c,•d op11blc" '1tt·£,cn th:u l)U.Y be 1natbnnati·
call)' '\anroll cd'" 10 a flllt , urfocc.
122 GIS Fundamentals
Common Map Projections In GIS
There are hu:ndreds of map projec1ions
used throughout the world: however. most
spalial dala in (ilS are specified using a rela-
tively small munber or projection types.
The Lambert confonnal conic and lhe
transverse Mercauorare among I.be most
common projection iypes used for spa1ial
data in North America. and muc.b of the
world (Figure 3·l4). S1andard se1s of projec-
tions bave been esiablished from 1bese 1wo
basic types. The Lambert confonnal ~onic
(LCC) projection may be concep1uah2ed as
a cone imersec1ing the st1rface of lhe ~anlt
will, poinis on lhe Eartl1 's surface pr0Jec1ed
onto the cone. The cone in the Lambert con·
fonnal conic i111ersec1s lhe ellipsoid along
1wo arcs. l}'Pically parallels of Ja1irude. as
shom1 in Figure 3.34 (lop Jefl). Tl1ese Imes
of intersec1ion are known as staudard para!·
leis.
Dis1onion in :a L3Illben confonnal conic
projec1ion is smalles1 near 1he surndard p0r-
allels, where 1he developable surface m1er-
sec1s the Eanh. Distortion increases in a
COillplex fashion as distance from 1bese par-
allels increases. 01stort1on 1s llh1strated at
1he 1op rigb1 aod J!,onom of Figure 3-34. Cir·
cles of a cons1an1 5-degree radius are drawn
on lbe projecled surface at lbe lop right. and
approximate lines of constant_dis:1.ortion and
a line oflJ\1e scale are shown m Figure 3-34.
bottom. Distortion decreases toward the
standard parallels.. and increases away from
1hese lines. Distonions can be qui1e severe.
as illusmued by 1be apparem expansion of
southern South America.This property of a
to,v·distortion band ninning in an eas1-wes1
direc1ion be1ween 1he s1andard parallels
makes the Lambert confomial conic projec-
1ion common for mapping areas lha1 are
larger in an east-west direction.
DiSIOrliOu is (Ontrolled by lhe place-
men! of the stand~rd parallels. The example
in Figure 3-34 shows parallels placed such
that there is a maximum distortion of
approxirna1ely I% midway bel\~ee~ 1he .
standard paraUels... We reduce this d1stort1on
by moving 1he parallels closer 1oge1her, bul
at the expense of increasing distortion out-
side the zone between the lines.
The transverse Mercator is another com-
mon map projec1ion. This map projec1ion
may be concepnialiied ai coveloping.1bc.
Earth in a horizontal cylmder. and proJeclmg
1he Ear1h's surface 0010 tl,e cytiuder (Figure
3-35). Tbe cylinder in 1be 1ransverse Merca-
1or commonly intersects the Earth elhpso1d
along a single norlh-soulh 1angen1. or along
two secar,t lines. noted as the li11es of m1e
scale in Figure 3-35. A liue parallel to and
midway between the secants is often ~a!led
the cemral meridian. The cemra,I mend1an
ex1ends nor1h and sou1h 1brougl, irans\'erse
Mercator projec1ions.
As with 1he Lamben conformal conic.
the transverse Mercator projection has a
band of low dis1or1iou. bu1 lhis band r1ins in
a nor1h-soutl1 direc1ion. OiS1or1ion is leas,
near the lioe(s) of intersection. The graph at
lhe 1op rigb1 of Figure 3-35 shows a 1rans-
verse Mercator projection with rhe central.
meridian (line of intersection) at W96°. 01s-
l6rtion iJlctefl!es ma1kedlywilli distance east
or west away from 1he imersecti.on li.ne: for
example, t.he shape of South Amerka is
severely dis1or1ed in 1he !Op right of Figure
3-35. n,e drawing a, 1be bonom of ibis san1e
figures.bows lines estimating approximately
equal scale distortion for a transverse M!rca-
1or projection cemered on 1be USA. Nouce
that the distortioo increases as distance from
1be two lines of intersection increases. ScaJe
dis1ortio11 error may be main1ained below
aoy lhreshold by ensuring 1be mapped area is
close 10 these t,vo secant lines inte.rsecting
1be globe. Transverse Merca1or projec1ions
are often used for areas 1ba1 ex1end in a
north.south direction.. as there is linle added
dis1or1iou ex1endi11g in 1bai direc1ion.
Different projection parameters may be
used 10 specify an appropria1e coordina1e
sys1em for a region of interest Specific s1ao-
dard parallels or central meridians are c.ho-
sen to minimize distortion over a mappmg
area. An origin location. mcasur-emem unils.
x and y (or nor1hing and easting) offse1s. a
scale factor, and other parameters may also
be required 10 define a specific projeciiou.
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 123

Lambert Conformal Conic Projection

cone-elhpso.d
intersectton
mopped creo from
~ eveloped cone

-----

.,
- --
r--+--1-
-- -;_~---1--.--
ssole-error -f%

standard poralleJ.
line oftrue-scale

------ -- -scale error ,!%

----------- ____._ ll _____ -----
-~-7-- ) ---- -
scale error •2% . ~
----
Fiaurt J~ 4: Lamb<:n conConual conic (LCC) projection (top) aod an iUu.stratiou of the scale: dis:1011ioo
ass«iatc:d wi:th lhc: proj~ti.ou. The LCC is cknnd Crom a oonc: i.ntcncc:tiui Ille cllip11:0id aJou,a: two itau·
d.'ll'd p.1r11Uc:ls (lop lc:fl). The: "'dc\'clopcd" mllp surf.,cc is mt11ba n.,tie11Jh., unrolled from tl!ic cone: (IOJ)
right) , Oi.,tortion is prim~ri)y in 1bc: not1b·IQ\llb dircc1ion. and is ilh1stritc:d i.u d1e de,·clopcd -.,fflccs by
the dc:(onna.ti.on of the 5-dcg,cc: di:unc:tcr geographic circles (lop) a11d by the liu« of apvr.oximatcly equal
disior1ion (bouom.). No1c tb:11 thcft is no sell.le du.1or1ios1 wbtK 1lte stnncbrd ~r:d!cb mtcr'kct the &Jobe.
:u lltc litict of true "':I.le (bo110111, nd:ip1cd 6-om Sn)•du, 19$7).
124 GIS Fundamentals

Transverse Mercator Projection

Cylindtr·ellipSQJd lrlfersect.on
central merldien

Mop from
-devtlopeG
,yr1t1der

'

·~
,.
I

..
N
•

\
\

Fla:utt J...35: Tntns\"Cl'$C Mcrcat01' (TM) projcctioo (top). and an i.Uus:trntiou ohbc scale distortion associ·
atcd with the projc,ction (bonom). 11ic TM (>tOjc:ction dis:1or111 dittllUCcfl in an ctiM\'cit din:ction. but b/1$
rdali\'cl)' 1in!c distortion i11 n nqr1h-'°uth d1rcc1ion, 111.is TM intmect• tbc spbn-c along 1wo Ji n«, ;tud dis,.
tortiou ium:aset; wi th distance &ow ll~sc liuc, (bottom. $d3ptcd from Snyder. 19$7),
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 125
The State Plane Coordinate Sys-
tem
The Siate Plane Coordina,e Sys1em
(SPCS) is a standard se, of projeclions for
the United St~tes. The SPCS specifies posi.
1ions in Cartesian coordina,e sys1e11>s for
each state. There are one or more zones in
most states, wi~1 slightly different projec.tion
parrune1ers in each Srn1e Plane zone (Figure
3-36). Muhip.le Slate PL1ne zones are used 10
l!mil distortion errors due to map projev
HOUS.
State Plane systems ease surveying.
mapping. and spatial data developmen, in a
GlS. pariicularly when whole coumies or
larger areas are covered. The State Plane
system provides a couuuon coordinate refer-
ence fof horizontal coordimues over comny
t~ mult1-coun1y areas while limitiog distor-
tton error to specified maximum values.
Mos, states have adopted zones such 1hat
projection distortions are kepi below one
part in 10,000. Some s1a1es allow larger dis·
tortions (e.g.. Montana. Nebraska) for 1he
sake of having o,~y one State Plane zone.
SPCSs are us,d in many types of work,
including property surveys. property subdi·
, isions. large -scale construction projects.
1 or zones Iba! have a long north-south axis
F1gun 3.J&: St:uc pfauc 2.onc: boundruin, NADSJ.
and photogranunetric mappfog, and the
zones and SPCSs are often adop1ed for G!S.
One State Plane projection zone may
suffice for small staies. Larger siates com·
monly require several zones. each with a dif·
ferent projeclion. for eac.h of severa1
geographic 2011es of 1he stat.e. For exan1ple,
Delaware ha-s one State Plane coordina1e
zane, while California bas six, and Alaska
has IO Slate Plane coordinate zones, each
corresponding to a different projection
,,~thin 1.he state. Zones are added to a state ro
ensure acceptable projection distortion
within all zones (Figure 3-3 7. left). Zone
boundaries are defined by county. parisll. or
other municipal boundarie.s. For example.
tl1e Minnesota souih/cemral zone boundary
nios approximately eas1--west through the
stale along defined counly bow1daries (Fig-
ure 3,37. left).
Most State Plane coordinate systems are
based on one of 1wo 1ypes of map projec-
tions: the Lambert confonual conic or the
transverse Mercator projections. Because
distortion ill a ttansvffle Mertaror rncreases
with distance from the cemrnl meridirui. 1his
projection type is most often used with states
(e.g.. Illinois or New Hampshire). Con-
versely. a Lambert conformal conic projec-
126 GIS Fundamentals
North zone
South zon~
Fl Jure 3-37: The Suite Pla11e zoucs of Minnesota.. and dc1ails o(tbc. stMdatd pll.r:'LIJel plllcoru:m fottbc
M mucsot::i cmti;2l Stale Pbnc ionc.
lion is most often used when 1he long axis of
a state or zone is Du the east.west direction
(examples are Nc>rih Carolina and Vitginia).
Standard parallels for the Lambert con-
fomial conic proj«tioo. described earlier.
are specified for each State PL1ne zone.
These parallels are placed at one-sixth of the
zone width from che nonb and south limits
of 1he zone (Figure 3-37. right). A zone cen-
tral meridian is specified at a longitude near
the zone center. This central meridian points
at grid north: however. aUother merid•1ns
converge 10 this central meridian, so they do
not point to grid north. The Lambert confor,
ma! conic is nsed for State Plane zones for
3 t states.
As noted earlier. 1be transverse Mecca·
tor specifies a central meridiau. This central
me.ridian defines gridnorth in Lhe projection.
A line along the central meridian points to
geographic and grid nonh. and specifies the
Cartesian grid direction for the map projec-
tion. All parallels ofla1imde and all meridi·
ans except the central meridian are curved
for a transwrse Mercator projection, and
hence these lines do not parallel the grid x or
y directions. The 1ransverse Mercator is 11sed
for 22 State Plane systems (the sum of states
is greater than 50 because both the trans,
verse Mercator and Lambert confonnal
conic are used in :some slates. e.g .. Florida).
Finally. note lhat more titan one version
of lhe Stale Plane coordinate systemhas
First
stondord
pomllel
Second
standard
parallel
been defined. The Stale Plane system was
first introduced with NAD27, and modified
for NAD83 s11ch 1ha1 for many states. the
coordinates are different for any point. Tbere
will be a new Slate Plane system ,,~th the
introduction of the NATRF2022 .
Conversion among State Plane projec·
tions may be further confused by the various
definitions nsed lo translate from feel lo
meters. Geodesy measurements are based on
the metric system, while for a lo11g period of
time. survey measuremeurs in 1he United
States used a non-standard conversion of one
meter equal to exactly 39.97 inches. This
yields a conversion for a U.S. sun·ey/001 of:
l foot • 0.30-'8006096012 meters
The rest of the world adopted an imer.
natioua/ foot of:
I foot • 0.3048 metel"S:
The U.S. survey foot is officially aoon-
doned as of December 31. 2022, but many
older data sets were created 11su,g 1he U.S.
survey foot. The slightly longer me1ric-to·
fool conversion factorwas often the default
in many jurisdictions for S1a1e Plane coordi·
nate systems within the Uoited States. and is
usually specified as sFT in me1ada1a. Users
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 127
should verify the units for any State Plane
data set. Jl"rtlcularly those that originated
before 2023.
Universal Transverse Mercator
Coord lnat:e System
The Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM) coordin.1te sy>tem is another Stan,
dard. distinct from the State Plane system.
The UTM is a global coordinate system.
based on the trnns\le.rse Mercator projection.
It is widely used in the United States and
other pans of North America. and is also
used in manr other countries.
The UTM system di\ides the Earth into
zones that are 6 degrees wide in longitude
and extend from SO degrees south latitude to
84 degrees nonh latinide. UTM zones are
numbered from I to 60 in an easterly direc.
tion. starting at longitude ISO degrees West
(Figure 3-38). Zones are further split north
and south of the Equator. Therefore. the zone
co111aining most of England is identified as
UTM Zone 30 North. while tile zones con-
taining mos1 of New Zealand are designated
UTM Zones 59 South and 60 South. Direc-
tional designations are here abbreviated. for
example. 30N in place of 30 North.
JS SS
fia11~ J--JS; \ff?,.-( ionc bo1.md..irics nnd zone d«igm1or1. Zoo« orc $1:< degrees wide aud rnun\,,crcd from I
10 60 &om 1hc tn1cruacional Jn1c Linc. JSO°\V. Zoo" 11te alw identified by 1bcir position n.ortb and soulh of
the Equ:uot, c.3--, 201,c 7 North. Zone 16 South.
Dislances in the UTM s.ystem are speci.
tied in meters north and east of a zone origin
(Figure 3-39). They values are known as
unw 11or1M11gs. and increase in a northerly
direction. The x values are referred to as
UT}.1 eas1i11gs and increase in an easterly
direction.
The origins of the UTM coordinate sys-
tem are defined differently depending on
whether l11ezone is north or south of the
Equator. In either case. the IIJTM coordinate
system is defined so that all coordiuates are
positive within ~1e zone. Zone easting coor·
dinates are all greater than zero because the
ceocral meridian for each zone is assigned an
easting value of 500.000 meters. This effec-
tively places the origin (E = OJ at a poim
500.000 meters west of the central meridiatt
All zones are less tban 1.000.000 meters
wide. ensuring 1hat all easti11gs will be posi-
tive.
The Equator is used as the northing ori-
gin for all north zones (Figure 3-39. left).
Thus, the Equator is assigned a northing
value of 2ero for uortli 2oues. This avoids
negMive coordinates. because all of the
UTM north zones are defined to be north of
the Equa1or.
'
128 GIS Fundamentals

UTM UTM Zone Coonlln<.l~ :; ....

ro,t NJ', (E) rt"!:.•,,,-
Zone 11 52 South !O Cl'\ on91r'I 500.COO
rr r·,·~ ~ · er ~hl· een1
North ml rrU>l1iq,n i;r:t
r\Ol"hlngs (N) 1'<~
f(') QI", 0,,9111 10000.000
COOl'dlncfi.o ore
rr~~ ,o,p. Of"'~
eoshNJS II:) reo
e.:iuotor
1,W ro 01'1 er,,,n
.500,0CO i'l'lc:tr.1
'M'1t C' fN' :"!!11'\r.
t:vi,lr:i1 rrwndion '
<l"''! r>m1h,n,J?I {N)
rdc°"'~ to lt'<C CQUQ'I or

;' ') ~ .. 6?9l..0:S ,..,

N • !l:J69.&4o "'

1:}r~ bot..r,d~r In
.,w,2<1'- - I •
Qf:(I

wu( --1-1--.i t}
.:one t:ounclories er.
- ·H - E126
Qf'l9ln ~.~+-~ :i•·d
- tui'
-
N O C1 t/1,c' l,"q\AtQr CC'l'!fn): m,·,itli,JM
E • 0 ol 5C0.000 ffl<'(r,, Yn:,1 .:1 El29" lt'lrl'.
of tr.-: Cf'1'1trol trrer,t_!,on ,s I/.,,,!;)(

ri&uff' J-3$1; 1.JT'M zoue l 1N. lllld .SlS. P~r,,ruclcl"5 .are t.imila.r, \\;lh tbc notable di.ffct'C'occ Qf 1t false
oorthiog, iu 1bc s.oulh zooc:s 10 iuain1ain all coordi.nate1 at posi1i\·c uumbc:1"5.

Universal Transverse Merca1or zones
south of the EquaJor are slightly different
than those uonh of the Equator (Figt1re 3-39.
right). South zones have a false 11w1M11g
value added 10 ensure all coordinates within
a zone are positive. UTM coordinate values
increase as one 1u,oves from south 10 north in
a projection area. Jf the origin were placed al
the Equator with 3 value of zero for south
zone coordinate systems. then all the nonh-
ing values would be negative. An offset is
applied by assign,ng a lillse northing, a non-
zero value. to au <lligin or other appropriate
location. For UTM south zones, the nonhing
values at tbe Equator are set to equal
I0.000.000 meters. Because the distance
from the Equator 10 the most southerly point
in a UTM south zone is less than 10.000.000
meters. this assures that all nonhing coordi·
nate values will be posi1ive witb.iu each
UTM south zone (Figure 3-39).
The UTM coordinate system is common
for data and study areas spanning large
regions. for example, several State Plane
zones. Many data from U.S. federal govern-
ment sources are in a UTM coordinate sys-
tem because many agencies manage large
areas. Many state government agencies in
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 129
the United St~tes distribute data in UTM
coordinate systems because the entire state
fits predominantly or eotirely into one UTM
zone.
As note<! llefore. all dMa for an analysis
area must be in the same coordinate system
if they are to be analyzed together. If nOI. the
data will 001 co-occur as they should. 11,e
large \\~dth of the UTM zones acconuno-
dates many large-area analyses, and many
s1a1es. national forests. or multi-county
agencies have adopted the dominant UTM
coordinate system as a standard. States 1ha1
fall predominantly or entirely within a zone
often adopt a UTM zone for much statewide
data. e.g .. Utah and UTM zone 12 (Figure J.
40).
We must note that the l.ITM coordinate
system is not always compatible with
regional analyses. Because coordinate val-
ues are disconlinuous across UTM zone
boundaries. analyses are difficult across
these boundaries. UTM zone 15 is a different
coordinate system than UTM zone 16. The
stare of Wistoasiil app!6xiillarely sttaddles
12 13
Flam"f' 3,-IO: UTM zonc-s for the lower 48 <:on1iauowi sta.tcs o(dtc Uniicd St.atC'S of Alne:rica. &ch UTIA.
zone is 6 dc*1"tet wide. All zo11ts i.u the No,1.bcrl, Hemisphere tltt l'lorth zon es. e.g., Zooc 10 No,th.
these two zones, and the sta·te of Georgia
straddles zoues 16 and 17. If a unifonn.
statewide coordinate system is required, the
choice of zone is not clear. and either one or
the other of these zones must be used. or
some compromise projectio.n must be cho·
sen. For example. statewide analyses in
Georgia and in Wisconsin are often con·
ducted using UTM-like syst,ems that invol\'e
moving the cenlral meridian to near the cen-
ter of each state.
Other Common Projections
l11ere are map projections that are often
used for ,isualization but rarely for spatial
analysis. These maps are often global or
eover very large areas. and may split.
severely reshape. or bide pans of the glolle.
Directions. distances. and areas are typically
not measured or computed in these projec~
tions. as distortions are roo great. Common
global projections include v.ariams of 1he
Mercator. Goode, Mollweide, and Miller
projections. There is a trade-off that must be
14 15 16 17 18
130 GIS Fundamentals
' .
Flg:urf' 3,.,.1: A Goode: homolotine pt0jtt1ion.
11,." is1,u c.·umiple of :111 l111crwptcd projcc1ion,
often used lo n:ducc: some fonns of distortion
when di.spUlyin5: d1<· entire Earth surface (from
S1\y<kr ~lld Vo:d:uwl, 19$9).
made in global projections. between a con·
linuous map surface and distortion.
Distor1ion in world maps may be
reduced by using a cut or interrupted Sur·
face. Differem projection parameters or sur-
faces may be specified for different pans of
the globe. Projections may be mathemati·
cally consttaiJled 10 be continuous across the
area mapped.
Figure 3-41 illustta1es an interrupted
projection in the form or a Goode homolos-
ine. This projection is based on a sinusoidal
projection and a Molhl'eide projection.
These 1wo projection types are merged at
parallels of identical scale. The parallel of
identical scale in this example is set ne.ar the
mid-nonhern latitude or 44° 40· N.
Conversion Among Coordinate
Systems
Conversion Crom one projected coordi·
nate system to another requires using the
inverse and forward projection equations.
described in an earlier sec1ion. passing
through the geogrnphic coordinate set. This
allows a flexible COn\'ersion between any
two projections. given our requiremem 1ha1
both the forward and inverse, or "back·
ward,.. projection equations are specified for
any map projection. For example. given a
coordinate pair in the Staie Plane system.
you may calculate the corresponding geo-
graphic coordinates. You may 1llen apply a
fonnula that converts geographk coordi·
na1es 10 UTM coordina1es for a specific zone
using another set of equations. Since the
backward and forward projectio:ns from geo-
graphic 10 projected coordinate systems are
known. we may conven among .most coordi-
nate systems by passing through a geo-
graphic system (Figure 3-420).
Care must be taken when com'ening
among projec1ions that us.e different datums.
If appropriate. we mus1 insen a damm 1raas-
fom1.ation when convening fro1n one pro-
jected coordinate system 10 another (Figure
3-42b). A damm rrausforma1ion. described
earUer i_nthis chapter, is a calcula1ion of the
change in geographic coordinates when
moving from one darum 10 another.
Users of GIS sofhvare should be careful
when applying coordinate projec1ion 1ools
because the damm 1rausforn1a1ion may be
omiued. oran inappropriate datum manually
or autonuuically selected. For some soft-
ware. the 1>rojection 1001does no1 check or
maintain infonnation on the datum of the
inpm spMfal layet This will often l~d to an
inappropriate or no damm transformation.
and the outpul from !he projection will be in
error. Often these errors are sma II relati\'e 10
other errors. for example. spatial imprecision
in the collection of the line or point features.
As shown in Figure 3· 13. errors between
NAD83( 1986) and NAD83(CORS96) may
be less than 10 cm (4 inches) i.n some
regions. oflen much less 1han the average
spatial error of the data themselves. How-
ever. errors due 10 ignoring 1be dan,m trans-
fonuation may be quite large. for example.
1ens 10 hundreds of meters be1w,een NAD27
and most versions ofNAD83. a11d errors or
up to a meter are common between recent
versions of WGSS4/ITRF and NADS3.
Given the sub-merer acct1tacy of many new
OPS and other GNSS receivers used in da1a
collection. datum 1taasforma1ion error of
one meter is significam. AS data coUettion
accuracy improves. users develop applic.a-
tions based on those accuracies, so da1um
1ransforma1ion errors should be .avoided in
all cases.
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 131

o) Fwom one proJectcon to another - some do1um and ver s1on

P'OJected projected
coordinates. COOrdtnote:s.
e.g .• e9
UTM WCS8-<(¢116~) lowo Stote Plone
Zone 15 No<th. WCS84(G!762)
geogrophte
coorcf111tOtes.
WCS8t.(G1762) _ _ _ , , / proJeetion. on
bock projec~ exact conversion
on exact cor"iVerslon

b) From one proj ection to another . different datums

proJecred pl'o,ected
coord1note:s. Goordlnotes.
eg .. dotum tronsformotlon. •9
UTM WGS84(Gt762) e.g. vlo HTDP lowo S tote Pfone
Zol'le !S N()t'!h, NA033(201l)

?.£on.~
on exact
conversion
geographic
cool"dinotes.
WGS84(Gl762)
9eo9raphic:
coordrnotes.
NA083(2011)
J p<OJ~ChOO,
on exact
conversion

Fia;ntt 3-42: \Ve may proj«t bctw~rn most coordinate syst..-mi ,·UI ~ back (or iuvmc) and forward pro·
jcction cqwuiont. Thcs.c eakullltc c!'<ac:1 ~OjJ"l'lpbie c001di.na1cs from projected ooordii.u,~ (o). and d1e:l.'l
new projected coordi,1.tle$ from the geopphie coordii1J1ta. We nnut inkr1 JU1c:x1r., '-'ce wlm1.1 projection
c:ooversiou ioc:ludc, ll dtltmn cba'.lge:, A datum m11,fomlatio11 mu,1 be ,1sed toe:w,-cr1 troln one geodetic
danun to *-DOChcr (b),

Coordinat e System Identifiers
Most commonly used. established pro-
jections have been assigned standard identi-
fiers. The EPSG IDs are most comn101t
assigned and maintained by tile E111upea11
PetrQ/eum Su,,·ey, Group (EPSG). Petroleum
engineers were among the first that needed
to sbare completely defined. unambiguous.
defini1ions of coordinate systems across 1he
globe, with all projeclion parameters and
datum in standard fonnats. They have sin<:e
joined the lnt~mational Association of Oil
and Gas Producers. with a geomatics com-
mittee that m.aintaius and publishes coordi-
nate system standards. along with ru.1 onli.ne
registry. curren!ly al https://epsg.orgl
home.html. Software vendors typically use
this site as the source for their projection
definitions.
At about the same time. the National
Geographic Instinne of France. lGNF. devel-
oped a set of standard coordin.'1e systems
and identifiers for projections, many not
u~ or specified by the EPSG •t that time.
These are sometimes specified with dat.1,
although the EPSG are more commonly used
when both specifications exist. Finally.
ESRl. a large GIS software company. has
defined codes for commonly-used projev
tions that are not specified either in the
EPSG or IGNF.
Coordinate system identifiers are often
displayed when selecting coordinate systems
in software. or on the main map sc.reen, and
132 GIS Fundamentals
-
NoCRS(or~pofoctSo,t)
.........
" *-tly Uffd COOtdin1te flltifflll'ICI sys.--.
NAOAIVfM10,-. USN EPSQ."'ltil4
Wortlf.>)1otl 13AJ$<100
USA.,.~QPMU#- ESRS:IOZOO'l
NAO ..t98.J..101LVT"..,~ISK ESltl:102334
WOSSA/PIWOO M•l'CtlOI' EPSG:3167
Fltui~ 3~3: E:,ca:anplc o( sofm'l'U'C: Jjs1i11a coor-
di1121c $}'Items. $p«-ifying thci.rEPSO, IONF, or
ESRI ldi:111:ifien..
in documemation describing data se1s (Fig-
ure 3-43). The EPSG or other identifiers are
oflen ustd as a sltonhand descrip1ion of1he
full projection. and reference 10 them may be
confusing if one is unaware of the system of
standard identifie:rs.
The Public Land Survey System
Fortbe bendit ofGIS practi1ioners in
the United S1a1es. we must cover one final
land designation system,. known as the Pub-
lic Land Sw,·~ · S;<1e111. or PLSS. The PLSS
is not a coordinate system. bu1 PLSS poims
are often used as reference points in the
Uni1ed S1a1es, so tlie PLSS shoo Id be well
understood for work lhere.
The PLSS di"ided lands by nonb-south
lines. 6 miles apart. mnning parallel to a
principal meridia1J.. East-west lines were sur-
veyed perpendicular to lhese nonb-south
lines. also at six lllile imervals. These lines
form square townships. Each rownship was
further subdh~ded iuto 36 sections, eac.h
section approximately a mile on a side. Each
section was subdi.vided further. to quaner-
sections (one.hair mile on a side), or six-
teenth sec1ions (one-quar1er mile on a side).
Sections were numbered ia a zigzag pattern
from one 10 36. beginning in the nonhe.ast
corner (Figure 3-44. squares numbered I to
36 wi1hin 1he 1hicker-boundary square).
Becaust 1he priu-,ry purpost of the
PLSS survey was to identify parcels. lines
and comer locations were considered static
on completion of the survey, even if the cor-
ners were far from I.heir intended location.
Survey errors were inevitable giwn 1he large
areas and number of different survey parties
involved. Rather u,an iu,~te end less dispute
and readjustment the PLSS specifies tha1
boondaries established by !he •1>pointed
PLSS surveyors are unchangeable. and tha1
town.ship and section corners must be
ac.cepted as true. The typical section con-
1ains approxi,ruuely 640 acres, but due in
pan 10 errors in surveying, sec1ions larger
than 1200 acres and smaller than 20 acres
were also established (Figure 3-44).
The PLSS is a slandardi.zed method for
designa1ing and describing the location of
land parcels. meant 10 address 1be shortCOlll·
ings of meres (Ind bounds surveying. the
most common prior method. Me.1es and
boouds describe a parcel rela1ive 10 fean,res
on the landscape. some1imes supplememed
with angle or distance measurements. Under
meies and botwds a parcel description was
often ambiguous. PLSS replaced me1es and
bounds in !he early 1800s, used for nearly all
land ou1side lhe original thineen colonies.
An approximately unifom, grid system was
established across the landscape , with peri-
odic adjustments incorporated to accoun1 for
1he an1icipa1ed error. Parcels we.re desig-
nated by their location wi1hin Ibis grid sys-
tem.
The PLSS is i!llportant 1oday for several
reasons. f irst since PLSS lines .are often
properiy botwdaries. they fonn namraJ corri·
dors in which to place roads. powerLines. and
other public services; they are often evident
on the landscape (Figure 3-45). Many rood
intersections occur at PLSS comer points.
and these can be ,~ewed and rererenced on
many maps or imagery ustd for GIS data·
base developmem efforis. Thus. 11te PLSS
often fonns a convenient system to coreg:is-
1er GIS data layers. PLSS comers and lines
are often ploned on go,·emment 111.1ps (e.g..
I:24,000 quads) or available as digital d.1ta.
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 133

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"' 2S
"',. ,. 28

,,"'
27
7
• • 10
" "'
•• " •• .. .." "
33
" 35
"' 31 32 33

.. 20 21 22 23
3• •
,,
2
' '
,,
5 2 I
•
,. ,." • •
10 II 7 10 II 1

• •• ..
~·
,0 20
- ,. 33
27

.. "
35 38
•• " •• " " "
>3
••
Flaurt 3-44: Exampk of ,Wtiou in the size and shape of PLSS s«tious. Most s.cctious are tepro.'(i·
ouudy one mile squ.a~ wi.1h stttiou liuc-.s p:i.mlld or papc:ndicul~ 10 the ptiuwy ruc.ridi nn, as illustrated
b>• d1.e fOV.'Ut;.hip in lhc tapper left of LIU.S figure. How·c ,·cr, ndju.urncnts due 10 diffctttl.1 primnzy 11'teridi:1.ns,
d1£fc:ren1 s.111"\-C)' partict.. and CITOl"5 resuh m irre:gulnr Kctioo sizes ~od shapes..

I I I I I I ·I l I J
•
- . ~

Flentt 3,..45: PLSS lirics ntc often ,·i.tibk on the fa.ndicape. Roads (li$1u lines on 1bc inugc. :ibo,·c left)
of!cn follow tbc 1cc1ioi1 nucl 1ow11sl1ip lines (above right).
134 GIS Fundamentals

Further. PLSS corners are somelimes

resurveyed using high precision meihods 10
provide propeny line conirol. parricularly
when a GIS is lo be developed (Figure 3-46).
These points may be useful 10 properly
locare and oriem spatial data layers on the
Earth's surface.

s2ols21
$2'9'1'628

fia11~ 3-46: A PLSS comer th11-1 has bec:11 lo\1.T•

,·eyed and marked widi., momunent. Titis
cno~urucu1 'Shows. the pby&ical loca1ion o( a
kCl101i tomu. Tbcsc: points tltt oftc:u tl.kd at
control points for fur1hcr 1,~ti~I cbtn ck,·clOJ>·
meau.
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 135
Summary
In order co enter coordinates in a GIS.
we need to uniquely define the location ofall
points on Eanh. We must develop a refer-
ence frame for Ot[ coordinate system. and
locate positions on this sysr<m. Since tile
Ean.h is a curved surfa<:e and we work wilh
flat maps. we must somehow reconcile lhese
two views of 1be world. We define posi1ions
on the globe , 1ia geodesy and surveying. We
conven these locations 10 flat surfaces \rja
map projections.
We begin by modeling the Earth's shape
with an ellipsoid. An elJipsoid differs from
the geoid. a g,ra,;1ationally defined Eanh
surface, and these differences caused some
early confusion in tlie adoption of standard
global ellipsoids. There is a long history of
ellipsoidal measurement. and we have
arrived at our best estimates of global and
regional ellipsoids after collecting laJ&e.
painstakingly developed sets of precise sur-
face and astronomical measurements. These
measuremenrs are combined into danuus.
and these datums are used to specify the
coordinate locations of points on the surface
of the Eanlt.
Map proj ections are a systematic render-
ing of points from the curved Earth surface
on10 a flat map surface. \Vhile there are
many purely mathematical or purely empiri-
cal map projections. the most common map
projections us ed in GIS are based on devel-
opable surfaces. Cones, cylinders. and
planes are the most common de,·elopable
surfaces. A u,ap projection is const.mcted by
passing rays from a projection center
through both the Earth surface and the devel-
opable surface. Points on the Eanb are pro-
jected along the rays and on.to the
developable surface. This surface is then
mathematically tuirolled 10 {orm a na, map.
Standard sets of projections are com-
monly used for spatial data ;u a GIS. In the
United States, the UTM and State Plane
coordinate systelllS define a standard set of
map projections tha1are widely used. Other
map projections are conm:io.oly used for con-
tinental or global maps, and for smaller
maps in other regions of the- world.
A datum transfom1a1ion is often
required when perfon11ing ruap projections.
Darum transformations account for differ-
ences in geographic coordinates due to
changes in the shape or origin of the spher-
oid. and in some cases 10 datum adjustments.
Datum transfomtation shouM be applied as a
step in the map projection p.roces.s when
input and output datums differ.
A systemof land division known as the
Pt1blic Land Survey System. (PLSS) was
esrablisbed inthe United States. TI1is isnot a
coordinate systen~ but rather a method for
unambiguously and systematically defining
parcels of land based on regularly spaced
survey lines in approximately north-south
and east-west directions. lmersection coordi·
nates bave been precisely measured for
many of 1hese survey line-s. and are ofte.n
used as a reference grid for further surveys
or land subdivision.
136 GIS Fundamentals

Suggested Reading

Bossler. J,D, (:?002), Darnms and gelX!eti~ system~ ln J, ll9ssl« (Ed,). Manual 9[
Geosparinl TeclmologJ: London: Taylor and Francis.

Brandenburger.A.J.. Gosh. S.K. (1985). The world's topographic and cadasll1ll map-
ping operations. Photogmmmelric E,,gi11een'11g (Ind Remote Sensing. 5 J:437-444.

Burkl1older. E.F. (1 993). Computation of horizontal/level distances. Jo11r11nl o[S11r-

,·eyi11g £11gi 11eeri11g, 11 7: 104-119.

Colvocores.ses. A,P. ( 1997). The gridded map. Phorogmmmerric E11gi11eeri11g and

Remote Smsi11g, 63:37 t-376.

De,mis. M.L. (2018). The State Plane Coordinate System: History. Policy. and Flnure
Directions. NOAA Special Publication NOS NGS 13. National Geodetic S11rvcy.
Washington D.C.

Doyle. F.J. (1997). Map conversion and the UTM Grid. Photogrommenfc £11gi11eer-
i11g and Remote S,,11si11g. 63:367-370.

Elitborpe, J.A.Jr., Findorff, 0.0. (2009). Geodesy for Geommi,s a11d GIS Pr,ofessio11-
ols. Acron: Copley Custom Textbooks.

Featherstone. \V.E.• Kulm. M. (2006). Height systems and ,•enical datums: a, review
in lhe Australian context Journal o/Sparinl Scfe.uce. 5 I:21-4 1.

Flacke, W.. Kraus, B. (2005). Worl.ing 11;tlt Projections and Do111111 Tro11sfon11atio11s
in ArcGIS: Theory 011d Pmctical Examples. Norden: Points Verlag.

Habib, A. (2002). Coordinate transformation. In J. Bossler (Ed.), Afn1111nl oFGeospa-

rial Teclwo/ogy. London: Taylor and Francis...

Iliffe. J.C .. Lon. R. (2008). Damms m,d Map Projections for Remote Se11si11g, GIS,
a11d S11n·eyillg. 2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

J11tema1ioual Association of Oil and Gas Producers (2016). Coordi11ate Co,,.,ersio11

aud Tro11sfo1111atio11s i11cl11diug Formulas. Geomatics Guidance Note Number 7.
P011 I 2. w,.,,w.epsg.org.

Janssen. V, (2009), Understanding ooordinate reference systems, datums. an<l trans-

formations. /u1ema1io11al Joumal ofGeoinformmic..s. 5:4 1·53.

Keay. J. (2000). The Gretrt Arc. New York: Hatper Collins.

 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 137

Leick, A. (1993). Accuracy standards for modem tluee-dimensional geodetic net-

works. Sun'eying and Laud Informan·ou Systems, 53: 11L· 127.

Maling. D.H. ( 1992). Co<>rdi11nte S)>tems n11d Mnp Projectio11s. London: George
Phillip.

Meyer. T. H.. Roman. D.H.. Zilkoski. D.B. (2006). What does height really mean?
Pan Ill: Height systems. S111,•eyi11g a11d La11d lllfon1101io11 Systems, 66: 149-160.

Milben. D. (2008). An analysis of the NAD83(NSRS2007) National Readjustment.

Downloaded 9/ 12/2011 from http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/PUBS_LIB/NSRS2007

National <ieospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). TRS350.2 World Geodetic System

1984, .11S Definition and Relationship \\1th Local Geodetic Systems. http://eanh-
info.nga.miVGandG/publications/tr8350. 2/tr83 50_2.html

NOAA Manual NOS NGS 5. State Plane Coordinate System of 1983. Imp://
" ~vw.ngs.noaa.gov!PtJBS_LJB/MannalNOSNGS5.pdf

Schuh. H.. Behrend. B. (20 12). VI.BI: A fascinating technique for geodesy and
astr0nomy. Jo11nwl ofGeody110111ics. 61:68·80.

Schwanz. C.R. (1989). Norri, Amerlcm, 00111111 of /983, NOAA Profess.i o11nl Paper
NOS 1. Rockville: Naiional Geodetic Survey.
Smith. D.S .. Roman. 0 .. Hilla. S. (2017). NOAA Tee/mica/ Repo11 NOS NG62.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Smith. J. (1991). /111rod11crio11 10 Geodesy: The His to,, , 011d Co11ceprs ofModem
Geodesy. New York: Wiley.

Snay. R.A., Soler, T. ( 1999). Modern terrestrial reference systems. part I. Profes-
sio110/ Sw,·eyor, 19:32,33.

Snay. R.A .. Soler. T. (2000). Modern terrestrial reference systems. part 2. TI1e evolu-
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Snay. RA., Soler. T. (2000). Modero terrestrial reference systems. part 3. WGS84
and ITRS. Professiorwl S111w,y or. 20:24-28.

Snay, R.A .. Soler. T. (2000). Modern terrestrial reference systems. part 4. Practical
considerations for accurate positioning. Professfoual Sur,·eyor. 20:32·34.

Snyder. J.P. (1993). Flatre11i11g the £arth: Ji,.o Tho11sa11d l~rs ofMnp Projectio11s.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
138 GIS Fundamentals

Snyder. J.P. (1987). Mnp Projec1io11s, A Wo,-ki11g M01111nl, USGS Professio11a/ Pnper
No. JJ96. \Vashing1on D.C.: United Stales Government Printing Office.

Snyder. J.P.. Voxland. P.M. (1989). A11 Album oJMnp Projec1io11s, USGS Professio11nl
Pnper No. 145.1. Washington O.C.: United States Government Printing Office.

Sobel. D. (I 995). lo11gi111de. New York: Penguin Books.

Soler, T.. Snay, R.A.(2004). Transforming positions and velocities between the I111er-
national Te:rrestrial Reference Frame of 2000 and the North American Datum of
t983. Joum nl ofSw,•eyiug E11gi11eeri11g. 130:49-55.

Tobler. W.R. (1962). A classificatio11 of map projec1ions. Ammls ofthe Ass<>cintiou of

Americtm Geogropl,ers. 52: 167-1 75.

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Publication 235. The Sta1e Coordinate Sys-
tems. hnp://www.ngs.ooaa.goviPUBS_LIBlpublication235.pdf

Van Sickle. J. (2010). Basic GJS Coordi11a1es. 2ud Editio11. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

Vanicek. P.. St.eeves. R.H. (1996). Transform•tio11 of coordinates be1ween t1vo hori-
zontal geode1ic datums. Jo11111n/ ofGeodesy. 70:740-745.

Welch. R. HoIDSey. A. (1997). DA!Uill shifts for ITTMcoot'dinaies. Photogmmwetric

E11gi11ee1·f11g oud Remote Sensing. 63:371 ·376.

Wolf. P.R.. Gh.ilani. C.D. (2002). £/e111e111my S11n-eyi11g. 10th ed. Upper Sad.die
River: Prentice-Hall.

Yang. Q.. Snyder. J.P.. Tobler. W.R. (2000). Map Projectio11 Tra11sfor111atio11: P1i11ci-
ples a11d Applfcntlous. London: Taylor & Francis.

Zenk. D. (2014). Correct use ofNAD83 realizations and geoid model. Mimuso1a
SUM'e}'OY, 22:16·18.

Zilkoski. 0., Richards. J.• Young. G. (1992). Results of the general adjustme nt of the
Nonh Ame.rican Vertical Datum of J988. Sun·eyiug aud laud Juformariou S)1s·
tems, 53: 133-149.
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 139

Study Questions

3J - Describe how Eratosthenes estimated the circumference of tlte Eartl1. \Vital

vahte did be obrnin?
3.2 - Assume tlte Earth is approximately a sphere (not an ellipsoid). Also assume
you•ve repeated the measurements of Posidonius. shown in the figure below. What is
your estimate of the radius of the Eanh' s sphere given 1.he follo\\fog distance/aogle
pairs. Note that the disrances are given below in meters. and angle in degrees. and
calculator., or spreadsheets may require you enter angles in radians for lfigonometric
functions (I radian= 57.2957795 degrees):
a) angle 9 • 1° 18' 45. 79558". distance • I46.000 meters
b) angle 0 e o• 43' 32.17917". distance - so.soo meters
c) angle e = o• 3• 15.06032". distance = 6.000 meters

Canopus

1) measure
d.0
2) radius • i0
Center of 3) circumfer ence
the Earth = 2 Jt r adius
140 GIS Fundamentals

3.3 - Assume the Earth is approximately a sphere (not an ellipsoid). Also assume
you've repeated the measurements of Posidonius. What is your estimate of the radius
of the Earth's sphere given the following distance/angle pairs. Note that the distances
are given in meters, and angle in degrees. and calculators or spreadsheets may require
you emer angles in radians for trigonometric functions ( I radian a 57.2957795
degrees):
a) angle - 2° 59' 31.33325". distance • 332.000 meters
b) angJe = 9° 12' 12.77201", distance = 1.020.708 meters
c)angle = 1° 2' 12. 15566".disiance = IIS.200meters

3.4 - What is an ellipsoid? How does an ellipse differ from a sphere? What is the
equation for the Oanening fac10J1

3.5 - Provide three reasons why 1.here have been various estimates for Earth"s ellip-
soid radii

3.6 - Define tlie geoid. Tell how it differs from the ellipsoid, and from the surface of
the Eanh. Describe how we measure the position of the geoid.

3. 7 - Define a parallel or meridian in a geographic coordinate system. Describe where

the zero lines occur.

3.8 - How does magnetic north differ from the geographic North Pole?

3.9 - Define a datum. Describe how danuus are developed.

3.10 - Why are there multiple datums. even for tl1e same place on Earth? Define what
we mean ,'1!en we say there is a datum shift.

3.11 - \Vhat is a triangulation survey, and what is a bench mark-?

3.12 - Why do we not measure vertical heights relative to mean sea level?

3.13 - What is the difference berween an orthometric height and a dynamic height?
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 141

3.14 - Use the NCAT software available from the U.S. NOAAINGS website (https://
" 'vw.ugs.noaa.gov/NCAT/) to fill the following table. Note that all of tilese points
are i.n the continental United States (CO NUS) and longimdes are west. but entered as
positive numbers.
NAD27 NAD83(86) HPGN
''" S101c 11;.l!tuck ............ l.,t,t116t 111•,tuct, lon<Jl111dit
""''""
I Cd,I (S) 32''..1~· Uf'~A,C 3l'A.c1~1szr U7"0H!>l20l' 32•....·151110· 111'09',51201'

J "'~ AJ"Or~· 19•1::ru· 0

A) 07"0806' 1'1"zo'11A116'

• .,_..,, ,o"woo· 105'16'01' .co'0000006-S 10$ 16·oi 9nr

I """'oc 38"51·10AOS2'" 7102'199!65' 3$"$110 •064 7TOZ-119041"

3.J S . Use the NCAT software available from the U.S. NOAAINGS we bsite (https://
www.ngs.noaa.gov/NCAT/) ro fi.U the following table. Note that all of til1ese poinls
are in the continental U1tlted States (CONUS). and longintdes are west, but entered as
positive numbers.
NAD27 NAD83(86) HPGN
Po• s,o,, lll••t# ""9- tm,1'41' ...,.... 1q· ,1.,q, '>')<'...

2 V~tOl'I A1°1r!5' ll'zP18'06" ,U"lT:iA-3571' 11.t'llnO " " ' 4f?r54.Je'l' 1221110,M·

• n ss-or iS"ll'll" 2;'S8'.'011'Q15" ~ 2l'll-77tl~·

'"""
• ~(Sl 24 J.J 3C" 11··~ir 2,·J.)"Jl)2l6-. 81"45"!8ll6Z

• ..,..... 46.SZ'Q 152-4' o&"CO'S0091.a· V.,'$201680' 68~00-,90995'

142 GIS Fundamentals

3.16 - Use the World Wide Web version or download and Slart the HTDP software
from the U.S. iNOAAINGS site (at the time of this writing. Imps://
"~vw,igs.noaa.govfl'OOLS/Htdp!Htdp.shtml). and complete the following table. Use
the tooJ for a horizontal displacement between two dates. Enterepoch start and stop
dates ofJauuary I. 1986 and January I. 2015. respectively. Specify a zero height or z
for your danun 1ransfom1a1io11. Use the spherical Earth approximation fonnulas
described in Chapter 2 when calculating the surface shift distance, in centimeters
(cm). assuming a radius of 6,371 kilometers. Report the ground shift from 1986 10 the
2015 time period.

NAD83(2011) - 1986 NAD83(2011) • 2015 Surface: S!llfi d1stonc.e (cm)

10:,r'1:l'e I0"9 tt,xk
'"" b'l<11rudt IOtitvdt ~!rudt IOt1lu(tt

I JZ°u1s· 11t'o9·.c2· 321)44']5 0292· 117'09'420298. ·90l .9:zo

3 ',3°0TS9' SQ"z,o·n· .. ~0758 ~95.t' 89°2010(}973"

> .:ocoo·oo· 105"16'01'

7 381151'0 99?' 7flOH09978"

3.17 - Use the World Wide Web version or dow1tload and start the HTDP software
from the U.S. NOAAINGS site (at the time of this writing. https://
""~v.ogs.noaa.gov/fOOLS/Htdp/Htdp.shtml). and complete the following table. Use
the tool for a horizontal displacement between two dates. Eoter epoch start and stop
dates of January I, J986 aod January I. 20 IS. respectively. Specify a zero heigbt or z
for your datum transfomiation. Use the spherical Earth approximalion fomtulas
described iu Cl1ap1er 2 wbeu calculatulg the surface shift distance. in cemimeters
(cm). assuming a radius of 6.371 kilometers. Report the ground disiance between
points from tlte 1986 to tlte 2015 time period.

NAD83(2011) - 1986 . - 2015

NA083(20l') Surface shift dtsfonce {cm)

Pnl 1io1,1udt 1Qn9,f\ldie to•11.i<1e l~ lvde totitVC, lon9ltutle

2 47°27)5" 122,18'06" 41'2755 0052' 12'2~Ul05 9914' ·!61 ,..

' 2<>°sa·or <$"2!'31' 29csa·c1 oooc 9Y'21'J0998l'

6 24°33'30" 8t°'.t!H9'

8 ctt51~998-34 WOO'S99970"
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 143

3.J8 - Use the VDatum software (available at the time of this writing at https://vda-
nuu.noaa.gov/) to complete lhe table. Note that all lo11gin1des are west. entered as
negarive numbers.

NA027 NA083(20 11}

.... ..... ~··...ot .,...,,I.« c~hon(m) ......... "'"''""'
,1cwh0tl (ml

I c,.. l2 , 000" ·llt'OO'l)O" ,00 l2 .co CO J80Q' •117'00 03 0990" ......

........,,,., ~ JOl!O" -tzz''o<ro,· 200
'
• ,-... ,roaoo· ·69""00'«)' 200

1 ....... 2s•oo·oo· .,111"Jooo• I

3.19 - Use the VDat-um software (available at the time of this writing at bttps://vda-
tum.noaa.gov/) to complete lhe table. Note that lougirudes are west. entered as uega·
tive numbers.

....
NAD27
........ NAD83( 2011)

--
s ..,...
"""" t~ttof'I (m) la•tMc ~)11\Klc -~IO'I (m)

i •~"co·oo· -9ii4CO'OO' 200 .cs•~Y$9USA --9,"00'0I 0 170" ......

• ,.,... J0"15'00' .,rooo· 200

• ~ J&"OG'otr ,tof,soo· 3000

• N COrob'iC 3s4.cooo· -82"3o00- 500

3.20 - Use the VOatum software to calculate the orthometric height change. in centi-
meitrs, forlhe listed NADS3(201 I) geographic coordinates. when switc hing from tl1e
NAVD(geoidl2A) as the source. 10 geoids for 2009. 1999. and 1996 respectively..

.... SlC1c
""""'°" ...........
OCOiO'llA
de...aton (m)
,.,.
~
........ · ((lfl). ~ t (cm).
lo 9'0099
~l(cni)
lo Qt0d9t>

I
"'' ll',ooo· .u1"cow 0
•• ••
48~30'00" .122W·o;,· ,co

--
'NcsfW'IQ10tl
'
s 41°0000• ·69•oo·oo· 200

7 2s'Of!OO· ·81.)(>00' I
144 GIS Fundamentals

3.21 - Use the VOatum software to calculate the orthometric height change. in centi·
meters. for ct,e listed NAD83(201 l) geographic coordinates. when switching from the
NAVD(geoidl 2A) as 1he so1irce. to geoids 2009. 1999. aod 1996 respectively.

"'" Sl41fl
"""'"' """"""
o)ff;-1l2A
......... ......... ...........
d.11('4'1 (cffl) .1.he1Ql11 (cm). ,0,t,c1·,i.otcm)

.
cbal,on (ml
, ,.,..,..,. .c~"'oo·oo- ·9f00'(!()' 200 ,. 11
••
4 TtllO.t 30•15cv ·91 d'OO' 200

• '""""" 34'oqoo· ·IOT'•SOO' J009

• ,c.,o,. u",o-oo· .f,i!'JQOO'

"'°
3.22 - a) You wish 10 site a seaside hospital in San Diego. CA. Using gauge ?410170.
repon the NAVDSS elevation you wish to use as a threshold if you want the site to be
at le.ast 30 feet above the mean high water mark (these.arch fi.mclio.n in the upper lefl
comer of the tides website. described in the tides se<:1iou of this cl1ap1er. will help
speed the search for 1he station information. llien look for a tides and water levels.
datums sectiou).
b) What is 1be height difference between the gauge NAVDSS height and the mean low-
low water mark for the station?

3.23 - a) You wish 10 dredge a cbaunel near Naples. FL. near the NOAA tidal gauge
station 872511 O. You wish to maintain a channel depth of 30 feet below the mean sea
level. What is ·the channel depth elevation expressed as an NAVDSS height, in feet?
(the search function ill the upper left comer of the tides website, described ill the !ides
section of this chapter. will help find the station. Then look for a tides and water lev-
els, datums section)
b) Wbat is !be mean bigh-bigh water mark. expressed ill feel. as a NAVDSS height?

3.24 - What is a developable surface? What are tJ1e most common shapes fora devel-
opable surface?

3.25 - Look up the NGS control sheets for the following points, and record their hor-
izontal and vertical datmus. latitudes. and longitudes:
DOG. Maine. PLO= P006 l 7
Key \Vest GSL. Florida. PID =AA l645
Neah A. Washington. PID • AF8882

3.26 - Look up !lie NGS control sheets for 1he following points. and record their hor-
izontal and vertical datums. latitudes. and loogimdes:
Denver. Colorado. PID = KK 1544
Loma East. CA. PID • AC60?2
Austin CE. Texas. PID =DN7664
 Chapter 3: Geodesy. Projections, and Coordinate Systems 145

3.27 - Using the spheroid fonuula given in this chapter>calculate the great circle dis·
1ance 10 1he neares1 kilome1er for 1be control poims in question 3.25 • above from:
. DOG to Neab A
- Key West 10 DOG
- Neab A to Key West

3.28 - Calcula1e 1be grea1 circle dis1auce for u,e control poims in question 3.26 -
above fro.m:
· Denver to Loma East
. Denver to Austi.n CE
• .,.\ us1io CE 10 Loma Eas1

3.29 - Describe the S1a1e Plane coordina1e sys1em. Whal l}'pe of projections are used
in a State Plane coordinate system?

3.30 - Define aud describe u1e Universal Transverse Mcrca1or coordina'le sys1em.
What type of developable surface is used with a UTM projection? What are UTM
zones. wllere is the origin of a zone, and how are negative coordinates 8\IOided?

3.31 - Wbat is a datum trru1Sfom1a1ion? How does it differ from a map projection?

3.32 - Specify which 1ype of map projection you would choose for each country.
assuming you could use onlyone map projection for tile entire country. 11te projection
lines of iutersection would be optimally placed, and you wanted to minimize overall
spalial distance distortion for the counuy. Choose from a transverse Mmcator, a L1.m·
ben conformal conic. or an Azimmbal:
Benin Bhutan
Slovenia Israel

3.33 - Specify which 1}'pC of map projection you would choose for eacb country,
assuming you could use only one map projection for the entire counuy, the projecr'ion
lines of iu1crsec1ion would be op1in1ally placed. and you wanted 10 minimize overaU
spatial distance distortion for the counuy. Choose from a transverse Me1ca1or. a Lam-
bert conformal conic, or an Azimuthal:
C11ile Nepal
Kyrgyzstan The Gau1bia

3.34 - Describe 1be Public Land Survey System. Is i1 a coordinate sys1em? What is its
main purpose?
146 GIS Fundamentals

4 Maps, Data Entry, Editing, and
Output
Building a GIS Database
Introduction
Spatial data entry and editing are fre.
quent activities for many G!S users. Each
coordina1e pair needed to represent fearures
in a GIS muse be entered. re,~ewed. and
some1imes revised in a GlS database. This is
often pains1akingly slow, even with auto-
mated techniques. taking significanl time for
many organizations.
Before digital computers. most spatial
data were stored on luu'tltopy 11MJ>t (Ftgme
........
Fiaurc "'-1: ~1;ip11 lui\'c 5c:r\'Cd to store gcognaphic: knowJcdgc f~ 111luS! tbc pMI 4,000 )'C.llr$.. TI1is c:ui)' m~p
of oor1bcm Europe .bows 3pprox:imatc sbnpcs aod rclnlJ\·c l~.aborui.
147
4, J).These are any documents drawn. writ·
ten. or printed on physical media, including
maps and associated tabular data. Most elec-
tronic data were converted from bardcopy
so11rccs in the early years of GIS via digiti:·
ing. the process of collec.tin,g digital coordi-
nates from maps. Digitizing is a conl!"on
data entry method today. oow primartly from
digital images.
J);gftnl maps are an electronic. graphic
depiction of spatiaJ dal3. now our most com·
148 GIS Fundamentals

mon map fom1 (Figure 4-2). Millions of

electronic maps are generated each hour.
composed on demand in response to web
queries, for navigations systems, and for
commerce. These maps are flexible. easily
customized. inexpensively distributed. and
often dynamic.
Most maps. whether digital orhardcopy.
contain se.veral components (Figure 4-3).A
datnnrea orpane occupies the largest part of
the map. and couiains most of the depicted
spatial data. A uer.11/iue is often included 10
provide a frame arotmd all map elemenls.
and insets may comain additional map ele·
ments. Scolebars, legends. rifles. and other
graphic elements such as a north flnt)\1 ' are f'lv.un- 4-2: An cxru11plc of commo11ly pro-
often included. All maps have a mop scale. d'U(:c,d digital map, (courtc,y Google),
defined as the ratio of the distance on the
map to corresponding distance on the
ground.

medlo edge neotl1ne

title t-J:::::=-~==:::-;-::::;:-:;:;:::";::-=:=:=-;--;-;---,
Recreotionol Londs of t he Contiguous U.S

- '-

doto pone

D Por!</Forest
• Lake ~;;;;,--• -+l- scale bar
- Stote bousdory
- •
0

·-·-
~, !IIOO

legend north orrow

fia:n~ W : A.n Q.,1,roplc of a map llnd i1s compouenls..
 Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 149

Maps often depict coordinate lines (Fig-
ure 4-4). When the Jines represent constant
latin1de and longitude they are called a gm1i-
c11le (Figure 4-40). These lines may appear
curved. depending on the map projection
and scale. Maps may also depict a grid con·
sis1ing of lines of constant Cartesian coordi·
na1es. Grid Jines are typically drawn in both
the X and Ydirections. and appear straight
on most maps (Figure 4-4b). Graticules and
grids are useful because they pro,ide a refer·
ence against which location may be quickly
estimated.
Aerial and satellite images are often
included as a base i,n digital maps. blll they
are not maps. although the line is becoming
blurred. Uncorrected images usuaUy provide
a distorted. non-Cartesian rendering of the
Eanh's surface unless they are processed to
create orthoirnages. In addition. images are
not maps because features of interest such as
cities, rivers. or mountain ranges are not
explicitly ide11tilied. However. in1ages are a
rich source of geographic information. and
standard techniques may be used to extraCI
features through manual digitizing.
described later in this chapter. or through
image classification, described in Chapter 6.
Outdoor digiui2ing. usually with the use of
Global Navigation Sa1eUi1e Systems (GNSS)
such as the U.S. Global Positioning System
(GPS) is a co:mmon source of digital data,
and is described in detail in Chapter 5. This
chapter focuses on human-guided coordinate
capnire, primarily from images and maps.
and on map output.
Accuracy vs. Reso lution
We start by contrnsting positional accu-
racy and spatial resolution. as these concepts
are often confused. 10 the detriment of digi-
tal data development. Accuracy is how close
a value is 10 the truth-here. how close an X
or Y value in our data set is to t.he 1n1e value
for a feature on the Earth. Fonnal accuracy
as.sess1nent is covered in cnapier l4, bow·
ever the concept is importailt enough to
introduce here. We typically quantify accu-
racy as some average or range of errors. e.g..
stating 1bat measured average error for Light
pole locations was 2.5 metMS. AU data have
positional etTOr. typicaUy due 10 the way we
collected or processed the d.ata.
Spatial re.solution in a data sel or display
is the smallest feanire 1ha1 is indi,•idually
resolved. we.often note the resohirion of a
raster data set as the original collected cell
size. e.g.. a I0-meter resolu1ion satellite
image. or a 6-inch resohnion aerial photo-
graph. The resolution is often not the same
as the accuracy. Much image data have an
average resolution that is smaller than their
average accuracy. Forexample. a drone

.... .
\)
'"
• .....
.... ........ ' .....
.....
\
.....
.,,, .,,.,,
""
\
N
/JI
'
.,...
'"" •
0 b
fiaure 4-4: Maps oAen depict l.ines representing (o) a grotirole ofc-ooslaut llititodc anc:l lo11gitudc or (b) t1
grid o( cow1ai11 X arul Y c-oordina.1cs.
150 GIS Fundamentals
Resolution
D
I or paper and a corresponding distance on
Accuracy ,;;-7 \ mile on Earth. They may also be expressed
or ~ \
Erro ~
f'ia:m't 4-5: A <Ulta $:Cl way have .i resolution, hac
a 5-cm tt'solution i.imac. a.iMi a lower acC'Utacy.
here: wi1.b posi1iot1s (l(fsc-1 b)' SO e1u (ron, tnit
lit1es.
image may be collec1ed wi1h a 2.5 cm ( I
inch) resolution. but the underlying GPS and
image processing may yield average errors
over J meter - a substantially lower accu-
racy than resolution {Figure 4·5)
Vector data abo have both accuracies
and resolutions. The accuracy is detennined
by the error associated with point and vertex
locations. Accuracy is how close the coordi-
nate pairs that define fe.atu.res are to the tme
values. Resolution is a bit Jess clear with
vector data. Boundary-<1efu1ing vertexes
may be any distamce apart. and so there is no
one resolution for a vector data set. There is
a distribmion of intervals between adjacent
vertices. and the resolution is typically some
threshold length. .e.g .. the average distance
between venices. The resolution for veclor
data may be set by image source materials.
as ii can't be smaUer than image resolution.
but the operator may further degrade resolu-
tion by sampling ,it larger intervals. Resolu-
tion is also limited by the equipmenl used
and operator anentiveness wbile digitizing.
Scale
All displayed spatial data have a scale. a
relationship between a distance ou the screen
Earth. Map scale is often reponed as a dis·
tance conversion. such as one itlch to a mile.
meaning one inch on the map equals one
as a tmitless ratio. such as 1:24.000. indicat-
ing a unit distance on a display ~s equal to
24.000 unitS on Earth's surface. Digital maps
most often use a third method to repon scale.
as a bar or line of known distance, labeled on
the map (Figure 4-6), although many map-
ping programs automatically adjust the scale
according to the display zoom.
Displayuig a scale as a distance conver-
sion orunitless ratio may be in error on static
digital document such as a pdf, jpeg. or png
file because the 5(:ale is altered by zoom
level. This changes the magnifiC>tion on an
electronic display without the. ability to auto·
matically recompute scale. Digital docu-
ments should most often depict a graphic
scale bar. embedded in the map.
The notion of large vs. small scale is
often confused because scale implies a ratio.
A larger ratio signifies a large-sC1lle map. so
a 1:24.000 scale map is considered large-
scale rela1ive to a l:100.000 sc.a]e m,1p.
Many people mistakenly referto at: 100,000
scale map as larger scale d1a11 a l :24.000
scale map because it covers a larger area. II
helps to remember that features are larger on
a large-scale map (Figure 4-6). and that
large-scale maps often show more detail but
less area. Notice in Figure 4-6, the larger-
scale map at the top shows deta,ls of Tokyo
city. Tokyo shrinks in the successively
smaller.sc.ale maps. but largeradditional
areas are covered.
Because maps often report an average
scale, and because there are upper limi1s on
the accuracy with which data ca.n be plotted
on a map, large-scale maps generally have
less geometric error than suLSll-scale nLSps.
Small errors in measurement. plotting. and
hardc.opy printing are mag:oified more on a
small-scale map than a large-scale map.
 Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 151

a) Lorge-Scale Mop

b) Medium-Scale Mop

Asio

....
i.' : 11
Pocifrc oc eon

, ()
Sou!h
Cm>S.o 1500

c) Small-Scale Mop
;
-~ Asio
~ • ·. ·-. . Paci~
.. Ocean
.. . '
.•
lnd1on
• • •
Oeeon . ••
• 3.000 km.

Fi.&ur~ 4-6: M!f> co,·crnge. relative di.&tan«. t.od dctn.il cban.gc from larger sc11,lcs (top) to
smallc-r seal«. {bottom).
152 GIS Fundamentals

Map and Data Generalization an appropriate choice. The finer resolution

Spatial data and maps are abstractions of
reality. Tills abstraction introduces map gen·
em/i:ari011, the tUJavoidable approximation
of real feamres when they are represented in
digital data orou a map. Not all the geomet-
ric or attribute detail of the physical \vorld
are recorded: only the most imponaut char·
acteristics are inc!ltded. The set of feanares
that are most imp,ortrutt is subjectively
defUled and will differ among users. but
many projects aim 10 prodltce broadly usef\JJ
data.
The choice of daia sources and digitiz·
ing methods will 11navoidably set Limits on
1he size and shape of features that may be
represented. Consider mapping lakes. based
on image data wiub a 250-meter cell size
(Figure 4-7. lefl). The abstraction of tl1e
shoreline will not represent bays and penin·
sulas that are smaller than approximately
250 meters across. SmaJI features will be
missed. edge detail will be Jost. and dis·
tauces along bollndaries will depend on tlie
resolution of the source image.
A finer resolution source. such as a 30-
meter image (Figure 4-7, right). may more
faithfully depict map detail. but may not be
may be more expensive 10 create. difficult 10
reproduce, unavailable for the entire map-
ping area,. or out of dale. Even at higher reso-
lutions. generali:zatiou is unavoidable in data
collection. One muSI evaluate any data cre-
a1ion effort to ensure that it produces data
useful for its intended purpose.
Output maps contain all the original data
generalizations. and may f\Jnber generali.ze
if displayed at smaller scales. Canographers
often must balance several fac1ors in map
design. and their choices may lead to fea.
tures being incompletely represented.
Many kinds offea1ttrege11era/i::a1ion is
common in data and on maps (Figure 4-8).
We omh detail due to Ii.mils on the time.
mecbods. or materials available when col-
lecting geographic data. Limits may also
apply when compiling. displayiug. or
exporting a nmp. These feature generaliza-
tions. depicte<I in Figure 4·8. may be classed
as:
Fused: multiple features may be
grouped to fom1 a larger feantre.
Simplified: boundary or shape de1ails
are lost or "rounded off:·

Flgtu't' -'· 7: A o,11pnuikcl'chooscs the nuncrial1 i11id methods wed 10 produce a lU:1.J.>, :.lid 10 impose$:.
fonit oll spatinl dc~il. Herc, tbc choice ofan irspul image witb ll 2:50·mctu resolution (left) rcodcn ii
impos~ible to r(¥esent all the details of the real Ja.k,: boundaries (right). in this e~ruplc. fc.atures
s.miillcr than appro:Uruatdy 250 metm on a side 1My not be faithfully rcpresentC'd on the lllap.
 Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 153

Displaced: fealllies may be offset to uplands, interspersed withs.mall wetlands,

prevent overlap or 10 provide a stlU\·
dard disrnnce between mapping sym-
bols.
Omiuert;· Small feamres in a gl'QYP
may be excluded from the map. or
E.-chgger.ared: standard symbol sizes
a.re often.chosen. for example. s1audard
road symbol "idlbs. which are much
larger when scaled than the tme road
width.
Generalization can be a problem
because ii removes both spatial and attribute
detail. If the main feature of interest in an
analysis oftei, gets fused into surrounding
many smaller than a few 100 square meters
in size. These wetlands may comprise a
quarter of the landscape. but are omitted in
coarser resolution data sets. and hence lead
to erroneous analysis about habitat suitabil-
ity for breeding birds. or crop production in
wet years. or likelihood of flooding.
Generalization is presem at some level
in almost e\'ery data layer o, map. Md
should be recogJ>izcd and evaluated for each
data source in a GJS. If generalization results
in omission or degradation of data beyond
acceptable levels. then the analyst sJ1011ld
switch to a larger-scale map if appropriate
and a, ailable. or return to the field or origi-
1

regions. errors of omission may dominate. nal source materials 10 collect data at the
For ex.,mple. the prairie pothole region of required precision.
central North America is dominate<I by

Truth Fused Simplified

\_r-0~o(s
-~~
..
\,'T0o:·····
...
. ._c;oo
· . oQ
~Ooit····~ .<?00<1·· ........
··..'• 't1 .•. . . ·••·••••

polygons fused polygon det:i;·· ..•

srmpbfied

Displaced Omitted
(5o(s
....... o~
. . .0..... ~(s
..
4.Oo,O'
"· ..
"'Oo.'•,
'(/
.. ......... ······,,
···...
rood displace~···.•. smoll polygons exoggeroted rood
from polygons om,tted 'Mdlh due to
stondol'(J symbol

Flautt 4-8: Gc11cralizations cc1nmou iu maps and data la.yen.

154 GIS Fundamentals
Digitizing: Coordinate Capture
. Digiti:iug is the process by which coor-
dmates are captured Into a data layer in a
GIS. The poinl. line. Md area coordinate
vah,es 1ha1 define 1he loca1ions and shapes of
eotmes must be captured. that is, recorded as
numbers and structured in the spatial data·
base.
A1mwnl dig;1i:mio11 is human.guided
coordina1c capiure from a map or image
source. The operator guides an elec1ronk
devfoe over a map or image and sisuials the
C8p1Ute of imporiant coordinmes. often by
pressing a bunon on 1he digi1izing device.
Important point. line. or area features are
,raced ou lhe source ma1erials. and lhe coor-
dina1es are recorded in GIS-compa1ible for-
mats. Valuable da:la on historical maps may
be convened 10 digi1al forms through 1he use
of manual digi1izing. On-screen digi1izit1g
and hardcopy digi1izing are >he 1wo mos,
common fom1s or manual digitization.
On-Screen Digitizing
Ou-screen digiti:ing involves identify-
ing and digitizing feaiures ou a digi1al
image. Digi1iziog sof1ware allows 1he opera-
torto trace the points. lines. or p-olygons that
are iden1ified on 1be image (Figure 4-9) and
saves 1he coordit1a1es and added anrib111e
data into spatial data layers. The ope.rator
may also specify 1he 1ype of fea1ure 10 be
recorded, 1he exien1 and magoifkaliou ofthe
image on screeJJ. the mode of digitizing. and
oLher options to control how data are input.
n,e opera1or ,ypically guides a cursor over
poin1s 10 be recorded using a mouse or 01her
pointing de\~Ce-. and depresses a button or
 Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 155

sequence of buuons to collecl the poilu coor· Hardcopy Digitizing

d~1ates. Much image data produced for spa.
tial data entry since 2010 is delivered as Hmdcopy digiti:i11g is another form or
onhoimages or onhophotogrnphs. with the data entry. now infrequently used. It
inherent image distoniou removed. in a s1an· involves digitizing from a p.aper, plastic, or
dard. projected coordinate system. so that other hardcopy map. An operator SA!Curely
data may be direc.lly e.xtracled from the anaches a map to a digitizin.g sttrface and
images in to a spatial cfa1a layer. traces lines or points with an electrically sen-
si1i2ed puck (Figure 4-10). The operator
mams1lly identifies the locarion of each
Field Digitizing shape-defining location to record points,
lines. and polygons into a vector data set.
Feamres or attributes may also be
direc1ly digitized while iu tbe field. aod this The mos1common digitizers are based
is the second mosl conunon way of modem on a wire grid embedded in or under a table.
digital data coUection. The user occupies the Depressing a bunon specifies the puck loca-
target position aod c-0llec1s coordinates with 1ion relative to the digitizerie:oordina1e sys·
a positioning device., typically a sateJlile· tem. The digitizer coordinat,es are then
based receiver. These Global Navigation COO\',uted to a map-proje<:ted system
Satellite Systems (GNSS) are described in 1hrough software and coritrol points. While
detail in ChaP.ter ;, but the systems will t>e once a major method For capturing spaliaJ
briefly introduced here to underscore its data. hardcopy ,nap digitizing is rare
impottaoce. and the interaction wi1b manual because most paper documents have been
digitizing. converted to digital fom1S.
Point loc01ions may be recorded by a
single observ,1tion (sometimes called a posi-
tion fLx). or l>y averaging multiple fixes for
more accttrate locations. Lines or polygons
may be digiti~ed while moving, recording a
vertex at a spec.ified time or distance inler·
val. Anribute~ may be collected wllile in u1e
field. e.g.. ftre hydrant type. road iucident. or
wetland idenuifiers.
Field dig,itizing often starts with an
existing, manually digitized dala layer, with
field coordiuates or observations used to
update the exjsting reantres. Data are or,en
transfered via software to a computer. and
usually require subsequent ruarmal editing,
using methods described in following sec-
tions of this chapter. flgutt 4--10: Mrutua) digitizing on a digi1izi.11g
IJlbk
156 GIS Fundamentals

Characteristics of Manual Dlgltlz·

Ing
• <119,tczeo poinrs
Manual digitizing is common because i1 - tll prot>obllity 01$trWT1on
provides sufficiemtly accurate da1a for most
application~. Proper digitizing adds lilt.le
error to 1ha1already in the source materials
.••
and uses readily m1ailable equipment.
Hmnans are still betterthan machines at
interpreting image detail. panicularly from
non-ideal images. those collec1ed with poor 4
lighting. hazy skies. or for c.onl.J>lex targets.
Short training periods are required and data
quality may be frequemly evaluated. -0• -0 .2 00 02 o,
Manual digitizing may introduce spatial error ,n x direction (mm)
eJTOr in st\'eral ways. Use of m1correc1ed.
non-onhome.tric images is a common source Flrui·t •M l: Digit~ crror. dcfu)«J by repeat
diJitizi,ng. Poi.ntt repeatedly di~tfacd clus1a<
of spatial error. Images are inherently dis.. aro1u1d the lmc loution :and follow a 110:rm:il ))~·
torted. ~' some nirc cases these distOrtious bility disttibuiion (from Bol~ad cc 111.. 1990),
are small. but almoSI all images should be
processed 10 remove geometric error. lf error on a I: l.000.000 scale display corre·
using correc1ed images. generalization and sponds to 1.000 me1ers (3.28 I It) on the
poiming error. magnified by cite display Earthts surface. Thus. small errors in image
scale. often have the largest impact on spa- daca collection. produccion, or in1erpreta1ion
1ial data accuracy.
may cause significant positional errors when
Errors due to human pointing ability are scaled to distances on Earth, and! these errors
1he base limit ou data accuracy. buc may be are greater the smaller the display scale.
reduced when on-screen digitizing by zoom-
ing in to largersc-.ales as needed. Zooming
does not remove errors inherent in original
images. and frequem changes in scale. while Tablt 4-1: The surl'ace error caused by 21
reducing added spatial errors, come at the I millimeter (0.039 in) di_gitizin_g or map
error wiH change as m le changes. Note
cost of reduced digitizing efficiency. One the larger error at smallt:r scales.
tes1using a high-precision digitizing cable
revealed digitizin~ errors averaging approxi-
mately 0.067 nun (Figure 4-11). Errors fol- Scale Em,, Error
lowed a random uonual distribution. and (m) (n)
varied siguificao1 ly among operators. These
1:24,000 24 79
average errors translated to au approxi·
mately 1.6-me,er error when scaled from the 1:50,000 164
50
I :24.000 scale map to a grou11d-equivaleD1
distance. 1:62,500 63 205
Poin1ing e1TOrs may be magnified by
the source display scale. Table 4-1 illustrates 1:100,000 100 328
1he effects or scale OU data quality. Errors or
I 11lillime1er (0.039 in) on a I:24.000 dispby 1:250,000 250 820
scale correspond 10 24 me1ers (79 ft) on the
surface of the Earth. This same t millimeter 1:1.000,000 1.000 3,281

The person digitizing affects the geo-
metric quality of manually digitized da!O.
Operators differ in visual acuity. band steadi·
ness. attention to detail. and ability to con.
centrate. Wort quality may vary through
time due 10 fatigue or loss of focus wilh
repelitive lasts. Oigi1izers should take fre-
quent breaks, do quality ruid consistency
checks. and compare to other digitizers to
ensure accurate, consistent data collec.tion.
The Manua l Digitizing Process
Manual digitizing involves manually
positioning the puck or cursor over each Ult'·
get point on an image or nmp and collecting
coordinate locations. This position/collect
step is repeated for every point 10 be cap·
nired. and aJI features of interest recorded.
Lines ba'Ve a star1;11g node. lhen a set of
veJ'lice, defining the line shape. and an end·
ing node (Fig11re 4- 12). Hence. lines may be
viewed as a series of straight segments con·
necting vertices and nodes. Polygons are
coonec1eo littes 1ha1 enclose areas.
Digitizing is often in fX>i'11 mode. where
the operator must depress a button or other-
wise signal to the computer 10 sample each
point. or in srnum, mode. where poims are
node""'
vertex~
Flgutt 4· 12: Node, define th<: starti.11; and c-ndiu;
pomts of lines:; \'Miccs dc611c line sJt11pc.
Chapter 4: Maps and Dala En~y 157
automatically sampled at a fixed time or dis.
tance frequency. perhaps 011.ce each meter.
The stream sampling ra·te must be speci·
fied with care to avoid O\'er.. or under-sam..
pied lines. Too sbori acolie(lion interval
results in redundant points. Too long a col.
lec1ion interval umy cause the loss of import·
ant spatial detail. When using time-triggered
s1ream digitizing, the operator must continu..
ously move the digitizing puck: pausing for
a period longer than the sampling interval
digitizes multiple points clustered together.
This often creates a 11rat's nest•· of Jines that
most later be removed.
~'ltfinimum dis1m1ce digit·izing avoids
some of I.he problems inherent with time·
sampled streaming. In minimum distance
digitizing. a new point is 001 recorded unless
it is more 1han some minimum threshold dis·
1ance from the previously digitized poim.
The operator may pause witJ1out creating a
rat' s nest ofline segments. The threshold
must be chosen carefully- ueilher too large.
missing useful delai~ nor too smaH. in effect
reverting back 10 s1team digitizing.
Node and Line Snapping
Posi1ioual errors are inevitable when
data are manually digitized. These errors
should be small relative to the intended use
oftbe data: for example. 1be positional errors
may be limited 10 2 meters when only 5·
meter accuracy is required. TI1eseacceptable
errors may still prevent the generation of
correct networks or polygons. For example.
river flow analysis may be in error because
major tributaries do not connect. or polygon
feamres nmy be incomplete because their
boundaries don't close. These smalJ errors
mus1 be removed or a\'oided during digitiz ..
iug, Figure 4-13 shows some common digi·
1izing errors.
Undershoots and o,·erslioo1s often occur
when digitizing. Undersho<Yts are nodes that
do nol qujte. reach the line. or another node.
and oversboo1s are lines 1ha't cross over
existing nodes or lines (Fignre 4-13). Under-
shoots cause unconnected networks and
unclosed polygons. Overshoots typically do
158 GIS Fundamentals

overshoot
undershoot

b-- l
dong ling pseudonode
( node '-.
POiygon ,,,.._
lober point,,,.,,. ·

m issing
IObel point
11.ne crossing
- no node
FIR,UJ'f' 4-13: Conuuondijilizing ctrOtt.

not cause problems when defining polygons.
but they may cause difficulties when analyz-
ing line ne1works_
Node snapping and li11es11(lppi11g are
used to reduce. undershoots and overshoots
while digi1i2ing. Snapping is a process of
automatically setting nearby poims to have
the same coordinates. Snapping relies on a
snap rofertmce or snap distance. This dis-
mnce tllay be interpreted as a tlliuimmn dis-
1ance benveen fe~1tures. Nodes or vertices
c.loser 1han this distance are moved to
occupy the same loeation (Figure 4-14).
While digitizing. an existing node or vertex
bec.omes "magne.tic.," and pulls a new node
or vertex 10 it within !he snap distance. Node
snapping pre\rents a new node from being
placed within the snap distance of an already
existing node. Remetllber that nodes are

ofter snapping:

J
.····. '•
:' ,... •• O'Ytl'ShOol

·......
Fiz urr .a..J4-: Uodc:nboots.. o\'cnhooc.. :iod 1:u11PJ,>in.g. Sn:ipping mny ;otn nq,ck,. or m,,y pln.cc n oock onto
a ncart>y line scguKnt. Snappiog docs not occur lf the 1)00es a11dfor lmes arc separated by WON: t1Wl lbe
snap toleranc-c.

used to define the ending points of a Jine. By
su.,pping 1wo nodes 1og.ether. we ensure a
connec1iou between digitized lines.
Line snapping, sorue1imes called edge
snapping. ma,y also be spe1:ificd. Line snap-
p,~g mserts a. node at a line crossing and
c!Jps the end when a suL\ll o,·ershoo1 is digi-
tized. This fo.rces a node to connect 10 a
ne.arby line \\~hile digitizing. but only when
the ,mdersboo1 or overshoot is less 1han 1he
snapping disi.ance. WJ1e11 used properly. lit!<!
and node snapping reduce lhe nUD1ber of
undershoo1s and overshoo1s. Closed poly-
gons or iniersec1ing lines are easier 10 digi-
tize accurately and efficiently under node
and line snapping.
The snap distance must be carefolly
selec1ed. lf100 short. !hen Y1apping has little
impact Consider an opera1or and equipmen1
tha1 rarely digi1izes endpoims wi1hu1 5
meters of .their intended location. If the snap
1olerance ,s se110 1 me1er. few poini.s will be
snapped 1.0 taiget lines. wilh frequem dan-
gles and incomplele polygons. Conversely.
we satrifice accuracy if the SliAjl rolerailfe is
se1 100 large. Wii.b a snap tolerance of IO
meters. feature boundaries less tJ1an 10
me1ers apart C'1llno1 be recorded. The snap
d,s1ance should be smaller 1han 1he desired
positional accuracy. such that the needed
de1ail con1ained in the digi1ized dala is
recorded. Carefid selec1ion of 1he snap dis-
1ance should reduce digilizing errors and sig-
mficantly reduce time required for later
edi1ing.
Reshaping: Li ne Smoothing and
Thinning
Digilizing software may provide 1ools 10
smooth. densify. or 1hin points while enter-
ing data. One COlllmoo 1echnique uses spli,,e
f1mc1ions 10 smoo1hly in1erpola1e c,rrves
belween digittized poinlS. and 1hereby bo1h
smoolh and density lhe se1 of vertices used
to represent~. line. Aspfo1e is a se1 of poly-
no,.mal func1.oo.s d1at JOID smoo1hly (Figure
4-15). Polynomial func1ions are fil 10 suc-
cessive se1s of poin1s along lbe vertices in a
line: for example. a fimc1ion may be fi110
Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 159
poinlS I through 5. and a separale polyno-
mial func1ion 61 10 poin1s 5 1hrougb I I (Fig-
ure 4- 15). Consirauus force 1bese fi111c1ions
to connect smoothly. usually by requiring
1he rrrs1 and second derh'llli'ves of the fouc-
tions robe continuous at 1be Lntersection
point This means the lines have the same
slope ai the in1ersection point and ct,e slope
lS cbangmg al 1he same ra1e for bo1h lines a1
1~e intersection point. Once the spline func.-
uons are calculaied, they may be used 10 add
vcnices. For e.~ample. several new venices
may be automatically pL1ced on 1he line
between digitized vertices 8: and 9. leadina
10 1he "smoo1h" curve shown in Figure 4-15.
Da1a may also be digi1i2ed wi1h 100
many vertices. High densities often come
from s1ream mode digitizing. spline or
smootJ1mg func,Uolts, or classified image
data and then ra.s1er.to-vee1or conversion.
Redundant venices may be removed \\~thout
sacrificing spalial accuracy. This helps by
reducing file size and improving processing
speed. Poin1 tl1inning can fix 1his.
1:i:lilYp6lnt rhiillling metl1ods use a per.
peod1cular "weed" distance.. measured from
one polynom.o t:c;uot-on
1s fit to points or,(:
fhrOugh ,,.,._ y • f(x)
Of the JOin po1n1
r(x) • 9Cxl smoothed
,rope of t(x) • sJope ot g{x) line
change: in ~ of f(x) ~Is
lhc c ~ in slope of q{x}
•
10
::::::,.,29_ _ _..;:.._,u
O .secQnl.1 polyf'lo!WOI tat.lOIIC)n
ts fit to poks (Ne,
lhrcugh f:lieVtt\, V • g(x)
f l11:1u't :f-15: Spline: ime:rpobtion to s:moo1b
digitized lines.
160 GIS Fundamentals

a spanning line. to identify redundant points.
The Lang method. exemplifies this approach.
A spanning line connects two nonadjacent
vertices in a line. A prede.termined munber
of vertices is spamned. The initial spanning
number has been set 10 4 in Figure 4-16.
meaning four points will be considered at
each starting point Areas closer than the
weed distance are shown in gray in the fig-
ure. A straight line is drawn between a start-
ing point and tl,e search endpoint. the founh
poim down the line (Figure 4-160). Any
iotem1edia1e points that are closer than the
weed distance are marked for removal. In
Figure 4-16o. no points are within the weed
distance. therefor~. none are marked. The
endpoint is then moved to the next closest
remaining point (1Fig1~e 4-161>), and all
imermediate points tested for removal.
Again., any points closer than the weed dis-
tance are mrutt<I for removal. shown as
open circles. Note 1ha1 in Figure4-16b. one
point is within the weed distance and is
removed. Once all points in the initial span-
ning distance are checked, the last remaining
endpoint becomes the new starting point..
and a new spanning line is drawn to connect
4 points (Figure 4-16c. d).
The proce.ss may be repeatOO for succes.
sive sets of points in a line segment on1il all
venicei have been evaluated (Hgure 4· 16e
to h). All close ver1ices are viewed as not
recording a significant change in the line
shape. a11d be11ce are expendable. A balance
must be struck between the removal of
redundant venices and the loss of shape-
defining points, usually through a careful se1
oftest cases with successively la~er weed
distances.
The.re are mru.ty variants on this basic
concept Some look only at three immedi·
ately adjacent pouus, testing 1be middle
poi111 agai11s11he line sporuied by its nvo
neighboring points. Others constrain or
expand the search based on 1he complexity
of the li11e. Rather than always looking a1
four points, as in our example above, more
points are scrutinized when the line is uot
complex (nearly s1raight}. and fewer whetl
the line is complex (many changes in direc-
tiod).

e)
•

f)

c) g)
• •

d) h)
• •

Fia;uN" 4-16:~e L::mg algoriduu i, 3 ~~nou Liue·~llnning method. l,Jl tb~ lAng method. ,·crti.c cs ~re
rc1uo,·cd. or 1hinucd. when they ate v.-'l1h.i11 a weed distance to a i-p1uuun; line (adapted from Weibel 1997).

Scan Digitizing
Optical s<:aru1ing is another method for
convening hardcopy documents into digital
fonuals. Scanners ha\'e eleme1u:s that emit
and sense light Most scanners pass light
over a map. precisely lixating reflec1ance to
idenlify feani.res. Sc.an djgitizing usually
requires some form ofskele1011i=i11g, or line
thinning. pan:icularly if the data are to be
convened to a vector data fomuu. Scanned
lines are ofte,i wider than a single pcxel (Fig·
ure 4-1 7). A pixel near the ·•center"" of lite
point or line is typically chosen. e.g.. nearest
the center of the local perpendicular bisector
of the line. Skeletonizing red11ces the widllts
of lines or poin1s to a single pixel.
Editing Geographic Data
Spatial data may be edited. or changed.
for several re.asons. Errors and inco11sis1en·
cies are inevitably introduced during spatial
dala entry. Undershoots. overshoots, missing
or extra tines. and missing or extra poin1s or
labels are all ~rrors that must be corrected.
Spatial da1a can change over time. Parcels
are subdivide·d., roads extended or moved,
forests grow or are c111. and these changes
may be entered in the spatial database
through editi,ig.
Software helps operators identify po1en-
1ial errors. Line nodes may be classified as
connecting or dangling. A connecting node
joins two or more lines. while a dangling
'l . ..! •
1ir ·:·: jr·
:·:: :
. ''.':'j
tt ..
Fla111't' 4- 17: Skclc1oniting,, n fonn oflinc d1i1u1i11g tbnt i-'" ofln1 npplied nfrcr , c~u di@i1iiing.
Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 161
node is auached 10 only one line. Some dan-
gling nodes may be intentional. for example,
a cu1-de-sac in a street network. while 01bers
,,rjll be the result of under- or overshoots.
Dangling nodes can be quickly evaluated
and. if appropriate. corrected.
Attribute consistency may also be used
10 identify errors. Operators n0te areas in
which contradictory theme types occur in
different data layers. The two layers are
either graphically or canographically over-
lain. ContradictCM)' co-occunences are iden-
tified, such as water in one layer and upland
areas in a second. These contradictions are
1hen either resolved manually. or automati-
cally via some predefined precedence hierar-
chy.
Many GIS software packages provide a
comprehensive set of editing tools (Figure 4-
IS). Editing typically includes the ability to
select, split. update, and add features. Selec-
tion may be based on geometric a11ribu1es. or
with a cursor guided by the operator. Selec-
tions may be made individually, by geo-
gmpllit exte;it (e.g., selett all feam1es in a
box. circle. or within a certain distance of the
pointer). or by geometric attributes (e.g.,
select all nodes that collJlecc 10 only one
Line). Once a fcamre is selected. various
operatioLts may be available-. including eras-
ing all or pan of the feature, changing the
coordinate values defining the fearure. and
in the case of lines. splining. or adding 10 the
feature. A line may be split into parts, eitl1er
162 GIS Fundamentals

to isolate a segment for future dele.1ion.. or to
modify only a portion of the line. Coordi-
nates are typically altered by interactively
selecling and dragging points, nodes. or \1er-
1ices to 1heir bes, shape and location. Points
or Line segments are added as needed.
Groups of features in an area may be
adjusted 1hrough illternc1ive n,bbershee#ng.
Rubbersheeiing involves fitting a local equa-
tion to adjust the ,coordinates of features.
Polynomial equations are often used due to
their flexibility and ease of application.
Anchor points are selected, again on the
graphics screen. and other points are
selected by dragging inieractively on ~1e
screen to march point locations. All lines and
points excep, the anchor poims are internc-
tively adjusted.
All edits should be made with due atten-
tion to dis1ance shifts during editing. On-
screen editing to eliminate undershoots
should only be perfonned when the "true..
locations offearures may be identified accu-
rately, and the new features can be confi.
dently placed in the correct loca'lion.
Amomatk remo\lal of sbon uad-ersboots
may be perfomied without introducing addi-
1ional spatial error in most instances. A shon.
dis1ance for an undershoot is subjectively
defined, but typically it below the error
inherent in the source materials, or at least a
distance that is insignificam wbeo consider-
ing the intended use of the. spatial data.
Slivers
Slivers are particularly pemfoious errors
that often come from poor digitizing. These
are small gaps or overlaps along shared
polygon boundaries (Fignre 4-19). Slivers
either fonn gaps that are empty space. which
don't accurately represent adjacency among
polygons, or overlaps which ere.ate spurious
polygons. and don·, represent any real fea-
n1res.

~-
_
Edito,

• T•de lc,e«eNe>w F'Ntlle .:I

Cre<!lte flew rNIIU'e
Start Edr:.,g
StcpEdr,,g
.....
O«itolrok
AJ.J.o Cctrc,lolo ~
S..wEdll - - - - - <S*' Few-eiUU'l!>o LN
$eject feabnt Usno an Alea
E,toncl/l 1nlFMl;U'o,
Mf'lor fe&'Uet
Modl)'F'eol.U'e
s,.. Reah,aoefeat\AO
Cu,P f~et
/o"""
~ El~fet
...y C'.opyP•M
M•oe

{11
·-
"""'
Clo.
INeg«e Fiaurl" ;I. JS: 01$ lOftW1'1"C' provides for a flexible tlnd con~,lctc
set ofediting tools:, Thc,c tools pro,·idc for the rapid, pre:casc•
./..( V.-:SbleSdecben.
=~-, coutroUcd 1:r<ation and modifica1ioo of ooordiuaic, and anri·
s_... bmcs of 'J)IUi:tl datt1 (C'OUrlcs:)' ESR[).

Ophon:

' operator is inanemive. tired. or dis1racted.
J
\ ',
\ practice of never digitizing the same line
~
overlaps'/ --gops
I I
I '
\ L__ _
¢9itiled
lliv.s
fl.3utt -l, 19: G:i.ps 11nd O\'c-rfo.p s i ii pol)'@:On bound·
:mes result in ~ll\·cn, which \l~u..,Uy must be
rq>aircd priorllo data di,tributioo.
Slivers are also undesirable because
each spurious polygon includes an emry in
the attribute table. Sliver polygons nmy be
quite numerous, in extreme cases ou1num·
boring the tnte polygons in a da13 layer, This
adds storage and processing overhead but no
value to the data set.
SLivers mos:1 ofceu occur when snap dis..
tances are set too short. so that nodes aren' t
automatically drawn together while digitiz-
ing. Slivers may also occur when snapping
only to nodes. and not lines or edges. panic-
ularly when tl1ere are reL1tively long, straight
.--------------~
,::::, l\<rh C""'*"' Coun,y ~ (NCOO'f)
<::) T;rrr:.>sStt Coun-y 8olxiday {lNC-IS)
Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 163
arcs, e.g., for many propeny boundary lay-
ers. Slivers may also be frequent when the
Topological digitizing avoids most sliv-
ers. panie1tlarly when following the best
1wice. Digitizing and editing tools. described
in tile previous sections. usually include sev-
eral auto-complete options. These incorpo-
rate existing polygon edges when digitizing
an adjacent polygon. a111omatically closing a
new polygon boundary. The-re can be no
gaps or overlaps, because. the 1001uses the
existing edge 10 help create a new polygon.
These tools ns1ke digitizing both more effi-
cien1 and more accurate.
Featu res Common to Several
Layers
One connnoD problem in digitizing
derives from represelllation of feanires that
occur in multiple data layers or images.
These features rarely have identical loca-
tions ou each source. and often occur in dif-
fereur locations when digitized into their
respective data layers {Figure 4-20). For
ex80lple. water boundaries ou soil survey
maps rarely correspond exactly to water
boundaries found ODhydrographic maps.
Features may appear differently OD dif-
ferent maps for many reasons. Perhaps the
illo\Jnl
-
••
.... ~ Sv,,a,"
••
• ••
-.·.
·..•
•.
·.,
164 GIS Fundamentals
maps were made .for different purpose.s or al
different times. Features may differ because
the maps were from different source materi-
als; for example. one map may have been
based on ground surveys while anotl1er was
based on aerial pbotograpbs. Digitizing can
also compound lhe problem due to differ-
ences in digiti2ing melllods or optrators.
There are se,·eral ways to remove this
••common feature'" iuconsiste:ncy. One
involves removing inconsistencies while re-
drafting 1he data fiom conflicting sources
into a new base layer. Redrafting is labor
intensive and time consuming. but forces a
resolution of inconsistent boundat)' loca-
tions. Redrafring ;also allows several inputs
to be combined imto a si11gle data layer.
A second. oft,en preferable method
involves establishing a <!master" boundary
that is 1he highest accuracy composite of the
available data sets. A digital copy or overlay
opera1ion es1ablishes the common features
as a base in all the data layers. and this base
may be used as each new layer is produced.
For exan1ple, watt, boundaries illight be
ex1racted from 1he soil survey and USGS
sources, and rhese data combined in a third
dala layer. The th;rd dala layer would be
edi1ed to produce a co01posi1e. high-qua Lil)!
water layer. The composite water layer
would then be copied back imo b<>lh the soils
and USGS layers. This second approach.
while resuhing i.n visually consisteJll spatial
data layers. is in many inslance.s only a cos-
01e1ic improvemem of 1he da1a. If 1here are
large discrepancies ("large" is defined rela-
tive to the required spatial data accuracy),
tbeo 1he source or the discrepancies should
be idemified and 1he most accur.ue data
used, or new. higbe.r-accuracy data collected
from the field or original sources.
Map Boundaries and Spatial Data
Digital data are ofien created or deliv-
ered in 1i.les. giving 1heJll edges. Disco,11inu-
ities often occur at tile boundaries. These
errors may be lacking in many newer. large-
area daia collected wi1h digi1al methods. bu1
edges wilJ be encou1uered and sl1ould be
understood.
There is a trade-off between data vol-
umes, n.~lutiou, and area coverage. rest1lt-
i11g in da1a often spli1 imo 1iles for delivery.
Consider a state\\~de elevation r~1ster, gener-
ally useful. bu1 cumbersome given tha1 most
users desire detailed data over a small subse1
or the state. A data reques1 may resuJl in sev-
eral tiles. which 1hen need be recombined
before analysis. High-resolUlion images or
01her raster data may challenge lhe uansfer.
storage. or display processing capabili1ies of
common comp11ters. and so da1• are broken
into more manageable pieces for delivery.
Data may also have edges due to differ-
ences in the time of da1a collec1ion for adja-
cent areas. For example., digital .aerial
photograpl,s are collec1ed for ruos1 of1he
agricultural k1nds of 1he U.S. on an annual
basis. Data are collected in blocks over the
growing season. and because of weather.
schedules. and equipmen1 failures. several
days to weeks may pass between data collec-
tiou 011 adjacent blocks. MMy fearurois. such
as crop cype. stage of developmen1. we1land
size. or harvest state may have cbaoged
be1ween image collection dates and be dis-
continuous or inconsis1em acros.s blocks.
and hence die dala layer.
Ditrerem imerpreters may also crea1e
disconlinuities. Large-area mapping proj-
ects typically employ several interpreters,
each working on differeo1 areas of a region.
All professional. large-area mapping etfons
should have prolocols specifying tl1e scale,
sources. equipmenL methods. classification,
keys. and cross-correlation 10 e11Sure consis-
tent mapping across block or data tile bom1d-
aries. In spi1e of these effons. scme
differences due 10 human interpreta1io11
occur. Feature placement. category assign-
men1, and geuera1i2atiou vary among inter-
pre1ers. Tliese problems are compounded
when extensive check,ing and guidelines are
not enforced across the projec1, especially
when adjacem areas are mapped al ditrerem
times or by two different organizations.

Digital Data Output
Ou<:e dot.a are crea1ed. we often ruus1
transfer digital data to another user. Given
the number of different GIS software, oper·
a1ing systems. and computer cypes. transfer,
ring da1a is no1 always a straightforward
proeess. Digi'lal dara ou1pu1 typically
includes 1wo compouen1s. lhe daia !hem,
selves in som.c siandard. defined formal. and
meuu/ma, or data about 1he digital data. We
will describe da1a fonnats and me1ada1a in
n1rn.
Digi1al da1a are 1be da1a in some eJec.
1ronic form. As described a1 1be end of 1be
first chapter. there are many file fom1ats. or
ways of encO<ling the spatial and attribute
darn in digi1al Iii~. Digi1al daia .001pm often
consists of re,cordU1g or convertmg data mto
one of1hese file fom1a1s. These da1a are 1yp-
ically converued wi1h a miti1y. 1001. or op1ion
available in 1lie daia development software
(Figure 4-21) . The moSI useful of tliese u1ili-
1ies suppons" broad range ~fin~n and Olli·
ptu options. each fully descnbe<l m 1be
program documentation.
AtcToob»i
$ Cl) :10 At>aly,t Tools
al . .......... Tools
!j1 Cl) C•togoOhy Tools
Cl) Conveosion Tools
8 • Covocage Tools
. tjl ~ AM!y,;,
'ii ~ COnver""'
IB C:I, Fran Covttogo
8 C:I, To Coverogo
}' Advanced TIQer COll'ffl,lon
}' ...
} ' 8""': Tlge, Conversion
""""'
}' 1._t From OLG
}' " - ' From !Jlte,cl>onQe l';fe
} ' " - ' From 5>7
> "-tFromSOT5
} ' " - ' From Vl'1'
fla;nrt 4-21:.An example of a coovcrsion utiJ·
ity. here froiu. chc ESRI~GlS 50fu,'at'C. D:ua
may be eo1J,-erted from ouc of SC'\-Cni) fonn111s
to an ESRl·5JXci.fic digi1"l dilta.
Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 165
A conunon conlempora,y format is tlte
Geogmphic MarA11p La11g11age (Gi\1L). This
is an extension of XML for .geographic fea-
tures: XML is in turn the lingua franc-a for
hwnanlmacbine readable docmnen1s. As
with most Xl\+lL. 1bere are two parts for any
GML dalase.t: a sc-.hema that" describes the
document and the docwuent containing the
geographic darn. GML is.• siaudard. bm
there can be many extensions. so a commu.
nity of users can extend the standard with
addi1ional feamres. and documem lhe ex1en·
sion in a standard way.
There are many legacy digi1al darn
1ransfer fom,ats 1bat were widely used
before GML. GML replaced a wi1hdrawn
s1andard. 11,e Spatial Data T,·m1sfe1· Sta11dard
(SOTS). wi1b 1ranslators available 10 or from
this older fom1a1. There are several U.S.
Geological Survey fomuus for 1be 1ransfer of
digi1al eleva1ioo models or digital vec1or
data. or software-specific formats. such as an
ASCII fom1a1 (GEN/UNGEN) 1ba1 was
developed by ESRI. TI1ese were usefol for a
limited set of t11111sfers, but shonconungs m
each oflhese transfer formats Jed 10 lhe
developmen1 of sub~uem s1andards. These
forma ts are not common. but somellme.s
arise in converting older data sets.
Metadata: Data Documentation
Meiadata are infomiation abou1 spatial
data. Metadata describe 1be comem. source.
lineage., methods, developer, coordinate sys-
tem. extent. sirucrure. spatial accuracy. anri·
b111es. and responsible organization for
spatial dala.
Me1ada1a are required for dle effee1ive
use of spatial dat.a. Me1ada1a allow 1he effi-
cien1 transfer of infomiation about da1a, and
infom, new users abou1 lhe .geographic
ex1ent. coordinate system. q;uality. and other
data characteristics. Metada1a aid organiza-
tions in evaluaiingdaia to deteonine ifihey
are sui1able for an in1ended 11se. e.g.. 10
review accuracy, coverage, or information
needs. Meiada1a may also ai<l in dam upda1es
by guiding the choice of appropriate collec-
tion methods and fo nnats for new data.
166 GIS Fundamentals

Most governments have or are in the
process of es1ablishing s1andard methods for
rep<>ning me1adata. In the Uni1ed S1a1es, the
Federal Geograpbic Data Committee
(FGDC) bas defined a Coment Standard for
Digital GeospatiaJ Metadata (CSDGM) to
spec.ify the content and fom1at for me1ada1a.
The CSDGM ensures ~,ai spatial da1a are
clearly described so tha1 they may be used
effectively witbht an organization. The use
ofthe CSDGM also ensures that data may be
described to other organizations in a stan-
dard ma1,mer. and that spatial data may be
more easily evaluated by and transferred to
01her organizations.
The CSDGM consis1s of a standard set
of elements that are presented in a specified
order.11,e siandard is flexible a11d may be
extended to include new elements for new
ca1egories of iofonoa1ioo in 1he fu1ure.
There are over 330 diffen.~11 elements in 1be
CSOGM. Elemenls have slandardized long
and short names and are provided in a stan-
dard order wilh a hierarchical numberutg
system. For example, the westernmost
bounding coordinate of a data set is element
l .S. l. I. deimed as follows:
1.5.1.1 Wes! Bounding Coordina1e - wes1-
emmost coordina1e ofthe Iimi1 of coverage
expressed in loogirude.

4. Spatial_Rererence_lnformation:
4.1 Horizontal_Coordinate_ System_Oefinition:
4.1.2 Planar:
4. 1.2.2 Grid_Coordinate_System:
4. 1.2.2. 1 Grld_Coordinale_System_Name:
Universal Transverse Mercator
4. 1.2.2.2 Universal Transverse Mercator:
4.1.2.2.2.1 UTM- Zone Number: 10-19
4.1.2.4 Planar_Coorditlate_lriiormation:
4.1.2.4.1 Planar_Coor<!inate_Encoding_Method:
coordinate pair
4.1.2.4.2 Coordinate_Representation:
4 .1.2.4.2. 1 Abscissa_Resolution: 2.54
4. 1.2.4.2.2 Ordinate_Resolutlon: 2.54
4.1.2.4.4 Planar_Distance_Units: meters
4.1.4 Geodelic_Model:
4 .1 .4.1 Horizoniat Dalum Name: North American Datum 1927
4. 1.4.2 Ellipsoid_Name: Clark 1866
4.1.4.3 Semi·major_Axis: 6378206.4
4. 1.4.4 Denominator_ol_Flauening_Ralio: 294.98
4.2 vertical_Coordinate_System_Dennilion:
4.2.1 Altitude_Systern_Oefinilion:
4.2. 1 .1 Allitude_Datum_Name:
National Geodetic Vertical Datum ol 1929
4.2. 1.2 Allitude_Resolution: 1
4.2.1.3 Altitude_Distance_Units: feet or meters
4.2.1.4 Altitude_Encoding_Method: aurlbute values
4.2.2 Depth_Sys1em_Dennition:
4.2.2.1 Oepth_ Datum_Name: Mean tower low water
4.2.2.2 Depth_Re$0lutlon: 1
4.2.2.3 Depth_Distance_Units: meters or feet
4.2.2.4 Depth_Encoding_Method: attribute values

FiauN' 4-22: e..~,mplc of n unnll portion of the FGOC TC<:ornmn,dcd mctfd;i.11' for,i i:100,000 K"lc
dcTfred digital cbtti 5<:1.

T)pe: real
Domni,,: - 180.0 < = We51 Bounding Coor-
dinate < 180.0
Shon Nome: wes1bc
The num'bering system is hierarchical.
Here. I indicates it is basic identification
infomta1ion. 1.5 indicates identifkation
infom1ation about the spatial domain. 1.5. l
is for bounding coordinates. and l.5.1.1 is
the wes1em most boundin.g coordinate.
There are 10 basic types of information
in the CSDGM:
l) identification., describing the data s.e~
2) data qllality.
3) spa1ial da1a organfaatioo.
4) sp.,1i::,I reference coordio.ate $ystem.
.5) entity ~ud attribute.
6) disttibution :lad options for ob1.ti.uing
the data siet.
7) cun-ency of merndata and respol)sible
p.tt1y,
8) citatiom.
9) time period infom1ation, used with other
see1ions 1,0 provide 1emporal infonna1ion.
and
LO) conta.ct organization or person.
The CSDGM is a content standard and
does not specify tbe fonnat of the metadata.
As long as the elements are included. prop-
erly nwubered. and identified with correct
values describing tbe data set. the metadata
are considere<l 10 conform with the CSDGM.
Because metadata may be quite complex,
there are a nu.mber of conventions in the pre-
seu1ation of metadata. These conventions
seek to ensure thal metadala are presented in
Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 167
a clear. logical way to humans. and are also
easily ingested by computer software. There
is a Standard Generalized Mark11p Language
(SGML) for the exchange of metadata. An
example of a portion of the rue1ada1a for a
I: 100.000 scale digital line graph data set is
n_
shown .m F'1gure ,..-__
Metadata are most often created using
specialized software tools. There-are often
complex linkages be1ween 111etadata ele,.
meo1s. aud some elements ate repealed or
redundant. Software tools often ease meta·
data entry by copying across redunancies,
ensuring correct linkages. and checking ele-
111ents for contradicto,y inform.1tion or
errors. Metadata are most easily and effec-
tively produced when their development is
integrated into the workOow of data produc-
tion.
Although not all organizations in the
United States adhere to the CSDGM meta-
data standard. most organizations record and
organize a descrip1ion and other imponant
infom1ation about their data, and many orga-
fii2atiOfiS eonsider a data set it!tomplete if it
lacks n1etadata.
TI1ere is a parallel effort 10 develop and
maintain international standards for meta-
data. T11e sL1ndards are known as the ISO
191 l 5 International Standards for Metadata.
According 10 the lmernatio11al Standards
Orgaoiz.ition. the ISO 19115 "defines the
schema required for describing geographic
information and services. II provides infor-
matfoo about the identification. 1he ex1e111.
the quality, tlte spatial and temporal schema.
spatial reference, and distribution of digital
geographic data.
168 GIS Fundamentals
Cartography and Map Design
Cartography is the arc and 1eclmiq11es. of
making maps. II encompasses both graphic
tools and how these tools may be combined
to communic,ne spa1ial infonuacion. Canog-
rapby is a discipli.ne of much depth and
breadllt and 1bere are many books,joumals.
and societies devo1ed 10 tl~ science and an
of cartography. Our aim i_n 1be next few
pages is to provide a brief overview of car-
1ograpby wi1h a paniC\llar foc11s on map
design. This is boch 10 acquainc new sruden1s
with the most bas.ic concepts of cartography.
and help them apply 1hese concepcs in lhe
coosumpcion and produce ion of spa1ial infor-
mation. Readers interested in a more com-
piece creaunen1 should consul! the references
lisced at the end of 1his chapter.
A primary purpose of canography is to
COOllll\1t1ica1e spa1ial informa1ion. This
requires identifying the
-intended audience,
-informacion 10 conllllmticate.
-area ofimeresL
-physical and resource limitations;
in shon. the whom. what. where. and how
we may present our iufommtioo.
These considerations drive 1he n.sjor
cartographic design decisions when we
make a map. We must consider the:
-scale. size, shape, and other general
map properti,es,
-data to plot.
-symbol s!iapes. sizes. or panems.
-labeling. including fom cype and size.
-legend propenies. size. and bo!ders,
and
-the placement of aU these elements on
a map.
Map scale. size. and shape depend pri-
marily on the incended map use. Wall maps
for viewing a, discance may have few. large,
boldly colored feacures. Hand-held scree,
maps are more detaile,d , to be viewed at
slton ranges. and have a rich set of addi-
tional tables, lists, or olber feamres.
Map scale is often de1ennined in part by
the size of the primary objects we wish 10
display, and in pan by tl,e most appropri!le
media sizes. such as che page or screen s,ze
possible for a document As noted earlier.
the map scale is the rn1io of lengths on a map
10 tr11e lenglhs. If we wish 10 di5,>lay an area
chat spans 25 km (25.000 m) on a screen that
spans 25 cm (0.25 m). the map scale will be
near 0.25 10 25.000, or I: t 00.000. This deci·
sion on size. area. and scale the1l drives for-
ther map design. For example. s,cale limits
the feamres we may display, and the size.
number. and labeling of feamres. Al a
I:100,000 scale we may 1101 be able to show
all towas. as there may be 100 many 10 fie at
a readable size.
Maps cypically have a primary Iheme or
purpose that is detennined by th.e incended
audience. Geueral purpose maps typically
have a wide range of features represented,
including transponatioo ne1works. towns.
elevation. or other common feamres (Figure
4-230). Special purpose maps, such as road
maps. focus on a more limited set. in this
ius1ance road locations and names. town
names. and large geographic features (Figure
4-23b).
Map Types
Many cypes of digital and hardcopy
maps are produced. and the cypes are often
named by how objects are depicted. Feomre
maps are commonly used Cor points. lines. or
areas and provide oomina1 information (Fig-
ure 4-24, upper left). No auempl is made for
symbols 10 represenc 1n1e scale. A road may
be ploued with a symbol deftniug the type of
road. but lhe width oflhe road as plolled is
not true 10 scaled size on lhe ground.
Clrorop/et/J maps depict quantitalive
informacion for areas. A mapped variable
s11cb as population density may be repre-
sented in the map (Figure 4-24. lop right).
 Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 169

Polygons define area bomtdaries, such as
counties or census lrllCIS. Each polygon is
given a color. shading. or pa11eni corre-
sponWng to values for a mapped variable.
Doi de1111ity 111ap11 show quaori1a1ivc da1a
(Figure 4-24. bot1om left). Oois or 01her
poin1 symbols are p!011ed 10 represen1 val·
ues. OOls are randomly placed in the poly-
gon such that the number of dots equals the
101al value for the polygo1t Each do! on the
ex,mple map represen1s 50.000 people:
however. each point is not a city or other
concentration of inhabitants. Note the posi·
tion of pointS in 1be dot density map relative
to the city locations in the fe.anire map
direclly above it in Figure 4-24.
Isopleth maps. also k11own as comou,.
maps. display lines of equal value (Figure 4-
24. bo11om right). Isople1b maps are used 10
represent con1inuous surfaces. Rainfall. ele-
vation. and temperature are fe.atures that are
commonly represen1ed using isopleth maps.
A line on the isople1b map represents a spec-
ified value. for example. a Io•c isoplelh
defines 1be positiou on the landscape a1 ihat
1emperature. Lines 1ypically do 001cross. in
that there cannot be two different tempera.
rures a1 the same location. Howe\•t r. iso,.
pleths often depic1 eleva1io11. and cliffs or
overhanging terrain do have multiple eleva.
tions tH the same location. ln this ease. the
lower e1e,111ions iypically ~ss "under" 1he
higher elevations. and 1he isopleth is labeled
"i1b the tallest height (Figure 4-25).
Once the features 10 include on a map
are defined. \Ve must choose the symbols
used 10 dtaw 1hem. Symbology depends in
pan on 1he type of fearure. For example. we
have a different set of oplious when repre·
senting cominuous features suchas elevation
or pollution concentration tb.an when repre·
senting discrere features. We also must
choose among symbols for each of the types
of discre1e features: for example. 1he set of
symbols for poinls are generally different
from those for line or area features.

0 b

Salisbury
\r.
,
i \r. •
~ Major J
J Roods
,"" t
F13.utt +.23: E.,:aiuplc of o) a detailed. $C'Octal-puiposc: lllllp. bctt III portion of a United States Gcologi-
c~I Sun•cy ,unp. rut.db) 111 ipccialitc:d uup fc>cutmg on a specific icl of sd«tcd fc:.ntff:t,. hctt showing
roads. n~ fc.itum; choKn for depiction on the m3p depend on tbc intended m11.p ~1se.
170 GIS Fundamentals

Feature mop
• Citic,
............ HigtlWI:)'($

Dot density mop

Posx,ilotion
1 dol • S0,000

-....,";,,.""...,,."".....
Fltul'f' ~..24: Conunon h:itdcopy nup typct depicting t.hc 1torthcat1cm United S1:ucs.

Symbol size is an imponanr a1tribu1e of

FJaurf .i.25: Lincfl,on ii0plc11l nu:pt ,ypic~lly ~
a~ c:rou. Howc\"c:C, :as show11 at 1hc IUT'QW m tins
image. 1ioC$ may cc:,iocide: wbcn there is a com-
mon \'aluc. Herc cl;iffs oro,·crhllllj:$ remit in cou-
,·e11,ing itoplcth lim i..
map syrubology. often specified in a uni1
called a poiut. One. point is approximately
equal 10 0.467 mm, or abou1 l/55th of an
inch. A specific poim number is mos1 often
used 10 specify 1he size of symbols. for
example. the dimensions of sma II squares to
represen1 houses on a map. or 1be charac1er-
is1ics of a specific paItem used 10 fill areas
on a map. A line width may also be specified
in poio1s. Sening a line width of1wo poims
means we want that panicular line plotted
with a width of0.93 mm. It is unfortunate
11ta1 "poin1" is bo1b 1he name of 1be dis1auce
unit and a general propetty or a _geograp~ie
feature, as in •·a tree is a point feature.'' This
fon:es us 10 1alk about the "poilll size" of
symbols to represent poims. lines. or area
fills or patterns, but if we are careful, we

may c.ommurt.icate these specifications
clearly.
The best size, pallern, shape. and color
used 10 syml>olize each feature depends on
the 1iewing distance; the munber, density.
and type of feah1res: and the purpose of the
m~p. Generally. we use larger. bolder. or
thicker symbols for maps to be ,;ewed from
longerdistances. while we reduce this Limit
wbe!-1 producing maps for viewing at 50 cm
(20 m). Most people with nonnal vision
under good lighting may resolve Jines down
t~ near0.2_poin1s al close distances, pro·
v1ded the Imes show good contrast with the
background. Although size limits depend
largely on background color and contrast
p~im features are typically not resolvable' at
sizes smaller than about O.S points. and dis-
tinguishing between shapes is ctifficult for
point feanires smaller than appromnatety 2
points in tlleir larges, dimension.
The pa11eru and color of symbols must
also be chosen. generally from a set pro-
vided by the software (Figllfe 4-26). Sym-
bols generally distinftlisbAiil<lil« feature
type by characteristics. and although most
symbols are not associated ,,~th a fearure
type, some are. such as, plane outlines for
ail))ons. munbered shields for highways. or
a batched line for a railroad.
We also .must often choose whether and
bow to label features. Most GtS software
provides a range of tools for creating and
placing labels. and in all cases we must
choose the label foot type and size. location
relative to the feature, and orientation. Pri.
mary considNations when labeling point
features are label placement relative 10 the
point locatiol!1, label size. and label orienta·
tiou (Figure 4-27). We may also use gradu-
ated labels. d,a, is. resize them according to
some variable associated with the poinl fea-
n1re. For example, it is c:ommou to htwe
larger features and label foms for larger cit-
ies (Figure 4-27). Labels may be bent,
angled. or wr~pped aro,md features to
improve clariiy and more efficiently use
space in a ni.1p.
Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 171
Label placement is very much an art
and there is often much individual editing
required when placing and siziog labels for
fimshed maps. Most software provides for
automatic label placemem. usually specified
relat.ive 10 Ceature location. E'or example. on<e
may specify labels above and 10 the right of
all poims, or line labels placed over line fea-
tures. or polygon labels placed near the poly-
gon centroid. However. these automatic
placements may not be satisfactoiy because
labels may Ol'erlap. labels may fall in cl\11-
tered areas of the map. or features associated
\\ilh labels may be ambiguous. Some soft-
ware ptO\lides options for alltoma1ic label
placement. inch1ding removal or moveme111
of overlapping labels. These often reduce
ma.nu.al editing. bur sometimes increase it.
Figure 4·28 shows a portion of a map of
southern Finland. This region present.s sev-
eral mapping_problems. inctuding the high
dens11y of c1ues near the upper right, an
f.lJ + ~ -$ rn
~..to, .
~ + @0 ,
8
//~/·'/
DD ·. ·.. •:-.··.
·:-.·:-
. .': •:.:..:.:'
:..:. .
! ~-,! ~-: ·:·:
.•·r,t ..•. ,•.}
·~·~.... .,...
• ;-j.· :~·~· ;-:.,
Fle;111T ,i.26: Ex:unplcs of poi1u (1op), li.nc(mid),
;md ;u-c., (bottom) ,ymOOls us.c<l to di~iogui.sh
amoug featutd of diffe:r¢1lt l)p,cs. Most GIS soft·
ware pro,·idcs II sc1 of im.ndtud tvntbols for
point, line. mu, 11;nd c0111:i11uou1 Surface- fc:ilUJU.
172 GIS Fundamentals

size and shape of the descriptive symbol

Cordob•
• ••
Cordoba
D Madrid 0 Sevilla O Alciint11u1
Flautt -1...27: Conu:non fabcling option•, iuc!ud·
ing 1-1rni.eh1. ;mg)cd, wrapped le~t. ru,d gntd1.1·
ated Labels for J.)Oin1s(top two S<U;), and angled.
,vrnppcd, fro11tlnj. :md tntbcddcd labels for
line :md p0lygon fci11Ure.1 (bottom two i c ts).
aod the foot type. size. and oriemation for
each symbol in the legend. The primary goal
is to have a clear, c.oncise. and complete leg-
end.
The kind of symbols appropriate for
map legends depends on the types of fea.
rures depicted. Different choices are avail-
able for poinl. line. and polygon fe.atures. or
for continuously va.riable features stored as
rasters. Most software provides .a range of
legend elements aod symbols 1ha1 may be
used. Typically, these tools allow a wide
range of symbolizations. and acompact way
of describing the symbolization in a legend
(Figure 4-29).
The specific layout of legend fe.imres
must be defined: for example. the poinl fea-
ture symbol size may be graduated based on
some anribllte for the points. Successively
larger fe.atures may be assigned for succes-
sively larger cities. This must be noted in the
legend. and the symbols nested. shown
sequentially. or otherwise depicted (Figure
4-29. top leli).

irregular coostline. and dense clustering of

islands along the ,coast. Most labels are
placed above and lo the riglu of their corre-
sponding city: however. some are moved or
angled for clarity. Cities near the coast show
bodt to avoid labels crossing the water/land
boundary where practical. Semitransparent
background shadi.ng is added for Parainen
and Hanko, citie.s placed i111be island malrix.
This example demonstrates the individual •"'°
editing often req11ired when placing labels.
Most maps sbould have legends. The
legend id~tifies map foarures succinctlyand .· . ,, .
describes the symbols used to depict those
features. Legends. often include or are Flaurt 4-28: Ex.11mplc ltlbcl pbce1ne111 rorcitics
grouped with additional map information in soud1cm Fiul~od.
such as sc.aJe bars. north arrows. and descrip-
tive text. The cartographer must choose the

The legend should be exhaustive. Exam-
ples of each different symbol type that
appears on the map should appear in the leg-
end. This means each point, line. or area
symbol is drawn in the legend with some
descriptive label. Labels may be next to.
wrapped around. or embedded within the
features. and sometimes descriptive numbers
are added. for example. a range of continu-
ous variables (Figure 4-29, upper left). Scale
bars, north arrows, and descriptive text
boxes are typic.illy u,cluded in the legend.
Map composition or layout is another
primacy task. Composition consists of deter-
mining the map elements. their size. and
their placement. Typical map elements,
shown in Figure 4.3 and Figure 4-4. include
one or more main data panesor areas. a leg-
end. a title, a scale bar and north arrow, a
grid or graticule. and perhaps descriptive
text. These each must be sized and placed on
the map.
These map elements should be posi-
tioned and sized in accordrutce with their
iillpoilauce. Tlie map's ,uost inljl<liffiit data
pane should be largest. and it is often cen-
tered or 01herwise given visual dominance.
Graduated
Symbols
Le.gend
@ [
oO
.. "" oO""
Une Legend
7 (Pj
Flptt 4-19: E.,:amplcs o( lcgcod c1cmctUS and rq,rcscut-fltioo of S}'Olbols. Some S)'lllbol.s may be
grouped iu 11 «mrp11ct way to communieiu c the ,-alu« :usociatcd wi1b each aymboL
Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 173
Other elemen.ls are 1ypicaUy smaller and
located around the periphery or embooded
within the main data pane. These other ele·
meuts include map insets. \vhich are smaller
data panes that show larger-or smaller scale
views o( a region in the primary data pane.
Good map compositions usually group
related elements and use empty space effec.
tively. Data panes are often ,grouped and leg-
end elements plac,ed near each other, and
grouping is often indic.atoo with enclosing
boxes.
Neophyte canographers should avoid
two teodeocies in map composition. both
depicted in Figure 4-30. First. it is generally
easy to create a map with automatic label
and legend generation and placement. Tite
map shown at the top of Fig11re 4-30 is rypi·
cal of this automatic oompo:sit'ion. and
includes poorly placed lege11d elements and
too small. poorly placed labels. Labels
crowd each other, are ambiguous, and cross
water/land or other feature boundaries. and
fonts are poorly chosen. You should note
that automatic map £Ymbol ·selection and
placement is nearly always suboptimal, and
the novice cartographer should scnuinize
these choices and manually improve theni.
Area Legend
Sca le Bor s North Arrows
,..
A.. -+ ~ s
174 GIS Fundamentals

Spa.in
4S"O'O"N

~lf'(f(f'

.- ..... •
{ Legend'
• Cily ~lf'O'rtN
,.
JS-0-0".
-
....... RNor

~
•
Height

N
... "' '--+
10"C'O'W s:•O'O,, 11'()!(1' S"O'tr'E

1.s·ao·w IO'O'O'W •w-w ...... SVO"E

...... """
Spain
•City
,,._ Rrtffl'r

.., H<>9"1
- ,45•0'C)"N

•
N
-+ .../ Madrid
•
O"O'O"'N

-1,,,.
,. • ..,.,,'?.r
,)?t,·
($' ~"
3S•O'O"N '"a<'<>•n ~.,1:,,·~e"
•l

1o·ovw
.. "
$W"W
"' '· ...... ·=-
Fiaurt' -1..30: An cx..,mplc of poor in.1p ,ksign (1op). T11it IOJ> pa.ncl sl10ws 11 nwubcrof1nis1l\kct conb11os1
for the ocopbytc carcopnplm, inclodmg ,mall labels (citi«) 3.Ud mllJn.,tr:bcd fon1, (graticul.c labels,
title). poor labclfog (clly label, o\•crlapping. ambiguously placed. aod crosslnj; dis-1inctly shaded .mas).
unlabc-lcd (cafW'cfl (occ11ru 1111d sc11t). poori)' pfaccd sc11Jc bar 111\d legend. ru)d u11bJ!ll:utccd ope:~, ap:w:c on
the left side ofdx m.,p. Thoic p:rob!c:mr :ire not prci;c111 in die improved amp design. '110wn in the lower
paocl.

The second common error is poor use of
empty space. those par1s oflhe map_"itbou1
map elements. There are two opposite. ten-
dencies: either to leave too much or unba.1-
aneed empty space or 10 cluner lhe map in an
a11emp110 fill all empty sp_ace. Nole duu the
map sho,1;n a'l the top of Figure 4·30 leaves
large emp1y spaces on lhe lefl (wes\em)
edge. wi1l11be A1lan11c Ocean devoid of fea-
tt1res. The cartographer may address this in
several ways: by changing tlte size, shape. or
ex1en1 oft~ area mapped: by adding new
features. such as data panes as insets. addi-
tional 1ext boxes. or other elements: or by
moving 1he legend or 01her map elemems to
that space. The map shown at the bottom of
Figure 4-30. while nol perfect. fixes 1hese
design Oaws. in pan by moving the legend
and scale bar. and in pan by adding labels
Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 175
for the Atlanlk Oce.an and Mediterranean
Sea. The emp1y space is more balanced in
1ha1 it appears around 1he major map ele-
ments in approximately equal proportions.
M 1101ed earlier. this is only a brief
inl:rocluction to canography. a subject cov-
ered by many good books. s<>me listed a1 lhe
end of this chap1er. Perhaps the bes1 com-
pendium of examples is the Map Gook
Series. by ESRJ. published annually since
1984. Examples are available a11he time of
this writing al www.esri.com/mapmuseum.
You should leaf1brough se,·eral volumes in
this series. with an eye 1oward critical map
design. Each volume coma ins mant beami·
ful and infonnative maps. and provides lech·
niques wo11h emulating.
176 GIS Fundamentals
Coordinate Transformation
Coordi'1nte trn11sformatio11 was once a
common operation in the development of
spatial data for GlS. Ii is becoming less fre.
qucntly needed as we have worked through
digitizing the legacy paper maps on which
we stored most of our spatial data. and new
image sources uow routinely correct1he geo-
metric distortion inherent in images. How-
ever. some older 111aps still remain 10 be
convened. and some image systems generate
images with acceptable geometric accura-
cies, although nol ortl10-correc1ed. Coordi-
nate u-ansforniations are covered here for
completeness.
A coordinate transfonuation aligns spa-
tial data into an Earth-based m.ap coordinate
system. This alignment ensures featttres fall
in their proper relative position when digital
data from different layers are combined.
Within the limits of data accuracy. a good
transforma1ioo helps avoid inconsistent spa·
tial relatiooships such os faru1 fields on free-
ways. roads under water. or cities in the
middle of swamps. except where these truly
exist. Coordinate trnnsfonnation is also
referred to as ,-egisrmtiou. because it "regis·
ters" the layers to a map coordinate system.
Coordiuate transfonna1ion is most com·
monly used to convert newly digilized data
from an art>itrruy image. digitizer. or scanner
coordinate system 10 a standard map coordi-
nate system. T11e input coordinate system is
usually based on the input device. An image
may be scanned and coordinates recorded as
a cursor is moved across the image surface.
These coordinates are usually recorded in
pixel. inch. or cemtimeter units relative to an
origin located near the lower left corne.r of
the image. Before these newly digitized data
may be used with other data. these "inch·
space" or "digitiz,er.. coordinates must be
transfom1ed imo nn Earth-based map coordi·
nate system.
Figure 4-31 depicts the application of a
coordinate transfonna1ioo in data develop-
meJJI. Early su1'1eys were often stored on
paper maps; in this instance. the original
PLSS surveys. These depict the original
PLSS boundary lines. as well as lakes and
wetlands, and in some instances forests.
grasslands. or other feanires. We may wish
to compare past and current con-ditions. but
the PLSS is a system of land division, with
110 coordinates or projection associated with
the lines. We need to register the paper maps
10 a projected coordinate systelll! prior to use.
The PLSS line intersections nmy be
used to register the original maps to a pro-
jected coordi1m1e system. As noted in Chap-
ter 3. PLSS lines often became propeny
boundaries. and subsequent roads often fol.
lowed these boundaries. SectioUt line inter·
sections may be surveyed directly. or
extracted from other registered data suc-h as
aerial images. and hence used to transfonn
the original maps to a projected coordinate
system. Features on I.he original maps. snch
as lakes or wetlands at the time of the origi·
nal surveys. may be digitized rutd compared
to current ones.
Control Points
A set of control polutS is used to trans-
fonn the digitized data from tlie digitizer or
photo coordinate system to a map-projected
coordinate system. These control points are
used 10 estimate equations lhat we use for
the coordinate transformation (Figure 4-32).
Control points are dilforent from other digi-
1ized features. When wedigitize most poinls,
lines. or areas. we do not know 1he nmp pro-
jection coordinates for these fea•ures. We
simply collect the digitizer X and Ycoordi-
nates I.hat are estabLished with reference to
some arbitrary origju on an image or digitiz-
ing table. Control pcints differ from other
digitized points in that we kno,v both the
map projection coordinates and ·the digitizer
coordinates for these points.
These two sets of coordinates for each
control point, one for the map projection and
one for t!,e digitizer system. are used 10 esti·
mate the coefficients for transfonna1ion

equations, usually through a stalistical, leasl
squares process. The u-ansfomuuiou equa.
tions are 1hen used to convert coordinates
from the digitizer system to the map projec-
1iou system.
The transfonnalion may be estimated i.n
the initial dig.iti2ing steps, and applied as the
coordinates a:re digitized from the map or
image. Th.is •~on-the-fly•· transfonnation
allows data 10 be output and aual)'2ed with
reference to map-projected coordiruues. A
previously registered data layer or image
Fit regtStrottOn model
rrom matched con1rol
oo:rrrs. fhitn OUtput
reg'iS"t~d mop It'! o
projiected cOOtdinote:
•Yst~m ~
f'izurc 4-31: Coordin111c
trausfonuation i.nvoh·« miitch-
io3 control po:ints from iuO\\'U to
t11.rge1l.:1.ycrs.. ci1in11uing:, 11,id
then a1,plyi.ug II mw,fonn,,tion
ruod< .
Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 177
may be displayed on screen just prior to dig-
itizing a new map. Conirol points may then
be entere<l. lhe new map anached to the digi-
tizing table. and the map reg istered. The new
data may then be displayed on top of the pre-
viously registered data. Tbis allows a quick
check on lhe location of lhe newly digitized
objects against corresponding objects in the
sn1dy area.
Control poin1s should oJeel several crite-
ria. First. they should be from a source with
the highest feasible accuracy.
Soul"Ce laytr.
sconned. old
'
mop
matched
control
poln1s
178 GIS Fundamentals

Second, control points should be more accu-
rate than the desired overall positional accu-
racy for the spati•I data. TI1ird. control
points should be evenly distributed through-
out the data area. A suf!icieut number of
control points should be collected. abo\'e the
minimum to improve !he s1a1istically fit
transfonna1iou functions.
The coordinates of control points should
be kno"" 10 a high degree of accuracy and
precisioo. Because high is subjectively
defined there are many methods to deter-
mine control point locations. Subcemimeter
accuracy may be :required for propeny
boundary control points. while a few mete.rs
may be acceptable for large-area vegetation
mapping. Common sources of comrol point
coordin.1tes are 1raditiooal mrnsit and dis-
tance surveys, GNSS measurements. exist-
ing ca11ome1ric qwality maps. or existing
digital data layers on which suitable feanires
may be identified.
Transformation Equations
Different base equations can be used in
coordinate transformation. Tbe most com-
mon is the affi11e C()Q1r/im,1e rmn.tfon11atio11,
which employs linear equations 10 calculate
map coordinates. Map projection coordi-
nates are often referred 10 as eastiogs (E) and
na11hings (N), and are related to the X and Y
digitizer coordi11a1es by the equations:
(4.1)
(42)
Equations 4.1 and 4.2 aUow us 10 move
from the arbitral)' screen or digi·tizer coordi-
nate system 10 the projec1 map coordin.1te
system. We know the X and Y coordinaies
for eve!)' digit.iud poiot. line vecnex. or
polygon vertex. We may calculate the E ru1d
N coordinates by applying the above equa-
tions 10 eve!)' digitized point.
Te and TN can be thought of as shifts in
the origins from one coordinate system to
the next. The 0 1 and b1 parameters incorpo-
rate the c.hange in scales and rotation angle
between coordinate systems. The affine is
tile mos1 commonly applied coordiua1e
transformation because it provides for these
three main effects of translation. rotation.
and scaling. and because it often introduces
Jess error than higher-order polynomial
1ransfonnatio11s.

Pr0Jec:110J\
Cont rol point s coorc1tno1es tUTM)
ID x y E N
I 1030 +100 1 500.0834 5.003.6835
10 2 08 ·69.1 504.092 J: 5.002.4995
l -200 ·690 504.907 5 s.ooz.,995
9 -600 _,,.o 506.493.3 5.001.6735
'5 -1020 -t172 508.1013 5.001.6517
6 · IOI 7 108 508.0901 4.999.3840
·860 7~8 507 4759 • .996,s,oo
8' -40.0 457 505.6892 4.998,022.0
9 ILO 36.8 503,679? 4,998,~80
10 63.0 3,0 501,657.9 4.998.479 ~
11 630 177 !>01.6691 4,999.1160
12 630 643 501.680.3 4_997,2960
13 1060 <77 500.0053 4.997.9435
FIJUN' .a.J2:Au c:t11.mpk of c0111tOI point loc:1ti011.S (ro1u a n:wid d.11a layer. ruM! corrcspondi.n,g di1itizcr
:md 111;lp projccli:'On coonlinMcs.
 Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 179

The affine system of equations has six minimizes the ro011110011 square en-or
parameiers 10 be es1ima1ed: TE• T..,. o1. o2,b1. (RMSE). The Ri\1SE is defu1ed as:
and bz. Each control poio1 provides E. N. x.
and Y coord.iaales. and allows us to write
two equations. For example. we may have a RMSE:
e1l • e2·
l
e3l .. ,. e;,l (• .5)
conrrol point consisting of a precisely sur- n
veyed center of a road intersection. Th.is
point has digitizer coordinates orx • 103.0 where the ei are the residual dis1ances
ceo<imeiers ~od Y • -100.l cemu11c1ers. and be1ween the trne E and N coordinates and the
corresponding Eanh-based map projection E and Ncoordiua1es in <he ou1pm daia la)'er:
coordioaies of E • 500.083.4 and N •
5.003.683.5. We may 1hen ,vri<e 1wo equa-
tions base<i on th.is control point:

500.083.4• TE'o1Cl03.0),oi(-lO-O.l) (4.3) This residual is the difference belween the

true coordinaies X., Y1, and 1he 1ra11sfom1ed
01upu1 coordinaies Xd. Yd· Figure 4-33
5.0 03.683.5· TN'b 1(l03.0),ll,( -100.l) (4.4) shows examples of!his lack of fit. Individual
residuals may be observed al each control
point loca1ion.
We canno1 find a unique solmion to A statist.ical mel11od for estimating
these equations. because there are sLx 1ransfonna1io11 equaiions is _preferred
unknowns (Te, T,.. a 1. oz. b1. bz) and only because it also idemifies rra nsformation
two equations. We need as many equations error. Control poinl coordinates contain
as w1knowns to solve a linear system of Un&\'Oidable me.asuremeot errors. A statisti·
equations. Each control poinl gives us 1wo cal process provides an R.>vt SE. a sununary
eqtJatioos. so we need a minimum of three of the differences bet,veen 1he ''true" (mea·
c,ontrol points to estimate the parameters of sured) and predicied control poim coordi-
an affine uansfonnation. Statistical estim3·
<ion requires a 101al of four comrol poin<s.
As with all statistical estimates. more control
points are bener than fewe r, but we will
reach a poilll of diminishing remms after
some number of points. typically somewhere
between IS and 30 control poinls.
The affiJte coordinate transformation is
usually fit using a stalistical me1hod thal

Flzu"' .a..33: e:<11m11les ofc:ontTQI points. pre•

di('ted ('011trol loc:atious.. and residuals troin ~ -
dinatc: tnmsfonnatiou.
180 GIS Fundamentals
nates. It provides one index of transform-
ation quality. Trnosfon11a1ions are fit. The
RMSE will usually be less than the tme
transformation error at a randomJy selected
point. because we are acti\'ely minimizing
the N ao<l E residual errors when we statisti·
cally fit the transfomrntion equations. How.
ever, tlie RMSE is an index of accuracy, and
a lower RMSE generally indicates a more
accurate affine transformation.
Estimating the coordinate transfonua-
1ion parameters is often an iterative process.
Typically. control points are en1ere<I. the
affine 1ransforrna1ion parameters estimated.
and the overall RMSE and individual point E
and Nerrors evahuated. Suspect points are
checked. blunders fixed. and the transfonua-
tion re-estimated and errors evaluated until a
final transformation is estimated.
Other coordinate transfonnations are
sometimes used. A eonformnl eootdiunte
11·m,sfon,,ario11 is similar to the affine.
except that it requkes equal scale changes in
the X and Y directions. Thisresults in a sys-
tem of t<1ua1ious witli only fou, unknown
parameters. and s,o the confonual may be
estimated when only two control points are
available.
Higher-order polynomial rransfomia-
tions are sometimes used 10 transfonn
among coordinate systems. An example of a
2nd-order polynomial is:
Here. tliecombined powers of the x and
v variables may t>e up 10 2. This allows for
curvature in 1be transfom)ation in both the X
and Ydirections. A minimum of six control
points is required 10 fit ibis second-order
polynomial 1mnsfom1ation. and seven are
required when using a 5lalislirnl fit The esti-
mated parameters Te, TN, o1• o2. b1• and b2
will be different i;o equations 4.1 and 4.2
when compared 10 4.7, even if the same set
of comrol points is used for both statistical
fits. We change tile fom1 of the equations by
including the higher-order squared and XY
cross.product terms. and all estimated
parameters \\~II vary.
A Caution When Evaluating
Transformations
Selecting the "best'' coordinate transfor-
mation 10 apply is a subjective process.
guided by mul1iple goals. We hope 10
develop an accurate 1ransfonna1ion based on
a large set of well-dislributed control points.
lsolated conrrol poims 1ha1 subs1an1iaUy
improve our coverage may also contribute
substantially to our 1ransfom1ation error.
There are no clear mies on the number
of points versus distribution of points trade.
off. but it is typically best 10 strive for the
widest distribution of points. We wam at
le.ast two control points in e.ach quadrant of
the working area. with a target of20% in
each quadrant. These goals are often 1101
possible. The lransfonnation equation
should be developed with the following
obseJVations in mind.
First, bad control points happen. but we
should thoroughly justify the removal ofany
control point. Every anemp1 should be made
10 identify 1he source of the error, either in
the collection or in tl>e processit1g of field
coordinates. the collection of image coordi-
nates, or in some blunder in coo:rdinate tran.
scription.
Second. a lower Ri',tSE does not mean a
beuer 1!l1Jlsfonua1ion. Tbe RMSE is a useful
1ool when comparing among tm13sfom1alions
that have the same model fonu. for example,
when comparing oneaffme 10 another affine.
The RJv!SE is not usefol when c<>mparing
among differeol model fonns. for example.
when comparing an affine to a s,econcl.order
polynomial. The RMSE is typically lower
for higher-order polynomials than ao affine
U1U1sforma1io11 but this does 1101 mean !he
higher-order polynomial provides a beuer
lit High-order polynomials allow more Oex-
ibilily in warping the surface to fil the c,on-
ttol points. Uuforrunately. this warping may
significa111ly deform the non-control-point
 Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 181

coordinates, and add large errors when the
1ransfomu11ion is applied 10 all da1a in a
layer (Figure 4-34). Tlms. high-order poly-
nomials and o thers should be used with cau-
1iou.
Finally. independent tests make 1he beSI
comparisons :among transformations. A
comple1ely independent se1 of widely dis-
tributed test points is ideal. but these rarely
exist \Ve often use a ''boots.trap" approach
that successively removes poims. One poim
is \\~thheld, tile trnnsforma1ion estimated,
and the error at 1he withheld point calc,,.
lated. The po;m is replaced and tl1e nex1
point withheld. fitting the sallle type of
transfomi.'ltion. The equations will be
sligh1ly different. The error at this second
withheld point is 1hen calotlated. This pro-
cess is repeated for e.ach co01rol point. and a
mean error calculated.
Control Point Sources
Control points may be obtained from a
variel)' of sources. Tradilional ground sur·
veys based on optical surface measurements
are a common. although decreasingly used
method for de1enuining coMrol poim loca·
tions. Federal. state, county,. and local gov-
ermneu1s au maintain a set of accurately
surveyed locations (Figure 4-35). and these
points may be used as control points or as
s1aning points for additional surveys. Many
of these known points have been estabLisbe<l
using traditional sur\'eying techniques. The
ground survey network is often qui1e sparse
and insufficiem for registering many large·
scale maps or images. The global position-
ing system (GPS). GLONASS. and Galileo
are Global Navigation Satellite Systems
(GNSS) that allow us 10 establish control
points. GNSS. discussed in de1ail in Chapter
5. can help us obtain the coordinates of con·
rrol points that are visible on a map or
image. GNSS are paniculariy useful because

FlfUtt 4-.34: An illustrati.oo tbat ~\1.SE should not be used to c,0mparc di.ffcr«ll otod« tnrufoi:-
11utioni. .-\bo\'C' :1.-re ponions of :1. 1r:1nrfonncd inug:c duit was n:3i1tmd 10 :t toad n.:twot~. l}'u•
11rc:n L5 i11~crsti!i:11 t~ l S wide!~· di.strib1.11cd c~1m;>I poi111~ B,«ausc the Jrd-onlcr po~)Uoru1:1l 1s
qu11c flexible m 6ttu1g th<, pou1ts aod ~1ng RMSE, 11 dlMorts ar~s between t~c ~ontrol
~ints. Tli.is is shown by the poor matc:b b<twC'ffl un11ac and , ·cc:1or roods (abo\'c naJu), AltJs.oua;b
11 has a bi3bcr R.\.fSE. the fitst~rdcr 11:1.nrfomuition ou t1tc left is bcttcro,•crnll.
182 GIS Fundamentals
we may quickly survey widely spaced
poims. GNSS positional accuracy depends .
on the 1ecbuology and methods employed: 11
typically ranges from subcentimeter (tenths
ofinches) 10 a few meters (1ens of feel).
Most points recently added 10 the NGS and
othergovemmeJtt .nmintained ne.tworks were
measured using GNSS technologies.
Existing maps are another common
source of control .points. Point locations are
ploned and coordinates often primed on
maps: for e.xample. the corner location coor·
dinales are printed on USGS quadrangle
maps. Road imersec1ions and other well·
defuied locations are often represented on
maps. If enough recognizable features can
be idemified. then control points may be
obtained from the maps.
Existing digical images and data layers
may also provide control poims. A shon
description of these digital data sources are
provided here. and expanded descriptions of
these and other digital data are provided in
Chapter 7. Onhocorrecled digital aerial pho-
tO!, road a~twork~. digital raster graphics.
and many other d igilal data layers may pro-
vide points that are accurately placed and
unambiguously iclleu1ifiable.
Flautt 4-.35; Pre,·ious SW"'c:ys arc a «cnmon
sou~e o( comrol poiutt.
Map Projection vs. Transforma·
tlon
Map transformations should 001 be
confosed with map projections . A map
transfomtation typically employs a statisti-
caUy fit linear equa1ion 10 conven coordi-
nates from one Cartesian coordimate system
to another. A map projection. described in
Chapter 3. differs from a transfonuation in
1ha1 it is an analytical. fonuula-based con-
version between coordinate systems. usu.
ally from a cu,ved. latimdeil?n.gimde .
coordinate system 10 aCartesum coordmate
system. No statistical fitting process is used
with 3 map projeclion.
Map trnnsfonnations should rarely be
used in place of map projec:1iou equations
when convening geogi-aphic da1a between
map projections. Consider an e;xample
when data are delivered to an organization
in Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
coordinates and are to be conve.rted to State
Plane coordinates priorto integration into a
GIS database. Two patl,s may be chosen.
l11e first involves projection from UTM to
geographic coordinates (la1in1de and longi-
rude), and then from these geographic
coordinates 10 the appropriate State Plane
coordinates. TI1is is the correct. most accu.
rate approach.
An alternate aod often less accurate
approach involves using a Lmnsformation
10 conven between different map projec-
1ions. In Ibis case. a set of control points
would be identified and the coordinates
de1enuined in both UTM and Staie Plane
coordinate systems. Tbe transfonnation
c.oefficients would be estimated and these
equations applied 10 all data in the UTM
data layer. This new output data layer
would be in State Plane coordiL1ates.. This
ua11Sforuunion process should be avoided.
as a transformation may i111roduce addi·
tional positional error.

Summary
Spa1ial daia entry is a common activity
for many G!S users. Although data may be
derived from several sources, maps are a
common somce. and care mus1 be taken to
choose appropriate map types and 10 inter-
pret the maps correctly when c.o,werting
them to spa1ial data in a GIS.
Maps are used for spatial data entry
due to several unique characteristics. These
include our long bis10,y of bardcopy map
production. so c.enturies or spatial infomm·
tion are stored there. In addition. maps are
inexpensive. widely available. and easy to
convert to digital forms. although the pro-
cess is often 'time co11smni11g, and may be
cosily. Maps are usually converted to digi-
tal data through a manual digitizing pro-
cess.. whereby a human amlyst 1rnce.s and
records 1be location of important feamres.
Maps may also be digitiz.ed via a scanning
device.
The quality of daia derived from a map
de~nds on U1e iype and size of the map,
bow the map, was produced, the map scale,
and Ute mell1.ods used for digitizing. Large-
scale maps g.enerally provide more accu-
rate positional data than compamble smaU-
scale maps. Large-scale maps often have
less map generalization. and small horizon-
tal errors in ploning, printing. and digitiz-
ing are magnmed less during conversion of
large-scale rnaps.
Snapping. smoolltlng. vertex !binning.
and other tools may be used to in1prove ll1e
qualily and utility of digitized data. These
me1bods are used 10 ensure positional data
Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 183
are captured efficiently and al the proper
level of detail.
Maps and other data ofieJ1 need to be
converted to a 1arge1 coordinate system via
a map transfom1ation. Trallsfonnarioos ill'e
different from map projecttons (discussed
in Chapter 3), in that a tmnsformaiiou uses
an empirical. least sq,.,,es process 10 con-
ven coordinates from one Canesian system
to another. Transfonual'ions are often used
when registering digitized darn to a known
coordinate system. Map rrnmsfom1ations
should not be used when a map projection
is called for.
Cartography is an importanl aspect of
GIS. because we often conunmtlcate spa-
tial infom111io111hrough maps. Map design
depends on both the targel .audience and
purpose. setting and modes of map view-
ing. and available resources. Proper map
design considers the scale. symbols, labels.
legend. and placemen, to effectively com-
nnmicate tile desired infomi.ation.
Memda1a are I.be ucdata about data."
lltey describe the content. ,origin. form.
coordinate sysrem. spatial and attribute
data charac1erislics, and other relevant
informa,ion about spatial data. Me1ada1a
facilitate the proper use, mainteuance, aod
transfer of spatial data. Meqadala standards
have been developed. both ua1ionally and
intemationally. with profiles used to cross-
reference elements betweet1 metadata stan-
dards. Metada1a are a key componem of
spatial data. and many organizations do not
consider data complete until metadata have
b~n created.
184 GIS Fundamentals

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 Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 185

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In van Kreveld. M.. Nievergelt, J., Roos. T.. Widmayer, P., (Ed$.). A lgoritltmic
Fo1111dmio11s o/Geog,.aphic b,fom1Mio11 Systems. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

\Volf. P.R~. Ghilani. C. (2002). Elememn'), St11'l't!)1i11g, an Jmroduction ro Geomatics

(10th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Zandbergen. P.A. (2008). Positional accuracy of spatial data: aon-nonnal dislribtuioGls
and a critique of the National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy. Transaclio11s in
GIS. 12:I 03-130.

Zeiler. M. (1999). ,\{odeli11g Our Jll>rld: Tlie ESRI Guide to Geodatabase Desig11.
Redlands: ESRJ Press.
186 GIS Fundamentals

Study Questfons

4.1 • Wllich is the larger-scale map;

a) t :5,000. or J: 15,000?
b) 1:5,286. or J inch toa mile?
c) 1: 1.000.000. or 1 cm to I km?
d) 1:50.000. or 0.00025
e) 5:1 . or 1:1?

4.2 . Which is a larger-scale map:

a) 1:20.00(). or I: 1,000.000?
b} 1 ccotim.ctC'r to 1.000 meters. or one yard to a m.ile?
c) I inch equals I mile. or I: 100,000?
d) l cm to .l km, or I inc:h lo a mile?
e) I mmto I km. or l :l,S00,000?

4.3 - Describe three different types of generalization.

4.4 . Identify tlte kind of generalization at the labeled locations a through d in the
map below. !ell. compared to 1he ·~nub" in 1he image. below right. Categorize the
generalizations as fused, simplified. displaced, omitted, or exaggerated.

c-

R
~bin
 Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 187

4.5 - Identify the kind of generalization at the labeled locations a tl,rough d in the
map below. left. compared co the "truth" in the image. below right. Categorize the
generalizations as fused. simplified. displaced. omitted. or e..aggerated: or if it
doesn't fil in one of these categories. then categorize it as "other:· and describe the
generaliza1ion.

, c,
;? •
•
I

u)
a ·'
\ • ~
• •• \ 'd
•
• ~
b- '
_ _e f'-.n+a

4.6 - \Vhat are the most common map media? \Vhy?

4.7 • Is media defom,atiou more problemacic with large-scale maps or smaU-scale

paper maps? Why?

4.8 - Which map typically shows more detail - a large-scale map or a small-scale
map? Catl you give three reasons why?
188 GIS Fundamentals

4.9 - Complete the following table that shows scale measuremenls and calculations.

Ground distance Corresponding map dis- MapSca,le

and units tance and units
13,280 fe-el 6.4 inches 1: 24,900

126.4 kilometers 25.28 centimeters

123.6 miles 22.8 inches

40.7 meters centimeters 1: 502.5

kilometers 4.62 inches 1: 249,685

4.10 . Complele the following 1able d1a1shows scale measuremems and calcula1ions.

Ground distance Correpsond,ng mop dis·

Mop Score
ond units tonce ond units
17.120 kilometers 16.85 inches I . 40.000.935

23.4 kilometers 11.7 centimeters

16.4 miles 9.3 1nches

102.0 meters 1 : 5.500

10.24 inches I ; 2.000.000

4.11 • What is snapping in 1hecome.,1 ofdig.i1izing? Wba1 arc undershoors and over-
shoots. and wby are they undesirable?
 Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 189

4.12 - lde11tify a characteristic feature or error in digitizing at each of the labeled let-
ter locations in the drawing below: for example. node, overshoot. missing label. ere.:

"-----...h .s
g
,4 e

4..13 - lde,11ify a characteristic feature or error in digitizing at each of the labeled let-
ter locations in tile drawing below: for example. node. overshoot. missing label. etc.:

d
+5
e +6
0
+4 g
+3 +2
190 GIS Fundamentals

4. 14 - Sketch t.he results ofcombined node (open circle), vertex (closed circle), and
edge (lines) s,~apping with a soap tolerance ofa) a disiance of5 units. and b) a dis-
tance oft O11n;ts. as shown by the snap circles. Note the radius and not the diameter
of lhese circles defines the snapping distance.

[__
4. 15 - Sketch t·he results of combined node (open circle)."'"°' (closed circle), and
edge (lines) snapping with a soap tolerance ofa) a disiance of5 units. and b) a dis·
tance of IO units. as shown by the snap circles. Note the radius and not the diameter
of lbese circles defines the snapping distance.

0
5 un,t radius

a··.,.~-~, ''
'·
....
10 unit ._,,.;·'"
rod1u.s
I I
 Chapter 4: Maps and Data En~y 191

4.16 - Wbat are splines, and how are they used during digitizing?

4.17 . a) \Vby is line 11tiiming sometimes necessary?

b) Does increasing the width of 01e line 01ioning band tend 10 increase. decrease.
or 1101 affect the number of points reJlloved?
c} Does increasing the number of points initially spanned tend to increase.
decrease. or not affect the number of poiius removed?

4.18 - Contrast manual digitizii1g 10 the various forolS of scan digitizing_What are the
advantages and disadvanlages of each?

4.19 . Wbat is the "common fearure problem" when digitizing. and how might it be
overcome?

4.20 - Describe the general goo I and process of map registration.

4.21 - What are control points., and where do they come from?

4.22 - Define an affine ll1lllsformation. iitcluding o,e fonn of the equation. Why is it
called a Ii.near transformation?

4.23 - Wbat is the root mean square error (R,IIISE), and how does it relate 10 a coordi-
nate 1:rans.fom1atiou?

4.24 - ls (he average positional error likely to be larger, smaller, or aboul equal to the
RMSE? \Vhy?

4.25 - Wby are higher-order (polynomial) projections to be avoided under most cir-
c:umstanc-es?

4.16 - Wbich of the foUowing tra1JSformations wiU likely have 01e smal.lest average
error at a set of independent test points?
a) affine. RMSE = 14.23 b) affine. RMSE = 9.8
c) 2nd-order polynomial, RMSE • 9. 7 d) 3rd-order polynomial RMSE • 6.45

4.27 . Wbich of the foUowing transformations will likely have the smalllest average
error at a set of independent re.st points?
a) 1~1-ordel' polynomial. RMSE = 5.3 b) affine. RMSE = 9.8
c) 2nd-order polynomial. R-M:SE • 4.9 d) Ist-order polynomial. RMSE • 9.9

4.28 - Define and describe metadata. \Vby are metadata imponru11?

192 GIS Fundamentals
 193

5 Global Navigation Satellite Sys-

tems and Coordinate Surveying

Introduction
Broadly defined. there are 1wo common
ways to obtain geographic coordinates. T11e
fi.rs1uses remote data collecrion, primarily
from aerial and sa1elli1e cameras. Coordina1e
positions may I.be obtained to within a few
cen1ime1ers (inches) from properly collected.
carefuily processed images. Digitizing from
these sources is described in Chap1er 4. and
image S)-Stems and automated image
extrac1ion are described in Cbap1er 6.
We also commonly collect coordinates
using GNSS/GPS for field measurements.
tools described in this cbapier. We travel to a Ffaw·e !i- 1: A ONSS :.w! d.'l.l.:l col!cc1ion p:td,:.:1gc
feature and physically occupy a locaiioo to fit for lon_g-1eno ~ ng~ird tnckiu.g (courtesy Aleic
Jahn. mdwia uw,~nnty),
meas.ure unknown X. Y. and often Zcoordi·
na1es. Measuremem sysiems have become
quite powerful. incorporating satellite and GPS more spe<:ifically refers 10 a U.S.-based
laser 1echnologies. primarily Global Na,;ga· sate1Li1e naviga1ion system. 1be first devel·
tion Sa1ellite Sysiems (GNSS). as well as !ta· oped and deployed globally.
dilional grom1d surveying methods. Field Coordinate surveying is often used to
measurements :may be accurate to within complemem GNSS measuremen!S. Coordi·
millime1ers (1enU1s of inches). na1e surveying uses optical and electronic
GNSS are satellile-based technologies angle and dislance measurem.ents. some
tha1 give precise positional information. day already described in Chap1er 3. Because bolh
or night, in most wead1er and 1errain condi- GNSS and coordinate S\ir,·cying measure·
tions. GNSS lechnologies may help navigate mems are importam. they \\~UJ be covered in
and lt3Ck any moving objec1 Iha, can carry a Ibis chap1er.
receiver. Receivers shrink in size. weight.
and power requirements eacb year (Figure 5- GNSS Basics
1).
GNSS have had a pervasive impact in
GPS, for Global Positioning System, is 1he geographic infonnation sciences, and
someiimes used synonymously for GNSS. underly almosl all modem spatial data
194 GIS Fundamentals
collection, either ,directly during field sur-
veys. or indirectly 10 locate and orie111 image
data.
As of2022 there are four functioning
GNSS systems. a11d two regional systems.
The U.S. NAVSTAR Global Positioning
System (GPS) was the first deployed_aud is
the most widely used system. There is an
operational Russi:an system named <?LON-
AS$ with 24-hour coverage worldwide. The
Chinese Compass. or BeiDou. is a third sat·
eUite navigation systemand includes a con·
stella1ion of 30 positioning satellites with
gloool covernge. A fourth system. Galileo.
bas been developed by a consonium of
European govenunents and industries. with
a total of30 satellites in the constellation.
There is a regional system by the IJldian ~ov-
enunent (IR.l'o!SS). with seven satelhtes giv-
ing covernge 10 south-central Asia.
operational in 20 16. but semi-functional
because. of equipment raHures. Another
regional system. QZSS. covers Japan, east
Asia. and the wes.1en, Pacific Ocean. In the
following disct~sion we use GNSS asa
generic tenn for all global systems. and use
GPS to refer specifically to the U.S.
NAVSTAR system.
There are three main components. or
segments. of any <)NSS (Figure 5-2). The
first is llie satellite segmem. This is a con-
stellation of satellites orbiting the Earth aud
transmitting positioning sigL'ils. The second
component of any GNSS is a cawrol s~-
ment. This includes lt3cking. comummca·
tions. data gathering. integration. analysis.
and control faciliuies. The third pan of
sotelllte segment
~ ~ ~ Station symhesizes infonnatiou and broad-
~
I each sa1eUi1e. The Master Control Stauon
ij
user segment control segment
Fit,urr S-2: The three scg,nci.is tba1 co111prisc 4
GNSS.
GNSS is the use,· segme.111. the GNSS receiv·
ers.
A GNSS recefrer is a device d1at records
data rrausmined by each satellite. and then
processes these data 1_0 otnain three-dimen-
sional coordinates (Figure 5-3). There JS a
wide 3rr3y of receivers and methods for
determining position. Receivers arc often
handheld de\~ces with screens and key-
boards, or electronic components mo~ted
on ws and tnicks. plaues. or 011,er obJecls.
The satellite and control seg_ments differ
for each GNSS. The NAVSTAR GPS
includes a constellation of satellites orbiling
the Earth at au altitude of approximately
20.000 km. Initial system design, included 21
active GPS satellites and three spares. dis-
tributed among six offsel orbital planes.
Every satellite orbits the Eanh twice daily.
and eac.h sate!Lite is usu.illy above the flat
horizon for eighl or more hours ,each day.
Experimental aud succe~ive operational sat·
ellites have outlasted thetr design life. so
there have typically been more than 24 salel-
lit~ in orbi1 siillult:moously. Between four to
eight active satellites are typically visible
from any unobstmc1ed viewing location on
Eanb.
GPS is controlled by a set of ground sta-
tions. These are used 10 observe. maintain.
and mauage satellites. coin1~mti~a1i~ns. aud
reL,ted systems. There are five tracking sta-
tions in the GPS system. spread across the
planet. Data are gathered from a number of
sources by the s•11ions. including satellite
healtl1and status from each GPS satellite,
tracking infonnation from each tracking sta·
tioo. timing data from the U.S. Naval Obser-
vatory. and surface data from the U.S.
Defense Mapping Agency. A Master Control
casrs navigation. liming. and 01her dat~ to
also signals ea_ch satellite as _appropriate for
course corrections. changes m operation, or
ot.htr maintenance.
TheGLONASS system is aoother cur-
rently operating GNSS. GLONASS was ini·
1ia1ed by the former Soviet Union in the

early 1970s. Sa1elli1es were first launched in
1he early 1980s. and the system became
f,mc1ional in 1be mid-1 990s. The GLONASS
system was designed for military navigation.
1arge1ing. and tracking. and is operated by
the Russian Ministry of Defense. with con-
trol and trackjng stations similar to those for
the NAVSTAR OPS system.
GLONASS was designed 10 include 21
active satellites and three spares. New
designs have been phased in as older satel-
lites have expired. and system managers
have focused on maximizing coverage over
Russia. The GLONASS system is estab-
lished, ";1h a. published renovation and
maintenance plan. such that commercial
manufacturers have developed dual OPS/
GLONASS <".1pable receivers.
The Chinese Compass (BeiDou) system
cousi.s1s of30 sa1ellites with aneodant
ground station infrastruclure. Eighteen satel-
lites were latuiched in 2018. and 10
upgraded sa1elli1es are scheduled for launch
in 20L9. The conste11ation includes both
FlgmT 5,3: A handbdd ONSS ttc:ch·cr (left) and a GNSS rcec-i,·« in uac (ria}t1, cour-
,CJ)' Juniper S)'1tcms).
Chapter 5: GNSS 195
geostationary and inclined o:rbiting satelliles.
The system is designed for both civilian and
military use. ";1h subs1an1ially augmented
accuracies, up to a few cenlimete.rs within
China. due 10 a network of rocal receivers.
The European Galileo system also
implements satellite. couLro1, and user stg·
mems. There are 30 sa1eUi1es in 1he com-
plete Galileo constellation. Sa1ellites are
armJ1ged in ~iree orbital paths a1 a 54°
orbital inclina1ioo. with a sa.1eUi1e altitude
near 23.600 km above 1he Eanh. This satel-
lite constellation will provide better cover·
age of high nonhern la1i111des than the U.S.
NAVSTAR OPS sys1em. 10 bener serve
nonhern Europe. Galileo wull be managed
through 1wo comrol cemers in Europe and
20 Galileo Sensor Stations 5pread through-
out the world to monitor, communicate witJ1,
and relay infonna1ion amon_g sa1eUiies and
1he control centers.
196 GIS Fundamentals

GNSS Signals Frequency

GNSS
GNSS positioning is based on radio sig- System
(MHz)
nals broadcast by each satellite. Systems
vary, but all transmit on multiple frequencies GPS.
and also send dam needed to calculate posi· Galileo, I L5. E5A. 1.176
tions from 1he main signals. As an example. Compass B2a·~
the NAVSTAR Gl'S satellites broadcast GLONASS
positioning signals on three base frequencies Couleo, I Cl. E50. 1.207
Compass 02o· D
(Table 5-1). the LL. L2. and LS. These car·
rfer sfguals are modulated to produce coded
signals, e.g., the CIA code at l.023 MHz and
the P and M code at 10.23 MHz. The LLsig· GPS I L2 1.227
nal carries both the CIAand P codes. while
the L2 carries the P and M codes (Figure 5-
4). Additional signals provide information. GLONASS l C2 1.246
and coded signals are sent cont.aining satel-
lite navigation and other infonnation. These Compass I BJ 1.268
other signals have been added 10 improve Compass. I BJ. E6 1.278
functiot~ for example. the CNAV for track- GoMeo
ing, a forwa rd error correction code. and an
MNAV for enhaneed military applications.
Compass Bl·O 1.561
The coded signals (CIA. r. and M ) are some-
I

times referred to as the pseudonmdom code. GPS.

because they appear quite similar 10 random Galileo. I LI. El. 1.575
noise. However. short segments of the code Co,nposs 01-C
are unique for each satellite and time. A
receiw,r decodes ~ach signal 10 identify the
satellite. transmission time. and satellite GLONASS I GI 1.602
position at the time the signal wa(j sent. The
receiver combines this infonnation from
multiple satellites for positioning. The coded
signal does repeal. but the repeat inter\lal is Flflu't SA: Existiui and propokd ONSS brond·
long enough to not cause problems in posi- cut si~nls, frc<111cncics, and pcniti,oning s.er•
1ioning. ,·ice,. Signals are sp:,ced to 1woid ii:itcrfcrencc.
or coded where die)' ovc:rlap. Frcquc:ncics ate
001 sp:tcc:d 10 scnlc (cour1cS)' ESA).
Table 5-1 : GPS Signals
Positions based on carrier sLgnal me.a-
Name Frequency (MHZ) surements (LI. L2, and L5 freqt>encies for
the NAVSTAR GPS). and positions based on
LI, L1C 1,575.42 multiple frequencies are inherel).tly more
accurate tban those based on the coded sig-
L2, L2CM, 1,227.6 nal or single frequency measurements. TJ1e
L2CL
mathematics and physic.s of carrier measure.
L5 1, 176.45
ment are belier suited for precise posilion-
ing."dual frequency" GNSS are more
P, M 10.23 accurate than single baud receiv:ers because
they aid removal of various errors, primarily
CIA 1.023 ionospheric errors. described lm,er.
 Chapter 5: GNSS 197

Improved accuracy in 9NSS positioning Range Distances

usually incurs added. cos1s Ill eq1up~e111 and
in 1ime spem collecung and. p~essmg data,. GNSS posi1ioning is based primarily on
Carrier me.asw.rements: require more soph1st1- ninge distances. A range is a distance .
cated and expensive receivers and mus1 between two objects. ForGNSS. the range 1s
record signals for longer periods of lime 1ban the distance ben,·een a satellite iu space and
code receivers. If 1he signal is blocked by a a receiver (Figure 5-5). GNSS signals 1ra,·eJ
buildi11g. mou111ain. or olher objec1, tl,e sig· approximalely at lhe speed o_f hght The
nal may be los1 momemarily and carrier range distance from the receiver 10 each sa1.
phase me.asurements begu? anew. This .sub- ellite is calculated based on signal 1ravel
s1an1ially reduces lhe efficiency of earner time from the satellite to the receiver:
phase daia collec1ioo. although 1hese coll·
straints have ,decreased with modem receiv-
Range .. speed of fight • travel time ( 5 J)
ers. Newer systems are often capa~le of .
1racking multiple GNSS cons1ella11ons w11b
hundreds of channels. reducing loss of lock
Coded signals are used ·10 calcula1e sig·
GNSS sa1elli1e also broadcas1s da1a on nal travel 1ime by ma1cbing sections of the
satellite status and location. Data streams go code. Timing infom1a1ion is. sent with Lhe
by various names. but using the GPS con- coded signal. allowing lhe GNSS receiver 10
ventions. the infonnation includes an alma~ calculate the precise transmission time for
nae. data used 10 determine the satellite e.ach code fragment. The GNSS receiver also
status. and epheme,1s dnra of satellite tr~c,ks. observes 1he recep1ion 1ime for each code .
These ephemerides allow a GNSS receiver fragment The differences between transnus-
10 accura1ely calcula1e 1be posilio11 of 1he . sion and reception times are used to calcu-
broadcasling satellite and the e~pected post· late range distaoc~. often at rates B high ;\j
1ions of olher satellites. S.uellite heallh, a new range calculation for any sa1ellileeacb
clock correc1ions. and 01ber da1a are also second (Figure S-6).
transmitted.
Carrier phase GNSS is also based on a
The various GNSS systems span a simi- set of range measurements. ln contra.st to_
lar range of frequencies. and are organized coded signals, lhephase oflhe sa1elhte stg·
so that there is linle interference bet,veen ual is measured. Each wave 1ra11Sn1Hh?d a1a
any two signals. e,•en when they share 1he given frequency is identical~ and at any
same fimdamen1al frequency (Figure S-4).
GLONASS l>roadcasts GI and G2 carriers
similar 10 GPS. and an additional GJIG IO
and experimemal G3 signal at higher and
lower frequencies. BeiDoufCompass and
Galileo include lhe broadcasis of a range of
signals on several fti~damental carri~rs.
including overlaps with 1he GPS. BeiOou/
Compass, and GLONASS signals at vadous
frequencies. \Vben all GNSS constellauons
are fi.Jlly operational. there m,,y be as many
as 70 sa1elli1es, so mnlli-constellatiou
receivers niAy provide robust. fas1. accurote
positioning,

Flautt S-5: A sin~c aatdlitc taJljc mcasutcnlcnt.

198 GIS Fundamentals
code sent from satellite
at time tO..................matches code
/ generated at receNer
signal from
satellite
signal from
receiver
range distance from satellite.
d = speed of light • (ti - tO)
Figun- 5--6: A decoded CIA i3lc:lli1e signal pro\'idc:!t ll ral'lgc: ntc:llfiUttlllcnL
given point in time tliere is some unknown
integer nwuber of waves plus a panial wave
that fit in 1he distanc.e be.tween the satellite
and 1he receiver. Cominuous carrier signal
obsen,ations allow the calculation of wave-
length number over the measurement inter-
val. and then the calculation of very precise
satellite ranges.
Simul1aneous range measurements from
multiple sa1elli1es help es1imate a n.>ceiver's
location. A raoge measurement 10 one satel-
lite places the receivers somewhere on a
sphere (Figure S·7o). Range measuremeots
from two satellites place the receiver on a
circle fonned by the intersection of two
spheres (Figure S-7b). Range measuremen1s
from three sateUites define three spheres that
intersect al two pciuts (figure 5-7c). A
sequence of range measurements through
time from three satellites will reveal tbat one
of the inlersect.ing points remains nearly sta-
tionary. while tlte otl,er poim moves rnpidly
through space. The point moves because the
size and relative geometry of the spheres
change through time as the satellites change
positions. Si.multaueous measurements from
four or more satellites (Figure 5-7d) are usu.
ally require<! to reduce receiver clock errors
and to allow instantaneous position measure-
menl wilh a moving receiver. Oa1a collec!ed
from more than four satellites usually
improves posi1iom accuracy.
Ir at time t l
l.,nn
Positional Uncertainty
Errors in range measurements and
uncertainties in satellite location introduce
errors into GNSS-determiued positions (Fig·
ure S·S). Range errors vary substantially
even if range measurements are taken just a
few seconds apart. Errors in 1he ephemeris
data lead 10 erroneous estimates of the sa1el-
lite position. causing loc.ation error. Clock.
~ti\lospberic, aiid ionOSpherit uncettalnti~
add error 10 range measurements. resulting
in a band of range uncenainty around the
GNSS receiver posi1io1L
Several methods belp us improve accu-
racy. the simplest of which is point averag-
ing on a stationary receiver. Most receivers
may estimare a new position. or fix. every
second. Averaging yie.lds a cluster of indi-
vidual fixes dislribu1ed ahou1 Ille mean loca-
tion. removing nigh frequency errors and
helping quantify positional uncenainty.
Averaging doesn't remove l-0ng-1en11
bias in calculated positions. and we can't
average wh..i.le moving. Ahentat~ve methods
for reducing positional error rely on reduc-
ing the several sources of range errors.
Sources of Range Error
louospherfc and nmJOsphe,ic delays are
common sources ofGNSS range error.
Range calculations depend on the speed of
light. a constant when light is passing
through a uoifonn electromagnetic field and
 Chapter 5: GNSS 199

-------
-- jl-•-

o) WTlh o r0nge meosul'tmem from

--~
b) wifh fWO sottllltts, rht re.c.~lver
one soteUrre. 1he receiver ,s poS)- 1s .somewhere on a Circle
tioned somewtwr-e on the sphere where the two spheres interstct
defined by 1ht sa1cU1te pos,ti0n
and fhe ronge dittance, r

c) wtrh n,n:e. so1emte:s-. ---.:.

~ -~ d) "''" tour satel-
lltu, tht rece!Yt.r
the ~cew,er i$ at one 1s at the one poinf
ot two pc,lnts Where 1he
lhrte spneres 1nler~cr ·~- where the four
spheres antersecJ

fl tm•t S.7: Range mcasumneni. from mnhip1c ONSS sa1cUi1cs. Range 1mas~mcats uc combined to
nanowdown the position of a GNSS r«civcr. Ran;c rucMUtcmcnts from more than (our satellites maybe
ukd 10 iruptovc 1bc accllr.lcy of a metu;urcd poti1ion (l\d:1p1cd £ro111 Hum, 1989).

in a vacuum. bu1 not oons1an1 in space and

lhrough our aunospbere. The Eanh is sur-
rowtded by a varying densil)' of charged par-
ticles in 1he ionosphere, formed by incoming
solar radia1iou. which s1rips elcc1roL1s from
elements in 1be upper atmosphere. Changes
in lhe charged particle densi1y may affec1
range . GNSS UlUlSUlissions.
uoctrto1trty
Atmospheric density is significantly dif.
feretll from 1bat of a vacuum. Densi1y
changes due to changes in 1empernnm.\
atmospheric pressure., and water vapor.
Range errors occur because ·lhe GNSS signal
velocity chruiges as it passes 1hrough 1be ion-
osphere and atmosphere: some systems
allow sa1elli1e screening bas.ell on horizon
angle. 10 reduce atmospheric path effec1s on
accuracy (figure 5-9).
Errors call be reduced by receiver
t"i&urir 5-$; Uncm.ninty in nmgc m~n1rcmcnts
leads to positional c:rrors in ONSS mca~· design. because ionospheric effects depend
ma.us. on frequency. Duof{requency receivers co).
200 GIS Fundamentals

lect infom1ation on multiple GNSS signaJs
simultaneously and use sophisticated models
to remove most of the ionospheric errors.
Ou.al.frequency receivers are dropping in
cost rapidly. and may soon be widely afford·
able. Atmospheric range errors are still
largely present alter dual-frequency analysis,
so these are best removed by differential cor·
rec-tion. described in Ille next section.
System operation and delays also adds
to range error. Satellite tracking is imperfect.
and timing and ot.her signals are slowed
during transmission through lhe entire sys·
tem. Atomic clocks on Ille satellite may be in
error. although these are typically small.
Many of these errors may be partially
removed in rigorous analytical post-process-
ing. rarely applied due to the complexity of
the calculations and needed additional data.
Differential corre<tion. described later. also
removes much of the systemic range error.
Receivers also introduce errors into
GNSS positions. !Receiver clocks may con·
tain biases. Signals 111.ay reflect off ofobjects
prior to teatli.iJig 11\e a,ueilitll. These
reflected. 11111/rip,rth signals have a longer.
erroneous range than direct CNSS sign.ils.
Multipath signals often have lower power.
and so may be screened by setting a thresh-
old sigoal-to-noise ratio. Signals with high
noise relative to the mean signal strength are
ignored. Multipath signals may :also be
screened by properly designed antem1as.
most commonly those with a gr<>mtd plm,e, a
metal disk uuder Ille autena. Mwltipath sig·
nals are most commonly a problem in urbau
settings that have an abundance of strong
comer reflectors. such as the sid:es of build·
ings and streets. This is often a large source
of ran_ge error. particularly when collecting
data without a specialized multi-path rejec,
,ion antenna.
Satellite Geometry and Dilution
of Precision
The geometry of the GNSS satellite con-
s1ellation is another faclor that a.ffecls posi-
tional accuracy. Range errors create au area
ofuncenainty perpendicular 10 the GNSS
signal transmission clirec.tion.. Tbese areas of
uncenainty may be visualized as a set of
nested spheres. with the tn•e position some-
where within the volume defined by the
intersection of these spheres (Figure 5-10).
These areas of uncertainty intersect. and the
smaller the in1ersection area, the more accu-
rate the position fixes are likely to be. Sig-
nals from widely spaced satellites are
complementary because they result io a
smaller area of unc.enainty. Signals from S3l·

horizon
ongle
atmosphere

1~~~,.--;.~b~/~.:; ;.;;._;. ~. =··-~==.,~Ii.:. .

~f_rlzon~o- '_''~e·::::::·:::·::·:::·~-
re,eiver
b~ -

FJgurt S..9: GNSS rccc:1,·c:rs often <i1eard si$:JU11S from satc:lli1c:s nca.r the: borizoo. As 1.his ituas.c shows, si3-
n:1.ls from satdlita high Abo\•c: 1be llOrizon {o) wilh high horizon 1111,glc:s (P) h.wc sll()ttcr ~th lcnt.1l1s lit die:
111mospbc:rc: than lo·v:..ui.glc satellites (b, ,vitb an~tc w). Alm0$J>bcric debys ~od hc:oc-c rnu.gc c:mm arC"
l.at&cr for"tc-Ui1« wi1b low horizon 11D.Rles. Typically. a "mad:-'' is set at approxiin11tcly IS dcg:re«. abo,·c
the borizou, :tnd satellites ru'C' iguottd i(dtcy arc below this limit.
 Chapter 5: GNSS 201

... ..
.-. · -~~~~~~~
. ~·
\.\1\.
',. o~. ',.
• ~(Q·
~

.'. .:t '..

·.·,,'.
''
' '
',,
'• '
.. ,, "
I "•

Fi,i;urt S-10: Rdativc OPS sa1dlitc: pos.ilioo aff«u. positional a«urn.cy. Ra.:ugc uni:ertaintic, a.TC a,sociakd
wnb each nmse mc:Mure1ncm. Til-Cse ooinbinc: 10 fonn au area. of unccrtllimyat the: intcl'SC'etiou ofthe muic:
mc-a.flurcn,a 11.$,.

ellites in close proximity overlap over broad
areas. resulting in large areas of positional
uncertainty. Widespread satellite oonsrella-
1ions provide more acc.ural'e GNSS position
measurements.
Satellite geomeuy is summarized in a
number calle<l rbe Dilution ofPrecision. or
DOP (Figtire 5- 11 ). There are ,.,,rious kinds
ofDOPs, including the Horizontal (HOOP),
Vertical (VDOP). and Positional (POOP)
Dilution of Predsion. The POOP is most
used and is the ratio of the volume of a te.tra·
hedron created by the four most widespread.
observed satellites 10 the volume defined by
the ideal tetrahedron. This ideal tetrahedron
is formed by one satellite overhead and three

High POOP - satellites Low PDOP-

<ip, "ln. close together satellltes
<ip, widely spaced

........ ..
···- ..-...............
. ... . . -·-··:;pi
,,,/

-·~···.... "' _
...... ,,...,.-"

. . . . .. >
~
~ ;z:::.:.":.:
· - · · -.......
- ~.! .,,_............ ~

_,·-. \ .~:::;aof
unce.rtolnty
fi&m't 5· 1.l: OPS $8.leUi1e distrib\uion aff«1s posi1ioua.l accuta(';)'. Closely spaocd satellites rcwh io
l:kJltr positiostt1l ffl'Ots 1h.'1" widely spaced 131ellites. Sn1elli1e a.come-try is summarized by POOP. with
lowu PDOPs indic:u-ing better $:i1.clhtc geometrics.
202 GIS Fundamentals

satellites spoced at l 20.degree intervals design have lowered this to a few 10 tens of
arotuid lhe horizon. This constellation is minutes. rather than hours as in ·,he recent
assigned a POOP of one. and closer group- past Fast. inexpensive, dual-frequency
ings of satellites have higher POOPs. Lower chipsets are becoming available lhat may
PDOPs are bener. Moot GNSS receivers provide 20 cm (eight inch). real-time accu-
review the almanac transmined by the GNSS racy. Another teclmique. differential correc·
satellites and aue111pt to obtain measure- lion, is the most reliable means of obtaining
ments lhat include the constellation wilh lhe 30 cm (one foot) accuracy. When combined,
lowest POOP. If this best constellation is 001 multi-frequency and differential correction
available, for example, some satellites are may yield accuracies of a few centimeters
1101 visible, successively poorer cons1e1Ja.. with occupatfon times measured! in minutes
tions are tested until the best available con· Differential correction is described in the
steUation is found. The receivers typically following section.
provide a measurement of POOP while data
are collected. and a ma.timum POOP ctiresh·
old may be specified, above which data are
1101 collected.
Range errors and DOPs combine 10
affec1 GNSS position accuracies. There are
many sources of range error. and these com·
bine 10 form rut o,·erall raoge uncenainty for
the measurement from each visible GNSS
sa1elli1e. If more precise coordiua1e loca1ious
are required. then the choices are to use
equipment that makes more precise rru1ge
me-asurements. and/or to collect data when
DOPs are low.
GNSS accumeies depend on lhe type of
receiver. aanosplteric and ionoopheric condi·
lions. the munber of range measurements.
the satellite constellation. and the algorilhms
used for position <1e1enuiua1ion (Figure S-
12). Current CIA code receivers typically
provide accuracies between 3 and 30 m for a
single (ix. Errors .larger lhan 100 m for a sin·
gle fix occur occasionally. Accuracies may
be improved subs.1antia1Jy. to bet,veen 2 and
15 m. when multiple fLxes are averaged. The
longer the data collection time, the greater
the accuracy. improvements come largely
from reducing the impact of rarer, large
em,rs. but a, erage accuracies are rarely
1

below J m when using a single CIA code

receiver.
Accuracies when using carrier phase.
dual frequency, or pairing data across differ-
ent recei,•ers are much higher. frequently to
witltin a few centmmeters. These accuracies
come al lhe cost of longer data collection
times. although clever analysis and system
 Chapter 5: GNSS 203

o) b)
12 P1oresslonal.grade 10 ·l P1oressionaH1rade
GNSS receiver, g GNSS receiver.
10 ., 1..... j.. post-pro«>ssed diff·
8 ..........•' - ... WAAS corroclion,
erenliat correction, ........ open site
8 open site 7
6
.... .: .:
··-························-
Is
.r
..
.
.
...•..........
....
..,...............
...
..
...
..
""'
!!
.r
5
:
··1··········;-·········r···
. . ... .. .
4 ·•·: ··>··········1··········0:·
4
3
.
• •I·

.. ....········"····
-········ ..
·)

2 .
.
. ...
2
I l h4n . I ·a················-
. ······~....
.. ··t··
0 0
o.oo 0.05 o.,o 0.15 0.20 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Single Fix Error (m) Single Fix Error (m)

c) d)
8 Consumer· -
grade GNSS
receiver. 6 ................. i .-t' ............. ::'"j
6 .. ··-·':' •. WAAS correc- ;:
" ~
tion, open site
~ !.,;
a'& -{,
- g- J
~
~
~
~

.......... ~- ., ..........,. ........•.. o·

... .. . J i
.
.. l-. -I.
Cl)

....... ·······).········•·.
..... .,..........~- i .. 1. l
. . £ ii
··-·····
h: .. ···.
.
-
t8. .1" 8
.
O~::'.!.:~~~~~
O I 2 3 4 5
0

Single Fix Err()( (m)

Fl&urt' 5-12: Obfcr.·cd OPS erTOr dis1ri\mliQ1ts for \·;lrious rec:eh·m ,uidcr OJ>cn 11..;• coud1ions (o
lhtough <:) au.cl meau crronindcr open sL.1• And dcuse deciduous fores, ~nopy (d). R«uhs show bighc:$1
a«utt1cies for a professional-grade GNSS rc~in::r (pnncJ o, TRL.\WLE 6H. ~t-proocu.cd carrier
ph.uc diff«nui:al correclion, < 20 ktn 10 ll bMC: stn.tion), a profcuion.,1·~ GNSS rt<ci\'cr with
WAAS rc..tl4imc correction (b), n11d • n iucxpcusi\'c consi11ncr gr.ic:k GNSS (c, Gann.in c•rcx). r,,fcan
0

errors Cor both open &l..) and under forest canopy arc $.bown in p;u>e) d for these three reccin:r'Vcou.figu.
1

rnriom, nnd for an iPbooc 5 and a similar tablet OPS. Ccuti:mctC1"·ic\'d MC'Ut'3cies arc a,11ila.blc with the
beat cquipmcu tutdcr optimal co11di1io111. but ku ccxpcnti\'t rccci\'cn ;-ttld ob1tn1t1cd 1ki.EI reduct
aceurncic,. In ,omc in!itrui.,ces, tbc indi, ;du.11 fix error is in-,,ortnol. for example.. wbco digitizing line,
or polygon boundaries. while awrngc enon may~ more unportanl wbcu collectin; poin1 features.
allowina: muhiplc fixes. Note that ffl'<>n de-crease as tc-cbnol0$)' improYct. bu1 1bc lu~ct-priccd rc«i,··
crs nuiy no t lx more cxpcn$i\'c o,·cr tbc life of lljn'Oj« I if IO\\'cr :.<:curacies rc<i.uirc 11gni:ficn.n1 mtenUIII
cdi1i.ng for ONSS collected d:&1.1 («1W1c5y Andy cob).
204 GIS Fundamentals
Differential Correcti on
The previous sections have focused on
GNSS positjon measurements collected \\~th
a single receiver.This operating mode is
known as autonomous GNSS positioning.
An alternative method. known as differe11tlal
positioning. employs two or more receivers.
Differential positioning measurements are
used primarily to remove most of the range
errors and ~ms gr,eally improve the accuracy
ofGNSS positions (Figure 5-12). However.
differential posi1ioning is not always
employe.d, because single receiver position.
ing is accurate enough for many applica-
tions. and differemial positioning requires
more time andlor greater expense.
Differential GNSS positioning entails
establishing al least one independent base
station receiver at a known coordinate JOC3·
tion (Figure 5-13). The rnie coordinate loca-
tion of the base station is typically
detennined using high-accuracy surveying
methods. for exnoople. repeated astronomical
observations. highest-accuracy GNSS. or
precise ground su.rveys. as described in
Chapter 3.
We use the base station to estimate range
measurement errors for each position fix.
Remember that GNSS is based ou a se1 of
Differential Posrtiornng,
simultaneous GNSS
measurements at
field -roving (unknown)
and base (known)
sites
roV1ng receiver base site
Fla:ntt 5· 13: Di.ffcrcruial GNSS posilioninJ..
range measurements. and these range mea-
surements contain errors. Some of these
error.i oredue to uncenaincy in !he measured
travel times from the satelute to the receiver.
These combined trave.l time errors. also
known as timing errors, are ofteu among the
largest sources of positional uncenainry.
In differential correction. we use the
known base s1a1ion position to es1.ima1e the
timing errors and hence range errors. Each
GNSS satellite broadcasts its position along
with the ranging signal. The "true" distance
from a given saiellite to the base station can
be caJcuJated because the base station and
satellite locations are known. Note tlte quali·
fying quote marks around the tn1e dis1ance.
We cannot exactly define where the satellite
is. and the base s1a1ion coordinales have
some (usually small) level of un.cenainty
associated with them. If we are very careful
about surveying the location of our base sta·
tion. then the errors in the base-to-satellite
measuremem a.re almost always smaller than
1he range errors contained in our uncorrected
tim.ing measurement.
The difference between the true dis-
tance and GNSS-uieasured distance is used
to estimate the timfog error for a given sate I·
lite at any given lime. The. timing errors
change each second, so they should be mea-
sured frequently.
Timing correclions may be applied to
1he range measurements collected by a rov-
ing receiver (Figure 5·14). These roving
receivers are used to measure GNSS posi·
tions at field locations with 1ulknown coordi-
nates. The timing error. and hence range
error. for each satellite observed! at a field
location is assumed to be the same as the
range error observed simultaneously at 1he
base sta1fon. We adjust the timing of each
satellite ,neasuremenl made by the rover.
then re-calculate the rover's position. This
adjustmenl usually reduces each range error
and substantially improves each position fix
taken with the roving field receivers.

Base
station
true position
GNSS measured / /v ronge error
posrt,on e O position
Flgurt- s..1.-: Difrcttnti.al co1nctiou i, based ou mcasuriu3 GNSS tllni.ng: and nmic «rorJ 111 a b3~
s1n1-iou, 111:l(l «pplyins 1l1csc cm>ri u cCITT'C'Clious 10 $.imuhn.nc0111ly measured ro\'cr-po<titiom1.
The timing errors change across the sur·
face ofdte Eardi. and tltis plac~ a restriction
on lhe use. of differential GNSS correction.
Our roving receivers must be "near'" our
base staiion for differemial comction to
work. A subsrantial ponion of the range
error is due to atmospheric and ionospheric
interference with tile GNSS signal. Fom•·
nately, lbese conditions often va,y slowly
with distance through 1he atmosphere, so
errors in one .location are likely to be similar
to errors in a nearby location. There.fore. as
Jong as the ro,'e.r is relatively near the base
station. wi1bi11 a few tens to hundreds of
kilometers. we may expect differential cor·
rection 1·0 improve our jX)Sition measure·
menrs.
DifferenUal correction requfres the
paired receivers collect data from a similar
set of satellites. We cannot fix a timing error
we do not measure. so the two receivers
must measure the same satellites at the same
time. Any four satellites providing accept·
able POOPs will suffice, although more sat·
ellites are better.
Successful differential correction al$0
requires near simultaneity in the base and
rover measureruems. Errors change rapidly
through time. lft be base and rover rueasure-
Chapter 5: GNSS 205
Roving
receiver
corrected 0 ronge
position ~ ,,/ correction
\ \ GNSS measured
men ts are collected more than a few tens of
seconds apart. they do not c-0rrespond to the
same set of errors. and thus the difference at
lhe base station cannot be used 10 correct tlte
rover data. Many systems allow data collec·
lion to be synchronized to a standard timing
signal, thereby ensuring a good match \Vhen
the error vectors are applie<II 10 correct the
roving receiver data.
Base stadon data and roving receiver
data must be combined for correction. Data
are often stored and then do·wnloaded from
both receivers. and combined on a computer.
Sofnvare provided by most -GNSS system
vendors is then used 10 compute and apply
the differeniial correcrions 1-0 the position
fixes. This is known as post-processed dif·
ferential correction, as corrections are
applied after. or pos1. data c-01lec1io11 (Figure
5·15. top).
Post-processed diJferell!ial positioning
is appropriate for many proj;ects. Road loca·
!i91ls m~y l>e digi!ize<! wi!JJ ~ GNSS receiver
mounted to the 1op of a vehicle. Tite vehicle
is driven over the roads to be digitized. tlte
rover data differential corrected, and then
exported as a data layer suit.able for GJS.
206 GIS Fundamentals
Post-processed differential positioning
has one serious liuli1atiou. Because precise
positions are norknown when the rover is in
the fie.Id, post-processing technologies are.
useless for precise naviga1iou. A surveyor
recovering buried or hidden properly corners
often needs to navigate to within a few tens
of centime1ers of a position while iu lhe
field. so 1hat monumenis. s1akes. or other
markers may be recovered. When using
pos1-processed di:fferential GNSS, !he field
receiver is operating as an arnonomous posi-
tioning de\•ice. a11d accuracies of a few
meters ,o lens of meters are expected. This is
not accep,able for many navigation purposes
because too mucl:t time will be spenl search-
ing for !he final loca1ion.
Post-processed
differential
GNSS COf•
rection t'Olltr and bo~ stohon
(Iota ore, tronsported ro o
computer, and the chfterennol
corrtctlOl'ls from me bOse sto,
ho~ Gf't oppl~ ,o rht «:,.·tr CSOto
- - --'""'"'""
D - - -- -- -
Real-time
differential
GNSS cor-
rection
~rlO!'ls trcnsmtted to r-eld
1n l'lt(W' lbll rrnt w:i om!lo ,,.
Real-time Differential Positioning
An al!ema1ive GNSS correction melhO<I.
known as renl-time df.{fereminl ccrrec1io11.
may be appropriate when precise navigation
is required. Real,1irue differemialcorrection
requires some ex1ra eq1.1ipme111, .and 1here is
some cost in sligh1ly lower accuracy when
compared 10 post-processed dilferelltial
GNSS. However. 1he accuracy of real-1ime
differenliaJcorrection is substantially beuer
than au1011omo11s GNSS, and accura1e loca-
tions are detemlined wllile still in tile field.
Real-1imedifferelllial GNSS posi1ioning
requires a conunuuications link between
base stations and the roving receiver (Figure
5-15. bottom). Typically. !be base s1a1ion is
connected to a radio 1ransminer and an
a01enna. FM radio lioks are often used due
to their longer range and good transmission
Flaurt< S..15.: P,o$t•pro·
«ucd IUld real-time dif.
(crential GNSS correction.
bose sto1,on
bose station

through vegetation and otherobstacles. or
cell phone ne1works are also often used. The
base station collects a GNSS sig,ml and cal-
culates range djstances. The error is c.alcu.
lated for eaeb. rouge distance. The magnitude
or
and direction each error is passed 10 the
radio transnli'tter. along with infom1ation on
the timing an~ satellite constellation used.
This continuous s1ream of corrections is
broadcast via the base station radio and
an1eru1a.
Roving GNSS receivers are out-fined
with a radio. <.ell phone. or other communi·
cation system. and any receiver within lhc
broadcast ran.ge of the base station may
receive the correction signal The roving
receil'er is simultaneously recording GNSS
data and calculating position fixes. Each
position fix by the roving receiver is
matched to tile corresponding correction
from the base station. TI1e appropriate cor-
rection is then applied to eac.h fix and accu.
rare field loeations are computed in real
time.
R~l-tifilt differential eomttion
requires a broadcasting base station: how-
ever. eve[)' user is not requfred to establish a
base staliou and complete commuoica1ioo
;-.,_..,..,'":'° .....-l>
Fiaun- S.16: 11te foc11tion of rndio bc;1con st~tioos (dot,) in 1hc cent~ U.S.. in April. lOJ S. Oist.;incCf
frun the u.c-lU'C&I bc-.a~u are ,bown in various shades ofgrny.
Chapter 5: GNSS 207
systenL For example, the U.S. Coast Guard
bas established a set of GPS radio beacons
in Nonh America that broadcast a standard-
ized correction signal (Figure s.16). A com.
patible GPS receiver near these beacons can
use 1be signal ror differemial correc1ion.
These GPS behcon ,.ecefrers typically have
an addi1iooal antenna and erectrooics for
processing the beacon signal. They form pan
of a National Oifferemial GPS system
(NDGPS) under development through a col-
labora1ion of tile U.S. Oepanments of Trans-
portation. Homeland Securi•y. and others.
NDGPS will support navigation and posi-
tioning in areas distant from me Coast Guard
network.
Real-Time Kinematic and Virtual
Reference Stations
The highest accuracy differential correc.
1io11 is provided with dual.frequency. carrier
phase positioning. often used as real·time
ki11e111ade (RTK) GNSS. The amounl of ion-
ospheric delay is different for differen1 fre-
quencies. so by comparing signals. such as
theGPS carriers LI and L2. the ionospheric
delays may be es1ima1ed and removed.
While single-frequency positions collec1ed
-#~~'--:-
• ..

through vegetation and otherobstacles. or
cell phone ne1works are also often used. The
base station collects a GNSS sig,ml and cal-
culates range djstances. The error is c.alcu.
lated for eaeb. rouge distance. The magnitude
or
and direction each error is passed 10 the
radio transnli'tter. along with infom1ation on
the timing an~ satellite constellation used.
This continuous s1ream of corrections is
broadcast via the base station radio and
an1eru1a.
Roving GNSS receivers are out-fined
with a radio. <.ell phone. or other communi·
cation system. and any receiver within lhc
broadcast ran.ge of the base station may
receive the correction signal The roving
receil'er is simultaneously recording GNSS
data and calculating position fixes. Each
position fix by the roving receiver is
matched to tile corresponding correction
from the base station. TI1e appropriate cor-
rection is then applied to eac.h fix and accu.
rare field loeations are computed in real
time.
R~l-tifilt differential eomttion
requires a broadcasting base station: how-
ever. eve[)' user is not requfred to establish a
base staliou and complete commuoica1ioo
;-.,_..,..,'":'° .....-l>
Fiaun- S.16: 11te foc11tion of rndio bc;1con st~tioos (dot,) in 1hc cent~ U.S.. in April. lOJ S. Oist.;incCf
frun the u.c-lU'C&I bc-.a~u are ,bown in various shades ofgrny.
Chapter 5: GNSS 207
systenL For example, the U.S. Coast Guard
bas established a set of GPS radio beacons
in Nonh America that broadcast a standard-
ized correction signal (Figure s.16). A com.
patible GPS receiver near these beacons can
use 1be signal ror differemial correc1ion.
These GPS behcon ,.ecefrers typically have
an addi1iooal antenna and erectrooics for
processing the beacon signal. They form pan
of a National Oifferemial GPS system
(NDGPS) under development through a col-
labora1ion of tile U.S. Oepanments of Trans-
portation. Homeland Securi•y. and others.
NDGPS will support navigation and posi-
tioning in areas distant from me Coast Guard
network.
Real-Time Kinematic and Virtual
Reference Stations
The highest accuracy differential correc.
1io11 is provided with dual.frequency. carrier
phase positioning. often used as real·time
ki11e111ade (RTK) GNSS. The amounl of ion-
ospheric delay is different for differen1 fre-
quencies. so by comparing signals. such as
theGPS carriers LI and L2. the ionospheric
delays may be es1ima1ed and removed.
While single-frequency positions collec1ed
-#~~'--:-
• ..
208 GIS Fundamentals
for periods of less than an hour are typically
in error by 1ens of cen1ime1ers (a half-fool)
or mor<, dual-frequency GNSS are often
accurale to a few centimeters (an inch) or
bener.
RTK is such a powerful technology that
many state and national govenunents are
establishing a dense constellmion of dual-
freq ueacy receivers in a Vrnual Rtference
S1a1io11 network (YRS). Stations are spaced
in a ne1.work over some n..~ion such that a
roving receiver is never more than an accept·
able distance from a base (Figure 5-17). The
systems provide single- or dual-frequency
base station data broadcast in a standard way
over a given radio or cellphone signal, along
with OOse srn1ioo lnfonnation. A roving
receivers may identify the closest or best
local receiver. and compare base signals to
roving signals 10 obtain positions to wi1lrin a
few cen1ime1ers while in the field.
Networks oflen distribute correction sig·
nals using a Netwo,·k Tro11spor1 ofRIQ\1 ,ria
/111e11,e, Pro1ocol (NTRJP). This requires
less field equipment than radio-based alter-
FiJul'C' S-17: The distribu1ion of stations iu the
Muuit10ltl Dcpanrue:111 ofTNU1Sport11.tion VRS 11ci·
\\'Orl:. fl. s11niou it lociucd iu ~cb \'ertc:x in 1.bc net•
work, ensuring close proximity for ~11y to\·UlB:
r«1:h·c:- within tbc nctwod;. (~ones)' r>.1ND01).
nath1es because almost all mobile phones
may col1Jlect 10 tlte Imeme1 ,~a an NTRJP
client applkation and 10 a GNSS receiver via
bluetooth. TI1is remove. the need for a radio,
geni.ng a radio license as required for some
jurisdictions/radio frequencies. the comma-
nication range is generally longer, and the:e
is les1 chance of radio interference. One
does need a mobile phone. coverage. and
often registration or credentials from the
provider. but these are available in much of
1be world. Many GNSS receivers suppon
differential correction 1hrough an NTRJP
protocol.
There are disadvantages 10 RTK GNSS.
The receivers are more expensive. althou~b
prices are dropping. TJ,e roving RTK
receiver mus, be closer to the base station for
highest accuracies. typically within tens o:"
kilometers. This requires either a denser net-
work of base stations. or 1ba1 the RTK users
set up their own base slat ion. Finally. as with
all carrier phase positioning. saielli1e signals
m11s1 be continuously tracked for longer
pe.i iuds, ahltuugb mud~1J1 1ixeivt:'J!i have:.
reduced this time 10 a few 10 tens ofminutes.
WAAS, Augmentation, and Satel·
lite-based Corrections
There are altemaiives 10 ground-based
diff'erenrial correclioo for improving tbe
accuracy of GNSS observations. altl1ough
these often involve higher costs. longer col-
lection rimes. or lower accuracies. One free
aJtemative, known as the Wide Area Aug.
mentation System (WAAS). is adminis1ertd
by the U.S. Federal A,•iation Administration
10 provide acc.urate, dependable aircnft nav.
iga1ion. The WAAS system is single fre-
quency and so less accurate than the dual-
frequency systems described above.
WAAS uses a network of ground refe1-
e1.1ces1<11lo11s spread ~ros.s North Americ:::i 10
correct GPS signals. Ageneralized correc-
tion for each station is broadcast from gee>
statiooary satellites. and applied in real time
for improved accuracy in roving receivers.
Tests indicate indi,idual errors are less than
7 m 95% of1he time.and average errors less

than 3 111. an improvement over uncorrected
C/Acode (Figure 5-12). WAAS is often
unavailable at extreme northern latinides.
where equatorial geostationary satellites are
often not visible.
Precise Point Position Ing
Precise point positioning (PPP) is
another alternative to differen1ial correction.
This technique uses precise satellite, clock,
and orbit measurements to solve for point
locations. These improved satellite ephe-
merides (orbit data) are usually only avail-
able a few hours 10 days after any GNSS
observatioo. PPP bas the advantage of centi-
meter.level, world\\•ide positioning without
need of a base Station. Unfortunately. PPP
requires complex calculations. on loog. unin-
tem.1pted observations for hig.l1est accura.
cies. e.g .. several to tens o( hours of
cominuous GNSS obse,vatioos. PPP also
have a few hours to few days delay in pro-
cessing because the acn,ally satellite posi-
tions must be re-eStimated post-facto. There
are a number of free services that do PPP
calculations, e.g.. the U.S NGS OPUS ser-
vice or the CNRS-PPP run by the Canadian
government. as well as privately.run ser·
vices. e.g. a free option in Trimble's Center·
point RfX.
PPP is best used when long observation
1imes are possible. few poims are required.
there are relatively ,mobstrncted sky ,iews.
and positions aren't neede.d within a day of
collectioa They are most appropriate for
measuring fixed assets. e.g. when locating a
f1Xed location for an RTK base station. or for
monumenred points from whi<:h laser or
other measurements will be collected. PPP
isn't appropriate for measuring most geo·
graphic fearures, or for most areas where
trees. temin. or buildings obs,truct much of
the sky.
Integrated systems of satellite obsel\'3·
tioos and corumunkations are available to
provide PPP.like accuracies in ne.ar real
time. wi1hout RTK connec,iou to a second
grotmd-based station. and with shorter
observation periods the OPUS or similar
Chapter 5: GNSS 209
systems. Some of these adopt RTK-like
techniques. Examples include Trimble Cen-
terPoint RTX. NavCom StarFire. and Veri-
pos TerraStar. Typically. these systems are
sold as a s.ubscription service, in which a
moothly or annual fee is paid to access tfle
real.time improved satellite positioning and
other data. These data are ofien broadcas1
via a cellular modem or satellite radio.
A Caution on Datums
Errors may easily be injected into GNSS
data due to improper datum transfom1ations.
One must ll>e cautious in using GNSS data.
either directly. or after applying a differential
correction. bec.ause. the datum transforma 4
tion used is often not transparent. and is
often poorly documented. The U.S.
NAVSTAR GPS system provides a good.
example of the confusion that may occur.
GPS satellite locations are reported in
the most cutrrent ITRF/WGS84 datum,
although they are often convened to other
dan,ms in software before being displayed to
the user. P~actices may change in 1he U.S.
with the adoption of the NATRF2022. bm
now the OPS-measured ITRF/WGS84
datums are quite different from the datums
used with most GIS data in the United
States. for example. NAD83(20 1l). We mttSt
transfonn data collected in the WGS84
dan,m 10 the NA0 83(2011 ).
As noted earlier, ignoring orselecting
the wrong <latum transformation wilJ intro-
duce error imo our newly-collected data.
GNSS vendors typically provide an option to
repon data in a commonly used coordinate
systems and specific danim: for example. the
user may set the GNSS receiver to display
UTM or Slate Plane coordinates in the
NAD83(2011) datum. However. the GNSS
softwares sometimes do not clearly idenrify
the datum transformation used. As noted in
Chapter 3. early versions of the NADS3
dan1m that underlie the UTl'.•t system were
and remaim up to 2 m (6 feer) different from
the WGS84 damm. so you cannot assmne
1bey are the same. as is common practice.
You must carefully c.hoose the correct datum
210 GIS Fundamentals

transformation in all conversions or you'll

degrade your dat•.
Confusion may be introduced during
differe111ial correction. Here, base s1ation
coordinates define com.'Ctions relative to a
point in a defined coordinate system. These
coordinates may ti>e based on a dannn differ-
ent from 1he IVGS84 or ITRF datu111 used for
GPS daia collection. Appropriate transfor-
mations between datums must be applied to
maintain accuracy. For example. the CORS
network of GPS s·1ations isa common source
of base data for d,fferential corrections. The
coordinates for these base stations were fora
period typically reported in the most recent
CORS realization of the NAD83 datum. but
now most provide coordinates in an ITRF
danim. An appropriate datum trausfonnation
mus1 be applied when using these as a base
for correction iftbe highestaccuracies are to
be maintained. As noted. the differences
between the later NAD83(CORS) datums
and most recent realizations ofWGS84 are
typically less than a meter. so introduced
errors may be small relative to the accuracy
required for some intended analyses. How.
ever. many projects require submeter accu-
racy. and for some conditionsthe errors may
be quite large, to lens or hw1dreds of meters,
depending on the datums and projections
involved. These errors may be avoided at lit-
1le cost with the a pplicatioo of appropriate
knowledge of1be main datum families.
information on which datums are used. and
infonnation on how to set the software to
specify the correet 1ransfonna1ion 10 u,e col-
lected data. This infomuuiou is typically
provided in the vendor's documentalion.

GNSS Applications
Tracking. navigation. field digitizing.
and surveymg are the main appl.ications of
GNSS. Navigation is finding a way or route.
and !tacking involves noting 1he l0<ation or
objec.ts thr°':3gh time ..A common example is
t:rackmg delJvery vehicles in near re.al time.
Large delivery companies would like 10
J.a1ow where cheir vans are a1 all times. Vehi-
cles equipped with a GNSS receiver and a
radio or phone link may repon back 10 a dis-
patch office every few seconds. Icons on a
digital map are used to represent vehicles,
and a quick glance can reveal which vehicle
is nearest a delivery or retrieval site. or
which driver overly frequents a donut shop.
Navigation is a second common GNSS
application. GNSS receivers have been
dev_eloped specifically for naviga1ion, witl1
d1g11al maps or compasses set into on-screen
displays (Figure 5-1 8). These GNSS receiv-
ers and digital maps are extremely special-
ized GIS sysrems. These sys1ems are useful
when collecti.ng or verifying spatial data,
such as to navigate to the approximate vicin-
ity or field measuremem plots.
fiJl.ll'~ S-1.8: A OPS r«dyer developed for marine (left) ;mdaerial na,i gation (right. cour-
lCS)' Gamun COf'P. and Tnwbtc Lid.),.
Chapter 5: GNSS 211
Field Digitiziting
Field digitizing is a primary applica1ion
of GNSS in GIS. Data may 'be recorded
direc1ly in 1be field 10 update poim. line. or
area loc.ations. Features are. visited or 1ra-
versed in the field, and an appropriate m1m-
ber or GNSS fixes collec1edl. GNSS
receivers have been carried in automobiles..
on boa1s, bicycles, and helmets. or by hand
10 cap111re the coordinate locmious or poims
and boundaries (Figure 5-19).
GNSS da1a are oflen more accurate than
da1a collected from the lligbes1.quality digi-
1al images. For e.xample, RTK GNSS data
typically have accuracies bener than 5 cm.
and often below 2 cm. while accuracies are
often near 15 to 50 cm for the highest-reso-
lution sa1elli1e images. and for national
aerial im~ge pr~ms. Oro11es often provide
images with cenluneter-leve I resolutions. but
accuracies are generally in 1he 30 cm range
or poorer. Precise differemial correction of
carrier plmse GNSS data often yield centi-
mel'er-leve.l accuracies. far bettertl1an can be
obtained from digitizing a~10os1 all images.
GNSS is oflen used 10 directly digi1ize
new control poims. Remember 1hat co111rol
points are used to correc1 and 1ransfom1
212 GIS Fundamentals
Flan~ S. 19: Linc: fc:iturc.s m~)' be fidd di3itiled \'it\
GVS, Min di.is u..unJ1lc of n(HS/OPS ,y,tcm mounted
in a t:rutor. Data diq,fay aud dig:itiziog soft«"ffl: are
used to record coord.:iMtcs coJJcic1cd by a OPS rcecinr
(~bo\'c). An ~nlm11nybcd 011 n Pole Or rack (right)
reduces obt.1n.ic1io11 \C0~1r1esy Jnkc l.cgll<'C, lcfi, 21od G.
Jobnwn, O\l('ks Unlimited. righ1).
image da1a or maps 10 real-world coordi-
nates. Aerial images may be available, and
the coordinales may be unknown for fea1ures
visible on cbe aerial image. Coucrol poims
may be dif!icul! or impossible 10 obcain
directly from surveys or from the informa·
cion ploned on existing lllllps. partic,~arly
when graticule or gridlines are absent
GNSS offers a dic-ect method for measuring
cbe coordi.na1es for po1en1ial concrol poi.ncs
represented on 1he image or map. Road
intersections or other points may be identi·
fied and then visi1ed with a GNSS receiver.
GNSS-measured control points are 1he
basis for almos1 all curreol projec1s tlia1 per-
form analycical correc1ion of aerial imagery
(see Chapter 6). Most image data are not ini-
tially in a map coordina1e system. yel images
are often panicularly useful for developing
or updating spacial data. Aerial photographs
contain detailed information. However.
aerial photographs are subjec, 10 geomecric
dis1ortion. These .errors may be ru.ialycically
correcled dirough sui1able methods (see
Cbap1er 6). buc 1hese me1bods require sev-
eral control points per image. or at leaSt per
project, when multiple, overlapping aerial
pho1ograpbs are used. GNSS significao1ly
reduces 1he cos1 of control poin1 collection.
thereby making single- or mulliphoto correc-.
1ion a viable al1ernative for mos, organiza-
1ions chat collec1 spacial dala.
Feamre digicizing wi1h GNSS often
involves 1be capmre ofbodt coordina1e and
auribu1e dam. Typically, 1he GNSS recei,•er
is activated and detects signals froll! a set of
sa1ellites. A file is opened and J)Qsilion fixes
are logged at a sel rate, such as every two
seconds_ A11ribu1e daca may also be entered.
either while 1he position fixes are being col-
lected. or before or afler positional data col-
lec1ion. In some software. 1be posi1ioo fixes
may be iagged or identified. For example. a
specific comer may be tagged \vhile digitiz-
ing a line. Multiple feacures n,ay be col-
lected in one file and 1be idemities
maintained via attached attributes. Oa1a are
processed as needed 10 improve accuracy.
and convened 10 a formal compatible wiui
1he GIS sys1en1 in use. GNSS da-ia collection
and data reduction tools often provide the
abilicy to edic. spLi1. or aggregace collected
data, for example. converting multiple fixes
into a single point average. These functions
may be applied for all posi1ion fcxes in a file.
or for a subset of position fi~es embedded in
a GNSS file.
Large. field-pormble displays and
advanced editing software may be combined
with real-tjme differential correction 10
improve field digi1izing. Table1 compmers

Fi&urt 5-20; R\lgg<:dized 1ablet ooinputcn may be
e11rricd i.u lbc: fh:ld and Ukd for cbt11 euuy. Lll'lC
$ttccot allow c ffic:-iall dispfa)' and field editing of
5p3tfal clat.1.
Fiaurr- 5-21: Fututt$ ma)· Ix c11tettd 11nd edited i11 tbc field u,.iog II GPS receiver 1111d :ipproprintc , oft\\'tlrc
(eoort«y Trimble. LtcL).
Chapter 5: GNSS 213
are available with large color screens (Figure
5-20). Scanned digillll iniages may be dis-
played with existing digital data. New data
may be input \~a a GNSS receiver. in real
time. or via penmokes on lhe screen. The
operator may digitize new (eamres. edit old
ones. or perfonn some combinalion of1he
two while in the field (Figure 5-21). SnaJ>-
ping tolerances. maxinnuu overshoots. and
all other digitizing controls .may be applied
in the field, much like wberu digitizing on..
screen in an office.
GNSS field digitizing is most com-
monly used for collection of point and line
feamres. Multiple position fixes provide
higher accuracies and are often coJlected for
point locations. and for important vertices in
line data. However. GNSS data collection
for line and area feature.s suffer from a num-
ber of 1uiique difficulties. First. it takes con-
siderable time to traverse ao area. so
relatively large parcels or many small par-
cels may be impractical to digitize in the
field. Second. multiple representations of the
same boundary mayoccur when digitizing
polygonal features. Anempting to retrace the
common boundary wastes time and provides
reduodant and conflicting data while field
digitizing. The alternative i$ to digitize only
the new tines. and snap to "field-nodes:·
much as when capturing data using a coordi-
214 GIS Fundamentals

nate digitizer(see Chapter 4). T11is method is Single-Fix vs Averaged Accuracy

often used. with s-ubsequent editing in a
desk1op GIS.
GNSS field !>Oftware are often opti·
mized to stmin~i11e the input of anrib\ues
that are assoc.iated with spatial data. Forms
may provide ruell'Us. pick lists. and variable
entry boxes in a pre<leiennined order. These
software often improve auribute data accu-
racy, in part by helping avoid blWJders. For
example. the emry options for a specific
attribute such as fire-hydrant color may be
restricted to red. green, or yellow from a list.
if those are the only possible values. These
attribute entry fom1s also increase complete-
ness, in pan by ensuring that every variable
is presented 10 the operator. and these forms
may also be configured 10 show a warning
when aJI variables have not been entered.
Lines or polygons digitized with GNSS
receivers usually have larger err-0rs thru1
those reponed in rhe 1edmical specifications
or marketing literature. Figure 5·22 illus·
trntes this. A stream network was digitized
with a professional grade GNSS receiver.
with an advertised 50 cm (20 inch} "aver·
age.. error. The uni1was configured 10 maxi-
mize single-fix accuracy. Multiple passes up
and down t1le streams were digitized, at nor·
ma! walking speeds. The digitized tracks
(thinner.jagged lines) vaiy notably about the
tn,e stream loca1ion (thick, smoother lines)
with errors often in the 3 10 5 me1er range
( IO to 16 feet). and as large as 25 meters ($2
feer). These observed errors are much larger
than the reported average values for at least
two reasoos.

/ \ / Field collected GNSS lines

("\.) Target Feat ure

lolo-i-~-..1!!---~----
~
. l! to 20 20 a-a me.tr.~

Fi1u1•t S-12: All c~amplc of scn:ral 6cld-di#i.ii:tcd liocs, usiug: a profC;Ssio11,aJ-,grndc: GNSS r«<ivc:r in a
ttccp nwinc with dclliC fotcsl co,•ct. Sinilc fixes ,-ary .su~sl:tt11i:llly nbotu rbc: '!'K loclltions. Tbc s~13fe,foc
cJTOrs l)J"C lMgcr th~i :l\'<fflgc s Mid other S\1tlll113T)' t1atu hcs rq>0r1cd for I) rcc:cwcr. ca~cd by t<mlm ~od
, ·cgctatioo obsmKtioo. reducing POOP, o.nd imreasiug mu1ti·~tb i.igoffl..

First, manufacturers usually report au
average or distributional accuracy. with
some descrip1ion of the statistics used. Often
they use temn like CEP. the circular error
probability, or one-sigma (I G) errors, mea-
sures of how frequently you'd expect to get
an error larger lhan the reported size. These
averages give you an optimistic view of sin·
gle-fLx accuracy. because averaging reduces
variability, and so the me.an error tends
toward a stab le. lower vaJue. Errors to the
north cancel out errors 10 the south. and so a
mean of evert a few fixes is much better
behaved than a single fix. One-sigma orCEP
measures are a bit more belpful. bm again.
they usually don't tell us much about the fre-
quency of la£8e errors. Unfortunately, we
typically digi'lize single fixes when collect-
ing lines or polygon boundaries. so the dif-
ferences between single fix and average
errors are important.
Second, accuracies are often specified
under ideal conditions. in unobstrucred loca-
tions with no lrees. buildings. or mountains
to bhx:k or ~fleet satellite signals. While
these conditions reign for much of the world.
for many places they do not. decreasing sin-
gle-fix accuracy. l11e data in f igure 5-22
were collected under dense forest, so they
show substantial scatter due to lower PDOPs
and higher multi-path c-ommon in obstructed
environments. As described in the next sec-
tion. we typically use several smuegies
during field data collection to increase
GNSS accuracy and reduce the need for
post-<:ollection editing. Btn even employing
these-. we ofteo must manually edit line data
or polygon boundaries when tliey are field
digitized. to remove the occasional large
error.
Chapter 5: GNSS 215
Field Digitizing A ccur acy and
Efficiency
Field GNSS collections are affected by
two things we can control. and one thing we
cannot. We cnn control tlte guality of the
equipment we use. and ho,v we use it. We
have very linle control over objects that
int-e.rfere with satellite signals in the field.
Terrah trees, buildings. or <>ther objects
block om portions of the sky, causing tempo-
rary interruptions in satellite reception. or
forcing the GNSS receiver 1:0 estimate posi-
tion from a constantly changing set of satel-
lites. Maximum collec:lion r.ates while
digitizing in the field with a GNSS receiver
are typically near one fLX pC'l' second.
Obstructions may increase collection inter-
vals between fixes to several seconds or
minmes.
Obstructions may halt GNSS field digi·
tiziog entirely if they reduce the number of
visible satellites to three or fewer. S~'Y
obstructions reduce the efficiency of field
digitizing because more time is spent col·
leering a given number of f~,es. and person-
nel must wait for the salelliteconstellation to
change wben satellites are 100 few or poorly
distributed. Altemately. they may collect
fewer positions. thereby reducing positional
accuracy.
Reductions in the efficiency of GNSS
digitizing depend on the nature of the
obstructiou. the type of equipment. the
equipmen1 configuration. and satellite mm.1-
ber and position. GNSS siguals may pass
through foliage when collecting data below a
forest canopy. although sigi,als become
weaker as Ibey pass through several canopy
layers. Satellite signals are blocked by stems
and branches. though indiv,ch1al satellites
are typically obstmcted by stems for rela-
u,~ly short durations. Under dense canopy.
the available satellite constellation may
change frequently: slightly changing the
position of the GNSS antenna, by raising or
lowering it. may result in a new constellation
of visible satellites. Despite the.se efforts.,
efficiency reductions may be substantial.
doubling or tripling collection times. but sin-
216 GIS Fundamentals
gle-fix collection times rarely take longer
than a few seconds to 01inu1es when using
modem. professional-grade receivers and
when forest canopy is the primary sl-y
obstruc.tioa CoUection times will increase
correspondingly when multiple fixes are
required per feature.
Terrain may block sa1elli1es. a signifi-
cant problem when the blocked satellites are
greater than t5° above the local horizontal
plane. Sa1elli1es less than I 5°above the local
horizontal plane are of Limited use. even in
open conditions, because they exhibit large
range errors due 10 aunospberic imerference.
GNSS receivers designed forGIS data col-
lection typicalJy provide senings that auto.
matically reject sa1elLi1es below a specified
horizon angle.
Terrain obsuiactions often rise above
15°. such as wheo moumains. hillslopes.
buildings. or canyon walls reduce the mun-
ber of visible GNSS satellites (Figure 5-23).
Terrain obstruction often reduces c0Uec:1ion
efficiencies and accuracies. Because the
GNSS sigMls do :not pass llilough soil. rock.
wood. or concrete. any obstructed satellite
crurnot be used for GNSS positioning. ln
some instances. 3 short wait may resull in a
Figm'f' S--2J: OPS satcUitc signals may be blocked by terrain or built &trucnttc&. Th.is redoccli the «m·
s.tcU.atioo of a\'111ilflblc sa1dl.itcs. Ulci-c-as.in; error 111od rcduci!'.13 coll~ti:ou efficiency, Herc, satellites O
,md b nrc \'itiblc with con'tlponding loc:1.I horil(n, nnglcs of u nnd ~. The tigiul fn>in s111cllitc C is
blocked by local tcm.in.
rearrangeme11t of the satellite coustellation,
such as from point c 10 point b u.1 Figure 5·
23. However. on average. an obstnicted sky
results in a reduced constellation of GNSS
satellites and higher PDOPs when compared
10 fiat terrain. This problem is p.1nicularly
vexing in urban settings because the horizon
angles change subs1amially over sbon dis-
tances. This makes it difficult to predict
when GNSS satellite coverage will be. ade.-
quate. and thus plan data collection effons.
Forest. terrain. and building effects may
occur together, further reducing accuracies
and decreasing efficiencies. This is a com-
mon occurrence in foresled, mo1u11ainous
terrain. and in urban areas with both 1all
buildings and mature trees.
We can use equipment 10 improve
GNSS accuracy and efficiency. Dual fre.
quency receivers, describe earlier. are more
accurate from single-frequency receivers.
and so improve positioning. Adding RTK or
another form of differential corr,ection
greatly improves accuracy. So does the use
of au anteillla with a ground plane to elimi-
nate multi-path signals. as described earlier.
None of these technical fixes wi II improve
GNSS coUectioo efficiency, that is. the num·

Flll~t't 5 -24: A raugc pole in u« with a GNSS
rccc1\"C1'.
ber of posi1ions collec1ed per unit time. bul
1hey may incre.'lse overall da1a collec1ion
efficiency. as less 1ime is spent editing da~,
post-collection.
The use of a range pole is perhaps the
e.asiesl. most common, and often mosl effec-
1ive method 10 improve collection efficiency
(Figure 5-24). A range pole is an extendable
pole on which a GNSS antenna is mounted.
A range pole ;soften particularly effec1ive in
urban and forested conditions. where canopy
gaps and building obstructions vary verti-
cally, Arange pole facilitates tl1e search for
an acceptable set ofsatelli1es. The auienna is
raised and lowered during da1a collection as
the satellite constellation changes ~irough
time and long pauses are encountered. A
range pole is pert1aps most usef1ll when digi-
Chapter 5: GNSS 217
tizing point features or imponant vertices in
line features. when the receiver remains s1a-
tionaiy.
Handheld or backpack-mounted poles
commonly improve efficiency when digiti-
zating with GNSS. Raising the antenna just a
few meters off the ground a,·oids low
obstructions such as the body and thick skull
of the human operator.
There is often a trade-off between accu-
racy and efficiency during f.ield digitizing.
panicularly in obstmcted locations (Figure
5-25). This series of graphs shows data col·
lected by Scrinzi and Floris ( 1998). in rough
terrain and under foresl canopy. These
results are dated and so the a.bsohne numbers
are pessimistk for newer equipment. but the
gene-ml patterns still hold true. As shown in
the leftmost graph ofFig,~e 5-25. they
fotutd that 100% of the possible fixes may be
collected when the average ·visible horizon
angle is near 15°. They also collected data at
various points in hilly terrain. where the
horizon angle was greate.r because moun-
taitts Mid ridges block lower portious of the
S•'Y· Efficiency dropped to nw 70% as aver-
age visible horizon angle increased 10 near
30". Collections took about 30% longer or
fixes were 30% less frequent when in valley
locations compared to fL11 te-rrain. TI1e center
and right panels show the same trends, with
inc,reasing thresholds on improved satellite
arrangements.
While Figure 5-25 was generated with a
specific. for that tinte. high-quality receiver
that was optimized for fie.Id digiti.zing. the
general patterns are true for all currendy
available GNSS systems - efficiency
decreases in obstmcted terrain. and the rate
of decrease changes with the allowable
POOP. As GNSS recei\'ers bave improved.
and can measure GPS, GLONASS. Galileo,
and Compass GNSS simultaneously, effi·
ciencies and accuracies in o'bstructcd envi-
rorunents have substantiaUr increased, such
that reasouable efficiencies .are currently
obtained tUlder most conditi.ons.
We may improve the efficiency of
GNSS digitizing by altering POOP and sig·
218 GIS Fundamentals
_,oo _,oo
,.t
,Any POOP.
l:
i! 80 •. "' sote11r,es
80
!! 60
~ ~
l •o
t ~
j ,o i 20
l O
15 25 35 45
l O
mcon honz°" devoflO" (deg)
Flem~ S-25: The pc:rccntagc of OPS positiou futcs twit~ su«csd\UJy eo11«:tcd d«rcascs in ,·alleys, or in
any other loca1iou ,,.,be:t'C lhc-:au;lc 10 1.bc horizon increases. Th.is n:i.,y be ofuc:1 somcwb11 by nlmow1n3
poorn (brgcr) POOPs, IIS shown in dtc lcAnlOSl \'S. rigl111i10Sl figures 11.bo\'c (n.,l.nptcd from Scrin.ti 11nd Flo-
m. 199$),
nal mengtb 1hresbolds. but 1his often comes
a11he expense of decreased acc11rncy.
Sophisticated receivers allow multiple set·
tings: a 1arge1 POOP. above which the
receiver wiUsearch for bener satellite con-
stellations. and a maximum POOP, above
which data collection will cease. This aUows
the user to b.1lance the trade-off between
accuracy and efficiency.
Some GNSS receivers allow adjust-
ments in 1he threshold for acceptable signal
strength. For example, satellite signals that
pass 1brougb a fores, canopy are weaker.
Including these weaker signals improves the
number and ofleJL the distribution of satel·
lites. !hereby increasing collec1ion efficiency
and perhaps accurncy. However. weak sig-
nals may also resuh front reflected or mul.
1ipatb traosmissioas. As described earlier,
multipath signals have larger rnnge errors.
Lowering the threshold for acceptable signal
strength is Likely co increase positiooal error.
as it increases the likeliho-Od of multipath
measurements. However, some data are
often bener than ,ione, and lowering the
POOP tlireshold for collection is sometimes
the only way to collect data.
GNSS receivers specifically designed
for GIS data collection may use multiple
techniques to improve accuracy and effi.
ciency. Manufoc1\lrers have invested sub--
stantially in optimizing antenna design and
100
:;;
POOP< 8 ~ POOP< I.
".
i 80
;- ~
f •o
) 20
J.5 25 35 45
§. 0 ' - - - -.......- -
15 Z5 35 •5
mean horirot1 elr:YOtioti (deg) IUOI\ h0t,2on dc-Jouon (deg)
collec1ion systems 10 coOlrol these multiple
trade-offs.
The availability of multi-path rejection
antennas is a primary difference between
GIS-grade receivers aod recrea1ionaJreceiv-
ers costing much less. Recreational receivers
are substantially less accura1e in, obstn,cted
terrain because they often place priority on
collecting a fi,. ac<epting some degrndacion
in accuracy. If you are los1 in the woods you
would rather know where you are withi.n a
few me1ers than wait for a higher.accuracy
signal or constellation. Recrea1ioual receiver
tllresbolds for signal streng,h or POOP are
often configured for highest eftkiency and
thus lowest accuracy under obstructed con-
ditions. and 1bese thresholds often may not
be adjusted by the user. Irrespective of the
equipment, there is a 1rade.offbe~veen 1he
accep1able signal strength and 1he introduc-
tion of multipath errors. Setting the maxi-
m,uu acceptable POOP higher or accep1able
signal strength thresholds lower will
increase efficiency of collection. bul often at
the cost of increased error.

Rangeflnder Integration
There are olher limits to GNSS data col-
lection. For e..~ampie. 1be need 10 occupy
e.very vertex and node in the field is a pri-
mary drawback of GNSS digitizing. Some.
times. it may be dangerous to physically
place the GNSS receiver over each point. for
example. when a stream to be digitized is in
a field run ofrunh1g buffalo. Fea111res may
be difficult to reach., cosling the user more
time in travel than in GNSS data colJe<:tion.
This is panicularly conunon when poim fea-
tures to be digitized are widely dispersed
Features may be numerous, inten1isible. but
separated by :a barrier. for example. a
f l2u.tt S..26: .,\ Ill.kt' ~clu,dc1 iuay submn-
1lall:r impro\'c the cfficicnc)' of field. cl11n colic<:•
lion witb OPS. Here. a S)'$lCm iotcgrntcs a
binocularuuit to aulom.'llic.all\' c.alculaic posiciolls
from GPS mcM1U'C:lnct1u 11od·distrutec lllKi 11n.glc
ob,cn·n.tions . .Also uolc the l'J.ngc pole to raise the
ONSS MLtenu.a abo\'c the ....0Ucc1or·$ bead (cour-
1cs:y Lcic:a Gc:osystcuu).
Chapter 5: GNSS 219
sequence of fence posls or power poles on
opposite sides of a limited access highway.
Peripheral measuring devices. such as
laser rangefinders. may be auached to GNSS
data collet1ors 10 substamially improve field
dala collection (Figure 5-26). These de\1ices
typically measure distance with a laser and
direction with a compass. ~·l casurcmen1s are
made from each occupied C'NSS point to the
nearb)' features of interest The target coor-
dinate calculatio11s are often automatic
because direction is measured with an inte-
grated electronic compass. T1le rangefinde.r
is pointed ai 1be fearure 10 be digitized. The
system calculates the observer's position
from the GNSS, and this position is com-
bined with distance and angle measurements
in coordinate geometry 10 calculate the fea-
ture coordinates. The person operating the
GNSSllaser rangefinder m.1y stand in one
location and collect positions for several to
tens of features. thereby saving substantial
travel time. These systems are mos1 often
used to inventory point feanires sue-b as util-
ity poles, signs, wells, trees. or buildings.
Laser rangefinders are available 1ba1 can
measure features at distances up to 600 m
(2000 ft). Realized accuracies depend on
both tile quality of the GNSS receiver and
1hedis1ru.1ce measuring subsystem. However,
submeter accuracies are possibJe underopen
sk')' conditious.
220 GIS Fundamentals
GNSS Height Measurement
GNSS are often the easiest way 10 me•·
sure new heights. b111 care must be taken to
ensure heights are relative lo an appropriate
vertical datum. GNSS heights are typically
detennined as a height above an ellipsoid. or
HAE. and many less expensive CPS receiv~
ers have no op1io11s 10 repon any other
height The 11ser should carefully read the
documentalion to dete.m1ine the type or
height reponed by the GNSS uni1. lypically.
it is ellipsoidal height. altho11gh some units
provide an estimate of orthometric height.
Since the two cnn differ by up 10 I00 meters
(330 feet). the 11ser sho11ld de1enuine wllicb
height is reported.
As described in Chapter 3, our standard
height referell(:e is a venical dan1m and not
an ellipsoid. so we must conven any pro.
vided HAEs 10 an onhometric height rela-
tive to a datt1m. p.rior to most uses. As
orthometiric height = el lipsoidol height - geoidol height
H = h-N
. h t ~ -- h
ellipsoidal t,e19
,,,
,,,,------- I
ellipsoid
,,,
------ ,,
fiJttN' 5-?7: Ca1c.,.il.atioo of or1hometric height from cllip1,oidal bclgh1, Mo,1 ONSS $)'1tc:m, reporl ellip-
soidal heights. wbich must be coun:rtcd to onhomctric heights before most uses, \\~ may estimate gcoidal
bc-igbt in k\'cral 'Wll)'t. inchidin3 de\'clopcd *-co id.al models. ot ncntb)• 3C'Odctic «mtrol points.
explained in Chapter 3. we calcuJate the
onhometric height via the equation:
H = h- N (S 2)
The GNSS often provides h. the ellip-
soidal height. and we may use spatial models
developed by most goverruuents to estimate
N. the geoidal height. for any location. In the
U.S.. these models have been developed and
doc,miemed by the National Geodetic Sur-
vey. and are available at a geoids page (llllp:/
"''vw.ng,,.noaa.gov/GEOID/).These models
have been incorporated into most GNSS
receivers designed forG!S data collection.
and so the conversion may be transparent. or
available as a system sening.
The.calcul.1ted height accuracy can be
no more accurate than the geoid model ortl,e
GNSS measurements. For much of the world
there is a relatively sparse set of g_eoidal
height measurements, and geoidl models are
accunue to within a few lO tens of centime-
ters (inches to a few feet). Any error in 1he
geoid estimation lmllsl.ates directly to an
error in estimated height.
surface
..-
...-- orthome,r,c
•.
height
IH
-- -----------9._eo;d
N ;:;;;;ii,;;~~~-----,,,
',,.

If the reoei,·er does not support geoidal
height estilllation. and if the user bas no
access to computing or software required for
a geoid model, one may estimate geoidal
height by referencing a ne111ty comrol point.
(or example, ~n NGS control data sheer in
the United St.ates. These sheets usually pro.
vide geoidal lteighrs for listed points. For
many regions of1he world, geoidal heigh1s
do not vary rapidly across space, and the
spatial variability of geoidal heighrs may be
es1ima1ed by retrieving heights for several
nearby heigh1control points. The nearest. an
average. or some similar combination of
geoidal beigh1s may be used in equation
(5.2) 10 calculate ortbometric height. given a
measurement of ordiometric height from the
GNSS. Variauion in geoid beigltt among 1he
neart>y srations should give an estima1e of
1he variability in local geoid heiglus. and the
added local uncertaimy in estima1ing ortho-
metric height using equation 5.2.
In additiou 10 geoidal heigh1uncertainty.
vertical GNSS height measuremems are not
as accw-ale as horizontal measurements, and
so require greater care. longer acquisition
times. and more stringem processing for a
given level of accuracy. GNSS signals are
Fijt'H't' S.ZS: A wildd.>ccst 61 with a ONSS crai.-ki.ug collar. 11ic antcuna is \'i&iblc as di<; white patch on
top of 1bc collar, and the power supply and data louiua: Jiousi.ua: i.Hisiblc al tl1t bon01:n of die collar
(cc>tu1c:i)' Gordon T. Cul. Lotck \Vi.rc:lc:H hl<.).
Chapler 5: GNSS 221
not constrained as much in the venical direc-
tion. because sa1elti1es are not visible on the
opposire side of the Earth. Range uncenainry
is not constrained for the ne.ar-vertical satel-
lites. and so venical measur.emeut errors are
larger. !J'nsing GPS (or precise height mea-
surements. occupation limes must be longer
to oblain a heigh, accuracy similar 10 hori·
zonral position.ii acctJracy.
GNSS Tracking
GNSS ,racking of people. vehicles.
packages, or animals is an innovative and
growing application of GNSS. GNSS receiv-
ers are routinely placed on trucks. ships.
buses, boats, or other transport vehicles.
These receivers are often part of systems 1hat
include inforns11ion on local conditions_
speed or trnvel, and perhaps the condition of
tl,e shipped equipment or cargo.
GNSS is also increasil\gly applied to
track individual organisms. This is revolu-
tionizing animal movement .analysis because
of the frequency and density of poims 1bm
may becollec1ed (Figure 5,28). More posi·
tion f1Xes can be collected in a momh using
GNSS equipment da, n may be collected in a
222 GIS Fundamentals

decade using alternative methods {figure 5,
29).
Animal movement analysis has long
been based on obser\'llliou of recognizable
individuals. Each time a known animal is
seen.. the location is noted. TI1e number of
posi1iou fixes is oflen low. bo,vever, because
some animals are difficul1 to spot. elusive. or
live in areas of dense vegetation or varied
terrain. Early alternatives to direct human
obsen<a1io11s were based prim,,rily on radio-
1eleme11y . Radiotelemetry involves the use
of a transmitting and receiving radio unit 10
de1en11.ine animal location. A transmitting
radio is attached to an animal. and a techni-
cian in the field wes a radio receiver lo
de1ennine lbe posilion oflhe animal. Mea·
S\lfemeocs from several directions are com-
bined, aud the approximate location of the
animal may be ploned.
GNSS animal tracking is a substantial
improve111en1 over pre,1ious methods. GNSS
unilS are fn 10 animals. usually by a harness
or collars (Figure 5-2$). The animals are
released, Mid Jl(>SitioMI iilfolilliltioa
recorded by 1be GNSS receiver. Logging
intenials are variable, from every few min-
utes 10 every few days. and data may be peri-
odically downloaded via a mdio link.
Systems may be ser up with an automatic or
radio-ac1iva1ed drop mechanism so thal data
may be downloaded and 1he receiver re,
used. While only recenlly developed. GNSS-
based animal tracking units are currently in
use oi, all cou1iueu1s in lhe s1udy of 1brea1,
e,1ed. endangered. or imponani species.
GNSS !racking for individual or flee1s
of vehicles 1ypically involves a munber of
subsyslems (Figure 5-30). GNSS receivers
and radio transmitters must be placed on
each vehicle 10 record and 1ranSJ.ni1 posi1ion.
Sa1elli1e or grotmd-based receiver neiworks
collect and transmit positional and other data
10 a compu1er runnu,g a tracking and man·
agemen1 program 1ha1 may be used 10 dis-
play. analyze, and control vehicle
movemen1. lnformatiou or ins1n1c1ions may
be passed back 10 vehicles on 1he road.
GNSS..aided vehicle numag~men1 may
be combined wi1b 01her spa1ial da1a in a GIS
framework to add inunense value 10 spatial
iliialyses. Vehicle location can be moni1orl!d
in real lime. and compared 10 delivery loca-
tions. Delivery planning may be optimized

..
• •lit •. "·"'·
..,
r. . .. j
·-·~
'
•
.'
.:.. :· • •··..,
e
~
. •,
.. •
·.,,,rr~'-1 ....... ,
..,_. ..
.. ... . .. • •••
• •• .. :&
~ .. -· ..~
t'
•• • I
,..... . .. .
. . ..--:......,,..,
• ,-...,, •
, .......
..
: . . ... ..
..... ...
.. "'
..• ..!f
•
,. . ~
-
~ ~'
.. ··)•... . .-. , ... ... .
.., .... :

.
. ~.
~ . . ' . . .!•·
~

~.:f.,. ~-
.. ~

. . ,. ··..... ~ . ~~":.fr'

. -~ -. ;¥~-i.ii¥
~~.rr
• •
FJa:ure S..29: GNSS tn1clciua: data for wildebeest io dtc Sun 13cti and Na:oronpo Cralct tt3iom of Tau-
:t2ni:1. Sn1'lict of 1nwd routes and lubittu Uk by migrtuorv rutim."11& lll'C suhlr:tntiillly intpro,'ed by GPS
da1a collcctio11 (coW1~)' $, Thirgood. A, Mosser-. and M. boruCT).
 Chapter 5: GNSS 223

Fig11tt 5...JO: Rcsl•limc tr.idcing ,-ill GPS subitnn•

ti~lly iwpro\·cs vehicle flcei UW1agcmeo1. par1icu·
I.arty "tbco combined wir.b ocher data in a GlS,

and delivery windows specified wilh much

greater accumcies. This in rurn lllay subs1an·
tially reduce costs. increase data gathering.
and improve profits forparticipaling busi-
nesses. Trnnspon may be dispaicbed more
efficiently. re.curring problems analyzed. an<!
solutions more effectively tailored.
Imagina1ive uses ofGNSS are arising
almost daily as this 1echnology revolution-
izes posi1ional data collection. GNSS equip-
ment has been interfaced wilb groin
harvesting equipment. Grain production is
recorded during harvest. so tl1at yield and
grain quality are mapped every few meters
in a fam, field. This allows the fam1er 10
analyze and i:mprove production on a si1e-
specific basis.. for example. by tailoring fer-
tilizing applications for each square meter in
the field. The mix of fertilizers may change
with position. again conttolled by a GNSS
receiver and software carried aboard a trac-
tor.
224 GIS Fundamentals
Optical and Laser Coordinate Surveying
Historically. coordinate surveys from
optical instnunems such as transits, 1heodo-
lites snd electronjc distance meters were !he
pri1~ary means of colleciing geographic .
data. While these methods are slowly bemg
replaced by sa1ellite-based positioning and
ground-based lasers. they are still quite com-
mon. and any compe1ent GlS user sl1ould be
famiLiar wi1h op1ically based, field Stm•eying
methods. Spatial data layers are often pro-
duced directly from field Sllrveys, or from
field surveys combined with me.asurements
on aerial photographs.
Surveying is particularly common for
highly valued da1a. Real esnne in upscale
markets may be valued at hundreds 10 thou-
sands of dollars per square meter. Zoning
ordiuances often specify 1he minimum dis·
1ances between improvements aoo propeny
boundaries. These factors justify precise and
expensive coordinate surveys (Figure 5·31).
Other commonly stuveyed fcanires are
power lines, fiber optic cables. and utilities.
Plmre srm•eying is horizomal st~veying
based on a planar (fla1) surface. The flat sur-
face assumption provides significant compu·
taiional advantages. because the
mathematics are subs1antially less compli-
cated than those required for geodetic, or
curved-Earlh surveys. The flat surface in a
plane survey is uStrally defined by a 1i.1p
projection, with a known point serving as the
starting location for the survey. ln U.S.
urtxin areas. 1hese are typically Slate Plane
coordinates. or if defined. counly c.oordinate
systems.
In plane surveying, we typically assume
plumb lines are perpendicular to the surface
at all points in the Strrvey. A phrmb bob.or
weigh! is suspended from a Slrrng, and rs
assumed to b..1ng in a ve.nicaJdirection and
intersect !he plane surface at a 90° angle.

This is a vaJid assumption when t11e errors
inherent wilh ignoring lhe Earth's curvature
aJe smalJ compared co the accuracy require-
menls oflhe survey. or to the. errors inherent
in the survey measuremems 1bemselves. The
distance error due 10 assumu1g a Oat rather
than curved surf.ice over lO km (6 mi) is
0.72 cm (0.28 in). Therefore, plane surveys
are l)']lically res1ric1ed 10 distances under a
few tens of kilometers. This restriction is
me1 in many surveys, and a subs1antial
majority ofU,e lines and points surveyed 10
date have been measured using plane S\Ir·
veying methods. Plane surveying is suffi.
cien1 for mos'l s11bdivisions. public works.
construction projects. and propeny s11rveys.
Hisrorica Uy. plane surveys have been
conducted wiJh optkal i11stnune1.11s similar
to those described for geodetic surveys.
These insrrumenr.s typically have angle
gages in the horizomal and vertical planes
and an optica l sight. usually with some
degree of telescopic magnification. The
i11stn11nents have various names. including.
in increasing order of sophistic~tion and
capabilities. • level. a 1ransi1. a theodolite.
and a 101al station (Figure 5-32).
Fiaurf' S.J 2: A $Ul'\'cyi1l3 i1ucnuue1ll for e-ollee-1·
ing. e-oordina1c geometry dn1a.
Chapter 5: GNSS 225
Plane surveys typically start at or are
traceable back 10 a larger survey network
through Bench Marks (precisely located
points described in Chapter 3), or through
local or project-specific control poims estab-
lished from high-accuracy GNSS positions.
These marks or control poi1us often se.rve as
sraning and endi11g points of a survey. 10
allow accuracy verification.
Distance and angle measurements are
the primary field activities in plane survey-
ing. Distances are measured between rwo
sun·~, stations, which are points occupied
on the ground. The directioo is specified by
an angle between a standard direction. usu-
ally norll1or soolh. and the direction of the
surveyed line between !he 1wo s1a1ious (fig-
ure 5-33). The distance is iru some standard
units. forexample. standard intemalional
meters.
There are lwo conunon ways of specify.
ing angles. The first uses the azimulh. An
azinnuh :mgle is measured bl a clockwise
direction. rypica Uy relative •o grid or geo-
gmpllie uollli (Figure 5-33). Azinlutlis ,,ary
from O10 360 degrees. Nore that azinmrhs
typically reference grid non:h. ahhougJ, they
may also be specified relath.ie to magnetic
nonb. so care should be taken in clarifying
which refereJtce is used.
Azimuth Angles
s . 180°
Fl&m'f' S-33: Augl« in n.-n:ys may be reported
:u :u.iniu1b 11.1~~.1. inca, w-ed clocl.•wise ttlati\'e co
North. and r.mgi11g &om Oto 360.
226 GIS Fundamentals
Angles may also be specified by bear-
ings. which use a north or south reference
direction. ao angle amount. and an eas1 or
west angle direclton (figure 5-34). The ref-
erence direction is either north or sooth. and
the angle direction is east or wes1. The angle
and direc.1ion are :specified as ·•w1°C'. or
"S37'W"'.
We can conven between azimuth and
bearing angles. Conversion from bearing to
azimuth involves noting the reference direc-
tion (Nor$). and adding or subtracting from
constants. depending on quadrant (Figure 5-
35). We often convert from bearings 10 azi-
muths when calculating positions from a
sequential set of distance and angle measure-
meUls tluu form a.survey.
Many surveys are n·averses, a series of
connected lines lba1 have a marked begin-
ning and ending point. Trave™'s iypically
start at a known control poinl. or start at a
poim 1ha1 bas been refereuce<l 10 a known
control poin1. As described in 1he preceding
sections. the control points are often part ofa
geodetic eomrol network. or pM't of a suli-
neiworl< established by a municipal sur-
veyor. A distance and angle are me~1Sttred
from the control point 10 the first survey Sill·
1ion. Coomi11are geome11y (COGO) may be
Bearing Angles
N (bearings) and distnnces to subsequent sta·
,-~b~rlng •
N71"E
beomlg • SJr W S 72.3 degrees east. lo a 1-inch iPOO pipe;
fia:urt 5..J4; Oircctious may be lpCCifiecl AS
bearings, with a North or South ref«C11<:c:. aod
tin E:utor\Ves1 tu'*-le.
Converting from Beanng (br) to
Azimurh (oz). by quodronl
N
know be:anng, the.n: kna'N btanig, then
oz * 360 - numenc oz • nixnenc port
port of br, e.g., of br, e.g ,
br • Nl6'W, br . N40'£
oz • 360"-)6"•344~ oz • 40" .
w,~~~~~-1-~~~~~E
know beonng, then: know be(lf"W'l9. the,t
oz • lSO•r"IUmtl"iC oz 180~r"lumer,c
pert ot br. e 9 . port of br, e.9 ..
s
A gure 5-35: Cou\'ns:ion fonmi.las: &om be:nius
10 112:imu1.b, by qundrnn1.
used to calculate the s1ation coordinates.
Subsequenl distance and angle measure-
men1s may be taken. and in mru used 10 caJ.
cula1e the coordinates of subsequem
stations. Atraverse may be ope11, with a dif-
ferent beginning and eoding point or closed.
wi1h the traverse eveo1Ually connec1iug back
10 the starting location. Most of the millions
of miles of property lines in North America
have been cs1ablisbed via plane surveys of
open and closed traverses.
Coordina1e geomell)•cousis1s of a start·
ing point (a station) and• list of direc1ions
1ions. The COGO defines a connec1e<I set of
points from ,be s1arting station 10 each sub-
sequent station. A sample COGO descrip-
1ion rouows:
·The starting point is a 1·indl iron rod
lhat is approximately 102.4 ft norlh and 43.1
ft west of lhe northeast quarter of !he south-
east quarter section of section 16 of Town-
ship 24 North, Range 16 East, of lhe 2nd
Principal Meridian. Starting from the said
poin~ !hence 102.7 llon a bearing north
thence 429.6 ft on a bearing soulh. 64.3
degrees east to a 2-inch iron pipe ... •
 Chapter 5: GNSS 227

Basic trigonometric functions are used
to calcula1e 1be coordinaies for each survey
station. These stations are located at 1he ver-
1ices that defi.ne lines orareas of interest In
the J"'SI. these dis1ance and bearing da1a
were manually ploned onto paper maps.
Most survey data are now transferred
direc1Jy 10 spatial da1a fonnats from the sur-
veying instrumeoi or associated software.
Field measuremems may be direc1ly
entered and coordinate loca1ions derived in
the GIS sof~vare. or 1he coordina1e calcula-
1ions may be perfonned in the surveying
instrumem first. Many currem S\u·veying
instruments cootain an integrated compmer
and provide for digital data collection and
storage. Coordinates may be 1agged with
attribute dara in the field. at the measure-
ment location. These data are then dO\vn-
loaded directly from a coordinate measuring
device to a computer. Specialized surveying
programs may be used forerror checking
and other processing. Many of these survey-
ing packages will then 011tpu1 data in fonuats
designed for impon into various OIS soft·
ware systems.
COCO calculations are illustrated on the
left of Figure 5-36. S1arting from a known
coordinate. "o, Yo· we measure a distance L
and an angle 0. We may 1hen calculate the
disumees in the>< and y directions to another
sei of coordinates. x1and y1• The coordinates
of x1 and y1 are obtained by addition of the
appropria1e 1rigonoruetric ftructious. COGO
calcula1ions may then be repeated, using lhe
x1 and y1 coordinate.s as dte .new starting
location for calculating the posi1ion of the
next mwerse station.
The right side of Figure 5-36 shows a
sequence of measurements for a traverse.
S1arting •• x,. y,. 1he dis1ance Aand bearing
angle. here 45°. are measured to station x.n,
y..,. The bearing and dis1ance are 1hen mea-
sured to the next s1ation. with coordioatesxn.
yn· Distances and angles are measured for all
subsequent stations. Starting with the known
coordinates at the starting station. xs· Ys·

Coordinore geometry (COGO)

Trover"se
using bearing angles

!- d~ -
1

L
•, '
•
I
(I

!
x,. ~ ·
>ti• x ..• dx
~·Y,, •dv D

dx • L· sin (0)
dy - l·COS (0)

tneretore
x 1• Xo· l · sin (0)
Y1 = Y0 • L · COS(O)

F'lgntt s..36: Coordinllte geometry (COOO) i11ows 1.be c:1kub1iori of eoord.i1l3fe loc:11i0115 from open
(shown 111,,o,·e) <>r t:lowd lnwcnc.,. Di,tnnec. ruid angle mc.nwrc1ncnts arc. combined with 1rigo11omelric fOJ'·
ruulas to calculate coc1'din11.1cs.
228 GIS Fundamentals

coordinates for aU Ofher stations are c.alcu-
la1ed using COGO ronuulas.
Assigning the proper signs to dx and dy
is imponan1 in COGO calculations. An
incorrect sign for any leg of the iraverse will
propagate lhrougb all subsequent coordi-
nates, causing each 10 be in error. The proper
sign is obtained when directions arc
expre.ssed as azimuths and a standard sel of
fommJas is used.
The trigonometric sine and cosine func.
tions return the proper magnitude and direc-
tion of d, and dy when applied 10 azimuth
angles. lf1rnverse angles are provided as
bearings, they are typically converted to azi-
muths first. using the rules shown in Figure
5-35. remembering to con\'en the measured
angles 1·0 radian units if those are required by
the spreadsheet or computer language used
for calculations. Sine and cosine values are
then calculated and multiplied by tlte tra-
verse leg distance. resulting in d, and dyval·
ues of1he correct length and direction.
Examples for all four quadrants are shown in
Figure 5-37.
GNSS is now used for most measure..
mems farther than a few hundred meters.
COGO is more commonly applied in GIS
when collecting data with a GNSS receiver
in combination with a laser range finder.
Laser rnngefinders emit a focused. cobere111
beam of light to calculate distance. The max-
imwn range depends on the size and reflec-
1ive propenies of the 1aageL but many
moderately priced lasers are accurate up 10
several hundred meters. Electronic com..
passes must be periodically calibrated and
adjusted for proper magnetic declination. but
can be quite accurate. Rangefinders often
also have venical angle gages. because all
measurementsare as.smued para Uel 10 the
datum plane. and non-horizontal me.asure-
meo1s must be adjusted. Careful. laser range-
finders measuremeurs c..111 be accurate to a
centimeter overa I 00 m distance, improving
1he efficiency of GNSS dalll collec1ion.
Terrestrial. Lhree.dimensional lasers are
rapidly becoming common, and allbougll
curremly used primarily for s1rucnire analy-
sis, Ibey may be used for CilS data entry.

N
AZ • 349 dx•L· s,n(Az)
dx•l·sin(A.z) •100· sin(7l/57.295579)
• l to ·s,n(349/57.295579) · 94.55
· -20.99 dy•L·cos(Az)
• l00·cos(7!/57.295579}
dv•L·cos(Az) ·32.56
•llO·cos(349/57 295579) Az,71°
· 107.98

dx•L·sin(Az)
d,·L·s,n(Az) •84·sin(!65/57 2955 79)
~
• 76·sln(!87 /57.295579) •21.74
· -926
dy•l ·cos(Az)
...' cl,•L·eos(Az)
· 84·cos(l65/57.295579)
• 76·cos(!87157.295579) · -81.!4
• •7543
Az•l87" Azi!65°
s
Fi11111' S..37: Exrunplc calc:ul4tion1 of d:t 1tnd dy \"llluu, g:i\'cn ll l UJ'\'C)' ditltlncc (t) nnd rut 2t;imu1h :U!.glc
(Az). Note thnl tbc 5inc .ind c(»"ine fuoctions return the correct sign a, wcll M magnitude, so th111 the d.,: alld
dy values~ positi\·c or ncgath·c. as appropriate. Also 1100: t.h.11 many , prcadsbec1s aud coding: applicaitons
default 10 Ddtlln uuits in ,inc .t1tid eosfoc hlilctio1u, hen« the. dM11ion of dca,cc 3:Ua}es by tbc. COllVC':l"Sion
fac1or S7.29SS79.
 Chapter 5: GNSS 229

flp tt s..38<!TIU'l::e:-dim«isiot'llll scanning l.ascn use cootdUuirc ;comcuy 10 r«otd comprche:tui,·c x, y.

11.ncl i coordi:n:uc tbL, for OIS. Herc, ll ,~nning: li»cr is $bown (forcputd) wi1b :. portion of 1.hc 3·0
laU"r mcaro~mn1tf (lcfi) superimposed on 1hc bridge (court")' Leica Ocos)'1tcmi;).

These systems emit no.now. directed laser Summary

p11tses. By ca:refully meas11ring the horizon·
tal and vertkal angles relative to lhe estab-
lished coordinate system. these laser
distance meas11rcmems can be convened 10
three..(li01ensmonal coordinates via coordi-
nate geometry. GNSS systems typirnlly pro-
vide 1he location of the laser at tile time of
data caprure, but additional measurements
are often necessary 10 establish an initial or
reference pointing direction. These data are
then used to generate two- or 1bree-dimeo-
sional data layers for spatial dala bases.
Terrestrial 1bree-dimensional laser sys-
tems collect billions of points, and collec-
1ious from mwhiple locations must be
combined through three-dimensional recon·
strncfrve models to ere.ate complete. digital
rep~e111atio11s ofreal-world obj~1s (Figure
5·38). As software and computer systems
improve, three.djmensional terrestrial lasers
wilJ become common.
GNSS is a satellite-based positioning
system.. It is composed of user. control, and
satellite segments. and allows precise posi·
tioo location q11ickly and with high acct1racy.
GNSS is based on range measurements.
These range measurements are derived from
measurements of a broadcas.1signal that may
be either coded or uncoded. Uncoded. carrier
phase signals are 1he basis for 1be most pre.
cise position derem1inatioo. but arc of lim·
ited use for locating features due to
measuremen1 requirements. Code phase
measurements are primariJy· used for feature
collection and entry into G{S. Range mea.
suremeuts from muhiple satellites may be
combined to estimate position.
ONSS positional eslima1es comaiu error
due to uocenainties in satclUite position.
atmospheric and ionospheric interference,
mullipatb reflectance, and poor satellite
geometry. These 11ncertai.t11ies vary in time
and space.
230 GIS Fundamentals

There are a numberof ways to ensure

the highest accuracy when collecting GNSS
data. Perhaps the greatest impro\1emem
comes from differentially correcting GNSS
positions. Differential correc1ioo is based on
simultaneous GNSS measurements at a
known base locatfon and al unknown field
loca1ious. Errora nre calculated for each
position fcx a, 1be oose station. and sub-
tracte.d to the field collections to improve
accuracy. Accuracy may also be improved
by collecting with low PDOPs. averaging
multiple position fixes for each feature.
avoiding multipath or Jow horizon signals,
and using a GNSS receiver optimized for
aceurate GIS data collection.
GNSS is mos, conunonly used in GIS 10
digitize feamres in the field. either for pri-
mary data collection. 10 update existing data.
or for secondary data collection. 10 suppon
ortboimage creatioa Terrain. buildings. or
tree canopy commonly obstruct the sl-y.
leading 10 reduced accuracy and efficiencies.
Modifying POOP and sigi,al s1rengtl11hresb-
olds to accounl for these obstruclilllls may
increase collectio:n efficiencies. but often a1
the expense of reducing accuracies. Special-
ized antelUlas and fim1ware help. and these
are coll\J1\01lly a,,ailable on GIS.grade
rcc:eivers. but not on commercial receivers.
GNSS receivers are also used for track-
ing. navigaiion. and field sur,•eying. Vehicle
trackfog apJJlications require GNSS. 1:rans-
mission, and interpretation subsystems. and
are becoming widely applied. Animal and
hum.an movements are increasingly being
tracked via GNSS.
 Chapter 5: GNSS 231

Suggested Reading

Abidin. H. (2002). Fundamentals of GPS signals and data. In Bossler, 1. (Ed.). ,\,fn11-
1ml of Geospotinl Science n11d Technology. London: Taylor and Francis.

Awange. J.L. (2012). £11viro11111e111nl Mo11irori11g Using GIS. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Bobbe. T. ( I 992). Real-time differential GPS for aerial surveying and remote sensing.
GPS World. 4: 18-22.
De<:ken. C.J .. Bolstad. P. V. (1996). Forest canopy. terrain. and distance effects on
globaJ pos.itioning system point accuracy. Forest Scle.11ce. 62:317-3 21.
Dominy. N.J.. Duncan. B. (2002). GPS and GIS in an African rain forest: Applica-
tions lo tropical ecology and conservation. Consen·ariou Ecology. 5:537·549.
Dow. J.M.. Neilan. R.E.. Rizos. C. (2009). The International GNSS Service in a
changing landscape of Global Navigation Satellite Systems. Joumal ofGeodery,
83: 191 · l 98.
Owolatzl..")I. B.. Trengove, E.. Smnhers. H., Mcintyre. J.A.. Maninsou. N.A. (2006).
Linking the global positioning system (GPS) 10 a personal digital assistant (POA)
ro supyort ruberculosis control in South Africa: a pilot study. J111enraU011al Jou,...
uni o/Henhh GeogmpMcs. 5:34.

Fix. R.A.. BU11. T.P. (1995). Global Positioning Systems: an effective way to map a
small area or catchment. Ennlt S11rface Processes and La11dforms. 20:S 17-827.
Gao, J. , Liu, Y.S. (2001 ). Applications of remote sensing, GIS and GPS in glaciology:
a review. Progress in Physical Geogmphy. 25:520-540.
Gao, J. (2002). lntegration of GPS with remote sensing and GIS: Reality and prospect.
Photog,.ommetric Engilleering &. Remote Se11si11g. 68:447-453.

Haibo. H .. Jinlong. L.. Xu. J .. Guo. H.. Wang. A. (2014). Performance assessment of
single- and dual-frequency BeiDou/GPS single,epoch kinematic positioning. GPS
So/11tio11s. 18:393-403.
Jagadeesh. G.R., Srikanlhan, T.. Zhan3. X.D. (2004). A map matching method for
GPS based real·time vehicle locanon. Jo11,.,,al o/Nm;gatio11. 57:429440.
Johnso,~ C.E., Banon. C.C. (2004). \Vhere in the world are my field plots? Using
OPS effecrively in environmental field snidies. F10111h:n ;"11 Ecology & the £in,i-
m1m1•mt. 2:475-482.

Kaplan, E.0., Hegarty, C. J.(2006). U11dersrn11di11g GPS: Principles n11d Applicnrio11s.

Norwood: Artecb House.

Kennedy, M. (1996). The Global Posirio11i11g SJO!em n11d G/S. Ann Arbor: Aun Arbor
Press.
232 GIS Fundamentals

Mintsis. G.. Basbas. S.• Papaioannou. P.. Taxiltaris. C.. Tziavos. J.N. (2004). Applica-
tions ofGPS tec.bnology in the laud transportation system. E11ropea11 Jo11r11al of
Operario11a/ Research, 152:399-409.

Nresset, E.• Jonmeister, T. (2002). Assessing point accuracy of OOPS under forest
canopy before data acquisition. iu the field. and after processing. Sca11di1,a1ia11
Journal ofForest Resen1-ch, I 7:35 I -358.
Odolinski. R.. Teunisseu. P.J. (2016). Single-frequency. dual-GNSS versus dual-fre-
Q,uency, single-GNSS: a low-<:ost and higl1-grade re<:eivers GPS-BDS RTK analy-
sis. Journal of Geodesy, 90: 1255-1278.
Scrinzi. G.. Floris. A. (1998). Global Positioning Systems (OPS). uoa nu ova xealta nel
rilevamento forestale, Ani del Convegno "Nuovi orizzonti pe.r l'assestamento
forestale" 14-56.
Small, E.D., \Vilsou. J..S .. Kimball. A.J. (2007). Methodology for the re-location of
pem1anent plot markers using spatial analysis. Nonhe,·r, Journal ofApplied For·
esr,y, 24:30.36.

Thirgood, S .• Mosser. A.. Tham. s. . Hopcraft. G.. Mwangomo. E.• Mleogeya. T..
Kllewo. M., Fryxell, J., Smclau, A.R.E .. Bomer. M. (2004). Can parks protect
migratory ·ungulates? l11e case of the Serengeti wildebeest Animal Conserrn,;011.
7: l 13- I 20.
Toledo-Moreo. R.. Betaille, D.• Peyret, F.• Laneuri~ J. (2009). Fusing GNSS. dead-
reckoning. and enhanced maps for road vehicle Jane-level naviga1ion. /EEE Jom·-
ual ofSelected Topics in Sigual Processlug. 3:798-809.
Van Sickle. C. (2008) GPSfor Laud S,m-eyors, .ird edi1io11. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Welch. R.• Remillard. M. Alber1s. J. (l 992). lmegration of OPS. remote sensing. and
GIS techniques for coastal resource management. Pl,orog,·ammem'c £11gineeri11g
aud Remote Seusing. 58: 1571-1578.
Wilson. J.P., SJlangrud. D.S., Nielsen, G.A., Jacobsen. J.S., Tyler. D.A. ( 1998). OPS
sampling uuensity and panem effects oo computed 1errain anributes. So;/ Science
Society of.America Journal. 62: 1410-1417.
 Chapter 5: GNSS 233

Study Questions

5.1 - Describe the geueral components of GNSS. including the three co:nui1on seg-
ments and what they do.

5.2 - Whal is the basic principle behind GNSS positioning? Whal is a range measure-
ment. and how does it help you locate yourself?

5.3 - Describe 1he GNSS signals lha1 are broadcast. and 1he basic difference between
carrier and coded signals.

5.4 - Ho,v many sa1elLi1es must you measure 10 obtain a 1hree-dimeusio ual position
fix?

5.5 - \Vha1 are the main sources and relative magnitudes of uncertainty in GNSS
positioning?

5.6 - How accurate is GNSS positioning? (le sure you specify a range, and describe
under what conditions accuracies are a1 the high and low end of the range.

5.7 - Whal is a dilution of precision (DOP)? How does ii affect GNSS position mea-
surements?

5.8 - Which of the following figi1res depicts the Iowes1 and highcs1PDOPs. assuming
the obserr.rer is near the center of 1be drawn surface?

a) b)
H ,Q' "<I»
""·

- ......... n
- -
.................•

<l d)

,Q'

.ti'

- 'I>,
..........
.Q'

- -~
234 GIS Fundamentals

5.9 - What is the rank order. highest to lowesl~for accuracy of GNSS data given the
satelLite constellations in the following figures, assuming lhe observer is near the cen-
ter of lhe drawn surface?

b)

- -
<) ...,_ d)
,1;· ,Q' ~
....
•,p.
,Q'

- -
,lil'
-- ---
5. 10 - Describe tlie basic principle behind differeniial positioning.

5.11 • What are the differences between post-processed and real-time differential
positioning?

5.12 . What is lhe primruy source of error reduced with a dual-frequency GNSS
receiver?

5.13 . Place these in order of accuracy. assuming lhe best equipment and practices
applied to data collection:
a) dual frequency. real-time kinematic positioning.
b) precise point processing. and
c) post-proces~. dual frequency positioning.

5. 14 - How is GNSS accuracy affected by the local terrain horizon? How is it affected
by canopy cover or building obstmctions? Why does positional accuracy change as
these conditions change?

5. 15 - How are GNSS data accuracy and efficiency (points collec1ed per given time
interval) relat~.d when collecting data in obstructed environments? Why? How is this
controlled by field persollllcl?
 Chapter 5: GNSS 235

5.16 - Wbat is \VAAS? Js it better or worse than ground-based differential position-

ing?

5.17 - Wby are distance measurements devices and offsets used when collecting
GNSSda1a?
5.18 • Wba1 is COGO?
5.19 . Complete tl1e table below. calcula1ing missing elemen1s accordin.g to 1he for-
mulas presented in this chapter. Distances are in meters. 1he angle e in degrees.

i
.. 10
Yo
20
0
30
L
500
••
2500
d,
433.0
><,
2600
v,
.cSl.O
,oo 876.C

! L
•, 931
91
12
60

.,••
J0!2
t!J2( 1!11!1 7
S060

I
! (I 1540 lo.!8 85 496}
! 369 280 10 220

Xo, YoI

S.20 - Co1nplete the table below, calculating missing elements according to the for-
mulas presented in this chapter. Distances are in meters. 1he angle e in degrees.

..
' x,. Y~
:- d.. - - .
Y. 0 L •• d, ~ v
0 0 70 100 ••o 3<2 940 342

I••
!
L
,oo
150
10
IS 3S
0
80
25
·~
IS

66
88
130
200
20
12
336
14H
125 ft

881

-,--·--·--·-
Yo'
Xo,

5.21 - Fill in the missing cells. convening points between awnuths and. bearings.

Point I 2 3 4 5 6 7

Azimuth 138° 301° 1s• u ·22"

Beor,ng s12"W N33°E $ 49°E N88"W

236 GIS Fundamentals

S.22 - Fill in the missing cells. converting poinls between azimuths and bearings.

Point 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Azimuth 21s0 42° 199° 245° 1os0 14·22"

Bearing N82"W S77°E N!"W

5.23 - Compfe·1e 1he 1able below for a 1raverse wi1b the listed distances and bearings.
given as azimuth degrees (drawing a rough sketch may help with the calculations).
Note that many spreadsheet. calculator. and trigonometric fimc1ious require .input in
radians (approximately 57.2958 degrees = 1 radian).
Stort,ng point PO. X • 10.128 3, Y • 6.096.4

"""1t ID Anmurh Distance DeUoX 0,110 Y x y

Pl n., 122 65• 1030 10.193 7 6199•

P2 917 207 206.9 -61 J0.400.6 6193.3
P3 123.3 305
P< 212.5 193
PS 2739 206
P6 31,.0 302 10.129 0 6,086.8

5.24 - Complete the table below for a traverse with the listed distances and bearings.
given as azimuth degrees (drawing a rough sketch may help wilh the cakulations) .
No1e that many spreadsheet, calculator, and trigo11ometric fimc1ions require input in
radians (appro:ximately 57.2958 degrees= I radian).

Stortrng po1nf PO, X • 1.200 Y • AOO

Polr\1 IO Azimuth Oisrone:e: Delta X Del!O Y x y

Pl 95 105 10,6 -9.2 1.30<6 3908

P2 192 n -J6.0 -75 3
P3 262 204
P4 6 104
P5 18 33
P6 105 88 1.192 6 399.2
 Chapter 5: GNSS 237

5.25 . Complete the table for points 2 through 5. which have the listed GNSS-deter-
mined laliirudes. longitudes. and eWpsoidal heigbt.s. The NOS data sheets for control
locations near the measured points are listed. and you may use these ro look up
appropriate geoidal data.
Poinr I 2 3 4 5
(Oo'ICI~{ PIO SFi.tlt PIO E'O!tJQ PJOCF"601• PIOOW0320 ?lORDtQtO
NGS k- 1 ~'1-'"" "" ·-ron N At.e RMl ()Q
"""""""" 'Nl VN

Latitude 47' IT 10 4• 3457582" 44?24 139" 43" 36' .;s.r 45" ZK 29 :r

Long. 11.ide 68' 19' 19· 83"' IT 552" 88° 34' 40 ~- 109°29' 439· 123'50· 310"

Elhpsoidol 214 5 1244 I 1884 -19.9

Height {m) 2.594.5
Ceoidal
Height {m) -2392 - 2915
Orthometne
Height {m) 238 42

5.26 - Complete the table for points 2 through 5. which have the listed GNSS-deter-
mined lar;rudes, longitudes. and ellipsoidal heights. The NOS data sheets for control
locations near the measured poin1S are listed. and you may use these to look up
appropriate geoidal data.

Point
(Qf"(l nta'f'!{
-·-s --·-,
I
fl10 004877.
,.• --·• MIIW\
2
PIO Aao•60
AUS Al)9.\ TX
3
PI00\1?10
s,a Cofd. (A
__ .,.,,
4
PlO PX0445
5
PIOCl.6000
CNIW<nh

Lo11tude: 45°05· 454" 30' 17 29.7" 33"24" 159" 44~00' 338" 47" ,9· ss r

Longrtude 93'00 17.9' 97' 41 34 3' 118° 24 54 2· 109' 30" 20 2· 119' 59 216'

Elllf>SOidOI 252.7 141 5 405.9 3604 5

Height (ml 382.l
Ceoldol
Height (ml -27 45 -25.95

OMhomietr1e
Height Cm) 280.15
238 GIS Fundamentals

6 Aerial and Satellite Images
Introduction
AeriaJ a1i1d satelUte images are conuuon
data sources for GI$. Images are data
recorded from a distance, and are often
referred 10 as 1·e11101elyse11sed data. Remotely
sensed da1a come in many forms: however,
in the context of GIS we usually use the 1erm
to describe ne,ial ;mages taken from aircraft
using digit.al cameras. smellhe image.s
recorded with satellite sc.anners, or active
systems 11sing laser or radar sensors. Until
the 1970s. most mapping images were taken
with film and aerial cameras. Digital aerial
cameras have replaced most film cameras.
and satellite scaruters have fotind wide use..
Images are a rich source of spatial in(onna-
tiou that have been used in mapping for more
than se\'en decades.
Remotely sensed images are valuable
so11rtes of S)Xltial data for many reasons.
including:
Broad-anm cO\·emge- images caprure data
from large areas at a reL11ively low cost and
in a wtifonn manner (Figure 6,..1). It would
take months 10 collect enough grouud survey
data 10 accurately produce a topograpbk map
for 10 km2. Images ofa region this size may
be collected in a few cnimues and I.he 1opo-
grapilic data ,extracted and intelJ)reted in a
few wee.ks.
£wended spectral range- cameras and scan-
ners can detect light from wavelengths out-
side the range of human eyesight. Some
239
cameras and sc.anners record near- and mid-
infrared \Vavelengths. a portion of the light
specirum that the human eye cannot sense.
and useful fordistinguisl1in.g among features.
Aerial and satellite scanners sense them,al
wavelengths. This expanded spectral range
allows us to detect feamres or phenomena
that appear invisible to the htm1ru1 eye.
Geomerric nccuracy- aerial images are the
source of many of our mosl ~curate large-
area maps. Under most conditions. aerial
images contain geometric distortion due 10
imperfections in the camera, lens. or sensing
systems. or due 10 camera rill or terrain varia-
1ion in 1he target area. SateUlite scanners may
also contain errors due to the imaging equip-
ment or satellite platform. However. distor·
tion removal methods are well developed and
cameras and imaging scam1ers specifically
built for quantitative mapping are combined
with image correction rechniques to yield
spatially acc.i1rate images.
Pen11n11eut record - an image is fixed in
1ime. Comparison of conditions over multi-
ple dates. or determination of conditions at a
specific date in the past are often quite valu·
able. and remotely sensed images are often
1he most accurate source of historical infor-
11lation.
240 GIS Fundamentals

fla,urt 6, 1: lim3cs arc a ,-atuablc: soinc: o(spatilli dtlta.. TI1c upper ima.l< o!thc lbaian Pc:niru·.o]a illustrates
thc: bro:id·IU'c::1 c:o,<cn;e;c pro\•idc:d b)' t111c:1ti1c: d.'\111. The: lowtt ll1123"c: nurdowntown B11redoi:ia illtmrn.11:1 die:
high .ipalii,I dc:t11il ;n.ubblc, bc:rc wi1h iodh·Ldwd l!l\llomobile5 rewln<l froOJ space: (co1.1t1C:i)' NASA. top.
aud Maxar. bonom).
 Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 241

Basic Principles
The mosc conunon fonns of remote
sensing are based on reflected elec1romag-
ne1ic energy. When energy from the sun
strikes an object. a portion of the energy is
reflected. Different materials reflect differ-
ent amounts of incoming energy. in different
wavelengths. and U1is differential reflectance
gives objects their color.
SunLigbt is the principal energy form
detected u1 remote sensing for G!S. Ligbt
energy is characterized by its 11nve/eng1!,,
the discance between peaks in cbe eleccro-
magnetic stre-am. Each color has a discioc-
1ive wavelength. for example, we perceh1e
lighc wich wavelengths betwetn 0.4 and 0.5
micrometers (µm) as blue. Light emined by
the sun is composed of several different
wavelengths, and the full range of wave-
lengths is called the electromag,1edc spec-
trum. We graph the Sun's light ene.rgy
(vertical axis) across wavelengti,s (horizon-
tal axis) co represem tbe spectrum (Figure 6-
2). Energy from the s,m increases rapidly to
a maximum between 0.4 and 0. 7 µm. and
drops off at lligber wavelengths. Some
reg.ions of the electromagne1ic spectrum are.
named: X-rays have wavelengths of approxi-
mately 0.0001 µru. visible ligbt is between
0.4 and 0.7 J.1111, and near-infrared light is
between 0.7 and I.I µm.
Our eyes perceive light u1 the visible
portion of the spectmm and are. blind to
shorter and longer wavelengchs. We assign
three base colors: blue. from abo1110.410 0.5
µm. green from 0.5 10 0.6 µm. and red from
0.6 co 0. 7 µm . Other colors are often
described as a mixnire of these three colors
at varying levels of brightness. For example.
an equal mixnire of bh1e. green. and red light
at a high incensity is perceh·ed as •·,vb.ice"
light. Other colors are produced with other
mixes: for example. equal !'arts red and
green Iigbc are perceived as yellow. The spe-
cific combination of wavelengths and their
relative intensities produce all the colors vis.
ible to the human eye.
Electromagnetic energy striking an
objecc is reflected. absoroedl. or transruined.

solar rodlotioo tronsmitted

through the atmasph<~

solar radiation cbove ttie otmospher·e

wovelength (!lf'nl 10
1
J 10
1
10 10' tO
• 10

l ll llllll I I I I I
Fignr,r 6-2: tlc~rom0,t11c1ic C1Ktt)' is cmiu«I by d1e Slm :ind t~11sruit1cd dll'Ough the a1mospbcrc (upper
graph), Solar radiatioo lJ r,aitially a'bsort>ed as it pimes throu,&li I.he nn05pbcrc. lbi.s remits in \'anablc sur-
face radi11tiou in 1bc ,isib c and infrared (IR) \\"1'11\'clcnitb rc;1ou, (lower ~pb).
242 GIS Fundamentals

Mos.t solid objects absorb or reflect incident
electromagnetic energy and tnUISJUit none.
Liquidwater aud atmospheric gasses are the
most common nat11ral materials 1hat transmit
light energy as weU as absorb and reflect it.
Natural objects appear to be the color
they most re Dec 1: for example. green leaves
absorb 1UOre red • nd blue light and reflect
more green light. , ve sense these differences
across a range ohvavelengths 10 distinguish
among objectS. Wltile we see only visible
wavelengths. these differences also extend
into other pans of the electromagnetic spec-
trum (Figt~e 6·3). Jndividual leaves of many
plant species appear 10 be similarshades of
green: however. s.ome reflect a higher pro-
ponion of infrared light. and thus appear 10
have a different "',color'' when ,~ewed at
infrared wavelengths.
Energy transrninance through the atmo-
sphere is most closely tied to the amount of
water vapor in the ait Water vapor absorbs
energy in several ponions of the spectrum.
and higher atmospheric water conlent results
in lower trnoSitlitlMCe. Cailioa dio:<ide.
other gases. and paniculates such as dust
also contribute 10 atmospheric absorption.
reducing energy reaching the Earth 1s surface
in ponions of the electromagnetic spectrum
(Figure 6·2).
Most aerial images and sateJlites use
p1,ssire remote serrsirrg, in thal 11ley use
energy generated by the sun and reflected off
of the 1arge1 objects. The images from tliese
passive systems may be affected by atmo·
spheric conditions in mulliple ways. Figure
6·4 illus1rn1es the many paths by which
energy reaches a remote sensing device.
Only one oftbe energy paths is useful. that
of surface reflection fromground features.
The other paths provide little or no infonna-
tion al.>out the 1arge1 objects. Most passive
sys1ems are not useful during cloudy or
extremely hazy periods because nearly all
the energy is scattered or absorl>ed. There
are some passive systems usefiJU at night.
e.g.. emission microwave sensing, bu1 most
passive systems rely on the sun's energy. so
are useless at night.
Actfre systems generate an energy signal
and detect the energy ren1med. D ifferences
in llie qmmtity and direction of the rellli'iled
energy are used 10 identify feamres and their
properlie.s. Radar (radio detection and rang-

60 ,.. ____ _
I
~50 I ...-··-' \.-··-·" -..- ··-··-··- ..............dry
_··-soil
~

"' 40 ,_. /-··-"' \ /'-.. .,, ·,.,.,. ,

..
u
c
0
u
30
,,.-
..,..f
,/ I
I
\/
V
\
\
·,..
.

"""'"'
'-
20 ...," -
/ I\
\J
I \.
• - '
vegetot,on
.... ....... ,
,,
--.
10
/I woter
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 12 L4 L6 LS 2.0 22 2.4
wavelength ( rim)
fleure 6-J: Spcc:11al fC'0cctan((' Cut\'CS for some comn1on subst1U1ccs. The propor1io11 of iuromi.i13
m:li:uio111h2t 1& n:Otttcd \'ru'ia 2crou w1wdcngd11 (21i:Lprcd from LiJJeu11d ~nd Kiefer. 1999).
 Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 243

sensor

~ ~ atmospheric
absorption

~
cloud reflecllOn
end absorption
surface
emission
S\lr'fOCe
surface
reflection absorption
fiau~ 6-4: Encl'J)' pa1.bway5 from source to r.enwr. Li~t and othtt clcctroruagrn:tic: energy mi,,y be
absorbed. tntrmruttcd. or rcRe¢tcd by 1hc atmospbc-re. L1i;tbt rdloct«t 6-otn the surface and tnumnincd to
the .k11SOT ia lded 10 crc:lllc al'l inugc. Tilc U1ugc: may be dc:p':1.ded b)' :umo~bcric sc:mc:riil! due to water
vnpor, dust, nuokc. nnd other c:onstitna1ts. incoming or rc:R«tc:d cnert)' U'-"Y be scmtered,

ing) is a common active remOle sensing sys·
tem. Radar focuses a beam of energy
through an amteona. and tben records the
reflected energy. These signals are. swept
across the lalldscape and the rerurns assem-
bled to produce a radar image. Radar images
are usually monochromaric (in shades of
gray). These images may be collected day or
night. and most radar systems penetrate
clouds bec.ause water vapor does not absorb
the relatively long radar wavelengths.
LiOAR systems (or lidar, /ig/,1 de1ec1io11
a11d ranging) are also conwon. They use
lasers. typically in the visible or near-infra-
red portion of the spectum, to measure a dis-
tance from the scanner to a larget. and I.hen
calculate heights. Heights measured across
shades from black to white. or are '"Stacked''
composite color images. with specific wave-
leogth regions set 10 color blue, green. and
red outputs (Figure 6-5). Color images are
most colUll\on. as we usually collect at leas1
three spectral bands. often four. and with
some scanners up to hundreds of bands.
Each band records the amount of energy in a
specific set of wavelength. e.g.. a near-infra-
red band may record tl1e energy returned
between 0.9 and 1.0 µm.
Each indi,; dual band m.ay be thought of
as averaging the energy returned O\'er a
range of wavelengU1s. Bands may vary in
limits, e.g.. one c.amera may record a green
band Uiat senses energy from 0.6 to 0.68 µm,
while another camera may sense energy 0\ et 1

~!l i1f~~ !ll!!Y lx ~Qmbin~ !Q Hf~!e ahfight
surface and DEM. LiDAR is described in
detail in a later section.
Images we view eitherdisplay a sing.le
range of wavelengths and appear in gray
!ht r.mge ffQm Q,61 tQ Q,67 11m, Dam for~
band may be conceived as stored in a grid,
representing the reflectance for each cell. or
pixel. over the area imaged.
244 GIS Fundamentals
We must assign eac,h recorded bru1d 10 a
color on our displayed image. Images. bolh
on a monitor or a hardcopy. are created by
mixing primary colors, typically blue-green.
red. We assign one layer recorded for one
band 10 the green color. and variation in
intensity sensed in 1he band translates into
the range of dark 10 light greens for this
layer. We do the same for red and blue lay-
ers. assigning an input band to each. We then
combine lhe bands. tliat is. the colors for
each corresponding pixel. to create a com-
posite. multi.band image.
Tn,e color images are most common.
and for these we assign the red-sensed band
to the red color on ouput. the green.sensed
band to the green output color. and dle blue-
sensed bond to the blue output color. This
Multi-band
image
data
__....,v·
' mixmg 1he colon. to fonn ~ new color
I ~......-
//, I
:o I 'v
, /_
01
;
.,. :;s. • .,,.
..- . ....
i • '11
provides an image simiJar to the colors
observed by lhe human eye.
We may also assign different band com·
biaations or different orders. Many aerial or
satellite sca1mers sample in four or more
bands. including an infrared band in addilion
to the three visible bands. The Sentinel satel-
lite scanner. described later in tllis chapter.
collects thirteen bands. We must choose
which of tJ,ese bands "ill be assigued
respectively 10 tbe blue. green. and red dis·
play colors. Different band selections USU·
ally result in different displayed images.
with abnom~,1 colors for fearures. e.g.. green
vegera1ion may appear purple or red.
depending on the band combinations used.
We rypically choose the bands that best help
us identify imponam features.
Fiaurf' 6-5: Color ini21ct :u-c (on,1cd
by ··.sa.clcing.. lafCr5 Ill.at •ernc
i----""\ rdlcc1cd COC1J}' in sp«ific s~tral
I \ 00;,dt., au ign.ing c11cb balld 10 a pri-
J ----~--. n\.'l1r blu.c, peen. Of red color, :md
(or each cell. Scatu1<"rs with mo~ than
d'lrtt b11nd1 allow mo" co1nbin111ions
ofl»nds and color au ig,uncQlf, wbid1
often aids in idcuti.fyiog Uoportanl fca-
woter
rur«.
-
•

Aerial Images
Images taken from airborne cameras are
a prin:t,1ry source of geographic data. Aerial
photography ,quickly followed tl1e invemiou
of portable cameras in tile mid-I 9tl> c:enrury.
and became a practical reality with the
development of dependable airplanes in the
early 20th century (Figure 6-6). Ph01ogM111·
meh)'. the science of measuring geomeny
and mnpping from images, was well devel·
oped by the eruly 1930s. and there have ooeu
continuous refinemenis since. Aerial images
underpin most large.area maps and surveys
in most countries. Digital mapping cameras
became conu,1on in the 21st cennny. largely
supplanting a.erial cameras. and are often
carried aboard aircraft optimized for aerial
surveys (Figure 6-7). Aerial images are rou-
tinely used in urban planning and manage.
meat construction. engineering. agricullure.
forestry, wildlife management. and other
mapping applications.
Althougb there arc hundreds of applica-
tions for aerial image.s. most in support of
GIS may be placed into three main catego-
ries. First aerial images are often used as a
basis for mapping. 10 identify and outline
objec'ls. Measurements on images offer a
rapid aud accurate way to obtain geographic
coordinates. particularly \\1len image mea-
Fiiur,r 6.-6: Acri3l stlf'\·cys began ,bor1ly 3ftCT
the dc,:dopmeot of n:liable airplanes: and por1a·
blc. fl.bu-based e11m«a1 (cour1es:y Cauadi.itn
Go,•c-nm,e:nt Pll.()IOgr.ti>hic .-\.rcbi\ 'CS).
Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 245
Flg,urt- 6-7: AdUl1 pl101o ~bi lkrc often tllknt
from spcci.,li.:r¢d nircr:if1, $1.lCh .:ai this low 3hitude
airplauc:. or &om bdicoptcn or higher-flying.
J~craircraft (courtesy Sc-.ttbitd Ltd.).
suremenls are combined \\1ith ground sur-
veys. In a second major application. image
imerpreta1ion may be used ro categorize or
assign attributes to surface features. Images
are often used for landcover and infrostruC·
mre mapping. and to assess the extent of fire.
flood. or other damage. Finally, images are
often used as abackdrop for maps of ocher
feamres. as when photographs are used as a
backgrow1d layer on web maps or for soil
survey maps produced by tl1e U.S. National
Resource Conservation Service.
Aerial Mapping Systems
There are aerial camera systems and
platfonns specifically designed for inapping,
The camera and components are built 10
minimize geometric distortion and maximize
image quality. Mapping cameras have fea.
nires to reduce image bh~ d\1e to aircraft
motion. enhancing image qualily. They
maintain or record orientation angles. so dis·
1onions crui be removed. These camera sys-
tems are precisely made, sophisticated,
highly specialized. and expensive, and most
often 11sed wben large,area. higJ1-resolu1io11.
accurnle images are required.
Modero aerial cameras are typically
mounted inside an aircraft. pointing 1brough
an underside boy (Figure 6-8). The camera
moum and aircraft control systems are
designed to maintain the camera optical axis
246 GIS Fundamentals

as near vertical as possible. Aircraft naviga-
1ion and comrol sys1ems are specialized 10
support aerial pho1ograpby, with precise
posi1ioning and n.ight control.
Aerial cameras sp«ializw for ipa1ial
data collection are large. expensive~and
complex. bu1 in principle they are similar 10
simple cameras. A simple camera consislS of
a lens and a body (Figure 6-9). The Jens is
1ypicaJJy made of several iudi,~dual glass
elements. with a diaph,·ngm or othtr mecha-
nism to control the amount of ligh1 reaching
the sensing media. dte digi1al sensor (or in
1imes past film). These sensors have a char·
acteristic dimension. sd. and for digital sen-
sors, a pixel size, that when combined with
1be flying heigh1 (H). and focal Jeng,11 (h),
de1ennine 1he groond resolu1iou and imaged
are.a. An exposure control. such as a slumer
wi1hin 1be lens. se1s 1be lengll, of 1ime 1be
sensing elemem is expose<l 10 ligh1. Cameras
also have an oprico/ nx,S, defined by the sen-
sor orientuion. Toe op1icaJ axis is the cen1ral
direction of the incoming image. and it is
precisely orien1e<l 10 intersec11he sensor in a
perpendicular direc1ion. Digj1al ·sensors are
connec.ted to electronic- storage so that suc-
cessive images m.,y be sa,oed. Images are
recorded a1a surface calle<l 1he camera's
/0<:11/ plm,e. ideally perpendicular 10 1he
optical axis. The 1ime. alli1ude. and other
condi1ions or infom1a1ion regarding 1be pho·
1ographs or mapping projecl may be
recorded by lhe camera, often as an elec-
1tonic ltroder on digi1al image files.
Base scale and e:ae111 are important
anribmes of rem01ely sensed data. Image
scale. as in map scale, is defined as the rela-
tive distance on the image to the correspond-
ing dis1ance on 1he ground. For example. I
inch on a I: 15.840-scale pho1og.raph corre·
sponds to 15.840 inches on the Earth's sur·
face. As shown in Figure 6-9. image scale
will be h/H. 1he ra1io of focal Jeug1h 10 fly.
ing height

Fizurt ~8; An e'JUlltlple of 1he 6QPb.i.nicated ~ ·,tcm (upper left) for controlling digital inagc collection.
bc:rc with a Lc:ica Gcosystc1m ADS40 digital aerial camcr,: (lower riah.1), These systems rcwrd *Od display
fliaJu p:1ths rutd Cllffi«a s111tio1u in rcal time. aud ffi3)' be used to plnn. execute, and 1n01ll1<>t" iin113c data col·
lcc1ion (courtesy L<ie.a Gcosyt.lcn\S).

Im.age ex.tent is the area covered by an
image. an<I depends on 1he physical size of
the sensing area or elemem (S<l in Figure 6-
9). lhe camera focal length (h). and the fly.
ing heigh1 ( H), according 10:
gd,sd " H/h (6.1)
The exle,tt depen<ls on 1he physical si.ze
of1he recording media, sd (e.g., 5 x 5 cm
digital sensor). and tl1e lens sys1em and fly.
ing height For e.,ample. a 5 cm sensing ele-
menl with a 4 cm focal length lens flown at
3.000 m beiglu (abo111 10.000 fl) resulls in an
exient of approximaiely 3. 75 by 3.75 km2
(5. l mi2) on che surface of the Earth.
Jmnge l'f!.$Q/ution is another imponam
concept. The:resolution is the smallest object
that can reliably be de1ec1ed 0111he image.
Resolution in digital cameras is often se1 by
the pixel s.iie-. die size of individual sensing
elements in the sensing array. For example. a
5 x 5 cm amy with 7.000 cells in each direc-
focol
plone
body -
,oco':,
ten¢,
lens ond _ _...
d1cphrogrn
H
flying
ophCOI - , ' - - h<oghr
o,<,s
gd, grouod d,stonc.e
Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 24 7
lion will have a cell sile ofO.osn,000,
which is 7.1 x 10·6 m. or 7.13 µi11
The realized or ground resolution on
aerial images may be approxirua1ely calcu-
lated from equation (6, I), subsrinuing cell
dimension for sensor dimension. sd. In our
example, if the caruern bas a 10 cm (0. 1 m)
focal length. and is flown ar 3.000 m. the
ground resolution is:
0.21 m • 7,1 x 10·6 • 3.000 IO 1 (6.2)
Resolu1ion also depends on the conirast
of objects. and depends on sensor response.
Resolulion may be tested via photographs of
al1erna1ing panerns of black. and \\1lite lines.
At some threshold of line width. the differ-
ence between black and white lines cannot
be distinguished. gi,•ing the effective resolu·
tiOtL
Digital Aerial Cameras
DigitaJ aerial cameras are die most com-
mon S}~tems used for aerial mapping. They
1ypically co11sist of an electronic housing
that silS a1op a lens assembly (Figure 6-10).
The leas focuses light onto charge-coupled
devices (CCDs) orsiniilar electronic sensing
elements. The CCO contains linear or rect-
angular arrays ofpixels. or picture elements.
that respond 10 light
The sensing element is composed of lay-
ers of semiconducting material with appro-
priate reOective and absorptive coatings.
insulators. aud conducting electrodes (Fig-
ure 6-1 1). Incoming radiation passes tl1rough
the coatings and imo the semiconductors.
dislodging elecirons and crealiog a vohage
or current. Response may be calibrated and
con,·eCled 10 measures of light intensity.
Response varies across \l'll\'~length. but can
be tuned to wavelength regions by manipu-
lating semiconductor composition. Since o,e
pix~ls are in an array. the amy then defines
an image.
248 GIS Fundamentals

Digital cameras sometimes use a multi-

Fi.Jurt 6-10; Di,gi1;ii.l 1tcri.al c~mems arc , upcrfi·
cially similar 10 61.i:n aerial CMIIC"nH, but typically
comai.n 11Utny and more. sopbiaticatcd cl~tl'011ic
¢6i\,P6f!Ci\lA (¢0\li'lij;}' Ltit!I Gt~·.tttfiU).
Jens cluster rather than a single Jens. or they
may split the beam of incoming light via a
prism. diffraclion grating, orsome other
mechanism (Figure 6-12). Since CCDs are
typically configured to be sensidve 10 only a
narrow band of light, multiple OCDs may be
used. each with a dedicated lens and a spe-
cific waveband. Multiple CCDs typically
allow more light for each pixel and wave-
band, but this increaS<?S the complexity of
tl1e camera system. If a multi-lens sysiem is
used, the individual bands from the mu1tiple
lenses and CCDs musi be careflllly co,-egis-
tered. or aligned. 10 fonn a complete multi·
band im..1ge.
Digital cameras mos, conmionly collect
images in 1he blue (0.4-0.5 µm) . green (0.5-
0.6 run). or red (0.6-0. 7 µm) portion of the
electromagnetic spec1n1m. This provides an
image approximately equal to what the
human eye perc.eives. Sys1ems oflen also
record near-infrared reflectance (0.7-1.1
µm). panicularly for vegetation mapping.
Titecamera may also have aset of filters that

o) b)
n-type slticon
( p· type silicon 110
,..__,....
• I E

-~ -i!
ooa

L
:, ':' 0.
v c
L
0
.."' ~
~04

-
0
5

-
~02
0

g o +-~~~~~~~~~~~

,oo soo 600 ,co aco 900 1000 1100

/ / lcoo1ings
( . l rnsulotor Wavelength (nanometers)
electrodes
Fiautt 6-U: CCD re1,pousc for a typical , ilicon·bas,ed r~eptor. naeCCO ~ 11 saud\\icb ofscmkonductiug
I.ayers (a, oo lcft) that jCU«'l'll« a curn-nt or , •oilajc iu propoitioo to lhc liaht rc«iwd. Response ,-arics
o,·tt ll wa,•cJeugtb «g:ion (b. on ria_h1).

may be place<l in fronl of the lens, for exam.
pie. for protection or to reduce haze.
Digital cameras typicaJly have a com-
puter control s~,ienL used to specify the
loca1ion. 1imi11g. and exJ)-OSurc; record GPS
and aircraft altitude and orientation informa-
1ion: provide data transfer and storage: and
allow 1be opera1or 10 monitor progress and
image quality during data collection.
Digital cameras may have several fea-
tures to improve data quality. For e.xample.
digital cameras may employ elec1ronic
image motioo compensation. combining
infomiation collecl'ed across several rows of
CCD pc,els. This may lead to sharper
images while reducing the likelihood or
camera malfunction due 10 fewer moving
parts. In addition. digital data may be
recorded in long, continuous strips. easing
1he produc1ion of image mosaics.
While nearly au presen1 and future
aerial images will be collec1ed with digital
CCD sensor t riplet
!blue
Trichroid
prism '---&.Ul-0>/
Light reflected
from the ground
Fltm't 6-.12: Di.a;i.1al ct1rocras oftco us,: a prism or
o.d1a- mccb11.ni.s:m 10. scp3:l"llc and direct lig:bt to
appropriate CCO uown (11dn.1>t.cd from Lcic-.11
Ocosystcrus).
Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 249
cameras, the.re is a vast ardtive of past aerial
images collected on film. Large-fonnat
films. 240 mm (9 in) on a side. were most
common for mapping. Most film.based pho·
togn1phs from mapping can1eras have been
converted to digital (omis. Their cbaracter-
stics and use are well described in the litera.
ture and are 1101 described here.
Lens and Camera Distortion
The crunera and lens in any system may
be a signiticam source of geometric error in
aerial images. The perfect lens--c-amera-
detector sys1em wo,tld exac1ly project the
viewing geometry of the target onto the
image recording surface. either film orCCD.
The relative locations of features on the
image in a perfect camera system would be
exactly the same as 1he relative locations on
any viewing plane that is in front oftbe lens.
Real camera systenis are nor perfect and may
distort the image. For example, tl1e light
from a point may be bent slightly when trav-
eling through 1he lens. or optical axis/focal
plane mis-alignments may s:kew the im,,ge.
both causing image distortion.
The mapping camera systenis typically
carried on large aircraft are -engineered to
minimize systematic errors. Lenses are
designed and precisely manufactured so th.1t
image.distorlion is minimized. Camera parts
are optimized to ensure a fojtbful rendition
of image geometry. Sensors and motmts are
painstakingly aligned 10 reduce perspective
angle distortion. This optinrization leads to
extremely high geornenic fidelity in 1he
camera/lens systent Thus, camera and lens
distortions in mapping cameras are typically
much smaller than other errors. for example.
pointing or terrain errors. discussed in the
nexl section. or digititing errors when con.
vcning the image data to forms useful in a
GIS.
250 GIS Fundamentals

Undistorted Positive and negative spherical distortion

r :--,

'- ~

fi&nrt' 6-ll: An r:x.amplc of rndial lcn, di&iortio11. common in omt leuliCs.. aod qtiitc lnrgc in lmscs
not desigued for aerial image acquisitiou. The 1d't-1nos.1 fi~ shows a perf«t lens. while the center
and ri~1 t'.i~ show spbctical or "bruTCl"di.s.t01tioii ou1wMd and Uiward. rcspccti\·cly. LcnSC"i mttSI
be c2rcfu.lly cntflcd 10 n11nimiu tbisd"h)r1ion, 11.nd thencalibr:ucd IO 1h.1.1 rcn~ming di,1011iom uuy be
mJ)C)\'cd I.W'O\l.gb sobscqi.,cul Ull.ilgc procc$$ing,

Radial /e,1s displacemem is a common

form of distortion i_
n less expensive cameras
that should be corrected in mapping projects.
All manufactured lenses contain imperfec-
tions in the lensslmpe. These cause radial
distortions inward or outward. or sometimes
botib front 1he m1.e image loca1ion (Figure 6·
I 3). Radial lens d.isplacement is typically
quite small in the large, expensive, special-
ized mapping can:ieras Oown on large air-
craft. A radial displacement ctirve or other
equations can be used to correct camera and
lens errors and yield the highest mapping
accuracies.
Camera.caused geometric errors are
often quite large when using a non-mapping
camera. conunon with drone-based imaging.
Radial distortion may be large when com-
pared to mappi11g cameras. Non-mapping
cameras may be appropriate when geometric
accuracy requiremenJs are lower and when
proper methods are applied to calibrate and
correct 1he larges• geometric errors. TI1ese
methods usually include bench or field scan,
ning of image calibration J)<lnels (Figure 6·
14) a11d appropriate correction models. Soft-
ware may 00 appl.ied 10 estimate error pat-
terns. calculate camerallens-specific
correction equations. and apply these to
reduce distortion. While not as accurate. as
mapping cameras., corrected images from
non-mapping cameras may meet project
Flturt 6, 14: Drone calilmuion pand and camm
distor1io1L foi:1.gcd p.iltCTIJS lll'C comp.ired 10 1ruc
pat1cm lcxatious 10 CO'lffct lens ttnd ec.imen m'Ots:
and Uupro,·c im.agc gcoo)C:tric acc:umcy (CO\ttlcS)'
S. Con3ttss).
accuracy thresholds. If these correction
methods are not applied, large g<!Ometric
errors are likely. The following sections
describe remaining geometric enor causes
and removal. assuming camera/Je11sdistor·
tions have been addressed.
Aerial Image Spatial Accuracy
Aerial images are arich source of spatial
infom1ation. but most aerial images contain
some geometric distortions (Figure 6-15
through Figure 6-18). C\'eo if taken with per,
feet camera systems. T11ese distortions mus1
be corrected before the inmges are used in
mapping.
We most often conceive of o ur spatial
data layers as 011/,ographic. witlt all objec1s

projec1ed onto a common. 1wo-dimensiona.l
plane (Figure 6- 15, right). Objecis above or
below the plane are venically projecied
down or up o:nto the horizontal plane. Thus.
1he top and oonom of a building should be
"flanened downward" 01110 the same (oot-
prin1 in the datum plane. ln our ideal data
set. the tops of all buildings would be visi-
ble. b111 none of the sides.
Unfonunately. most aerial or satelli1e
images provide a non-oribographic perspec-
rlre l"iew (Figure 6-15. left). Perspec1ive
views give a geometrically distorted image
of the Eanh's surface. OiStonion affec1S the
relative positions of objects.. and uncorrected
data derived from aerial im,1ges may not
directly overlay data in an accunne
onhograpbic map.The amou111 of distonion
in aerial images may be reduced by selecting
1he appropri~te camera. lens. Oying heigb1.
and cype of aircraft. Distonion may also be
controlled by collecting images underproper
weather concLi1ions during periods of low
wind and by employing skilled pilots and
perspective view
~ -#-f----'tr's--~
f'ii:,1.1rt- 6-15: Pmpc,cti\'c (Jcll) and ortbo(!raph.ic (rig)1t) \ i C'\,' f, Orthogrnpbic ,icws projcC"I nt ri$ht rmglcs to
the danun plane, a"i if ,ic-wing; from an in6m1c bC1gh1. Pcnp«ti\'c ,icws project from a fi,ccd newing loca·
tion on10 tltc a dntum pfauc with soroc a.pp:ltt111 lcrut due to ,·icwing: nniic.
Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 251
opernlors. However. some aspects of the dis·
1onion may 1101 be controlled. and no camera
system is perfect, so 1bere is some geomeb'ic
distortion in every uncorrecled aerial image.
The real question becomes. "is !he dis1ortiou
and geometric error below acceptable limits.
given the iniended use of the spatial data1··
This ques1iou is not unique to aerial in,ages:
it applies equally well to sarellite images.
spatial data derived from GNSS and tradi-
1ional ground swveys. or any other data.
The larges, distortion in aerial images
taken wi1h mapping c-ame.ras comes from
two sources: terrain variatfo,n and camera
tilt. particularly when using an aerial mair
ping camera or when prope.rly calibrating
and correcting non-n.spping cameras. e.g ..
\\itb drone/UAV in~1ges. Atmospheric bend-
ing is relatively minorunder most condi1ions
when collec1ing aerial imag<?S. bm may still
be unacceptable. particularly when the high-
est-quality data are required! Esiablished
me1hods should be used to reduce the typi-
cally dominant till and terrain erroni. and for
orthographic view
[I
•
datum plane
/ \--.-.-~~---,--,-
252 GIS Fundamentals
non-mapping cameras. the previously
described lens and can1era dis1onion.
Terrain and Tiit Distortion In
Aerial Images
Terrain variation. defuied as differences
in elevation within the image area, is often
the large.s.t source of geometric distortion in
aerial images. Terrain variation causes relief
displaceme111. defined as the horizootal
shifts in object positions on images due to
differences in ete,iation.
Figure 6- l6 iUustrates the basic princi~
pies of reliefdisplacement. The figure shows
the image geomeuy over an area with su~
stantial differences in terrain. The reference
surface (dalllm pf;ane) in this example is cho·
sen 10 be at die elevation of the nadir poim
directly below the camera, Non 1he grow1d,
and imaged at non the photograph. The
can1era station P is die location of the cam-
era at the time of the photograph. We are
assuming a vertical pbo<ograpb, meaning the
optical axis of the lens points renically
below the amera and in1ersects 1he refer-
FiguN< 6- 16: Qe,oiuc1ric dinor·
tio11 011 311 .icri0,l pboto@r-'l)>h d,1e
to reliefdisplaccroc:nt. P is the
c:tmcta s1:u.ion. N is tbe olldll'
point. TI1c 1oc:uion$ of fc:U\lrc$
are ,hiAed. and the m3gnitmle of
their slut\ depends 0111hcir differ-
ences ul de\ J11io n from lhc
0
d.,1,un., Md the poiol'• diS11lJ)CC
from o3dir. UulC$5 4'(HTcctcd. lhi.s
will rc,s.uh in flOl!l·Ortbot::niphic
i.i1111ge,1, ruwl crTors i.n loc311011,
dii"11tl'.lcc, dl.ipc. nud ;\rel\ for111'.lv
spatial data dcrh ·cd from tbc,e'
i.inafcS (adtiptcd from Lillcu11<1.
Kicta, 111ld Chipm:in. 1007).
ence datum surface al a righl angle at the
nadir location.
The locations for poinls Aand Bare
shown 011 the ground surface. Tl,e corre·
sponding loca1ious for 1hese poims occur a,
A"and s· on the reference datum surface.
These locations are projected outo the imag.
i11g sensor or fdm. as they would appear in a
photograph taken over this varied 1errain. ln
a real camera. dte sensor is bebi11d dte lens:
however. it is easier 10 visualize the dis-
placemen1by showing the seosor in front of
the lens, and the geometry is the same. Note
that the points o and bare displaced from
their reference surface locations. o' and b'.
The point o is displaced radially outward rel-
ative ,o o·. be<:ause lhe eleva1ion at Ais
higher tlmn the reference surface. The dis-
placement ofb is inward rela1ive to b'.
because Bis lower than the reference datum.
Nole that any points that ha,~e-elevations
exactly equal 10 the elevation of the refer·
ence damm will not be displaced. because
the reference and ground surfaces coinc.ide
at thO!t pOifilS.
A
A'
 Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 253

Figure 6--16 illustrates the following key

charac1eristlcs of terrain dls1on.ion in vertical
aerial images:
Ten'fli" dis1onio11s m-e mdia/ - bigher eleva~
tions are displaced 0111ward. and lower ele·
vations displaced inward relal'ive to the
cenler point.
Reliefdistonions affect tmgl~ and distances
011 au image - relief distoniou changes the
distances between poims. and will change
most angles. Straight lines on the ground flgutt 6'.17: An cumplc o(tilt dit.-tonio". Crop
will not appear to be straight on the image. ba1ic;h of cqu,,1 width appear na.lTOwc:r tow:inh 1ltc
and areas wil.l expand or shrink. horizon in this highly tilted image (~ut1C5)'
USDA).
Scale i.s not c·onsrm11 011 ,mcorrected aerial
images - scale changes across lhe photo-
graph and de!Peods on the magnitude of the placement is large. it will add significant
relief dispJacement. We may desc.ribe an errors.
average scale for a vertical aerial photograph Camem tilr may be another large source
over varied terrain. but the m1e scale of positional error in aerial images. Camera
between any ·two points will often differ. tilt in which the optical axis points at a non.
A vertical aerial image taken 01·<w,w'ied vertical angle. results in complex perspe.c-
ren·afn is nor onhogmpl,ic- ,ve c.annot 1fre comsergeuce in aerial images (Figure 6-
expect geographic data from terrain-dis- 17). Objects farther away appear 10 be closer
torted images to match 011hogrnphic data in together than equivalently spaced objects
a GIS. If the distortions are small relative 10 that are nearer the obscrver{Figure 6· I8).
digitizing error orother sources of geometric Tih distortion is zero in \'ertical photo·
error. then data may appear to match data graphs. and increases as tilt increases.
frolll orthographic sources. If the relief dis-

Vertical Tilted

Side
view

R€SUlti~
distortion

Fl(ui-t 6, 18:: [sn11.~ dis1ortion <:3Ukd by a tilt in 1.bc <:a1ucr:1 optical uis rcfath-c 10 die ~round 1tufacc. llic
penipcc11,-c distonion. i;.bow11 at the: bonom right. rc:suhs fi'oin c:.hru1gc:s in 1hc: ,-iewing dist1Lncc: acrou 1bc
pbo1ograph.
254 GIS Fundamentals

Contracts fo~ aerial mapping missions Tilt is often characterized by three

typically specify till angles of less than 3 angles of rotation. omega (w). plti (~). and
degrees from vertical. Perspective distortion kappa (K) (Figure 6-19). about tile x. Y. and
caused by 1:ih is somewhat difficult 10 Z axes that define three-dimensional space.
remove. and removal tends to reduce resolu· Rotation abou1 the Z axis does DOI result in
tion near the edges of the image. rtierefore. tilt dis1011ion. because it is pe!pendicular
efforts are made to minimize lilt dis1or1ion with 1he surface. lf (a) and «ii are zero. lhen
by maiu1aining a venical op1ical axis when there is no tilt distortion. However, till is
images arc collec1ed. Camera motulling sys- almost always present. even in s mall values.
tems are devised so the optical axis of the so all three rotation angles are required 10
lens points directly below. and pilots attempt describe and correct it.
to keep the aircra:ft on a smooth and level Tilt and terrain distonion may occur
flight path as much as possible. Planes have together on aerial images taken over varied
stabilizing mecha:nisms. and cameras may be terrain. The overall level of distortion
equipped with compensating mechanics 10 depends on the amount of till and the varia-
maintain an untilted axis. Despite these pre- tion in 1'errain. and also on the photographic
cautions. tilt happens, due to flights during scale. Figure 6-20 illustrates the changes in
windy conditions_ pilot or i11Slrumem error. total distonioo with changes in tilt. terrain.
or system design. and image scale. This figure shows the error
that would be expected in data digitized

' . ,,
.
Yp
,·
! y
J(
••
•• •• • • •

····,.............

-·
)(..
•••. rQIOIO'\
c:tkXl1 lhf; /j

· -·-.-· c
:
' ?
.•"f.. • /_.,,..
.···
...... !! ....~ .••
....·····----j ······-.... . ··········.·.......
. ••··' i ···••••
' j
.:
•.••·'y /
/
:
:

·······-..... ..!.:•.·•'.~·
!
...········ "

FJaurt ~19: Im11$,Crih ,1u:i;ks 11te often "-pceificd by tot:atiou, a.boul tbe X a.'tis (a113k ro). the Yaxia
i,nglc ~). and ihc Z n.,,;it (~ogle ~').
 Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 255

from vertical aerial images ,,1ien only apply·
ing an affine uansformation (see Chapter 4).
a simple proeedure used 10 register data lay-
ers. These error plots mimic digitizing from
partially corrected aerial images. common in
less-sopbistic:ated processing packages. or
when GNSS data are sub-optimal. Note first
that there is zero error across all scales when
the ground is flat and there is no rill (bonom
line, top panel in Fignre 6-20). With tilt,
errors increase as image scale decreases, as
you move from left 10 right in both panels.
Error also increases as tilt or terrain increase.
Geometric errors can be quite large.
even for venical images over moderate ter·
rain (Figure 6-20. lower panel). These
graphs cle.arly show thal tilt alone introduc.es
large errors. and terrain furtlter degrades
geometric accuracy iu aerial images 10 1be
point where d1ey are inappropriate sources
for GIS data. Some form of correction. usu-
ally based on stereo coverage and projection
geometry, is required
Stereo Photographic Coverage
As noted above. relief displacemenl in
venical aerial images adds a radial displace-
mem that depends on terrain heights. The
larger the terrain differences. the Ja~er the
relief displacement. If two overlapping pho-
tographs are taken. called a ~te•-eopnir. these

· ~ hit O Flat Terrain

-a- 1111 >O' 10 14
- o- 1111 ,1, to28
- - TIT >2.8. TO ,e Z""

o._..,,~----,-:-·---~..,~------;.,~-------·--~-.,o_-_-_-·. ,-;-,-·-------;,..,-
Photo scate (1,0005)

100 - ,111 0' Varied Terrain

--o- !di >()• lo I 4
• -0- 1111 >1.C IO 28
_._ Till >78 TO I.~

.. . . . . -·-·
0
'--,,o,--'"'
,s--:20"'"'°-~2""'"'°-"'a"'o--:J-,s--,-,o-
Photo scare (1.000s)
Fi1111'f 6-20: Tem,in 111ld till effects on me:1;u porition:-.1 envr whco digi1izing from u21<'Qn"Ccted aerial
iwag-e,. OlS1:orti.oo in('~SC:s: when tih and temiu increase. ~ud u photo seak d«reascs. (from Bols:tacL
1992).
256 GIS Fundamentals

photographs may be used 1oge.1her 10 deter-
mine the relative ,elevation differences and
remove distonion.
A srereomodel is a three-dimensional
perception of1errain or other objecti tha1 we
see when viewing a stereopair. As each eye
looks at a different. adjacent photograph
from the overlapping stereopair. we observe
a set of relative spatial shifts in objects, and
our brain may convert these to a perception
of depth.
Stereomodels are \~Sible in stereopairs
due to poml/ar. a shift in relief displacemeo1
due to a shift in observer loca1ioo. Figure 6-
21 illustrates parallax. The block (closer 10
the viewing locations) appears 10 shift less
than the sphere wlteo the viewing location is
changed from the left 10 the right side oflhe
objects. The displacement of any given point
is different on 1be left vs. the right views
because the relative viewing geometry is dif-
ferent. Points are shifted by different
amounts. and the magnitude of the sttift
depends on the distance from the observer
(orc.amera) to the objects. This shift in posi-
1ion with a shift in \~ewing Joca1ion is by
deCmi1ion the parallax. and is the basis of
depth perception.
Many mapping projects collect stereo
photographic coverage. in whicb sequeolial
photographs i.n a flight line overlap. called
e11dlap. and adjacem fligb1lines overlap.
call.ed sidelap (Figure 6-22). Stereo photo-
graphs typically have near 65% -end lap from
one image to the oex1 in a line. and 25%
sidelap for adjacent Hoes. Some digital cam-
eras collec1 da1a in continuous s•rips and so
only collect sidelap. Orone-based c0Uec1ions
often have nearly 100% end lap or side lap.
depending on lhe project and method for
data collec1io11.

Ground view • left Ground view • righ1

• ••

'
••

PIOl"I Vl(W - 1tf1 Plan view .. nghl

fli::u1·e- 6· 21: An iUuitnitioo o! pamllax. tbc app,rnu rdati,·e ,hifi in die pos-ition or obj«1s wi.th a ,hifl in
lhc vicwc:r's position. Obj«1s that tttc fort.bet ll\\'llY (sphcn:,. nbo\'c) aP!)('tir 10 s.hi.ft more wbe11 ;a ,-icwe:r
cb3ug« posi1iou. This 1$ 1he basit ofstereo dcpd1 J)CTC<ption.
 Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 257

thghrtine flight tine

oenot
Image t

.... . .. .. .. ..
. -•.· ..... .. .. . . . . - . . ·. . . . . ....-. ... ·.. ...... .. .- ...... .•
•
. . . . . .. .;
. .. . . . . . - .. . . . . . -.. .... . ...-.
• •
. . • • •
. . • •
____.__ .... ____. ...a.. • ~·· J.& •

.
.
?.. .
:

..:
-
l
.: .
: ..
:
:
:
It-II' :
' sidel3D
••~
.. : .E'
.•... ~Ot
,.

Fli;:utt 6-22:: Aerial im1111,cs oftc:o o,·crlap to allow thrcc-dimcosiooal meas.UttUlClll:S aud the c:orrcc1ion of
teltcf dispbee11lC'.11t S~nni:al ii'n11get aloo3 a fiiWu p111b lltc: t"kc:n at i.mcr.·11.Js i-uch 1Juit d1c:n: is a11an:11 of
O\'a lnp, d)ow11 in tbc side ,·iew ln the top figure:. Flightfom n1oiy be $))need so th:111 tbe edges of '1icccui,·e
rows overlap. creating siddap (bottom !cit), Titc grouped photos ~rcmc a pbotom0$aic (bottom right),
258 GIS Fundamentals
Geometric Correction of Aerial
Images
Due 10 the geoometric dis1onious
described earlier. uncorrected aerial i_mages
should be corrected before digitizing. Poims,
lines. and area boundaries may 1101 occur in
their correct locations. so length and area
measuremenls may be incorrect These dis-
tortions are a coniplex mix of terrain and 1ill
effects. and camera and lens diS1onions. and
will ch.1nge the locations. angles, and shapes
of features in 1he image and any derived
data. Spatial data deriv«I from 11ncorrec1ed
or partially corrected pho1ographs will not
properly align with fearures in other layers.
A river may fall on the wrong side of a road
or a city street may be located in a lake.
Given all the positive characteristics of
aerial images. how do we best use this rich
source of infonn,-.tion? Fommately. pho10-
gramme1ry provides the fools needed 10
remove geometric distortions from pbOfO·
graphs. These correc1ions depend on two
A -
s h
\ I yB
..:r---"-f-"'---------:~ __,__
- D --j
-----P-----
1
Fiau~ 6. 23: Rdi:cf dispbccmcru mA.y be calcufatcd b.ucd Cll g.comc1ric mc:uurcnmu. Sil'l'lil:tlr 1ntl11glcs
$-N-C and o-n-C rc1ntc bcigbt, imd distances in lbe pbotogrnj>h nnd on the ground. We u,Ul'llly know Oy-
i.ug b¢iglu. H, and ~nu mca1,urc d And p on die pbotoppb.
primal)' sets of measurements. First. the
location of each image's perspecrh'e ceuter
cnmem orie111n1;011 must be known. Tl1ese
are the effec1h·e location of the camera focal
poim and pointing direction a1 the time of
imaging. It can be determined Crom precise
GNSS, or d«luc«I from grow1d measure-
ments. or a combina1ion of both. Second,
some <1irec1 or indirec1 meas\lret11e111 ofter-
rain heights must be collected. T.hese heights
may be collected a1a few points and ste-
reopairs used 10 estima1e all 01ber heights, or
they may be detem1ined from a1Jot.her
source. for example, a previous survey.
radar. or LiDAR sys1ems described later in
this c hapter. Anned with perspective center
and height measuremenls. we may correct
our aerial images.
Geometric. correction of aerfal images
involves calcula1ing the dis1onion at each
poin1. and shifting 1he image loca1ion to the
correct orthographic position. Consider the
tower in Figure 6-23. The bouom oftbe
tower at Bis imag«I on the photograph a1
p ---1
/ N

point b, and the top of the tower at poinl A is
imaged on lhe photograph a1poini o. Poi111 A
will occur on top of poi1118 on an
orthographic- map, that is. poinl B won'l be
visible. If we consider the Oat plane at the
base or the tower as the dan,m. we can use
simple geometry lo c.atculate the displace-
ment from o 10 b on 1he image. We 'll call
ibis displacement d. and go through an
explanation of the geometry used to calcu-
late tl1e displacemem.
Observe two similar triangles in Figure
6-23. one defined by the points S-N-C, and
one defined by the points o-n·C. These trian-
gles are simil,ir because the angles are equal.
that is. the innerior angle at n and Nare both
90°. the triangles share 1he angle at c. and
the interior augle at S equals lhe interior
angle at o. C i.s the focal center of the camera
lens. and may be considered the loca1ion
through which all light passes. The film in a
c.amera is placed behind the focal center;
however. as in previous figures. the film is
shown here in front of the focal center for
clarity. Note I.hat lhe following ratios hold
for the similar uiangles:
0/P • h/H (63)
and also
d/p , 0/ P (6.4)
so
d/p • h/H (6.5)
rearranging
d . p' h/H (6.6)
where:
d • displacement distance
p = distance from 1he nadir point, n, on
lhe venical photo 10 the imaged
poim o
Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 259
H • flying height
h = height of the imaged point
We usually know the flying height, and
can LUeasure the distance p. lfwe canget h,
lhe height of the imaged point above the
datum. then we can calculate the displace.
mem. We nl1gh1 climb or survey 1hc tower to
measure its height. h. and 1hen calculate the
photo displacement by equation (6.6). Relief
displacement for any elevated location may
be calculated provided we know the height.
Heights !ewe long been calculated by mea-
surements from s1ereopairs. bui are increas-
ingly measured using LiDAR. described
later in this chap1er. These heights and equa-
tions are used to adjust the positional distor·
tion due to elevation, "movi.ng" imaged
points to an orthographic position.
Figure 6·24 illustrates tile distortion in
an image of a straight pipeline right.of.way.
bent on the image by differences in height
from ,,alleys to rigdctops (left). Knowledge
of image geometry allows us to correcl the
distortion (Fignre 6,24 right).
Equation (6.6) applies to vertical aerial
images. When photographs .are tilted. the
distortion geometry is much more compli·
c.ated. as are the equations used to cakulate
tilt and elevation displacement. Equations
may be derived 11tat describe 11\e 1hree-
dimensiooal transfer froUl tile terrain surface
to the two-dimensional film plane. These
equations and 1he methods for applying 1hem
are pan oflhe science of pbotogrametry.
Typically. measurements of image x and
y are initially specified relative to some aroi·
trary. image.specific coordinate system.
These measuremen1s are ob•ained from one
or many images. Ground X. Y. and Zcoordi·
nates come from precise global positioning
system surveys, and 1hese points are identi-
fied on each image, and the arbitrary. image·
specific.x and y coordinates extracted.
A se1 of equa1io11s is wrinen that rela1cs
image x and y coordinates to ground x. Y.
and Z coordinates. The set of equa1io11s is
solved. and 11te displacement calcttla1cd for
each point on each image. There is a sepa-
260 GIS Fundamentals

Fla:u1·t 6. 24: Au c:nmpk of distortion rcmon1I wbcit CMl1fl3: an onboimat;c. A n~rly sttaij.bl pipeline
rigbt-of-wiy sp:ms wicmttcicd (!d i) a1id Con'Cctcd (rigtu) images, (rom 1bc: lowcnigh11et upper left in c:3Ch
i.m..gc. The p;11h *,Ppenn bcot in the im.agc 01) tbc lc:11 ai. it 11l~1c:ly c:liml.>s rid1,cs nnd dcscmcls into \'al·
le)'&, Using c:quat100, <kKribed in this s«ti.ou. tb«e di,tonioos may be reruo\·c:d. resulting in •be
ortboaraphic una;c on then.in. s.bo\\~ the: neatly straight pipeline tr.ajc:c1ory (c:our1c:.sy USGS).

rate se1 of equations foreach image, relatfog

the displacement to locations ou the image.
The displacement may then be removed and
an onhographic image or map produced.
Although some (hopefully so.ill) distortion
remains. distances. angles. and areas are
more accurately represe.nted on the output
image. These out!)Ut images. also known as
011hopl101ograpl,s or dtgitol orthog,-aphic
;mages, have the positive attributes of photo·
graphs. witb their rich detail and timely cov-
erage. and some of the positi\,e attributes of
cartometric m..1ps~ suc.h as ,mifonn scale and
true geometry.
Multiple images or image strips may be
aualyzed. corrected, and s1itched 1ogetl1er
into a single mosaic. This process of devel·
oping pholomode·ls of multiple images all a1
once utilizes interrelated sets of equations to
imd a globally optimum set of corrections
across all images~
 Chapler 6: Aerial and Salelltte Images 261

Small Unmanned Aerial Veh i-

cles: Drones
Small. urunanned planes and beLicopters
have been introduced over 1be past decade
(Figure 6.25). Variously called unmanned
aerial vehicl~s (UAVs), remo1ely piloted
vehicles (RPVs). or simply drones. 1hey may
substantially reduce the cosl and incre.ase lhe
Oexibili1y of <lata collection. Data from
drones often require increased processing
times and exhibit more variable accuracy,
given the small foo1print and greater diffi-
culty maintaining a level orientation in these
sm..ill aircraft. They most often c.all)' small
digilOI cameras, allhougb drones may also
cany other sensor systems. Image acquisi-
tions are often at low tlying heigl1ts and
exiremely high resolu1ions (inches to IO's of
centimeters). and small areas.
One prim1ary advantage of drones is low
cost and ease of deploymen1. Many drone
systems for professional-qualiiy GIS da1a
collection cmrrelllly coSI less than $20,000,
and some below SS.000. including all sub-
systems for c,oovening raw images into flou,·• 6-26: UAV systems fo, GIS l>'l?;cally
iuc:ludc Oi¢11·phtuning utilities 10 if)C('1fyadcqwue
orthographic., georeferenced images. Drones imo.gc o-.·crl:ip 2.nd 11ppro.~imntc posi1:ioning (cour•
may be carried 10 a si1e and launched. often tesy ~mc:fly Led.),
by hand for the smallest uoi1s. using prepro-
granuned night lines to collect images along
a specified p•th (Figure 6-26). This allows est, provided wealher conditions allow.
da1a collection a, Ille 1ime and place of imer- Smaller da1a collec1ion windows are needed.
increasing 1he likelibood of successful da1a
capture.
High daia resoltllions may be another
advamage of UAVs. Because 1hey may be
flown at low alti1udes. pixeU size-sofa few
cemime1ers or less are possible. Individual
bridge beams. rooftop fans. or paths may be
resolved. lending to more detailed data. with
very high poim densi1ies (Figure 6-27).
Smaller UAVs are limited in their data
co1Jec1ion rates. and likely will 001 be suit·
able for areas much larger 1ls1n a few 10 1ens
of square kilometers. '!'hey fly al relatively
low speeds. and 1ypically cany small camera
zd sys1ems wi1h commensura1ely small image
FIJutt 6,.25: The seuscfly cBcc, an dUIU.lplCc o( foo1prin1s. UAVs for GIS dala collection
i;m:\.11 UAV/d.rone1 opcimiicd for iP3ti11I tbt:i col· range in size from less 1han a me1er wing·
lcc:tion (c:ourtuy scnscfly Ltd.). span lhrough several me1ers:. aod !here is a
262 GIS Fundamentals

fi_j:UN' 6-27: A fused image/LiOAR d11«-dimcosiooal dot.t s« for 1hc Matterhorn. iu Switzcrla1»d. co1Jec1cd
with a UAV. Point ckositics arc- sclcsct«I based oo the time :1.n1ilab)c aod area to be Sllltlp!cd. ao,d not fixed. as
with nniiy s:ucllilc :.od iu sou1c c~ses ad'i:i.l systctnS (courttiy scwcFly Lui.).

trade.off, with increasing costs associated

with increasing system throughput. Larger
UAVs may collect data at rates approaching
current manned aeria.1 systems. bul in doing
so lose many of the cost. flexibility. and ,es.
olutioo advantages.
One primary dis.,dvantage of drones is
that spatial data from small UAVs are often
of poor qtmlity. Care should be taken in
choosing the proper syste.m and evaluating
flgntt 6,.28: An example oh small UAV op,i:·
realized spatial accuracies. Don•, confuse mizcd for s conictric a«lll':'IC)'· C111nc:m. !c1u ,
accuracies with resolution. Cameras often ONSS. and wftwc1rc systems b11\-c been optimized
have large spherical lens distortion. Small to pro,·idc the mosi a,ccunuc data possible at a
1uode11 cott E:tcb d11ta colkctiou syttcm should
UAVs often use less accurate GNSS and be 2&,cUcd 2g:1i.i1c1 de-sired 2ccur.,cic& ( t Olntc-.l)'
have larger positioning errors, and use inap- scuwfly Ltd.).
propriate corrections in software.
These limitations may be addressed by precise calibration using standardized test
choosing specL1lized drones and software panems. These measures are not a\lailable or
optimized for spxtial data collection (Figure applied for many UAV systems <>r softwares
6·28). For example. image correlation and marketed as spatial data <<>llection tools. It i.s
30 reconstmcliom algorithms may be robust up to the data consumer to verify the pro-
in finding correct image orientations. and claimed accuracy of any system.
advising the anal!,'StS when they are unable
to reach acceplable accuracies. Le.ns or other
system distonions may be removed through

Photo Interpretation
Aerial images are used primarily t?
ideniify the position and propen1es of mier-
e.sting fea tures. Once acquired we mus!
apply p/Joro (or image) it1terprern1io11 to con·
vert images into infonnation. in the f?nn or
vector or rasler feature layers. Photo mter-
pretatioo is a well-developed discipline. with
many special;zed 1ectu1iques. We will pro-
vide a very brief description of the pro~ess.
More compl~,e descriptions are found 111
several of tile sources listed at the end oftllis
chapter.
Interpreters use the size. shape. color.
brightness. 1e..-xrure. an~ relative ~nd absol~1e
location of f~n1res to mterpret images (Fig-
ure 6-29). typically digitizing directly on a
screen displayed ima2e. as described in
Chapter 4. Differenc;s in these diagnos~ic.
characteristics allow 1he interpre1er 10 d1s1tn·
guish among feanires. In the figure. 1he poly-
gon near the center of the image labeled
Po-C. a pasture. is noticeably smoo1her than
the polygons surrounding ii: the polygo~
above ii labeled As-YI shows a finer-gramed
texmre. reflecting smalle.r tree crowns than
the polygon l~bcled NH-Mil above it and 10
the left. Different vegetation types may show
distinct color or texture variations, road
types may be dis1ingt1islled by width or 1he
occurrence of a median strip. and building
types may be defined by size or shape.
The proper use of all the diagnostic
characteristics requires thal the photo mter·
preter de,-elop some fa1niliari~ ~,;th. the fea·
nires of i111eres1. For example. 111s difficult
to distinguish the differences be.tween many
crop types un'lil the interpreter has spe111 time
in 1he field. photos in hand. comparing wha1
appears on the photographs with what is
found on the ,ground. This ground refereoce
da1a is invaluable in developing the local
knowledge required for accurate image ..
i111erpre1a1io11. When possible, grow1d VJsns
should take place contemporaneously with
the pho!ographs.
Photo imerpretation requites we esta~
lish a target s,et of categories for interpreted
features. If w,e are mapping roads, we must
Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 263
decide what classes to use; for example, all
roads will be categorized into one oftoose
classes: unpaved. paved sing.le lane. paved
undivided mulli Jane, and paved divided
multi lane. These ca,egorie~ ruusi be inclu·
sive. so 1ba1 u, our pboios tbere must be no
roads that are multi Jane and unpaved. Jf
!here are roads that do 1101 fit in our defined
classes. we must fit them into an existing
category, or we must ere.ate a category for
them.
Photo ioterpre1ation also requi,res we
establish a minimum mappi11g 1111i1. or Miru.
A nli11imum mapping UJlit d efmes 1be lower
limit on wha1 we consider sigoi.ficant. and
usually defines the area, lenglh, and/or width
of 1he smallest iJOportan1 feature. The arrow
in the lower right comer of Figure 6-29
points to a forest opening smaUer than our
minim1un mapping uni, for ·uus example
map. We may no, be intere~,ed in open
patd1es smaller than 0.5 ha, or road seg.
men,s shoner than 50 m long. Although they
may be visible on 1he image. feanires .
smaller than the mm1mum mapping Ullll are
1101delinea,ed nor transferred into the digi1al
data layer.
llllages may need enhancement 10
iJOprove feature identifica1ion. Colllillon
adjustments include band selection. and
modification of display brigJ11ness. conlr.lst,
or iJOage hisiograms. Bands typically keep a
one-to-one. corre-spondence with tme color
images. matching e.ach output col~r to.the
respective inp111 color. Band! selecuon ,s
needed when more than three bands are col-
lected. most commonly three visible plus
near- or nlid·infrared bands. Tile aaalyst
must choose which bands 10 display and in
which output c.olor. e. g.• green, red.. and
infrared image layers 10 Ute blue. green. and
red colors of the ou1pu1 display. to yield a
typical ''false color" image wilh ~-nba~ed
vegetation discrimination. Some unagmg
systems collect addi1io11al mid-.infrared
bands. and different band combma11ons have
proven best for specific feamres. e.g.. 3 ,
greelt mid-infrared. near infrared combma-
tion for specialized cameras: and t.arge-ts.
264 GIS Fundamentals

Fiaun 6-2.9: Photo interpretation i, the proccu of ide1uifyina fcatuT«, ou au llnaic. Photo interpretation
in , uppor1 ofOIS !)'piclllly iu\'oh·c:s dig:i1izing 1hc poiuts. liuc:i. or polyt0111 for c11.1cgol'ic:,of inttttSI frolU
a ~c:orcfCRn«d digitn.l or hardcopy im~gc. In the ex.,mplc llbo\'C, 1bc: bound.vies between diftcrn11 ngc:•
tallou typcs luwc b«n i<kuti6cd based on tbc: tone and tc::<.tu:c: ~ordcd in lbc linage, The aJTOW n1 the
lower ritbt shows au ''ioclusiou are:a". 001 ddinc:accd because it i, smaller than tbc: nllninuun inappinj
w1i1.

Most GJS software allow you to change
the lxlse color assigned ro each image band.
and manipulate the ius,ge histograms 10
enhanc.e image display (Fignre 6-30). We
may optimize the various image his1ogram
tliresholds 10 best reveal the (eatures we
wish to identify. Analysts typically adjust at
least the upper and lower thresholds for each
band so that the sensc<I energy spans the
entire range of brightnesses that a computer
monitor can c!lisplay. Remember from Figure
0:irkanod
,mo,t, klwer
display thtesl'l-
olds
Flaun 6.JO: E.'t:uuplcs o( image bands and bis:tointlU 1umipulari0tu.
Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 265
6-3 that some features reflect a few percent
of the incoming radiation while orher fea.
rures reflect more the 70% in those same
bands. Differences may be obscured if dis.
play thresholds are 001 adjusted. reducing
the in(omiation that can be e.xtracted from
images. Detailed de.scriptions of more
sophisticated image eohaucements can be
found in most introductory rem0<e sensing
textbooks.
Tot irn8Qlt m.iy el$o be dnrk11neo by
111isa119 I.he 1ower bounds (1' s.121,
and 1,1, respec1IVl!ly) so th.JI imnge
values lound bololY these ate cofottrd
~ k. Other Offignmcn1s ore poss,bl~
f111her 1ri.,n ji,sl ,oi,ingllOweti~
bounds, e.o. we ean set lhlt'Sholds
l»sooon ~$l'lopocrpc,.
untages.. In !his wt'/, we (ail opt·
imite l!l'.age ~ing fOf ffla:klm11m
_ c!a,ity dumllQ fe-attft 1nterprct1Jtion
266 GIS Fundamentals
Satellite Images
The previous sections described the
basic principles of remote sensing and the
specifics of aerial image collec1io11 and cor-
ree,tion. In many respects. satcUite images
are similar to aerial images when used in
GIS. We aim to collect infomiatioo on the
location and characteristics of feamres.
However. there ac-e imponant differences
between photographic and satellite,based
systems used for image collection. and these
differen.ces affec1 1he ch.1racteris1ics and
hence uses of satellite images.
Satellite systems have se\'eral advan-
tages relative to aerial imaging systems. Sal-
ellites offer a ve,y high perspective. which
significantly reduces terrain-caused distor-
tion. Equation (6.6) shows the terrain dis-
placement (d) on an image is inve~ely
related to the flying height (H). Satellites
have large values for H, often 600 km (370
mi) or more above the Earth's surface, so
relief displacements arc correspondingly
small. Because satellites are flying above the
atmosphere. their pointing direction is very
precise. alld so till erro~ may be controlled.
There are additional trade.offs in satel-
lite vs. aerial platforms. Satellite in1ages typ·
icalJy cover larger areas. so if1he area of
interest is large, costs per unit area may be
Flt utt 6..Jl: A s:po1scrutl'li.it~ i)'S: ·
!em. The sc:umer swe~J :m nltl:m•
t.:meo~1$ field of ,ie",. {l'.FOV) in 3J>
11¢!'0$$·1:raCk di.r«tioo to record a
multispcC'tffi 1'C:Spouse. Snbk·
qun11 sweeps in :111 alongofn\.Cl.
dircctioo are capturw:d aJ the satel-
lite moves forward :along tbc
orbital p:uJL Li.ne-- or ,rid.-c:11ptut'C'
'>·stems 11rc similar.. recording nml•
tiplc lFOV& simult1111cously.
small: but conve~ely. satellite C-OSIS for
small are.as ,,~th sateUite-s may be quite b.igb.
Satellite images may N?quire specialized
image processing software. Acquisition of
aerial images may be more flexible.because
a pilot can fly or a drone sent up on shon
notice. Many aerial images have bener effec-
tive resolution than satellite ima,ges. Many
of these disadvantages of using satellite
images diminish as more. higher-rcsolmion.
poimable scanners are placed in ortlit.
Basic Principles of Sate:llite
Image Scanners
Sc.anoe.rs operate by poiotin,g the detec-
to~ at the area to be imaged. Each detector
bas an ;11s1a111auecus field ofl'iew. or CFOV.
that corresponds to 1he size of the area
viewed by each detector (Figure 6-31).
Although the IFOV may not be square and a
raster cell typically is. this IFOV may be
thought of as approximately equal io ihe ras-
ter cell size for the acquired ima.ge.
The scanner builds a two.dimensionaJ
image of the surface by pointing a detector
or detectors at each cell and recording the
reflected energy. Data are typically collected
in the across,track direction. perpendicular
 Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 267

to the flight path of the satellite. and in the

along-track direction. parallel to the direc-
tion of travel (Figore 6-31). Several scanner
designs achiC:'.ve lhis across- and along-trac.k
scanning. Some older designs use a spot
or
deiector and a system mimirs and lenses
to sweep lhe spol across track. The forward
motion of the satelLite positions the scanner
for the next swatll in tile along-track direc-
tion. Other designs have a li11e11r t1rmyof
detectors - a .line of detectors in the across.
trac-k direction (Figure 6-32). The across-
track line is sampled al once. and the for-
ward motion of the satellite posi1ions the
array for the next line in the along-track
direction, Finally. a n,-o-d;meusioual array
may be used, consisting of a rectangular
array of detectors. Reflectance is collecte<I in
a patch in bo1h the across-track and the
along-track directions.
A remote sensing satelli1e also contains
a number of other subsystems, integrated
into a single platform to suppon image data
collection (Fi.g11re 6-33). A power supply is
required. iypically consisting of solar panels fi2m•t Wl: The Lmdut g utl!'Uite uodtrgoing
and baneries. Precise altitude and orbital 6oal intc3ruiou and test.in; (courtC$y NASA).
comrol are nee<led. so satellites carry t•wi-
gation and positioning subsystems. Sensors
evah•ite satel.lite position and pointing direc- subsystem for transmitting data back to
tion. and lhn1 stcrs and other control compo- Earth and for receiving control and other
neots orient the sa1ellite. There. is a data information. All of 1hese activities are coor·
storage subsystem. and a cooumwications dinated by an onboard computing system.
Several remote sensing satellite systelllS
have been buill, and dala have been avail·
able for land surface applications since the
early 1970s. The detail. frequency. and qual-
ity of satellite. images have been improviog
• · ' ' reflected steadily, and tl1ere are several satellite
' remote sensing systems currently in opera-
Sote1t;1e Poff,
~~ ' ' ' Ught tion.
- ",-.!_ Because most satellites are in near-polar
~~ ~ orbits, illlages overlap most near the poles.
Adjacent images typically <>verlap a small
amotmt near the equator. The incline<! orbits
are often sun synchronous. meaning the sat-
Flsun· 6,..32: [dealizcd lit,c11r 11rmy 1t11.Un', s.'11-i> ellite passe.s overhead at approximately Lhe
plin,: a row of ~oec,"nccs 11crQS$-pad1 while for-·
ward ,1ucUi1c ruo1ioo brings cac-b new row into same local time.
, ·icw.
268 GIS Fundamentals
High-Resolution Satellite Sys-
tems
There is a large and growing number of
high-resolmion satellite systems. here rntber
arbitrarily defined as those with a resolution
finer than 4 m. This is me resolution long
available on the largest-scale aerial photo-
graphs. and used for fine-scale mapping of
detailed features such as sidewalks. houses,
roads. individual 1rees. and small-area lru1d-
~cape change. Co:nunercial systems provid·
mg 30 cm resolutiou are in operation (Figure
6-34). witl1 higher-resolu1ion sys1ems in 1be
offing. This detail blurs the distinction
between sa1elli1e and pho10,based images.
Image.s from high-resolution satellite
systems may provide a suitable source for
spatial dam in a n\lmber of settings. They are
typically required by ci1ies and businesses
for fine-scale asse.t management. for exam-
ple. in urban tree inventories. conscn1ction
monitoring. or stonn d.1mage assessment.
Nearly all tl1e sy<lems have poin1able oplics
or satellite orientation control. resulting in
Fi.&"!"' 6-:1-': A 0.3 11\ rcso!u1:ion imllJc ~fLltc lul.@:~lic ~inc in Wc11cm .4.rutrn.liil, dn tlOlmrn1ing 1.bc
<.ktm I,l\'ulablc from Ille lugbcs1-ruolu11011 u tdhtc unagmg $ystctru (courtesy Digit.,) Olobc.),
short revisil times, 011 the order of one to a
few days.
Spectral range. price. 3\'llilability, reli-
ability, flexibility. and ease of use may
be(ome more impor1an1 ractors dn sele(1ing
be.tween aerial images and high-resolution
s.11elli1e images. Sa1elLite data are anractive
when collec1ing data for larger areas. or
where it is unwise or unsafe to operate air-
craft. or because data for large areas may be
geometrically corrected for less cost and
time. Aerial images may be preferred when
resohuions of a few to tens of centimeters
are needed. or for smaller areas. under uar-
rower acquisition windows. or willl instru-
ment dusters not possible from space. Aerial
images will not be completely replaced by
satellites. but they may well be pushed
t~wards the finest resohllions and county-
s,zed or smaller collections.
As of early 2022, there are several oper-
~tional satelHt~ sys1ems capable of global
image acqms1uonat I mresottuion or bener.
with some as low as 15 cm. T11ese s.1tellites
and 1ela100 systems Me predomi.nautly con!·

mercial enterprises, funded and operated by
businesses. \Ve will describe examples. but
given tbe number of current systems. and
rate of development and launch of new sys.
tenis. tlte description is incomplete. In addi·
tion. there are several recemiy
decommissioned high.resolution systems for
which archive data are available and still
useful. e.g .. tbe lkonos satellite that operated
front 1999 througlt early 2015 (Figure 6-35).
and the Quickbird system. operntional from
2001 througli early 2015.
The ,vorldView Legion series are an
example of tine current generation of high·
resolution sarellites. There is a planoed con-
slellation of six satellites. with a 30 cm pan·
chromatic and 1.16 meter multispecUlll
modes. Multi$pectral bru1ds cover the ,isible
and infrared portions of the spectnun. With
pointable op1;cs. the system will provide up
to 15 images ,of any one location each day. It
flau1•t 6,3S: AO.Sm ttso1utioo fusioo inl3gc o(Vcoi«. ltal>· from the Jkono-2 satellite. NOie tll'C Gtaud
Can:\] through dtc <:cuter of iiltuid, ~ud 00l'l1 wt1kc:t \'itiblc iu duuutcls irowid die pcri1u-ctcr(cowtcsy ESA
& Digital Olobc).
Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 269
has a higher radiometric depth and spatial
accuracy and more frequent revisit schedule
than the preceding WorldView-3 ao<I World-
View~4 satellites. which car.ry a similar set
of panchromatic and visible/infrared bands.
Off-nadir resolution is poorer than 30 cm.
but sat'ellites in the Worklview series can
image the e111ire globe at be,ner tl1au 50 cm
resolution daily. Nadir images are collected
at .approximately I0:30 a.mM local time. a
common characteris1ic of these polar orbit·
ing. sun-synchronous systems.
Anotl1er set of high.resolution images
come from the Sare/lite Po11r l'Obse,,·atiou
de In Ttn1' (SPOT). version·s SPOT-6 and
SPOT-7. These are au evohllion of a set of
mid-resolution satellites. SPOT· I through
-5.described in the nexi section. The higb-
resolu1ion salellites carry a 1 .5 m panchro·
matic ru1d 6 m resolutioo mul1ispecU11l scan-
ner. the latter with four bands spanning the
270 GIS Fundamentals
visible through near-infrared speclrum (Fig·
ure 6-36). SPOT has a 60 Ian swa1b widrh a1
nadir. Nore 1ha1 Ibis larger swalh widrh pro-
vides 15 10 40 times the area coverage of the
bighes1-resolu1ion sa1elLi1es, and illustrares a
more general trad.e-otl' between saiellire
image resolution and 1he area covered by
each image. The se1 of SPOT sa1eUi1es bas a
daily revisir capati>iLiry, completely covering
the Earth's landmasses every two months.
The Dove satellire clusrer by Planet Inc.
carries this 001io1t of aconstellationof small.
inexpensive. hig.h·resolution satellites fur·
ther. with a fleer of hundreds of sa1elli1es.
approximately 11le size of a conunon mail-
box. inexpensively deployed in cluslers.
Firsr sa1elli1es wexe launched in 2013, wilb a
group deploymen1 of 28 s.11elli1es in 2014.
and lhe full constellarion during 2015. There
were over 200 OJ)erational Dove satellites in
mid 2021.
Fli:un 6,,36: A SPOT-6 im11gc ofBora-BONL dCttl011Str:u-ing: t11c lli~b re10lu1io11 O\'er II rcUltiwl~· la'lc
2rc:1. nl'nilnble fr.om tbc ~tcm (courtc:ty SPOT ln'll\gc Coip.).
Images have 3 m re.solution at nadir
(Figure 6-37). alrhough may reach 5 min
some coofigurarions. The cons1ella1iou pro-
vides daily or higher revisit time.s, \\~th
higher rerum frequency based on orbi1al pal·
rerns. locarion on Eanlt and sa1elli1e r.tsking.
Images are stitched 1ogether for complete
global coverage. updating a global mosaic
on a daily basis.
Sa1ellogic follows a similar model 10
Planer. with a constellation of90 sa1elli1es
planned Their current NuSat series provide
both l·ntelerresolution, visible/near infrared
images and 30 merer hyperspecual da1a.
wi1h up 10 600 spectral bands across 1he 0.4
to 0.9 µ·me.ter range. At this wrlting there
are 21 sa1elli1es. bur when the cons1ella1ion
is complete rhere will be an opt><>mmity for
multiple images per day forany location on
1he Eanh.
 Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 271

Flgun 6..37: Cameron Peak fift: iu central Colorado. 1:11pn1ttd ;113 mc1t.t re-solution &om :fl Do,•c- satdl.ilG
i111hc: Pl.1U1c1 c-ons.1dL,1ion. Hundrcch or s:11c:lli1c, :i.llow image rcpc.:u time.I ofl1ourt or lcu. allowint
sp.t«-bascd fire monitoring i.n near real imc- (courtesy Pl1111ct Inc:,),

There are a number of other higll-resolu- Mid-Resolution Satelllte Systems

tion sare.Uite imaging sys1ems. some wi1l1 a
local focus, e.g. , the KOMPSAT-2 satellite,
designed 10 c,01Jec1 data primarily over east-
ern Asia. and the Canos.11-2 satellite. provid-
ing 0.9 m resolution panchromatk data.
primarily focused on south Asia. Other higll·
resolution satellite constellations include
Skysat, DMC3. and Gaofen.
From 1he above. we see that there is
quite a range and large number of high-reso-
lution satelli1e systems. The newer systems
provide pancrbomatic and multipsectral data
at frequencies of a few hours to few days,
often at sub.meter accuracies. These systems
will provide data needed for large-scale,
large area spatial analysis. such as urban
infrastnicture assessment or planning, crop
monitoring. transportation monitoring and
planning, Oooding and other disaster assess-
ment and response - in short. for activities
requiring high spatial and up 10 daily tempo-
ral resolutions. over up 10 mid-sized regions.
e.g .. c.ities to county areas.
There are several mid·resolution satel-
lite systems, here defined as those providing
images with resolutions from 5 L n to less
than I00 m. These are most often used for
medium- to broad-area analyses. for exam·
pie. Jandcover mapping at s1a1e or province.
regional, or nationaJexrenrs:. or large-area
disaster management. Individual image col-
lections are generally several tens 10 hun-
dreds of kilometers on a side. and revisit
times from a few days to a few weeks.
SPOT
SPOT is one of the longest mooing.
uninterrupted mid· 10 high-resolution sa1el-
Ji1e imaging systems. The French Govern-
ment led the development of SPOT, with
SPOT· t Jaunc-hed in early 1986. There were
four additional SPOT mid-resohuion satel·
lites, labeled two through five, all since
decommissioned. The two operating high/
mid-resolution upgrades. SPOT-6 and -7,
272 GIS Fundamentals
were described ht the pre\'ious section
because they offer high resolution images as
well as mid-resolution. The mid-resohnioo
sensor provided visible through mid-infrared
bonds at IO to 20 m. SPOT data are rou-
tinely used in a 111.unber or resource manage-
ment. urban planning. and other
applications.
There is a lafl!e archive of early SPOT
images. useful for time series anaJysis and
change detection. but the lates1 SPOT satel-
lites are nearing their designed lifespan. and
at this time the.re is no plan for a replace-
mem.
Landsat
The Landsat-'9 satellite is the Jmest in
the longesl running series of mid-resolution
imaging sa,ellites . Landsai-9 collects a 15 m
resolution pancbr,omatic band. 8 mul1ispeo-
tral bands al 30 m in the visible, near-infra-
red. and mid-infrared portions of lhe
spec1n1m. and two bands in the thermal
Fij11N' 6-.lS: An c:"(l'lt!Ji>lc of ri L:i.ndsril•S im:igc, sliowing die Miu~~:!f.pi Rh·er Dch3. Mid,n:solu1io11 s:il•
cllu" are partii.ul.arly approprialc for rcgioun.l or otbc,r laxgc-3"11
infrared range with a 100 m resolution. The
system bas a 185 km swalh width a, nadir
and a repeat interval of 16 days. When com-
bined with the similar Landsat-S mission.
1here will be an 8 day recum interval.
Landsat-9 uses an instmmeol calle.d the
Operorio11al land lmager-1 (OLl·2) to col-
lect non-thermal bands. The spocific bands
used were selected to be compatible with
previous Landsat missions. and 'to improve
cloud detection and aerosol/auuospheric
hazean.,lysis. The Oll-2 also increases !he
bit deptlt, or da1a \\idlh. from 12 to 14 bits
over Landsat-8. gh<ing a broader and more
sensitive response. aod clearer. more
detailed images.
Because Landsa1 was the first Earth-
observing satellite system and it has oper-
ated nearlycon1inuously since 1'972. ihere is
an image repository spanning fi"e decades.
The majorily of these images (Figure 6-38)
are available free of charge to artyooe wilh
an internet connection. allowing long-tenn
)'$&, (courtc~)' NASA).

monitoring and analysis. Landsal·9 images
are processtd and added to this archi\'e. typi-
cally within a few days of collection. result-
ing in an inexpensive source of broad-scale
images. This Jong time s.ries is particularly
appropriate for change analysis. provided
the differences between legacy and new data
resolutions aod fonua1s are addressed.
Landsa1 satellites have carried a rnJ1ge of
sensors. staning with a Multi-Spectra] Scan·
uer a, 80 m resolution (MSS). a n,ematic
Mapper (TM) or Enhanced Thematic Map-
per (ETM+). with 30 m resolutions, and now
tile OLl-2 wit11 an up 10 l S m resolution.
Band wavelengths bave varied. but gene.rally
included \1isilhle and infrared portions of the
spectrum. Tik! satellites have bad a 16 10 18
day remrn inten,al.
Landsat is used in many projects world·
wide because of the breadd1 of radiometric
bands, lbe-large scan area far individual
images. the Jong data record. and no-cost
Fii,1111' 6-39: Tilc- Sco1ind ,a1c-lli1c- sys1c-u.1 pTO\'idcs glob.,1 ni.id-t'C".$0lution &it:. o.c-ross ;i bro~ spec-.tr:il ~ ngc-
(('ourtesy ESA),
Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 273
data. Landsat is the basis of many statewide
and national land cover mapping projects,
and it has been used 10 assess forest health.
urban growth, and water quality in lake and
coastal areas. Landsat is particularly appro-
priate for change detection. and much work
has established methods for radiometric cor-
reetion through time and across sensors. so
that the 1imeseriesofins1ges maybe used 10
map urban growth, vegetalion change, and
trajeetories in water quality.
Sentinel
n,e Sentinel system. launched by the
European Space Agency (ESA). is com-
prised of six missions. including atmo-
spheric. oceanic. and land resources (Figtire
6-39). Each mission consists of two satel-
lites. typically in offset orbi•s to provide
ma'(imum coverage and frequent repeat
observations.
27 4 GIS Fundamentals

Sentinel-2 frequently contributes to GIS, Coarse-Resolution, Global Satel-

as it provides land surface measurements
including la.ndcover classifica1ion. \'egeta·
lion type, structure, and heallh. and snow
coveraud hydrology. It images in 12 spectntl
bands. from below blue wavelengrlts
through shortwave infrared. Cell resolution
varies by baud from JO 10 60 meters, with a
full complemettt of visible and near-infrared
bands provided att IO m resolution. l,mages
are in a 290 km ( 180 mi) cross width. and
variable length strips. Data are recorded ut
12 bits. providing 16 1imes the radiomel'ric
resolulion of 8 bit data. The two satelJites
together provide a five-<lay remm frequency
and global coverage, high among mid-reso-
lution satellites. Data are free after registra·
tion with an ESA distribution ponal. These
are among the most widely useful mid-reso-
lution data available at this writing.
lite Systems
Coarse-resolution sensors m here
defined as those with pixel dimensions of
250 meters or larger. These are used for large
national to global analysis. where smaller
pixel dimensions result ut unwieldy data vol-
umes. and the things of interesl span conti-
nental to global extents. There a:re currently
several past. currenlly availablek and soon to
be lam1ched coarse-resollllion sensors: we.
will describe rwo representative systems.
The Visible Infrared Inmging Radiome-
ter Suite, or VJ IRS, au instnunent created to
collect data for weather. ocean. and laud sur-
face analysis (Figure ~O). It collects 9 ,1si-
ble near-infrared bands plus a day/night
band. 8 mid-infrared bands, and 4 loog-wave
infrared bands. VllRS collects <lata at both
375 and 750 rn resolutions. aud 3,040 km
wide swath width. pro,1di11g global cover-
age on a daily basis. VURS is a substantia I
improvement overprevious coarse-resolu-

fla:un 6--40: Au iinagc iUustratin; the bl'OM atcn covc111ic :ind infotm:uioti ce.11e1u A\'lllill'lblc from the
VIIR.$ s)'ftan, TI1is compo1itc i.nugc shows IWO C)'cloncs lhal sw~pt ncroi;~ 1io11hcm A11$'lrnlia in Lite Fcbru•
ary. 20.20. as well" diff¢ttuccs fo ocean co)Of associ11tcd ,,i tb pbytoplaul..100 blooms. M.d l,10(1:5urfacc color
aff~1cd by ie>Olon· and ,·c.acuition conditions (courtesy NASA).
 Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 275

lion satellites in several ways. Bands are tai-
lored 10 provide enltaoced infonnation in
specific windows. wi1h improved vegetation.
ocean color a11d productivity. land and ocean
temperature. and cloud. fire. smoke. and sea
icede1ec1ion. VIJRS data are freely available
via U.S. NOAA portals.
MODIS is a NASA research system
ne.aring the end ofits Jifo 1hat collects data at
a range of resolutions and wavebands, from
visible through lhennal infrared bands. ll is
described here because ii was lhe first
global, coarse-resolu1ion system designed
for both land and water imaging. and
because there is an a extensive archive past
of images. Resolutions vary from 250 m 10 I
km. with a repeat frequency of e\'ery one to
two days for 1be entire Eanh ·s surface a1 I
km resolutiom. Thiny·six bands are collected
when operare-d in 1he I km mode. ranging
from 0.4 µm ·10 14.4 µm . Only two bands
have the 250 m resolution, one each in lhe
red and infrared portions of 1he light spec-
1mm. These data were somewhat unique
when introduced in that the resolution was
finer lhan ~1e I km resolution of previous
daily coverage satellite data. but substan-
tially coarser lhan Lands.1t. S POT. and mod-
erate-resolu1ion satellites (F igure 6-41 ).
Other Systems
A number of olher systems provide data
for GIS. perhaps chief among them various
radar-based satellite systems. Radar wave-
lengths are much longer lhan optical remote
sensing systems. from approximately one to
tens of centimeters, and may be used day or
nigltl, 1brough most weather conditions.
Radar images are panchromatic. because
they provide infom1ation on the strength of
tl1e reOecled ene,gy al one wavelength.

Fiaurc 6-41: .A MODI$ lSO m resolution ixmgc ofnortbcm lt.1lv and Switzcrlaod. n-c a,o\,·-co,-crcd
Alps cross thro.1gh 11.c center ohbis itnaj-::. ll0f1h of the Po Rh·¢r ,-alley in Italy. Small cumutus: clouds
arc "isiblc, a~ is tutbidity in the Mcdi.tcmnc:tn Sea nnd ,•rui11.1ion in bod CO\'c t (couttcsy :NASA).
276 GIS Fundamentals
Radar systems have been successfully used
for topographic mapping and some Jand-
cover mapping. p:articularly \\iien large dif-
ferences in surface texture occur. such as
between water and land. or fores1 and
recentiy clearcut areas. Operational sy1tems
include the ER.S-ll. operated by the Euro-
pean Space Agency: the JER.S-1, by the
National Space Development Agency of
Japan; and the Radarsat system. developed
and managed by t:he Canadian Space
Agency.
There are several other airborne. and sat·
ellite remote sensing systems that are opera-
tional or under developmen1. with the paper
by Ustin and Middleton listed at the end of
this chapter providing a useful smmnary for
environmental applications. and similar ref-
erences found in a web search by applic.atioo
area. Although some systems are quite spe-
Flautt 6·42: A raclariiuagc oftbc Tcidc ,·okano on Tcncri.fc Isl.aod. Spain. Radar i.in11;es arc useful for
mcailll'ina dC'\-atioll 31ld &urf.1.cc ccxt\ltc, 1ttid in11y be collcc1cd lhtougb clouds 11nd :u n,gbt (counc,y
NASA).
cialized. each is a potentially useful source
of data for GJS. Some may introduce
entirely new tecllnologies. while others
replace orprovide incremental upgrades to
existing systems. Given ~,e rapi<I pace of
development. one is well served by keeping
abreast of space imaging ne,vs.
Satellite data often requires specialized
processin,g before use io a GIS. but there are
,veb-arehives designed 10 ease &eeess. Data
are provided that are corrected for auno-
spheric or sensor effects:. to remove distor·
tion, and converted to standard map
projectious. Google Earth E11giue is one
such archive. with a comprehensive stack of
satellite and derived data available through
several ~tandard progra1mning i1llerfaces.
 Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 277

Satellite Images In GIS been developed to facilitate landcover map-

Sa1elli1e images have 1wo primary uses
in GIS. First. satellite images are often used
to create or update land cover data layers.
Sa1elli1e images are panicularly appropriate
for landcoverclassification by virtue oftbeir
uniform data collection over large areas.
Landcover classes often correspond to spe.
cilic combinations of spectral reflectance
values. For example., forests often exhibit a
distinct specll'al signature that distinguishes
them from Olber landcover classes (Figure 6·
43).
Satellite image classification involves
identifying 1he reOectance pane ms associ-
ated with each land cover class. and tben
applying 1his knowledge to classify all areas
of a satellite image. Many teclmiques have
ping using satellite da1a. as well as tech·
niques for tesiing 1he classifica1ion accuracy
of these land cover data. Regional and state-
wide classifications are commonly per·
fomied. and these data are key inputs in a
nwnber of resource planning and manage-
ment analyses using GIS.
Satellite images are also used to detect
and monitor change. The ex.tent and inten·
sity of disasters such as flooding. fires. or
hurricane damage may be detem1ined using
satellite images. Urbanization, fores! cuuing.
agriculmral change. or 01her changes in land
use or condition have all been successfully
monjtored and analy-Led bas:ed on sal'ellite
da1a. Change detec1ion ofleo involves 1be
combination of new im.ages with previous
landcover. infrastruc.ture. or other informa·

Mult1ba>1d image data

,_
fores• -ond
/ ~:c(
-
posture

N
I

I
"c
0
J) ~water
Spectral
domain
I
bond 1

• s f p p p r \ r r f f
s ' w p p p ' r f f f I
$ w w w P r
s w w w
• w w w
w ' w •
WW
•
,
'

p p '
• f p
.r
'
' ' ' '
r

p p p
r f
'
r

r '
' p' '•
f f
f I

' ''
r
I

'
Classified imo ge
t = forest
p = posture
w • water
r • row crop
w " w p p p
' p
w w w w w w ' '
PIP p p p s • sand
'
w
w
"w w .. w
w w w w w
• p p p r
w w p f r
r
r
w w w w w r r f I( r r r
f'ia u1~ 6...J : LnndcoYer Mid land uw cl~ssificatioo i.s a couunoo nppllcnlion of sa1cDi1c i1u.11gcs. The
&p«ttal rdlcctancc panems of ~ch cover type arc used to assign a unique laodco\'C1"da.u 10 each cell
TIN:se daltl tUIL)' tbni be inlpOltcd lllto fl OlS 3S II rastu&t11 layer.
278 GIS Fundamentals
tion in spatial analyses to detenuine the
extent of damage. to direct appropriate
responses. and for long-range plam1ing.
There are many examples of landcover
data created across large areM, from states
through continents. The Multi-Resolution
Land Characteristics (MRLC) project aims
10 map landcover for the United States on
approximately deieadal frequencies. aod the
Corine project auns to map all of Europe at
that or greater frequency (Figure 641).
Aerial or Satellite Images: Which
to Use?
The value of s atellite and aerial images
for GIS shottld be clear. Several sources are
often available for a given study orea. An
obvious question is "Which should I use?" A
number of factors drive this choice.
First. the image da13 should provide the
necessary spatial :resolution. The resolving
'•
Fizun 6-+I: Corine d111a. an e~ample of larJe-arca 1:wdco,·er data dt:rh·ed from satellite image&. These
data inctudc lbe arc,a surround.in; Lac Lanan. dtc ere.seem-shaped fc.amrc iu the cnuc:r. and dcpi« We
relatively high rdOluLion ,wailabte. ill this i,manec iu a continental scale.
power of a system is generally defined by
the smallest bigb-comrast objec1 that can be
detected. and is often approximately the
pixel size. Current high-resolution satellite
systems have effective spatial resolutions of
JO cm to several meters (footto tens of feet).
Images from digital mapping cameras. when
taken at typical scales and with co,mnonly
used aerial scanners on planes. resoh•e
objects in the 15 to LOO cm range (six indtes
to three feet). UAV-based imaging systems
are often deployed 10 produce resol111io11s in
the one to 10 centimeter range. Although 1.he
gaps are blurring. this high to lower resofu.
don ladder still affects choice.
Second. the size of the analysis area
should be considered. Aerial images ore
often less expensive for small areas. Aerial
images are often available from govem.ment
sources at low cost. Plane-oosed! aerial
images often cover from tens to hundreds of
square kilomelers. with low cost per square
-

~ilometer. As. the size of the study area
mcreases. 1be cos1s of using plane or UAV-
acqu~ed images may increase. Multi-image
mosaics are often needed, raising costs., until
a1some point cos1s often SU!JlaSS satelli1e
images for th,e same area.
Third. sa1elli1e scanners DlllY provide a
broader spectral range and narrower bands
relative to aer~1I images. As noted earlier,
sa1e1Ji1e scanners may de1ec1well beyond tlie
visible and near-infrared sp«mnns 1bm are
more-conuno.n in aerial scanners. If imporl-
ant fea1ures are bes! de1ec1ed using 1hese
pon1ons of 1he specinun. 1hen sa1elli1e da1a
are preferrecL Broad-spec1n11n scanners are
available for aerial and UAV sys1ems, bu1
1hese are rarer and 1end 10 lose !he cos,
advaniage when compared 10 satelli1e sys-
tems. There are often tradeoffs between the
size of the area 10 be imaged. resolu1ion. and
spec1ral bands used when selecling a sys1em.
Finally. accuracy mus, be considered.
Accuracy gei,erally can·1be much finer tl1an
Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 279
the pixel resolution - you can't measure
what youcau11 see. However. accuracies are
often much poorer than image pixel sizes.
and it is sometimes a grave .mistake to
assume image resolution and accuracies are
equal. This is panicularly 1me Cor UAV sys-
tems., wbeJe the GNSS systems used in
drone positioning and for ground coordinate
reference poin1s may not be 10 as high a sian-
dard as wllh plane.-based systems. Precise
ort110..correc1ion requires se,,e.ral advanced
1echniq11es. including 1en-aio and 1ilt
removal. lensdiston'ion removal, and ortbo·
registra1ion. Professional-grnde UAV sys·
rems are usually op1imized for ltigb accura-
cies. Less expensive.. semi-professioual or
hobbyis1UAV systems are common. and
typically no, designed for accuracy. While
available a1 low cos1. 1hey often provide dis-
1oned data. A system should be chosen
which provides bo1h the rtSolution and accu·
racy required.
280 GIS Fundamentals

Airborne LiDAR
A 111nnber of laser-ooS((!. Liglu dctectio11 Commercial LiDAR mapping systems
and ranging systems (LiOAR) are becoming are relatively new and have been used pri-
common. Lasers nre poimed at the Eanh's marily for collecting surface daUI from air.
surface from an a~rial or sa,ellite platform. craft and sa1elli1cs. As no1ed earlier. 1hree-
pulses of laser light emitted, and the dimensiooal LiOAR surveying from tripods
reflected energy is recorded (Figure 6-45). or ground vehicles is growing. but we won't
Like radar. laser systems are active because expand 011 them here.
they pro,ade the energy that is sensed. Aerial LiDAR collection sys1ems lypi-
Unlike rndar. lasers have limited ability to cally consis1 of a downward poi1>1ing
pene1ra1e clouds. smoke. or haze. LiDAR. a precision GNSS to record 1he
LiDAR systems have been used primar- plane's posi1io11 to a very high accuracy. and
ily 10 gather data about topography. vegeta- an orientation sensing system 10 measure the
tion. and water qrs11ity. Laser pulses reflec1 angle of1he LiDAR pulse relatiw 10 the ver-
back from the camopy and the ground. and tical direction. UOAR energy pulses a.re
1he strength and liming of 1he rentm is uS((! directed downward. Some eoergy from each
to estima1e gro1111d heigh~ canopy heigh,. pulse is reflcc1ed from vege1a1iou. building$.
and other canopy characteristics (Figure 6- or other features above the ground, but under
45). LiDAR signals over wa1er also typically mos, condi1ions. many signals reach 1be
result in multiple renll'ns. including wa1er ground and rentm 10 the airborne laserpla1-
surface height and various depths. so lasers fom,1. The. time. i111en•al between1laser pulse
may be used to measure water clarity and emission and the ground ren,m may be used
nearshorc water deplh. to calculate aircraft heigh• above the terrain.
Flying height is known from 1be GNSS and
the terrain elevation c.alculated for each
pulse. Pulses may be sem several thousand
=
times a second. scanning back a11d forth
across the landscape. so a trace of ground
heights may be measured from every few
loser centimeters to a few meters along the ground
first lose~ return
..,.,,.,. return pu se (Figure 6-46).
.,
0
Disa·e.1e.-,-etun1 LiDAR is most common.
'3 wherein the system records specific values
.,v
Q,
---vege:totlon for each laser p11lse downward. Typically,
.£
signal 1he firs, ren,rn from a pulse. lasr remrn. and
.,
0 perhaps one to several intem)ediate returns
are recorded. lr!m,form liDAR collects a
.§ ground
~

signol cominuous record of 1he pulse remms, tile

l I•
lost
return
\'
wa\1efom1 trace shown in Figure 6-45.
Discrete-rentrn LiDAR sys1ems produce
point clouds (Figure 6-47), con$is1ing of X.
return - Y, and 2 coordinates. and the intensity, scan
stren h StJrfoce angle. return order. and oiher infonuaiion.
fi&ut'e 6,...1.5: L:i•cr m,1pp,in3 tyi"lcm, 0pcr2tc by
Modern laser systems often produce de11si-
gcncrati.ng and t]Jm «:11,iu1 ligh1 ~1.bes, TI»e 1.ies of several to tens of points per square
returu strc:ugtb is used to dJStinguu,b between ,·c,g:· me1er of ground area. and these poin1 clouds
emtion and the ~ui, 1111d 1Jt.c tl'\l\'d tUnc iu11.y be mus1be processed to remove errors. identify
used lo dctmninc 11cigh1,.

Fii=11~ 6-46: 1..iOAA $11mpling p111tm1. each do1 rq,rcsn11, a LiDA.R. return. Sc:11.n lines o,·crl11p, n::rohlng i:u
an ,1ue,:en disuibu1lon of returns ~t YCI}' fine "ales. Results arc usually swninarized for ra.stcr «ta or areas
that span iap, ..
fia:u~ 6-47: LiOAR point clwd. with di &C'R'IC
~tums r"ordi:ug X. Y. asld Z coordinatC'$ for fca·
turc-.s (courrcs:)~Wasb.in31on DNR).
Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 281
ground points, and assign points to feature
types such as buildings or vegetation. Sofl.
ware for primary processing bas been devel·
oped by most vendors so that files are
delivered with the coordinate and height data
assigned to the highest prac•ical accuracy.
and points classified with a standard number
code that indicates the type -0f feature "bit
by." or associate<I with each, laser renu,1.
These srandard codes identify gro,md
(value • 2). buildings (value • 6). or water
(value = 9). Several characteristics are used
to classify points by feature l)'Jle, including
rerum strength, point order (first. last. or
inlermediate). local slope or texture. and the
location and strength of adjacent returns.
There are a growing number of suue·
\\ide LiDAR projects. often. driven by flood-
plain mapping or for improved topographic
measuremeot.s. Ground reS<>lutions of 5 cm
282 GIS Fundamentals
(2 in) or better are currently possible when
LiDAR is combined with precise GNSS Md
aircraft orientatioll measu.ren1ems. TI1ese
projects report d1e "average" point density,
bu1 LiDAR re1urns are typically c0Uoc1ed in
swalhs across 1he landscape. wi1h individual
scan lines discernible when \~ewed at large
scales. Projects are planned and flown such
1hat an appropriate amount of overlap exists
belween adjacent scans and adjacent night
pa1hs, bo1h 10 avoid gaps in coverage and
areas wilb an una«epmbly low sampling
densil)'.
Processing extracts 1be mos, relevam
ren1m for the desired product. for example.
the maximum first retum in a gi\'en square
area may be eximcted and assigned 10 a ras-
ier cell when calcula1ing tree heigh1. or a
mean or minimum value when extracting
ground heigb1s. Different processing of 1he
LiDAR poim cloud will result in differem
extracted value.s..
Horizomal and veriical errors less 1han a
few centimeters a.re attainable. allowing the
use of aiiliome la~eMto meMUi'e building
beigh1 (Figure 6-48). floodplain location and
extent, and slope :and derived terrain charac-
teristics, at much higher densi1y and accu-
Flautt 6-48: An ex.ample of Li.DAR data Rod depiction o(buildu:11; hcighu. This: image $.hows: tower Mauhat·
tan. New York. iii late 200l (court«y NASA).
racy, over large are.as. than previously
possible.
LiDAR data have also been widely used
10 estimate vegetation characteristics,
induding tree heigh1, fores1 densily, fores1
wood amounts. m1ders1ory density, growth
rates, and forest type (Figure 6-49). A large
number of points reach ,ne grou.nd in all but
the densest forests. and the ground vs.
locally higbeSI canopy re1ums usually give
an esthmne of i:ree height 1bat is as accurate
as traditional manual measurements. The
proportion ofliDAR returns is strongly
related 10 canopy deosiiy. and to tree and
forest wood mass. Crown shape can be-
determined from dense LiDAR dala, which
iu rum helps separate forest 1ypes. LiDAR
also can provide da,a on understo,y plant
density. even in full-canopied foresls.
because at high sampling densities LiDAR
has proven useful a1 passing through small
canopy gaps.
There is often a choice be1ween LiDAR·
based and image-based elevation measure-
ment.!. pattitulMly when tlie Mea to be ~m-
veyed is relatively small. on the order of tens
10 hundreds of hectares (or acres). Small-for-
mat cameras. flown on drones aud properly

. ~;
... ...-
Fis urr 6--49: .AIJ urunelc of II LiDA_R. poll,, doiid, bcrc ~ IIWAth thra.1gh 3 forcllcd am. clispfaycd O\·e:r :\
tcmaio mode). f ;.u:h pornI rq,rcsc11b a LiOAA rct1.1ru. sbowi.11g rctlXrlH from the c.anopy 11.nd tallu trees.
sub-eauopy bnnchc:$ aud shrubs. aud deus c g:rouud rrnflis in cauopy aaps.
corrected and processed, may pro,1ide eleva-
lion dam with a few centimeter resolution
and accuracies. which rue also possible with
LiDAR. Li.OAR scanners are more expen-
sive and heavier than small cantera systems,
an<I if there is no need for sub-canopy infor-
mation, then photo-based collection systems
may provide 'the needed eleva1ioo data at
lower costs. As the area sampled increases.
small camera drone systems rapidly become
unfavorable due to large photo and data pro-
cessing volumes. an<I sbon drone night
times between the need to replace power
supplies. resulting in long times for larger
area coverage.
LiDAR data are often delivered in a
standard LAS fonnat. maintained by the
American Society of Photogranunetry and
Remote Sensing (ASPRS). The standard
defmes the file structure. con1em, storage
order. naming. codes. and all other infonna-
tion so that amy user may be able to access.
process, and distribute LiDAR data in a stan·
dard way. The standard bas evolved through
Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 283
various versions. up to 1.4 when this book
edition was wrinen. The coo"ention defines
the stancL,rd LiDAR exchange file with a .las
file extension. forexample, mylidar.las.
Also note that tbere are competing. non-
standard. compressed formats defined by
some providers. for example, ESRI suppons
their own "optimized" LAS fonnat. and
Rapidlasso has specified a different com-
pressed fonnat, with the .la~ extension. used
by the USGS National Map. Fonnats should
at a minh1mm be openly defined. with all
users having access to the file and storage
specifications. and the ability to write inde-
pendent code 10 read and write the files.
Image Sources
National. state. provincial. or local gov•
errunents are common sources of aerial
images. These photographs .are often pro-
vided at a reduced cost. For example. 1.he
National Agric.ulture Imagery Program
(NAIP) provides coverage of orncb of the
284 GIS Fundamentals
lower 48 United Stales on an annual basis.
Images are usually c0Uec1ed in true color,
but color infrared images may also be
acquired, typically at a resolution of Lmeter
or bener. Pho1ogr,ipbs are usually collec1ed
during mid-growlng season. The NAJP pro-
gram is coordinated lhrough !he USOA
Fam1 Services Administration. and so the
images are some1imes referred to as FSA or
FSA-NAIP pholo_graphs. Online and hard-
copy indexes are :available 10 aid in ideo1ify.
ing appropriate image mosaics.
Aerial images may also be purchased
from 01her goveromeni agencies or from pri-
vate organizaiioos. The U.S. Geological Sur-
vey (USGS) and U.S. Fores ISenice (USFS)
rou1i11ely 1ake aetial images for s~ialized
purposes. The USFS uses aerial in>1ges 10
map forest type and condi1ion. and often
requires images a, a higher spa1ial resohuion
and different time of year 1han 1hose pro-
vided by NAIP. The USGS uses aerial
images in 1be developmeo1 of digi1al or1bo-
pho1ographs and maps. These organizations
are also excellent source$ of hiilorical aerial
images. Many governmem agencies contrib·
u1e 10 a narional archive of aerial images.
some of which may be accessed via the
internet.
Summary
Aerial and sa1elu1e images are valuable
sources of spa1ial daia. Pbo1os and images
provide large-area coverage, geometric
accuracy. an<I a permaneru record of spa1ial
and anribu1e da1a. ru1d 1echniques have been
well developed for their use as a cL11a source.
Remo1e sensing is based on differences
among feanires in the amount of reflected
elec1romagnetic energy. Chemical or elec-
ironic sensors record 1be runoun1 of energy
reOec1ed from objeclS. Reflec1ance differ-
ences are 1he basi:s for images. which may in
tum be interpreied to provide infom,alion on
the type and location of important features.
Aerial images are a primary source of
coordina1e and attribure da1a. Camera-based
mapping systems are well developed. and
are 1be basis for mos, large-scale 1opo-
graphic maps currently in use. Camera tilt
and terrain variation may cause large errors
on aerial images: however. methods have
been developed for tJ1e removal of these
errors. Terrain-caused in,age displacemem is
,he basis (or siereo pho1ographic de1em1ina-
1ion of elevations.
Sa1elli1e images are available from a
range of sources and fora number ofspecific
purposes. Landsa1. lhe firs, land rem01e
sensing sys1em. bas been in operarion for
nearly 30 years. and has demonsrraied !he
u1ili1y of sa1elli1e images. SPOT, AVHRR.
lkooos. and 01ber sa1elli1e systems bavebeen
developed llm1 provide a range of spatial.
spectral. and temporal resolutions.
Aerial and sa1elli1e images often mus, be
interpreted to provide usefi.d spa.1ial informa-
1io11. Aerial images are 1ypically in1erpre1ed
manually. An analys1 identifies reanires
based on their shape, size, texture. location.
color. and brigh1ness. and draws boundaries
or locatious. ei1ber on a hardcopy overlay. or
on a scanned image. Satellite images are
oftea in1ef])1e1ed using auiouiati!<I or semi-
automated methods. Classificari-011 is a com-
mon interpretation technique that involves
specifying spectral and perhaps ·spa1ial cbar-
ac1eris1ics conunon 10 each feanire 1ype.
The choice of pho1ogrnphs or sa1elli1e
imagery depends on 1be needs a11d budge1s
of1he user. Aerial images often provide
more detail are less expensive, and are eas·
Uy and inexpensively in1erpre1ecl for small
areas. Satellite images cover large an.v.1s in a
uniform manner. ru1d sense energy across a
broader range of wavele11g1bs.
LiDAR dala are becoming a widespread
source of spa1ial da1a. Oiscre1e-re1um
LiDAR arc prevalen1. providing X. Y. and Z
coordinates for ground and abo,,.e-ground
feature returns. Mos1 new. high·Iesolu1iou
digiral elcva1ion models are based 011
LiDAR dara. and building and forest fea-
tures are routinely extracted from LiDAR.
Smh?\\~dc acquisitions are becoming com-
mon. and system resolution and collec'lion
frequency are likely 10 improve 1hrough
1ime.
 Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 285

Uruuan.ned aerial vehicles (UAVs), aJso weighed against limitations in throughput

known as drones. show promise as spatial and htnce area imaged. variability in accu-
data collectioo tools. Lower costs. increased racy. and regulatory unce.rta imy.
flexibility. and higher details muSI be
286 GIS Fundamentals

Suggested Reading

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Bolstad. P. V. (.1992). Geometric errors in uarural resource GIS data: tlie effects of tilt
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Campbell. J.B. (201 I). /t11rod11crio11 ro RemoreSe11si11g (Slit ed.). New York: Guil-
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 Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 287

Fickas, K.C.. Cohen, W.B., Yang, Z. (2015). Landsat-based monitoring ofammal

wetla11d change in the Willamette Valley of Oregon, USA from 1972 10 2012.
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Lidar..cterived DEMs through terrain analysis and field comparison. Phorog,.om·
metric £11gi11eeri11g and Remote Sensing. SJ :387-396.

Goetz. S.J.. Wright. R.K.. Smith. A.J.. Zinecker. E.. Schaub. E. (2003). IKONOS
imagery for resource management: Tree cover, impervious surfaces .. and riparian
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tion: Empirical assessment and error budget. J>J,01ogram111etric E11gi11eeri11g &
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288 GIS Fundamentals

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 Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 289

Study Questions

6.1 - Describe several positive attributes of image.s as data sources?

6.2 - What is the electromagnetic spectrum. and what are the prb1ciple wavelength
regions?

6.3 - Define a spectral reflectance curve. Draw typical curves for vegetation and soil
through 1be visible and infrared portions of the specm1m.

6.4 - Describe the stmcture and proper1ies of digital sensors in digital aerial cameras.

6.S - What are the basic componems of a camera used for taking aerial photographs?

6.6 -A camera has a 2.4 cm square digital sensor. at a flying height of 100 meters.
and a focal length of35 mnt What is 11\e ground distance. in meters. of one side of
the area covered?

6.7 - A camera has a 32 cm square digital sensor, at a flying height of 8-0 meters. and
a focal length of24 nun. What is the ground distance. in meters. of one side of the
area covered?

6.8 - You are planning a drone mission. and know your camera has a 10 µm sensor
cell size. and a 34 mm focal length. What flying height should you set if you want a 5
cm ground resolution?

6.9 - You are planning a drone mission. and know your camera has a l61nn seusor
cell size, and a 28 mm focal leng1h. Whal flying height should you set if you want a 3
cm ground resolution?

6.10 - Describe the mos1 commonly used camera band combinations for aerial pbo-
1ograpby. and their relative advantages.

6.11 - \Vital are the major sources of geome1ric distortion in aerial images. and why?
What are other. usuaUy minor. sources of geometric distonion in aerial images?
6.12 - What are typical magnitudes of geometric errors in uncorrected a.erial images?
How migh1 these be reduced?
290 GIS Fundamentals

6.13 - Identify the type of distortion in the view on imaged square grids below:

o) c)
I
'

'
I
I I

6.14 . Jden1ify the ,ype of distortion in the view on imaged square grids below:

o) - b) c)
~- r
t 1 l
0.

\... ~

'-- ).,/

6.15 . A tall building is recorded on two vertical aerial photographs. the first photo-
graph at a nolllioal scale of I:20.000. tl>e second photograph at a nominal sc.ale of
1:40.000. n,e building is near the edge of both photographs. and terrain is level
throughout the photograph. Which image wi II show a larger displacement. d. as
shown in Figure 6-23?

6. 16 . Describe stereo photographic coverage. and why it is useful.

6.17 . What is parallax. and why is it useful?

6. 18 - Describe the basic process of terrain distortion removal.

6.19 . What is the displacement. d. in millimeters. shown in figllfe Figure 6-23. given
the following conditions: p = SO nun. h=40 meters. H= t .000 meters (there aire 1.000
mm to one me·ter).

6.20 . Whal is the displacement. d. i11 millime1ers. shown in figi,rc Figure 6·23. given
the following conditions: p = SO mnL h=15 meters. H= 300 meters (there are 1.000
nun to one meler).
 Chapter 6: Aerial and Satelltte Images 291

6.ll - Why do the buildings lean in different directions il1 lhe ilnages below?

6.22 - Wbat is photointerpretation. and what are the main image characteristics used
during interpretation?

6.23 - How are images from s.1tellite scanners different from photograp·hs? How are
they similar?

6.24 - Wby is relief displacemem usually less for satellite systems than for aerial
camera images.

6.lS - What is a LiDAR? What type of information can LiDAR produce?

6.26 - Wbat are three criteria used in selecting the type of images for spatial data
development?
292 GIS Fundamentals
 293

7 Digital Data

Introduction
Many sp•1ial data cuiremly exist in digi·
ral fomls. Roads. political boundaries. water
bodies, land cover, soils. elevation. and a
host of Other fean~cs have been mapped and
convene<! to digital spatial data for much of
the world. Because. these data are otie.n dis·
tributed at low or no cost. these existing digi·
tal data are often the easiest. quickest. and
least expensive source for much spatial dala
(Figure 7-1).
Data are increasingly collected in digi1al
fom1ats. GNSS. laser meas11remen1s. andsat-
ellite scanners aU provide primary dala in
digiial fonns. They are direcily u·ansferable
ro other digit,! devices and GIS sysrems.
where they may be further processed. Direcl
digital collec1ion should reduce iranscriplion
errors aod help maintain so,1rce and process-
ing history.

boundary

.v-~ ~
elevation

digital graphic
Fl,gurr 7-1: EXJin\ple.s of free digial cb1i1 :w:...illlblc 2t tt n1.ngc oftbcmct, c:ctcn1s.. 1md ~ales. Vcctor(ldi),
nstcr(middlc), iu-a gcou-ferenc:cd diiitn.1grnpliic d.atn (rigl11) nrc sbown for Kau.,i. H;rwaii. USA.
294 GIS Fundamentals
Digital data are developed by govern-
ments because these data help provide basic
public services s11d1as safety, health. trnns-
ponation. water, and energy. Spatial data aid
disaster pl3Dning. national defense. 3Dd
infrastmcn1re development and mainte-
nance. Many nalional. regional. and local
governments have realized that once these
data have been convened 10 digital fomia1s
for use with.in govemmem. they may also be
quite valuable for ust outside govenuneat.
Business. non-profit. education. and science.
may draw benefir from the digital spatial
data, as these orga.ni1.a1ions benefited in
prior times from govemmem-produced
paper maps. Some data couunonly available
throughout the United States and the world
are described in this chapter.
Map Services vs. Locally Stored
Data
We must distinguish between da~11ba1
are available for transfer 10, storage on. and
manipulation in a local computer (locally
stored). from those data that are available as
Web services. inc luding Web Mapping Ser-
vice (WMS). Web Fearure Services (WFS),
and Web Coverage Services (WCS). Digital
data were first dis-tributed on physical media.
then via the lnremel, bul lypica.lly as elec-
tronic files 1ha1 were copied on10 a local
storage de\rice for use. You mai11tained a
copy on your device. and man.ipulated those
locally store<I data. A WMS eliminates the
need for a local copy.
A Web service is a standard way of serv,
ing geographic da1a over 1be Internet. GIS
software access data via an lnternet connec-
tion and display thl.'$e data on a local
machine. al1ho11gb they are "sen·ed" from
some remote computing system. Image data
are most often sen1ed. bu! vectordata may
also be pro\'ided. usually in 1he fom, of a
georeferenced map backdrop. The d.1ta don ·c
reside on the locaJ bard disk and are deliv-
erect in response to each pan, zoom, or other
change in display.
There are many differences among
WMS, WFS. atl<I WCS. but in broad strokes.
a WMS is for serving canograpbic data for
producing and displaying maps. while WFS
(\'ector) 3Dd IVCS (primarily raster) deliver
data and me1adaia in ways 1ha1 ease spatial
processing and analysis. Details of the dif-
ferences are specified in standards docu-
mented by the Open Geospa1ial Consonimn.
W\\w.opengeospat•1l.orgldocslis. Most data
through services are eurren1Jy pro,sded as
WMS. witb few systems supponing and
using 1he editing/analysis functions available
through IVFS and WCS.
Web services are bener and worse than
local da1a storage. Web sen1ices save space
on 1be local hard dri"e. and only the ponion
of imeres1 from a large data se1 need be
acce.ssed. The most up.to-date iofonnation
provided 10 a wide set of users. Mony differ·
em kinds of data may be joined wgether
more e.as.ily. as accessing Web services typi-
cally ~uires a few mouse dicks. Howevet.
you may often not manipulate or change
WMS dara in any subs1antia1 way. and some
kinds of analysis may 001 be supponed or
allowed. In these cases. local copies of the
data 1n.1y be required. or WFS or WCS
developed. Map sen•ices may also require a
fast and reliable io1eme1 conoec1ion. panicu-
larly for large ras1er da1a sets.
For the remainder of rbis chap1er. we
will primarily focus on data ava;Jable for
download. as lhese have the fewest barriers
10 use in analysis. Thtough time. many of
these da1a may be offered via Web services.
and software \\~ll ease use of Web-served
data in analysis.
This chapter inrroduces an alphabet
soup of acronyms. many of which are famil-
iar 10 G!S pmc1i1ioners. We include a list a1
the end of thischapter as a refer,ence.

Global Digital Data
Global data sets arc available. generally
at coarse to medium resolution. and often
with idiosyncnuic completeness, depending
on 1he data la.yer. Global data are variable
because-few governments collect spatial data
in the same way or with the same set of anri·
b\ltes. Different governments specify differ·
ent datums. standard map projections. data
variables. and attributes. or have different
requirements for st1rvey accuracy or mea.
sureme:nt units. Data reduc1ion or documen-
ta1ion methods may be different across
national boUildaries. There is substantial
work in reconciling differences across
national boundaries. therefore. global data
sets are only occasionally buih from a com·
posite of national data sets. Tite collection of
Nan,ral Earth data sels
(h11p://1V\\'V.l.lllturalearthdata.coml) is a good
example of useful, global. homogenized
data. II is a vohmteer collaboration for creat-
ing consisten1, high-quality data suitable fo,
small- 10 me<ilium-scale mapping (Figure 7.
-- ~-.-·-
·-· ,-
~
.·-
.....
Flcurf' 7-2: Di,'Cm sds of alobaJ sp:ui:al d.:ua ll:l'C" M'llilablc, :alt11ou3b chc!'C' ~ oo one cal1n1 clcllnn3bo,lk.
Tbc Vni1cd N'nti01l$.. u,,1ion:a1 go\'cnu;i)cnl.s., flltd cpcci:.li.tcdeompil1111ions by lhc:mc itrc good .ou~c-s.. :is
e,tcmplificd by the Natural .E.arth project, hltp://ww,,·.d,11dcd«lief.cooifuonirallfwd¢.,:,htnal.
Chapter 7: Digital Data 295
2). and includes many physkal cultural. and
nan1ral data layers.
Satellite-based data perhaps dominate
data sets with unifonn global coverage,
because data may be collected over large
areas using one platfonn and processed
using a st.andard set of me1h.ods. For exrun·
pie, world.wide vegetation characteristic
data have been developed such as the Land·
sat. MODIS or VEGETATION canopy cover
at 30 meterthrough eight kilometer cell
sizes. Using a u,tlfonn global data source
avoids the problem of reconciling differ·
ences among disparately collecl'ed data sets.
but substantially reduces the number and
type ofglobal data sets that ,1,ay be obtained.
A limited set of data may be derived
from satellite images. These feat11res of
interest must be visible from satellites, and
there must be an organization interested in
collecting and processing gtobal data.
NASA and the European Space Agency
(ESA) provide a large and dliverse group of
-
296 GIS Fundamentals
globol spalial dala sets, due to !heir leader-
ship in 1he devef()pment and application of
satellite images at a range of spatial scales.
NASA operates DistributedActive Archive
Ceu1ers (DAACs). cen1ral no<les for daia
access. in addition to project-specific sites
for data distribution. e.g .. Landsat satellite
and derived data (Figure 7-3). Global raster
data sets include elevation. land use. ec-0sys-
teru type. and a numberof measures of vege-
tation productivity, phenology. sttuc1ure. and
health.
University centers or ad hoc collabora-
tions are other rich sources of global data.
One ex.1mple is the Center for lntemational
Earth Science lnfom1ation Net,,•ork. admin·
istered by lhe Earth Institute at Columbia
University (\\~vw.ciesin.org). 11seeks 10
provide global data to better address envi-
romnental problems. Another example is
the Global Fores, Watch a11he University of
Maryland (http://glad.umd.edufprojectsl
gloool-fores1-wa1ch).
Global spatial data sets are often orga-
tti2ed ai'<ltlud a llierue. For example. the Max
Planck Jnsrin11e ofEnviro,unent and Clima1e
in Germany h,1s led an effort 10 create a grid-
ded daia set of historical global precipi1a1ioo
by combining data from 40.000 meteorolog-
Fltntt 7~3: G.Jo~I fOl'd:1 CIUlopy CO\'U d«l\'cd from NASA Land:Ult s11tcllitcs (courtesy NASA).
ical s1a1ions in 173 c.ountries. These da1a are
compiled. quality checked. and proc~sed 10
create gridded daia sets for nom,al precipita-
tion. Data sets of annual anomaljes, the num-
ber of gages. and sysiematic error are also
provided. This was an expensive and time-
consuming undertaking due to lhe numberof
differe111 melhods used to collect and repon
precipitation. Considerable time was spent
reconciling data collection melh.ods and
resulls. A more complete description of
tltese data is found a1 lmp:/lgpcc.dwd.de.
There is a similar effon for undersea topog-
raphy in the Global Multi-Resolution Topog-
raphy symhesis (GMRT). combining new
ocean multi-be.am sonar data wi1b previous
ocean depth data to continuously update
ocean topography.
Globa.l data may also derive from a spe-
cific space-based mission or pla1fom1. e.g..
Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission
(TRMM) or 1he Shunle Radar Topography
Mission (SRTM). TRMM involved satellite-
based measurements of rainfall in tropical
and sub-lropic~I regions from 1997 10 2015.
It substantially increased our catalog of
observations in previously spars.ely-mea-
sured regions. and the data are accessible as
rasters of various metrics. including mean

and variation in precipilation by various time
periods.
SRTM was 1lte first program to uni-
fonnJy measure elevation worldwide,
anempting complete coverage. liro rodar
signals were used, C- and X-bands over an
11-day period in February. 2000, mapping
more than 99% of1be land be1ween 60N and
60S latitudes. Oata are processed to measure
heights at various hori2on1aJ and venical res-
olutions. down to 30m.
Global Spatial Data Infrastructure
Gi\'en the substantial difficulties in com-
piling data from disparate global sources, the
Global Spatial Dataset lnfrastrucrure (GSDI)
initiative was fonned. GSDI is an anemp1 10
coordinate collection and processing meth-
ods worldwide 10 ensure 1hat spatial data are
broadly suitable for global-level analysis.
The primary goal is to improve the develop-
ment use, an<I sharing of spatial data across
the globe. This will be achieved tbrougl1 the
adoption of common standards and comple-
men1ary policies across governments and
regions.
The GSDJ initiali\'e began in the late
1990s. and is still a work in progress. Activi-
ties during 1h,e first few years include identi-
fying participants, developing goals and
org11nizational smtcture, and identifying and
prioritizing early actions. Activities on the
GSDI initiatives may be found al
www.gsdi.org.
The Global Map is one early GSOI ini-
liative. The G lobal Map specifies conunou
thematic la)·~rs: boundaries. elevation. land
cover, vege1:r1ion. 1nmsportatioo. population
centers, and drainage. Scale, feature classes.
fcarure l)lles. and fean1te names are
speciJied. as are an.ributes. met.adata, tiliog
schemes, and delivery mechanisms. Coun-
tries submit data 10 u,c Gloool Map project,
which 1hen serves as a dis1:ribution nOOe.
Chapter 7: Digital Data 297
Open Street Map
Ope11S1ree1Map (OSM) is one notable
effon 10 develop global data through interna-
tional volunteer collaboration (figure 74).
Much like Wikipedia. this is an open access.
user-generated resource. Individual users
regjster and can check out data sets to mod-
ify. Roads and other transporuuion infra·
stnicn,re are digitized. typicaUy from image
interpretation or via GNSS, and submitted
for database integration. As with many
oolioe coUaboratives. there :are protocols for
review and resolving conflicts. and data may
be downloaded in various fonn.ats from
OpenS1t1.'e1Map or companion sites.These
are often the best data in areas wilh poorly
developed mapping infrastruc.ture.
While OpenStree1Map provides the best
data in many regions. there .are polential
drawbacks with these data. Because it is a
c-01Jaborntive effort. documentation and uni-
formity may be lacking. A range of sources,
abilities. and methods may be used 10
develop data, and doc1uuenta1ion on these
sources may be unavailable. In addition, data
may not be complete. depending on how
much vohmteer effort bas b~n directed at an
area, and the pace of cltan__ge. Given these
drawbacks. ct,e data should be verified for
accuracy and completeness. or at least suit-
ability for the intended use. prior to adop-
tion. This is 1n1e for au data. the burden
perhaps falls more heavily on 1he user with
crowd sourced data. Given the rictmess of
detail of OSM data. it is well worth the
effon.
Another perhaps slight barrier 10 use
may be ct,e method of distribution. Cur-
remly. the data may be downloaded from the
primary website in a ,veU-defined but Jittle
used data fom,a1. Data are available in more
standard fonnats from 3rd party services
websites, and the native OpenStreetMap for-
mals are supponed by some softwares (e.g.,
QGIS). and will surely achieve l>roader sup-
pon in the furure. In spite of these potential
drawbacks, these open-source collaborations
have a bright future. and may well become
standard for many types of data.
298 GIS Fundamentals
Flgurt 7~.t: Au c:trunplc orOpcuStrttcMap data forao flf<a Ul Galicia. ln llonb\,·cllctn Spain. Voluur«r
colL'tbonuora <:rc3te: lmc 2nd 11.nributc <bta rcprc«mi,ig imporrnn1 (c:tllltt faycrs, ,u l1igb dct:\lL
Other General Distributions
Tbere are several global image archives.
often focused on a specific satellite pla1fonn
or initiative. For example. 1bc Landsat sys-
tem described in I.be previous chapter bas
been collecting data since the early t970s.
The Laudlook initiative allows a global
search for 1hese data back to inception.
Landlook also suppons Sentinel-2 data
search. browse. and download. Similar
archives exist for SPOT aud other long-n111-
ning. government funded platfonns.
NASA hosts diverse set of data through
their Land Proces.ses Distributed Data
Active Archive Center. They include various
globol digital elevation data sets. among
them the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
(SRTM) aud the ASTER s.1tellite global ele-
vation data. providing unifonnly processed.
worldwide elevation rasters at various cell
sizes, wi1h distrib11tious of60. and l 00 meter
versions. There is a comprehensive archive
4,
- Boundaries
-.., - - Roads
1-- • Coast
--
. )
•
Forest
POI
of layers derived from MODIS satellites.
including global vegera1ion dens.icy and type-.
forest cover change, pbenologles, and vari·
ous physical measures. such as albedo aud
surface reflectances.
ESRI Open Dara is another :rich source
of global data. containing a brood rauge of
categories. In early 2019. over 115,000 dif-
ferent data sets were hosted. to view aud
dowt~oad, depending on pennissions. Data
are available for political boundaries.
demography. education. bealtlt agriculture.
economic variables. natural resources. and
other categories. Metadata, links to down-
loads and programmer' s displat interfaces,
and web map production are provided. While
the collection is U.S. weighted. !here are
many international data sets.
The NASA-funded Socioeco nomic Data
and Applications Center (SEDAC) provides
st1bstautial data with a global focus. Popula-
tion. urban laJ.ld cover and chuacteris1ics.
 Chapter 7: Digital Data 299

National, Provlnclal/State, and

IPUMS Local Digital Data
l!!\j./._.\ .,.,, ...... -. ........,."'
Govenunems a, a range of levels com-
What Is IPUMSTtrra'? monly develop. organize. archive. and dis-
....______
·----
·-------
·------
tribute natioMIdata sets. Many Mtional
---
governments organize and disttibute spatial

---
. --
--·\
( -·-- •
data (Figure 7-6). The stan<lardization of
weights and measures is a p.rimary ftmction

-·--·-
. of most national governmentS. and spatial
----
-- data may be viewed as measurements or

• • ---·..
·--
,.,,___.. ,...

Flpre 7..s:Ao C1(arupk distribution dashboard

(oi glob:al d.'lra.., bere from the Term. Populm
cct, din~r.ing glo~I ~ l.;1tion nnd eunron·
ll)C'Olal da1a (courtesy Uruvmity of M.inncsoia).
global agricultural lands and food supply.
roads. environmental resources use and sus-
tainability are amoog the data sets served.
Most data involve a combination of remote
sensing and other data collection elfons in
global or regional estimation. hence the sup-
port by NASA. Oata are free to download in
various s1aud.ard formats, with me1adata and
development metl1ods defined.
The Uniled Nations Environment Pro-
gram (UNEP) disttibutes over 500 global
data sets through the Environmental Data
Explorer. Oata are searchable, provided at
national, UNEP regional, or subregional
uoits of area. and downloadable in standard
fom1a1:s. Data focus on environmental
themes. broadly defined.
Terra Populus is another global spatial
data portal. focusing on integrated popula·
tion a11d environmental data. It provides
matching data downscaled to compatible
areas. including land use. land cover. and cli-
Jllate data (Figure 7-5).
There are many other general distribu-
land, sea. or other national t,erritories. Gov-
ernments must oversee the planning, con·
stniction. and management of public
infrastmcture such as roads.. waterways. and
power distribution systems, and these activi ..
ties. among many others, require spatial data
ero;i· sets that are national in extent.
States and provinces. counties and
depanmems. cities. and other minor civil
divisions oflen generate and distribute spa-
tial data. TI1ese data are often considered
pan of the public domaiti as state resources
have gone into their development. In gen.
era!. the grain size decreases along with
extent such that city-level data are often the
most detailed, with the smallest area cov.
ered.
A partial Hsi of available data resources
is included in appendc, B. near the end of
this book.
----
-·-
---
---
--
¥= 1
=--
--
--=-

-.....-__.- ---- -----

--- ·- - -·
•
tion sites serving global data. both general
and specific. These are best discovered in
the subject matter literature, and via broad
--
o--
-- ---
web searches. Fla;urft 7.6: N:uiou~I 30\'Cl'ilmCIUSoftcl.'l Cl't':Uc
port11ls 1hrough which digi1;al <btn mil)' bc-
acccuc:d.
300 GIS Fundamentals
Digital Data for the United States
National Spatial Data Infrastruc-
ture
The United States has defined the
National Spatial Data lnfrastnicture (NSDI)
as the policies. technologies. and personnel
required to ensure the efficient sharing and
use of spatial data. The goal of the NSDI is
to reduce duplication of effon among agen.
cies, to improve quality and reduce Lhe costs
of geographic information. 10 make geo·
graphic data more accessible 10 the public. 10
incnase the benefits of available data. and to
establish key parrnerships with states. coun·
ties. cities. tribal nations. academia. and 1he
private seclor to increase data availability
(www.fgdc.gov).
The NSDI has identified core data sets.
including geodetic control. orthoin,agery.
elevation. transponation. hydrography.
cadastral data (propeny boundaries). and
gol'ei'Jllllem~Iuni, boundaties. Aruaia NSDI
goal is the efficient development ruid distri·
bution of these core data.
The NSDI advocated parallel access to
many data sets across a range of government
agencies. Geoplatform.gov is one resull of
U.S. federal gove.rruneut efforts. providing
shc1red geospatial dat.a. web services. aod
applications. The U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS). http://"~"w.usgs.gov/, is anotlier
good source of ge-ospotial data from the U.S.
federal govemmetit. and many of these darn
will be described in the following sections.
The U.S. National Map
Digital data arc available for most oftbe
United Stares. through the National Map
project, described as a cornerstone of U.S.
mapping effons (bnp:1/uationalmap.gov. and
apps.nationalmap.gov/download). Data are
provided on political and civil lxnmdaries.
1ranspona1ioo, hydrography. geographic
names. structures (e.g.. dams. notable build·
ings. towers, or momunen1s). elevation.
aerial photographs. and land cover. Some of
these data are available from 0th.e r dedicmed
projects and websites. for example, elevation
datasets and the National Hydrography
Datasets (USGS NHD progrrun .and web·
site). We 'II discuss these two data sources in
detail in later sections of this c.hapter, and
here focus on a general description of the
National Map project ruid the additional da.1
available through the national map.
Data for 1be National Map come from a
variety of sources. induding new primary
data collections from aerial and satellite
images comributed by federal and s.11e
agencies. and older data. Much of the
National Map data are legaciesofUSGS
hardcopy mapping programs. The USGS
began topographic mapping in the United
States in the 1880s, creating poper maps tl1at
each covered 75 minutes of arc on a side.
and comprised about 55.000 tiles for the
lower 48 states. Currently. these digital topo·
grapllic maps are delivered as geographi·
cally enhanced portable document format
(PDF) files, or GeoPDFs, with layers for
onboimagery. roads. place nrunes. elevation
contours. and rivers. lakes. ru1d od1er hydro·
graphic fealures. Layers may be rendered
visible or in,isible. and the maps displayed
with other georeferenced data in, appropriate
viewers, usually as a background display.
and 001 for analysis.
The raster and vector data used for
GeoPDFsorsimilar vector data are available
from the National Map. Downloadable data
include elevation. aerial images.. hydrogra-
pby, traosponatioo. boundaries. and geo-
grapllic place names. among others.
 Chapter 7: Digital Data 301

Digital Elevation Data ments for mosl DB.1s. Trnd'.itional distance

Digital elevation data are available at
national to local extent from a number of
sources. Data are mosl often delivered as
digiml elevation models (DEMs) liul1 pro-
\lide elevarfon data in a raster fom1a1. These
are available at 10 m or better resollllion for
all states but Alaska. and are used couunonly
in da1a analysis and display (Figure 7-7).
DEM manipulations and terram analysis are
described in detail in Chapter I I. but for
now. know they are among the most used
spatial dat.a sets in many endeavors. Here we
introduce the sources of U.S. DEM data and
their basic characteristics.
Ground and aerial surveys are lhe pri·
mary source of original elevation measure·
and angle measurements with surveying
equipment were used up until the l940s to
provide precise elevations at specified. loca.
tions. Because these methods are relauvely
slow. they provided a sp0rse network of
points. \\~th a dense network smtable for ele-
vation mapping over only small areas.
Improved electronic dis1ru1ce meters helped.
as did global positioning system technolo-
gies. but even ,vitb these im.provemems in
survey speed and accuracy. these technolo-
gies are 100 slow 10 be the sole elevation data
collection method over all but 1be smallest
areas.
Aerial images and airborne LiDAR sur-
veys complemem field surveying by increas-

Fia:urt 7-7 : Dig.ital dc,1ttioo mO<k1, (DE..'1.s) arc a~·a,ll.ablc tii ,11~0tl$_r«0lutio1_, fllld -co,:craJ: ar<~'·i
for mosl o( the world. This fi~ ocat Mono Lake 1ll cas.tcm C~bf~1a was ~u«d usu~ . t:i a, ,u ·
t1blc &oil~ 1hc USGS. A uring ofLwa flows is 11.pp:tmlf on 1.bc ngh1 s1dc of the unagc. ~id glX1..'ll bl:c1
nnd ,.,,Ile)'$ to the left,
302 GIS Fundamentals

ing the number and density of measured
elevations. Accurote elevation data may be
collected over broad areas wi1b the appropri-
ate seleclion of aerial mapping technologies.
From the 1950s tm1il the Ja1e 1990s. mos1
elevation data were compiled using precise
mapping aerial c.ameras, complemented by
op1ical ground surveys. Since the Jaie 1990s.
LiDAR mapping lrns been combined wi1h
GNSS to more accurately and rapidly map
eleva1iou. These various GNSS and survey
me1hods are discussed in Chapter 5. and
aerial images and LiDAR in Chapter 6.
Laser-based elevation mapping and DEM
generation are now common. and wilJ be
used for the fores,eeable future to create the
highest-resolution DEMs.
While LiDAR coverage extends each
year. many areas :have not been flown.
Where LiDAR DEMs are not ye1available
in 1he United Slates. most DEMs have been
developed using metric aerial photographs.
Pho1ognunmeuy has been used since tlte
I 930s 10 map lines of a cons1an1 eleva1ion
(contours) and spot heights, and data have
been developed for much of tlte Earth's sur-
face using these techniques.
DEMs wi1h J.•. t 0-. and 30-meter hori-
zontal sampling frequency are available for
much of the United States. Currently. the
USGS delivers these DEMsas pru, of the 30
Elevation Program (3DEP). through the
USGS National Map portal. Data are avail-
able at a 30-meterresolution for.almost all of
the United States. and I 0-meter resolution
for the lower 48 states and Hawaii, and al I
and 3 m for a large and expandi11g area. The
underlying LiDAR data are also a,•ailable
for download. Note that global 30 m SRTM
and Aster data, described in the global data
sec-tion of this chapter. are available for the
United States. but are general.ly inferior to
the JO m or bener resolution data where both
exist. There is a special 5 m radar-based data
set restricted to Alaska.
GJS users should be cautious because
there are several versions of DEM data for
many areas. and they should generally use
the more current. higher accuracy. or higher-
resolution data. The existence of various ele-
vaton data sets, covering various time peri-
ods. does provide the opportunity 10 monitor
change through 1in1e. for example. broad-
scale mining modifications in K-emucky
(Figure 7-8). The most cnrre111 USGS data
are best accessed through the USGS Earth
Explorer or National Map portals.

f'ia111•t 7-8:: The c,ctcut of ruouniaiutop mnon1I slrip mining in eastern Keotuck)' is e-\;deo1 in this ~pllt-
ison ofolder NED data (]cft) aud ycat 2000 SRTM clc\'ation data (ri~t), Rid~ctopi att li¢lt colo~d. \'alley
bonon-.s d.trk colored. Mines 11ppc::1.t M :irut ofunifonn 10!1< on ndicto~. .Mine 11ifcS l.:tt:idcd o, abo\'c,
h.a\'C c:<paodccl $\~antUllly, while l.tirgc DCW mines have aho b,ceu developed (b).

Hydrographlc Data
The National Hydrogrnphy o,uaset con-
tains digital spatial data about surface
waters. including rivers, streams, canals,
ditches. lakes. ponds. springs. and wells.
There are various versions we will c0Uec-
1ively call NHD data here, including ver-
sions labeled NHD, NHDplus. and the in-
progress NHIDplus HR.
Naturally occurring and built features
are represented in NHD data (Fig1ire 7-9).
These include rivers m1d streams. water-
sheds. water bodies, canals, pipelines. dams.
and other nal\iral or control stn,ctures. Auri-
butes may be provided for these features_ for
example., a Jake type or name. if a dam is
earthen or concrete. or ditch type. Features
may be points. lines. or polygons.
NHD data also represent network topol-
ogy. 1be connection among stream feanires.
and include infom1ation on connec:lions and
flow directions. Line segments have a desig-
nated flow di:rection. and connections or
crossings may be represented as full connec-
tions. or noted as a bypass. for example.
f
I
Fiaurr- 7-9: An c~:.imp1c of mb-~sio cbtn obtnim:d from 1bc Nntioml Hych.gmpby O;uasc1. A number of
fc:,l\n types are rq,rcse11tcd. incfod-ing catduncots. w.itcr flowliues... and lakes. Tabu.Jardftt:1 arc pro,i<kd
on ctti..matcd :1,·craic flow. catcbme:ot llt('a. aud other impo1111nt attn1n1t«.
Chapter 7: Digital Data 303
when a spillway or pipeline crosses a river
without the possibility of discharging water
into the river. Coding schemes have bee11
developed to identify each reach in the
hydrographic network. and 10 represent net·
work connections among reaches.
NHD data are organized by areas. in a
hiernrtltically nested set of Hydrologic
U11i1,. identified by unique codes (HUCs).
These units correspond to ,vatersbeds, or
basins. or logical aggregations or subareas of
watersheds (Figure 7- 10). T,he United States
was divided into 2 l regions~ and these
regions further divided into 222 subregions.
Subregions were in rum divided, formiug a
total of 352 hydrologic uttits. and these are
further divided imo 2, 150 hydrologjc mtits.
This fourtb level division is for the most pan
along major river basins. outlining distinct
watersheds. or intem1ediate pieces along a
1he main stem of1a.rger rivers. Eaeh of these
divisions is identified by a Wlique eigJn digil
code. and so these areas are also known as
HUC-8 boundaries. Regions. subregions.
and subRgion divisions are known as liUC-
2. HUC-4. and HUC-6 areas. respectively.
304 GIS Fundamentals

t ) HUC-6 Cape Fear River

O HUC•8 Watershed.
C, HUC-10
C, HUC·IZ North Carolina
-Al7i\l!i'lt

20 km
13 mi

Flgutt 7-10: An u .:uttplc of i:tdtcd HUC dm.in11g:c ltre.M for 11 portion of du: C11pc Fc:11.t River i 1:.; N011h Caro,.
lin.,. Higher l:llJC <.kt:igm,1,lqr-$ uc5t within lower du-igu11tors, s,o HUC-12 nrc~s lclfC coot;,ined wil.hio HUC-$
tmit5.

providing a nes1«1 set or drainage areas for
areas larger tban Che HUC-Scatchments.
HUC-8 ca1cbmeot.s may in turn be split imo
smaller HUC-10 and HUC-12 catchmems.
this last size typically 1he smallest delinea-
tions widely available.
The United States EPA also provides
characteristics are available at Imp://
cfpub. epa.gov/surf/lncatefondex .c fm.
There are od,er improved hydrologic
data, called NHDPlus and NHDPlus HR.
Managers oeed consistent elevation. stream.
and watershed boundary dala seu at high
resolution 10 soh e m..1ny water resource sci·
1

data on wa1ers and watersheds of various
types and formats.. organized to correspond
10 the HUC data at some levels. EPA River
Reach Files organize data in a series of ver-
sions, from RF I through RF3 data. RF3 d.1ta
are designed 10 provide a nationally consis,
tent hydrographic database that records
geography and assigns unique identifiers 10
all surface ,vater features. It aJlows the
hydro logic ordering or reaches so that larger
rivers and seg.meots may be accurarely
defuied, along wilh river connectedness and
Oow direction. RF3 da1a also record the
locations and characteristics of additional
elements, i11cludimg gages. dams. and other
hydrologic feaiures.
Ri"cr reach d.ata are precursors to NHD
data. and so contain much of the same base
infonnation. Rf files are available for mos1
ofthe comiguous United States. Tab1tlarda1a
on water chemistry and other watershed
cnce and planning problems. Tb.e original
NHO produced in the early 2000s focused
on hydrographic data from I:100.000 scale.
Subsequent work has focused oo improving
the accuracy, consistency. and tools to sup.
pon NHDPlus data. a11d witli subsequent
versions using improved digital elevation
data and enforcing consistency with other
data sources.
There is an emetging system for storing.
finding. and retrieving hydrologic data asso-
ciated with the CUAHSI project
(",vw.cuahsi.otg). CUAJ-ISI is a Na1ional
Science Foundation funded proj-ect involv-
ing mo!\' ~J~n 1,Q yoivenitie$ !9 iupp.on
hydrologic science and education. CUAHS
HIS is an internet-based system for sharing
hydrologic dala via a Web se1'' ice. As noted
earlier, a Web service is a sel of protocols
that allow communkatioo amo11g computer
programs over the internet. In G-IS these

Web services are most often used to stream-
line daia sharing and access. The CUAHSI
HIS is designed 10 aid 1be in1egra1iou and
sharing of disparale hydrologic data, such as
s1ream gauge. precipilatiou. river locaiiou.
basin 1opography or oilier basin charac1eris-
tics.
There are orher bydrologic da1a sets
available for the United States. more gener-
alized. and mos1 often used for analysis or
display over larger areas. The USGS pro-
duced digital. n.11ionwide cL1ta sets based on
paper I: 100,000, I:250,000, I: 1,000.000,
and smaUer-scale maps (Figure 7-11). and
these are available from various state.
national. local, and private sourc.es. These
data show larger rivers and a Lim.iced sec of
attributes for each river. most importantly
river names. These data are also nol hydro-
logically co111inuous. in thal many of1he riv-
Flgurr- 7,11: AJI cxaitiplc of USGS lcg:11.cy I: 1.000.000 1lydtologie cb1.t1, wi1b the n.,iioo11.I d11.1a Kt
(inKI, right) 1md ll portion in cn,c-cnJlrl:ll C.1Jifomi1t dq,ic1i.ng 1bc lc\'cl of dctn.il in thew d.111t.
Chapter 7: Digital Data 305
ers do normaintain their conneclion through
wa1er bodies. Despi1e 1hese limila1ions. they
are often used because 1bey may be more
appropriate for statewide or regional analy-
sis involving only the nu\i.n s1e.ms or larger
rivers in a region.
lntegra1ed. consistent. continent to
worldwide hydrography data are also avail·
able from tlie ''Namral Eartb" data projecls
(www.naturn.learthdata.com). These da1a are
in1ended for use in cariograpby. and no1 pri·
marily for analysis. as they have been gener-
alized and made consiste.nt primarily for
display ralher lhan geographic accuracy.
Different hydrographic daia are offered. lat·
ge1ed al a range of small scales. for regional
through global mapping. A limiled sei of
anribu1es is avai.lable. including reach or
river names and cartographic widths.
306 GIS Fundamentals
High-Resolution Digital Images
Digital itnages are available from a
range of sources. including na1ional. state,
and county governments. or from private
co11trac1ors. sa1elli1e imaging companies.
and resellers. High-resohuion digital image
data are typically collected every five 10 ten
years by the USGS. in jl'1rtnerships with
states or 01her goverrunent agencies. Image
archives go back to the 1950s for most of the
Unired States. with state and coumywide
coverage as far back as the 1930s. Nation-
wide coverage was completed in the l 980s
and 1990s through the NHAP and then
NAPP programs. at scales in the l :40.000 to
t :60.000 range. These fom1ed a primary
basis for digital orthopboto quads. or DOQs,
the first onhographic. high-resolution digital
images with narional coverage. Most other
images from before the early 2000s we.re
mm-based. although some have been
f iJlll'f' 7-11 An.c~mp)e: of a tligb-R~lut~on Ortbophotogrupb (l;IRO). dis.triboted b)' the U.S. Ge:olog-
1C11l SUl'\'c y. ludi\'ulual pcno11Hat1 be 1dcntifie:d oc:ir lbe 011.w<>lc m the upper kft pa,.1 o(lbc .l$1.aud. as
we:11 :1..s 1hc ttll.l\lC a nd sb:«low to dte: low« rigbL
scanned and are available from the United
States EROS Data Center. Image sets
include the historical black and white aerial
photographs. nation-wide programs of the
1980s and 1990s. higb-resolutio.n coostal
images. radar. and other special collections.
The High-Resolution Onbophotographs
(HROs) series are among the highest resolu-
tion. wide.Ly available image data sets. The
HRO images are collected and distributed
through the USGS with currem coverage for
about l/3 of the U.S. These data are often
collected at 0.3 m (I ft) resolution, and at
times up 10 IOcm (4 in) resolution. Because
they are onhophorographs. object base Joca-
1.ions ha\'e been correc1ed for tilt and terrain
distortion at ground height. To,vers. build-
ings. bridges. and other tall objects often
appear to lilt, as these structure heights
above grotuid are not corrected on the
images (Figure 7-12). These images are use-
 Chapter 7: Digital Data 307

ful for infrastructure mapping, planning, NAIP Digital Images

disasier management and many ocher appli·
cations. The i,mages are sometimes used for
vegetation mapping, but tltese images are
mos1 ofien collec1ed during leaf-off periods.
and so mus1 often be complememed by
images taken during leaf-on periods for most
vege1a1ion mopping effor1s.
The HRO and olher high-resolulion
images are valuable sources of spa1ial daia.
These images are 1ypically processed 10
within a few p ixels of 1he delivered resolu-
1ion, for example, 1ypi<ally accura1e 10
wi1hin a half-meier for 1he 0.3 m dam.
Because 1hese and 01her pho1os described
below record the surface al a fixed point in
1ime. 1.bey may be used to create new maps
or 10 moni1or change (Figure 7-13).
Commercial sa1elli1e da1a vendors are
aoo1her source of higher-resolmion images.
Images in the 30 cm to I meter resolution are
available. from Pla11e1. Eos, Maxar. and och-
ers as described in Chap1er 6.
n,e Na1ional Agricuhure Imagery Pro-
gram (NA!P) acqu~es pho1ographs during
the growing season in the conlinentaJ United
S1ates. NAIP images are distinc1 from 1be
previous HRO. NHAP. NAPP. and OOQ
programs because NAfP is p rimarily for one
pwpose - 10 moniior agric·uimral la11d-
scapes. NAIP photographs are typically
acquired during lhe full-leaf period for local
crops. so 1he bulk of 1be ima_ges are collec1ed
from June 1brough A11gus1. in co111ras1 ro
other photographic programs, which were
often 1aken during leaf-off condi1ions. In
addilion.1hc NA!P pho1ographs typically
have a yearly repeat cycle. t.\•hile other
sources are often spaced al five.year or Ion~
ger imervals. NA!P pbo1ogr.apbs may be
ob1ained in bardcopy or dig;~,, formats.
commonly as county mosaics. Data may be
viewed from "i1hi11 a GIS 1<sing a publicly
accessible ,veb service. where data are
stored centrally, rather than on a locaJ com-
puier disk. as described earlier in lhis chap-
ter. These da1a nmy then be used as a
backdrop for digitizing. wherein the analyst
ex1rac1s infonna1ion !brougb a ,;sual classi-
ficaiion of spa1ial feanares.

Flznrt 7-13: An c:u.mplc of a historical aerial photottrnpb from the 1940$ (left) :u>d ZOOS (riglu). for an
att:i in ctit-ecntnil M.inncSO(:l. E:uiy dc:,·dopmcnt wai rcstric1ed 10 i:ic-:rtt the 1.llkc alonj tile cop ml\tiin of
the 1940 phoJO, while b)' l00$ 1hc ;m.:3 had bcc:o(iic co,inplctcly sub,:z-b,init cd. Pl1010,~hs tU:l)' be used 10
map c,incut in.&astroctutc and rcso~cs. :wd llmr c.hangc through tlllK.
308 GIS Fundamentals
Images are most often collected as nalu·
rat color. digi1al 11erial photographs.
allhough some1imes infrared bands are also
collected. NA£P images are onhorectified
and provided at I· and 2-meter ground reso-
lu1ions. with corresponding horizontal accu-
racies at 5 to JO nt Oala are typically
provided in au NAD83 UTM coordi11a1e sys-
tem corresponding 10 the image area.
NAIP images are most useful as a base
for digitizing. panicularly when infonna1ion
on vegerarioo type or condition is important
(Figure7-t4). Leaf-on NAIP images are
more useful for ,napping vegetation. because
differences are most often expressed in the
color. brightness. and texture of foliage.
While the uarural color images typically
used for NA.IP im<1ges are inferior to infrared
image.s., substantial infonnation on vegeta.
1ion can be collected. and sometimes 1he
NAIP images include an infrared baud. This.
plus the annual image colfec1ion cycle, make
these images a valuable source of spatial
data.
Ftgutt 1 -1.a: An dtll1nple NA(P i1n:1gc $:bowing wcdmw:ls (Ai lll~s {8). fores, (C). :ind rc11idnt1i:1l "rc:\S
(0). The5C im.1g« arc ~t1icularly nKfiil fen- b.odco,·er and land use aw:Hmci11s ruid dc1«ti13g fiuc-dc1ail
changes at ruumal time $ICps..
National L and Cover Data
While land cover is impor1rui1when
managing many spatially distributed
resources, data on land cover are quite
expensive to obtain over large areas. These
data are often scarce. at low categorical or
spatial resolution. and rarely available over
broad areas. While individual states. coun-
ties. metropolitan areas. or private landhold-
ers have developed detailed land cover
maps. there have been few national effons co
map laud C0\1er in a consistent manner.
There are four consistent national data sets
available, based on satellite dat• from a con-
sisteut set ofcategories. and a legacy da1a set
from the 1970s and early 1980s.
The National Laud Cover Database
(NLCD) is the most recent and detailed
source of national land cover information.
NLCD versions are produced in a coopera-
tive effon by a number of United States fed-
eral government agencies, under rhe Multi-
Resolution Laud Characteristics (MRLC)
 Chapter 7: Digital Data 309

Consortium. so these are sometimes referred
to as MRLC dara. The consoniwn's goal is a
consi.s1ent. current land cover data record for
the oontenniaous United States. NLCD data
were created in 1992. and then with an
expended set of categories approximately
e.very two to three years from 200 I through
2019. Plans are 10 continue production into
the funire (Figure 7-15).
NLCD land cover classifications are
based primarily on 30 m Landsat Thematic
Mapper data. NLCD 1992 land cover was
assigned to one of 2J classes. full coverage
is obtained from adjacent or overlapping.
cloud-free Landsat inmges. Multiple dates
are often acqwired in order to improve accu·
racy and categorical detail through pheno-
logically driven changes. For example.
evergreen fore.sis are more easily distin-
guished from deciduous forests when bath
leaf-off and leaf-on inmges are used. 0~1er
spatial data sets are used to improve the
accuracy and categorical deiail possible
through spec1111l data alone. These data
include digital elevation. slope. aspect.
Bureau of Census popula1io.n and housing
density data. USGS LULC data. National
Wetlands Lnventory data, attd STATSGO
soils data.
Data are processed in a tmifonn manner
within each state or region. and a n.1tional set
of categories and protocols is followed. All
classifications were subjected to a standard·
ii.ed accuracy assessment, a.od reported and
delivered in a standard fom,at. Accuracy
assessmenis were based on NAPP or other
111ediWlt· to high-resolu1ion aerial photo·
graphs or. in later versions. with higlHesolu·
1ion satellite data. Areas were stratified
based on 1he images. and sampling units
defined. Photointerpre1a1io1u of land cover
were assumed true. and coinpared 10 NLCD
classifica1ion assignmen1s. Errors were
noted and reported using standard methods.

2001 • 2000 • 2011

Fi;urr 7-15: A 1:imc series of N~tiou3,J L,,nd Co,-cr O~L, {11-'LCO) for ~u n.rc-:i north of Las Vcg:i.1., l\'V.
NLCD c:-atc:-gorizcs bnd c:over ioto 2J classes. aud ~ pro,;&:d in a JO.meter r.\ster «II fonnat, In this
scrin:. incrcasi.u; u~niz.atioo is sbo\\1l in dtc scpreadil1a toucs ofdarker red. with •iric-ulflll'al ar~s: iu
lig:httt IOllC:S of gray {COW'1c$)' ~iRLC),
310 GIS Fundamentals
NLCD 200 I analysis was refined to
yield morecateg<>ries. higher accuraey. and a
more uniform classification. Landsat data
from three periods. digital elevalion dala,
population density, road locations. NLCD
1992. and city liglns data were used {Table
7-1). and previous data recoded to create a
consis1en1 time series. The base data were
also used to estilu,ate perc;ent impervious sur-
face. and tree canopy density. NLCD 2006
and 201 t again refined methods. incorporat-
ing information on previous classifications.
maintaining categories bm improving. accu-
racy and uniformity.
The MRLC p:rogram also producesother
regional to nationwide data streams. The
Rangeland Condi"lion. Monit<>ring. Assess-
ment. and Projectfon data (RCMAP) provide
percent cover for each 30 m pixel of shrub,
bare ground. sagebrush. and annual herba·
ceous vegetation for western U.S. range-
lands. Tree canopy data show U.$.-wide tree
Tahir 7-1: "NLCD 2011 land cover classes. Classes have varied sliglnly 1!,rougJ1
vers ions.
Water
11 open water
12 perennial ice/snow
Developed
21 developed, open space
22 developed, low Intensity
23 developed, medium Intensity
24 developed, high inlensily
Barren
31 bare rock/sand/clay
Forast&d Upland
41 deciduous f0<est
42 evergreen forests
43 mixed forests
canopy cover, and an Urban lmper\lious
product shows the percem of rainfall-imper·
vious surface for each classified urban pixel.
important in estimating runoff a11d flood
hazard.
NASSCDL
The National Agricultural s·tatistics Ser-
vice (NASS) produces yearly Cropland Data
Layer {CDL) da1a, land cover maps that
foctJS on distinguishing major crop types and
ro1ations (Figure 7-16). These dma are cre-
ated from a combination of exis•ing land
cover data for nonagricultural lands, multi·
date images from mid-resolmion satellites
such as Landsat and Resourcesal· I. coarse
resolution but higher frequency MOD IS data
for pbenological discrimination. and various
vec-tor d.1ta layers to improve classification
accuracy.
Shrub/and
51 dwarf shrub
52 shrub/scrub
Herbaceous Upland Natural
71 grassland/herbaceous
72 see%}e/herbaceous
73 lichens
74 moss
Herbaceous Planted/Cultivated
81 pasture/hay
82 cultivated crop
Wat/ands
90 w<>Ody wetlands
95 emergent herbace<>us
wetlands
 Chapter 7: Digital Data 311

CDL land cover classific.ati-On is based
on exieusive ·field surveys conducted by the
United States Depanmen1 of Agriculture.
Fields are vis,ited, airphotos obtained, and
fields. farms. and regions classified by domi-
nan1 crop types and rotations. Observed crop
types are compared to spectral data from sat·
e1Ji1es, and a dassifica1ion algorithm devel-
oped. Classification methods have changed
since 2002. the yearnationwide data became
available anm,aUy. Class assigrunen1 accura-
cies are generally between 85 and 95% for
agricultural crops.
COL dam is produced annually for most
regions. allowing analysis of 1rends in pL1nt·
ing. crop rota'lions. and harvest Data may be
d0\\~1loaded for regional. statewide. or sub-
srate areas. in standard fonna1s and coordi·
nate systems.
While NASS-COL data are the most up-
10-date and accur.ne land cover classification
for agriculmral lauds. 1bey have limi1a1ions.
Classification for oonagricu ltural lands are
not as rigorously grom,d tru lhed as agricul-
mral data. and depend on ol<ler NLCD clas-
sifications. Land cover is classified only for
coun1ies with agriculture, although this is a
surprisingly large proponion of the country.
The 30 to 60 mcell size is quite good for
such a large-area classification. but still 100
small for field-level assessments. and is bet-
ter suited to fann.fevel and larger analyses.

:,,~.. , Brown County, Kansas

2008 Cropland Data Laye r
Lii nd Cover Categories-
USDA

--
tOro.t«tQ'/ ~~
Ag""1,,1lt1,1,-I

---
--
o -

. ....
-
.....
w.,. W'II.IISo,b Ott ~

Cl""'"'-

--
- or.~~
- o..,s.,,.c;,..

-----
n -.

o--
- °'""",...,.,,,.

--
Hon~lieu.lltnl

---
D oi.•'"-~

--
~-
-,-~
--
FJaurf' 7. 16: A11 example ofNASS Croptnnd D!'lt:l L:'1.}'tt i11f0111.Li.1i011 on npiculNr.11 fand cover, bac f<n II
regioo io eastern K.amas. TIJc p.dtcm is dominated by row crops. chiefly soybcom and c()ru, tbc rectaug11·
lu blocks tba1 iocrc:asc io ,izc toward the oortb~slem portion of the figure (councsy USDA).
312 GIS Fundamentals

C -CAP National Wet lands Inventory

The Coastal Change Analysis Program
(C-CAP) aims 10 provide Lind cover over
time in coastal zo.nes so that land cover
change may be mapped for a useful se1 of
ca1egories. Much like the NASS COL. C-
CAPda1a are de\1eloped in close cooperation
with the MRLC land coverdata, using muJti·
pie satellite sys1ems to map over con1ineinal
extent. However Che C-CAP data adds an
expanded se1 of wetland and near-shore cate-
gories. focusing on vegera1ion types and on
landfom1s that are particularly import.ant in
coastal areas (Fig,ire 7-17).
Coastal areas are mapped on a recurring
basis. with IO-year intervals from 1975 to
1996. then in 200 J. 2011. and 2016. A five-
year in1erval is pl,1nned going forward.
Related dala are created and distributed in
concen with C-CAP land cover. including
salt marsh habitat and wetland potential.
Data on 1he location and co11di1ion of
we1lands are available for much of 1be
Uniled S1a1es through the National Wetlands
Jol'entory (NWJ) program. NWI data are
produced by the United S1a1es Fish aod
Wildlife Sef\;ce. N\VI data poltray the
extent and characteristics of wetlands.
including open water (Figure 7-1S). and are
available for approximately 900.4 of the con-
terminous United States. About ,60% of the
contenninous United States is twaila.ble in
digital fonnats. NWI data were produced
through the 1970s and 1980s, with an upda1e
in the 1990s. Decadal updates are planned.
N\VI data were produced through a
combination of field visits and aiq,ho10
inteq,re1a1ion. Spring pho1ograpl1s a1 a range
of scales and types are used. Color infrared
pho1ogrnpbs at a scale of I :40.000 were
commonly used: however. black and while
photographs and scales ranging 'between
I:20.000 and I:62.500 have bttu employed .

..... _.. .......

---
~ ~
~....- .,,

·...--
· ~UNI.._.,

-. .
-~~'-·
0,_._.. v....

·--
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·----
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• .._,_.......,w_
.._,_

·--
.-- . ...
U,.W,,,

•o-·-
"-"-...._
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attn I ....

fignN> 1- 17: An c;,1-'lmplc ofC..CAP d111a. \\-ith n more dset11,ilcd set oflnnd c(W« da$$c1 1h20 other
$0lll"CC$ ";th oatiouwidc co,·crage.
 Chapter 7: Digital Data 313

- •
~

•
"
,I;_

• , ,,?
j~

~~ ••
•
•
- ... 'I

,.;tC.:
. ,_!...
•
......
l!'N'hlwllO

.. ·.~. ..........
•
Slvubltw,b.t«ou,
Mbf)Cf htn»(~

.,.,Mb:tcl T1hlvitl1b
Ul#.Pood

F'iau"' 7.18: An a.imple of n111ioii;.11 wc1l~nclt in\'critory (NWI) ci.t1a. Digi1.i1 NWI ~t.'l arc ~wiil:ablc for 1nos1
of the Uuiied States. and prodde information on the 1oention lIDd ~bllfllCteriJries of ,,·etla.nds.

Spring photographs typically record times of
highest water tables and are most likely to
record ephemeral we1lands. There is sub-
stantial year.10-year variabili1y in surface
wat·er levels. and hence there may be sub-
s1an1ial wetland omission when pho1ograpbs
are acquired duri.ng a dry year.
NWI data provide infonnation on wet-
land type through a hierarchical classifica-
tion scheme. ,vi1h modifiers. Wetlands are
categorized 3$ pan of a lacus1rine (lake). pal-
ustrine (pond). or riverine system. Subsys-
tem designators then specify further
anribu1es. to record if the "~tland is peren-
nial. interminent.. linoral. or deep water. Fur-
ther class and subclass designalors and
modifiers pro,1de additional information on
wetland cb,iracteristics. A shorthand desig-
nator is often used to specify the wetland
class. A wetland may be designated
LIUB2G. as systelll= lacus1ru1e (L). sub-
system= linmetic (J ). cJass = unconsoli-
dated bottom (UB), with subclass- san<I (2),
and a modifier indicating lhe wetland is
intermittently exposed (G).
The mi11i111u111 mhppi11g 1111/1 (MMU) is
the target size of the smallest feature cap-
rnred. Feamres smaller than the MMU are
not recorded i.n these data. l\'WI das, typi-
cally specify MMUs of between 0.5 and 2
ha. Mi.ills vary by vegetation ,ype. film
source. region. and time period. MMUs are
typicaJJy largest in forested areas and s.maJl-
est in agriculmral or de,-eloped areas.
because it is more difficult to detect many
forested wetlands. MMUs also tend to be
larger on smaller-scale pbo10graphs. The
tv!MU, scale, and other characteristics of the
wetlands dala are available in map-specific
metadata.
NWI da1a do not exhaus.tively defme the
location of we1lands in an area. Because of
the photo scales and Jllethods used. many
wetlands are not included. Stannory wetland
definition typic~lly includes not only surface
314 GIS Fundamentals
water, but also characterislic vegetation or
e,idence on the surface or i,1 1be soils tba1
indicates a period of san1ration. Since this
saturation may be transient or the evidence
may 0011"' visible on aerial pbo1ograpbs.
many weliands m.ay be omined from 1he
NWJ. Nonelheless. NW! dala are an effec-
1ive 1001 for idelll ifyu1g lhe Joca1ioo and
ex1em oflarge wellands. 1be 1ypc of we1land.
and for directing funher, more detailed
ground surveys.
Digital Soils !Data
The Narum! Resources Conservation
Semce (NRCS) of1he Uui1ed S1a1es Oepan-
me-nt of Agriculture bas developed three dig-
i1al soils da1a sei.s. These da1a se1s differ in
1he scale of lhe so,irce maps or da1a. and 1h11s
in the spatial detajl and extenl of coverage.
The Na1ional Soil Geography (NATSGO)
da1a se1 is a higWy generalized soils map for
F'izm~ 7.J9; An ex11,1nplc of SSVRGO digi1~1 $0il'-da.1~ iw\\ibblc &oru the NRCS. Each poly~on rcpre$Cnlf
a soil mapping uni, of rcfati.\'cly wiifonn '°il propeni«.
lhe coolinental United States, developed
from smaJJ.scale maps. NATSGO da1a have
limi1ed use for mos, regional or more
delailed analyses, and will no! b,e further dis-
cussed here. S1a1e Soil Geograpl,ic
(STATSGO) daia are imermediaie in scale
and resolulion. and Soil SUf\•ey Geographic
(SSURGO) da1a pro~de lhe mos, spa1ial and
ca1egorical de1ail.
SSURGO daia are inlended for use by
land owners. farmers. and planners at the
large fann 10 counly level. SSURGO maps
indicate the geographic location and extent
of the soil map uni1s within the soil survey
area (Figure 7-19). Soil map unilS iypically
correspond to general grouping. called
phases. of de1ailed soil mapping 1ypes.
These de.1ailed lll3J)ping iypes are called soil
series. There are approximately 18,000 soil
series in 1be Uni1ed S1a1es. and several
phases for lllOSI series. so !here are po1en-

tially a large number of map units. Only a
small subset of series is likely 10 occur in a
mapped area, typically fewer than a few
hundred soil series or series phases. A few 10
thousands of dis1inc1polygons may occur.
SSURGO data are developed from a
combination of field and pho10-based mea-
surements. Trained soil surveyors cooduc1 a
series of field transec1s in an area to deter-
mine relationships among soil mapping units
and terrain. v.ege1aiion. and land use. Aerial
photographs at scales of 1:12.000 10
l :40.000 are used in 1he field to aid in loca-
tion and navigation through the landsca~.
Soil map unit boundaries are then interpreted
onto aerial photographs or corresponding
orthopb0togropbs or maps. Typical pb0to
scales are I: l 5.840. l:20.000. or I:24.000.
These maps are then digitized in a manner
that does not appreciably affect positional
accuracy. Soi I surveys are often conducted
on a comlly basis, so county mosaics of
SSURGO daca are conunoa SSURGO dara
are reported 10 have position.ii accuracy no
worse than IJ m (43 ft) for approximately
90% of the well-<lefiued points when
SSURGO daia are compiled at I:24.000
scale.
SSURGO data are Jinked 10 a Map Uni1
Interpretatioos Record (MUIR) auribuie
database (Figure 7-20). Key fields are pro.
vided wilh lb~ SSURGO daia. including a
unique identifier roost often related to a soil
map unit,. known as the map unit identifier
(muid). Tables in 1he MUIR database are
linked via the muid. and oiher key fields.
Most tables contain the muid field, so a link
may be creaied between 1be muid ,.,,lue for a
polygon and 1be nmid value in anoihertable.
such as the Compyld table (Figure 7-20).
This creaies au expanded 1able 1hai may be
further linked through cropname. classcode.
or other key fields. These kinds of lab le
structures and linkages are discussed in
Chapter 8.
Variables include an extensive se1 of soil
physical and <hemical pro~rties. Data are
reported for water capacity. soil pH. salinity.
deplb 10 bedrock. building sui1abili1y, and
mos1 appropriate crops or other uses. Most
Chapter 7: Digital Data 315
MUIR data report a range of values for each
soil property. Ranges are deienuined from
representative field-collected samples for
e.ach map unit or from data collected from
similar map m1i1s. Santpies are analyzed
using standardized chemical and physical
methods.
STATSGO digital soil maps are also
available, at asnmller scale and over broader
areas than SSURGO soil da la. STATSGO
data are 1ypically created by generalizing
SSURGO data. STASTGO map units are
larger. more generalized. and do not ueces·
sarily follow 1he same boundaries as
SSURGO map units. ln addition, STATSGO
polygons contain from one to over 20 differ.
ent SSURGO detailed map units. Each
STATSGO map nnit may be made up of
thousands of lhese more detailed SSURGO
polygons. and many different SSURGO map
unit types can be represen1ed within a
STATSGO polygon. STATS•GO data provide
infonna1ion on some of this variability. Data
and properties on multiple componems are
preserved for ead1STATSGO map 1mit.
Digital Floodplain Data
Floods cause billions of dollars in dam-
age each year iu lhe United S1a1es: losses
could be rech1ced wi1b the effective applica4
lion of GIS. A first slep is the mapping of
flood-prone areas. TJ,e Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMAJ develops and
disseminates flood hazard maps. commonly
known as floodplain maps (:Figure 7-21 ).
These maps locale the b0t1Lt@ry of areas
,,~th a I% or higher annual ,chance of flood-
ing. commonly known as 100-year flood-
plain maps.
FEMA occasionally updates these
floodplain maps. The objectives are 10
develop nmps of flood hazard ,ia an
improved process, with better input dala. in a
unifonn digilal fonnaf. and 1o integrale map
creation ioto ongoing local and s1ate govern-
ment mapping and planning efforts. Updates
are particularly important given Ille changes
in precipitation intensity and willt sea 1ewl
rise due to changing climates.
316 GIS Fundamentals

SSURGO Attribute Doto Tables

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lCl ··-..... ~ -·
...ooqllod
''°'' _. .......,..
"""
f'IC>l-¢1 $lTlfb
...,,..
...,,...
..... -·
"'""
MQ,U,1 I
........
'"""""'., """""
Mopped urnt of o
eeeil cloy soil f'..1lwl
......... =
"""'
PCl"lt GIW
-
..........,...
...... ......
""''""' "lc:rllpct
-~·
R'°""
"""
""
nrone

043CeC

M.oound ·.--.:muld
mulcl 0.t3CeC '~=~~·~0.C3CeC
l~d r YlduMs com
crop~me
munome Cefes com .I Ct'OpnO!'M; yldunrts bvshel/ocre
lrryld 80

~
--._.,muid 0-43CeC Toxcioss
closcode.- 124f loscode 124'
reaction. acid

f1J.Urt 1·l0: The database scbcma a~sociatcd with the SSURGO digit,I soils data. \ ariab!" dcmibinJ
soil chnnctmstic~ ate provided~ a ut of rclaiable fables. Reys ll1 e~h Ulb]e. s.bowu i.u bold,. e!~wide
n<:«st 10 i1ems of intc:ru1. Codes provided with the dii,it:iJ gcopnphic (L,rn., e.g., the muid, pro,:, dc ~ link to
tb'*' data t.ablc,. TilC rcl.atiou of a m.a~d 10il polygou to attribute cbta l5 $.bown in the c.-uruple 111 the bot·
tom. The ,nuid l$ rcla1cd from the MAP UNIT nnd COMP tables. wbicb in mm an: med 10 acc~s otbtt
\':uinbles tbtough ::.dditionn.l l:e)'S..

Fl; urt 7-.lt: An cxatnplc o(FEMA Ooodpfain d:ua fot:. ~ 3ior.1 ne11r Motgan, Geo'1lJ'. USA.
Floodplaafl maps are used for a number
of pUi'pOS<!S. eliief among them setting Oood
insurance rates. Over l 9.000 communities
participate in the National Flood Insurance
Program (NFIP). This suppons federnl gov-
ernment 10 guarantee Oood insurance for
conm)wtities with floodplain management
ordinances. Ordinances reduce flooding
risks for redevelopmem and new construc-
tion. thereby Jeducing losses.
Digital floodplain m•ps •re produced to
define regions within a IOO-year floodplain.
Boundary accuracy may be challenged. usu-
ally by individual landowners, businesses. or
municipalities. and the proposed adjust-
ments evaluated and included in the flood-
plain map if they improve accuracy.
Maps are most often produced by coop-
erating teclmical panuers (CTP). Expertise,
trnining. an<l ,demons1rnted capabilities are
required of eiich CTP. Best technical prac.
tices for digital floodplain data development
are defined by FEMA. and training is offered
to teach best available methods and increase
dalO quality. Protocols for verifying and
Chapter 7: Digital Data 317
revising maps are defined as part of the data
evaluation pr(>(ess.
Climate, Geology, and other
Environmental Data
Other spatial environmental data sets are
available. including clima1e,, water chemis-
try, energy resources. Here we provide
examples, but there are many others.
TI1e National Climatic Data Center
(NCDC) maintains historical climate records
for the United States. aod provides their data
through a Web portal
(https# w\\,v.ncei.nooa.gov/maps-and-geo-
spatial-products). Recording srn1ions may be
selected by various criter~,. including geog-
rnpby. measured variables, or length of
record. Climate data ba"e beeo con,•ened to
spatial fields. and are distril>uted through the
PRISM initiative (prism.oregons1a1e.eou.
see Figure 7-22).
Mineral resources da1a are available
from ct,e United States ~ological Survey. at
hnp://mrdata.usgs.gov/. These data iuclude
maps of basic nalional geology, as well as
318 GIS Fundamentals
F ia ur<' 7. 22: U.S. '"~f!:c prccipi1111io.,, mc-;1•
sured from l971- l000, lll1Clp0lalcd from
wcathct stations ac.-oss tbc Uoitcd States to crc-
lllc 111 !'\titer 3J'ld (tb."ta from dtc PRISM projcc-t).
spa1ial and 1abular da1a on specialized
themes such as m.ineral deposi1s. mines.
claims. smelters and 01her processing facili-
ties, and energy resources.
Spatial da1a are available for a range or
other environmental parameters. inch1ding
air pollrnion. polh11an1 and con1amina111 dis-
tribution. and some water pollutants tllrough
the Environmental Protection Agency. many
at www.epa.gov/da1a/.
Digital Census Data
The United S1a1esCensus Bureau devel-
oped and maintains a database system to
support the nalional census. This system is
known as the Census TIGER sys1em (Topo-
logically l111egra1ed Geographic Encoding
and Referencing)_The TIGER system is
used 10 organize areas by s1a1e. county. cen·
sus tract. and ocher geographic uni1s for da1a
collection and repor1ing. ll also allows the
assignmen1 of individual addresses 10 geo·
graphic en1iries. The census TIGER sys1em
links geographic enti1ies to census s1atis1ical
da1a on popula1io11 size, age. income, heahh.
and other fac1ors {Figure 7-23). These enti-
ties are rypicaUy !)Olygons defined by roads.
streams, political boundaries, or other fea.
tures. The TIGER sys1em is a key govem-
me-ot tool iu the collection of census da1a.
TIGER also aids in the applica1ion of census
da1a during the apportionme01 of federal
government funds. in congression.11redis-
1ric1ing. in transportalion management and
planning. and in other federal govemmen1
activities.
TIGER/Lin<, files are a11he heart of 1he
:,ys1cm. They defme line. landmark. and
polygon features in a topologically in1e-
gn11ed fasl1io1L Lines mos1often represeu1
roads. hydrography. and political bo1u1dar-
ies. a hhough railroads. power lines. and
pipelines are also represented. Polygon fea·
mres inch1de census 1abula1ion areas such as
census block groups and tracts. a nd area
landmarks such as parks and cemeteries.
Poin1 landmarks such as schools and
churches may also be represented. Points.
lines. and polygons are used to define 1hese
feamres (Figure 7-24).
Nodes and vertkes are used to identify
line segments. Topological auributes are
anached ro 1he nodes and lines. such as the
polygons on either side of the line segment.
or the line segmen1s 1ha1 COllllect 10 the node.
Point landmarks and polygon ituerior poims
are other topological elements of Tl GERI
Line files.
~lf"ltrecse
'.N>O • I) l\l -
4100 .,.~
tJ&O
",QI) • ?~--
.3! -
.., + '>(l(J
>'10 e._;
fl·a:urf' 7. 2J: Digi1al cami.s data pto\"idc:: spatially
rcicn11ced dcmoppbic nnd Qlhcrd:113 for tbc U.S.

- 1=- .
di--· p•- -4
Flgurt 744: TIGER dat11. pro\'idc 1opoJOllc11J
encoding of ~ior., li.ucs (c.bains). n.ud polygons
(U.S. Depl. of Comm~e),
TIGER/Line files contain infonnation to
identify s1ree1 address labels. Starting and
ending address numbers are recorded corre-
sponding to sianing and ending nodes (Fig-
ure 7-25).Addresses may then be assigned
within the address range. The system does
not allow specific addresses 10 be assigned
to specific buildings. Howe\'er. it does
restrict the addresses on a city block 10 a li.111-
Actual Addtess ( Potentlel Ad<lfess Renge)
•••
-
101-119
• 100·118
sro,r NO<Ht
I,oo 1102 I 1. 10,
Fisur" 7-25: TlOER do.la pro,·ide address nui,ges for line <cha.in) segments.. The" ranges in.a)' be dis·
tributcd acrou lhc line. a.hina, appro:cirua1c building. locanoos on utrcct (1J.S. Dept. of Conuncrec).
Chapter 7: Digital Data 319
ited range of numbers, something of great
use to field workers responsible for collect·
ing census inforurntion.
TIGER/Line fdes are organized by dif·
ferem record types. A'°llec1ion of records
repons the localion and attribute infom1ation
about a set of census features, including the
location, shape. addresses and other census
auributes for a county. Ther.e is an identifier
based on the United States Federal lnfonna·
tiou Processing Standards code (FlPS) that is
used to identify the file and record type.
Census data are distributed as ESRI
Geodatabases and as shapefiles for \larious
geographic unils. In addition. specialized
software Jl"Ckages are available to ingest
TIGER/Line and related ceusus and other
federal government data files to data layers
in specific GIS formats. Dara are collected
on business activities. health. crime. among
other topics. These dala may be extracled in
a customized manner.
Many United S1a1es government data
are provided with codes compatible with
Unite<I States Census Burem, data. For
example, the U.S. Department of Transpor-
tation, and the U.S. Center for Disease Con·
trol deliver with codes needed 10 link
107 113
Oak Ave U;FT
RIGHT •
E"'1,,,_
106 108
-
110
320 GIS Fundamentals

Traffic Deaths
per 100.000
CJ No Report
0 <10
- 10to20
- 20to30
- Over30

Fia.urf" 7 26: Trnffic fa1:a1ily <bin. sbowing ~,·en'lge uurobn-of de.11th$ per J00,000 pc1$0US o\'cr J99i-2006.
4

dc:ri,·ed &om data Rportc:d by the: U.S. Ccnlc:1'$ for Oisca~ Control. ni.esc: data are published "•itb links to
U.S. Ce1m1s rcCO$;uizc:d _-cov,i.pbics. as 11tc much odlc:rda1a c:olle¢ted by the: U.S. federal a,o,·e:111mc:lll.
Hc:re, F«~J ln(01m1uion Procctting Sra1i,brd {FrPS) c<>dc:s were: published ,,itb I.be: CDC' d.ull, :utd used
to link to CO\lllf)' b,o,,1ndnry files. Note the gcncrnUy high dctitb rntc:$ in some: ,outhcm ;md inle:rior w«tc:m
cotmtiC$. and th.it lNc:w Yod. driw:r5., counter to reputation. appc.ir to be amonj: lb<: &afe5't ou tbc: roads.

statistics to geography. in Figure 7-26 an Processing may also require conversion

example mapping the average traffic fatality
rate from 1997 through 2006. These data can
be conveniemly combined because data are
tagged by county FIPS codes. census tracts,
block groups, or other census geographies.
\Vhile many data are available, they
often require processing after download to
render them useful. This may include some
fom1of editing to winnow table variables or
remove m1wan1ed features, or raster resam·
piing. or coordinate projection. or damm
among data models. e.g., from , ·ector to ras-
ter. Most GIS softwares provide conversion
tools among data mo<lels. altliough on con-
version we must bear in mind 1he conceptual
differences among models. Remember that
VC(tor data don't store infonna1ion on areas
outside of features, for example.. the areas
outside of polygons are undefined. When
converting polygon data 10 raster data. the
raster cells in these "in betweeo"' locations
may be assigned a value that indkates ..nu11· 1

transformation. or conversion among data or "nodata". or otherwise flagged as

models. all activities covered in previous
chapters.
Processing m.ay also entail type conver·
sion. e.g.. many point data are distributed as
coordinates in a table. and these must be
converted 10 poitrt fearures in a data layer.
Most GIS softw11,es provide utilities to con-
vert X and Y ooor.cHnate darn to shapefiles.
geodatabase layers. or other common spatial
data fomtats.
unknowus (Figure 7-27). These nodata val-
ues are sometimes set to a specific numeric
value, often zero or an implausible negative
number such as -9999. or some <>ther value
that is not present iu lhe feature data values.
This may affect further processing. and these
unlmown areas often must be modified
before subsequent analysis. Some spalial
functions are nonsensical on lhese codes.
e.g.. the 1s1n1tal log functions when applied
10 ne.g_ativenumbers. Othersoftwares simply
won·, apply wost functions to n<>data raster
 Chapter 7: Digital Data 321

Vector Lakes Roster Conversion

undefined

fiau~ 7-27: Oata, a,iiilablc for dowulo!ld may be in a UOJMargct da'-' mode1. be~ ,·cc1or polygom• !hat we
wish to use in nstcr processing. A \'e,ctor 1nodcl bolds no info1'lll3tiou for areas ouisidc of polygoui. R..'lS-tcr
1nodcls ddi11c ,-alud C'\"Cl')'Whctt iu tbc:it cxtau. "No ~UI" \'alucs nu~· be :.ssi311cd for,~ w:iddincd
rcgioos. which m3y c-onsimi.u fortbc-r processing. until they tire c::bn.ugcd.

cells. rerun1ii,g an outp111 ,oalue ofnodata Gtobnl Dnu,:

wheo a cell is. encountered in any function or
processing. 'iypically there are functions
which e.xplicitly e,•aluate cells for nodata
values. and allow re-assignment These and
other processing tools for vec:1or and raster
data are described from Chapter 9 o,1wards.
Summary
Digital data are available from a number
of sources. aod provide a means for rapidly
and ine,,pens;vely populating a GIS data-
base. Most of these data have been produced
by govemme111 organizations and are avail-
able at little o r no cos1, often \~a the internet
Data for eleva1ion. transponation. water
resources. soils. popula1ion. land cover. and
imagery are available, and should be eva(u.
ated when crea1ing and using a GIS.
Data available can seem lo be an alpha.
bet soup of acronyms. Below is a list orga.
nized by topk.
• OSM (Ope11 Street M.i.p, vector reatures)
• Natural Earth (mid to small scale)
• NASA EOSDIS. ESA DIAS (satellit< do10)
• GM.RT (oc..n 1opogropby)
• SRTM (global elevation)
• Open topography (elevation)
• TRMM (g.lobal precipitatio11)
• Landsat (globsl Land cove.r. , ,ege1ation)
• SEDAC, Terra Populus (pop .. socio. data)
· UNEP (broad range of e nvironmental data)
· LandScan (global population estimates)
U.S.INortlt Amuicnn Dntn:
· NationaJ ~1ap (various U.S. dala)
• 1DEP. opeo topogiapby (DEMs)
· NHD. NHOplus. CUAHSI (hydrology)
• NAIP, NAPP. USGS HRO (hi-res images)
. MRLC, NASS COL. C-CAP (laodeover)
. NWI (wellnods)
· SSURGO. STATSGO (soils)
- !,.'FHL FE.MA (Ooodplain. b32atd da1a)
• TIGER/Line (dig.ital census boundaries/
1ablcs)
322 GIS Fundamentals

Suggested Reading

Broome. F.R•. Mcixlet. 0 .8 . (l990). The TIGER d:,tab.'l&e stmccurt. Ctwrogn,pli,r ,md Get.r
grapluc lnforn1atio,r Systems. 17:39-47.

Caner, J.R. ( L9SS). Digital representations of topographic surfares. Pl101ogmmmetric £,ig1·

11eumg and Remote Seusi11g. 54: 1577- 1580.

Decker. 0 . (20<H). GJS Datt, Soun:es. New Yotk: Wiley.

Di Lu'bo. M.. A.mold. J.G .• Srinivasan.. R. (2004). lntegruiou of SSURGO 013pS and soil
parameters within a gfi3graphic information system and nonpoint source pollution model
system. Jo1m1nl o/So,1 aJtd muer co,,serwmo,r. 59: 123- 133.
D,inca.n. O.T•. Aldscad1. J.. Whalen. J.. Melly. S.J .. Gonmaker. S.L. (2011). Valida1iou of 1he
Walk Scor<.'" for estimating neighborhood waJkability: an analysis of four U.S. 1uetropoli·
t.to are-as. Im ematio,iol Jow·11ol ofEmfromne111ol Ruem"th ;,, Pub/,c Health, S :4 l 60-
4 L79.

Gcscb, 0 .. Oimoen, M .• Greenlee, S., Ndson, C.. Steuck. M .• Tyler, 0. (2002). The national
elevation dalll-Sel. Phorogmmmetnc £,igi,uwillg n11d Remote Sensmg. 68:5- 11.

Goodchild. M..F... A.n$eJin. L.. Oeiduuann. U. ( J 993). A fr~uework for 1he areal i,m:rpola.tioo
oi socioeconomfo dam. E,mromnem and Plnm,mg. 25:3$3- 397.

Go~khovich. Y .. Voustianiouk. A. (2006). Accw.'l<:y as~ssmen1 of the prooessed SRTM-

based eleva1 ion data by CGlAR using field data from USA and Thailand and i1s relation 10
the terrain characteristics. Re.m ole Sensi11g ofEnvinmment. 104:409-4 15.

Harvey, F.. Leung. Y. (Eds.) (2015).. Adwmces m Spatral Data Hondli11g a11d A1inl)'s.is. Bertin:
Sptlllger.

Homer. C•• Hu31lg. C.. Yang. L .. Wylie, B.. Co..,u. M. (2004). Development of a 2001 natiOn.'-I
landcovcrdatabase for the United States. Photogmmmetric £11gi11e0·i,rg a,rd Remote
Se11Swg. 70,:829-840.

Lytle. O.J .. Bliss. N.B .. Wahmttn. S.W. ( 1996). lnterpreting the Stme Soil Geog.niph.ic Oa1a-
basc (STATSGO). Goodchild, M..F., S teyacrt. L.T .. Parks. B.O., Johnston, C.. Maidment,
O.• Crane, M.. GleDdinniug, S. (Eds.). GIS a11d EJwfromnemnl !dodeli11g: Progn1s.s and
Resea,.ch /$$11es. Fort Collins: GIS World.

Marx. R. \V. (19S6). The TIGER system.: automating the gc-ograpbjc structure of the United
States Cens.us. Goi•ernmem Pubhcatio,1$ Rc\'ieh'. 13: 13 1-201 .

Maune. O.F. (2007). D1gual £/enmon Model Technolog,u<md Appl1cnno,,s: The DEl1! User'.f
Manual (2nd ed.). Bethesda: American Society of Pbo1ogr.uumietry and Remote Sensing.

Op<nshaw, S.. Taylo~ P. (1979).A million or ,o ooirel•tiono0<8ici,n~: Thr«. expa:im<nt, on

1he modifiable n.real mi.it problem.. N. \Vrigle (Ed.). Stnhsncnl Appbcatto,is ;,, tl,e Spana/
Loudon: Pion.
Scie11CC$.

Smith. B.. Sanct·well. 0 . (2003). Accuracy aad ~olution ofsbunlc mdar 1op0graphy mjssioo
data. Geophysical Research Leners, 30: 1-20.
 Chapter 7: Digital Data 323

Taylor, P.J .• Johnston. RJ. ( 1979). Gec,graphy of l;lecnons. Hammondswonh: Penguin.

WiJen•.B.O.• Bates, K..M. ( 19.95). The US Fish and Wildlife Service's Nntional Wetlaods
luventory Project. Vegernfio. I lS:153-169.
324 GIS Fundamentals

Study Questfons

7. 1 - What are some advantages and dis.1dvantages of using digital spatial data?

7.2 - Wha1 are lhe 01os1illlportau1 ques1ious you 01us1 ask before using already devel-
oped spa1ial da1a?

7.3 - For each of tl1e following data sets, tell us who produces tl1em, wba1 are !he
source materials. what do lhe dal3 sets coutain. their grain sizes and accuracies. and
bow 1.hey are delivered: NAIP digital pho1ograpbs. NHDplus. digital elevation 1.nod-
els (DEMs), digital Ooodplain data, National Wetlands lnventol)' da1a (N\VJ). TIGER
census da1a. aod national land cover data {NLCD) sets.

7.4 - What is tiile edge matching and why is it important'?

7.S - (deu,ify and describe lhe cbarac1eristics of three different sources of digital ele-
vation data. \Vhat are the pros and cons of each source?

7.6 . Visit one of !he websites mentioned in this chap1er. or in !he appendices at 1he
end of this book. and download several data layers of an area of interes1. If you have
access to a GIS, try to import 1bese da1a and display 1hem.
 325

8 Attribute Data and Tables

Introduction
We have described how spatial data in a
GIS are oftem split into two components. the
coordinate infom1ation for object geometry.
and the attribute information for the nonspa-
tial propenies of objects. Because these non-
spatial data are frequently presented to the
user in tables. u,ey are often referred to as
1almlarda1a. Tabular data smnmarize the
most important cha.rncleris.tics of ~ch
object for exa.ruple. ailribllte! abom coufities
(Figi,re 8-1 ). In this example. the attributes
include. the county name. Federal Informa·
tion Processing Standards (FIPS) code. poi>"
ulation. and area.
Attribute information in a GIS is typi-
cally entered. atmlyzed. and reponed using a
dmabase monagemem system (DBMS). a
specialized computer program for organizing
and manipulating data. The DBMS stores the
properties of geographic objects and the rek1-
tiooships among the objects. A DBMS incor-
porates software tools for managing tabular
data. including those for efficient data star.
age, rettie\laJ. indexing, a11d rqiotting.
DBMSs were initially deve loped in the
1960s. and refinements since then have Jed 10
robust. sophisticated S}~tems employed by
govenuneut. businesses. and other organiza-

10 C<iun ly Na~ FIPS Pop20 Arcr.:i

Andtosco.......in 23001 109,003
1
.._,.,. S287
2
' Aroostook 23003 17,687

'' Cumbcrtand
Fr.antlfn
23005 297.600
23007 JQ,767
3.152
4·,S17
H~0<:k 5$,09 6,089
u
'6 Kennebec
23009
23011 U1.818 2.463
7
-Knox 39.881 ?·95!.
....,
23013

• Oxford
Uncoln
"°" 3S.104 1,813

•
10 PenobSCOl
23017
23019
sa.•n
I.SUlO "J.]10
11

"
Piscm3quis
S.-.a.idllhot
23021
230'3
16,863
36,111 ...
U . l36

" Somc:flC!t
W.ilOO
23025
23027
50,74 7 10.606
3'.&31
"
1S W.:,$hlnaton 23029 31,495
2.209
8.430
16 York 2lOJI 211.185 ,.m
Fig11~ 8- I: 0:1.111 in 3 GIS indudc botb sp;i1ii1l (left) ;ind a1tn1>u1c (right) c:omponmts..
326 GIS Fundamentals
tions. A somewhat standard set of DBMS
tools and methods have been developed and
are provided by many vendors.
Snidents often struggle with relational
databases al first, and often ask. "Why
bother? Can't we just use a spreadsheet?"'
Many more people are familiar with spread-
sheet fomls. programs. and manipulation,
and don't undersr~nd why we bother to
adopt DBMS. A sliort example may help
explain their value.
Consider ~,e file shown in Figure S-2.
representing business orders. Each row
records the purchaser. an order number. and
the items ordered. Spreadsheets typically
present data Hke this in a single. ,;fla1 file:•
Because orders may contain multiple items.
we need mul1iple columns with copiesof the
item/quantity pair. For example, ordernum.
ber five by Atom Ant includes two items.
two B52s and two CR7s. while order num-
ber lhree by Paul Smith has four items. or a
total of S columns for items. Larger orders
would require additional colwnn~.
This Oat file strucnire is sub-optimal.
We either have 10 limit 1he munber of items
per order (rarely a good thing for a busi-
ness). or else DOI kllow bow many columns
our database might have. which would com-
plicate programi11g and management More
importantly.,~ CM easily ha~ mostly
nome surname Oddress phone # ordu # item qt• irem qly
Leo O..roche, 112 Beol SI 5-1307
Rudy Vo!entiru 1 H,sponolo Dr •-2706
Poul Smnll 99 Upstate ltl 0·0000
Adam Sm,rh I Woll S1 1-2334
AIOOI Ant 685 Honbor Rd 4·1222
N,n,am Smrill 202 o,nkytO\\n 9-9199
Alice Poul 5 Free Sr d-4178
Paul Smith 99 Upstare ltl 0-0000
Flautt S...2: An e-x.ampk of data iu a fl.at file fomuu.
blank entries in our database. We may have
thousands oforders with one or ·1wo items.
However. ifwe have one order with 50 dif.
feren1 items~we have to add enough col-
uums to accommodate 50 i1em/quami1y
pairs. even Cor orders \\~th one item. As with
orders I. 2. 4, 6. 7. and 8 in the table below.
many of the cells will be empty. More data
adds to storage cosrs aod causes longer pro-
cessing times. This flat file stmc1ure is prone
to be borh slow and space hungry.
There is another disadvantage. Note the
two orders from Paul Smitli. This requires
copies of his name and contact infom1a1ion.
This wastes space and makes ed iring more
cumbersome atKI error prone. If Paul Smith
changes his phone number. we must search
through every line in our database and
change every instance of an order that con-
tains Paul Smit.h's phone number.
F1mctions and programs may be wrinen
to address the inefficient use of space, s.low
processing. and difficult editing in fiar file
forut11s. Tbis requires specific kuowledge of
1he file strucn1re. for example the arrange-
ment and number of columns. \Vbile these
workaro11nds are possible. they are often
coroplica1ed and require subsramial program
maintenance. Database management S)":i·
1ems were developed to overcome 1hese
redundancies aud inefficiencies. among oth-
ers. While spreadsheets or other flat file for-
1
,tun qly rte,n qly
1 CR7 I
2 F15 t
3 GTO 3 F15 1 652 I SR71 1
• 626 l
5 652 2 CR7 2
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mats may be 11sed for simple c,ollections of
da1a. DBMSs are bener for mos1 applica-
tions tba1 process large amounts of data.
DBMSs s>rovide other advantages. They
may provide dhin lndepende11ce. a ,:aluable
characteristic when working with large data
sets. Data independence allows us 10 make
d1anges in the database stmcture in ways
that are transparent to any use or program.
This means res1n1cruring the database does
not require a 11ser or programmer ro recode
ormodify their procedures.
DBMSs may also provide for mulliple
user views. \\tidi different data provided in a
different Conn 10 each program or user. A
DBMS may allow centralized conttol and
maintenance ofimportant da1a. One s.1aodard
copy oftlte daia may be stored and up<la1ed
on a reguJar, known basis. time stamped or
versioned number to aid in management. A
manager is charged with n1aintaining data
currency, qua.lity. and completeness. and
with resolving contradictions among_ various
versions of the database.
Adopting a DBMS may come at some
cos1. Specialized training is required.
although standard DBMS programming lan-
guages are useful across many systems.
Defining the -componen1s of a daiabase and
relationships among them is often a complex
task. Siructuring the database for etliciem
access or creating customized fonns will
often require sig.nific.ant effort. The software
i1self may be expensive, although free. s1a-
ble. open soutce da1abase management soft-
wares are available. Users may need to
optimize speed for certain operations 1ha1 are
too slow in a DBMS. However. for many
user$. lhe value of the DBMS far oulweighs
these COSIS.
Chapter 8: Attribute Data and Tables 327
Database Componen1ts and Char-
acteristics
The basic components of a trnditiooal
database are doth items oralfribmes. the
indivisible units of data like name. popula-
tion. or area (Figure 8-3). These ite,ns can be
any characteristic used to describe things.
Attributes may be simple, for exatnple, oue
word or number. or 1hey may be compound,
for example, an address data item that con-
siscs of a house number. a su-eet name. a Ci()'.
and a zip code.
Attnt,,.Jte
or Item
Nome <tPS . Ar¢,O PopOn
= ""
·--
Vhc)r~
c - .,..,. ..
,,,. "
..... .."
?17(1
"""' !)JOJ.!I
Jrffu,on
4,..,
"' "'
!>30]1 lO 1"1) II
190
"" "''
f iJUN' $.J: Component$ of ~l:l ,11nl,l1te data
table.
Items have a type and a domain chat
res1ric1 the ,,alues they may take. Types
define essential characteristics of an item..
Common types include real numbers. in1eger
munbers. both of various leL1gths. hexadeci-
mal numbers. text fields, hyperlinks, and
binary la,ge objects (blobs). Domains define
1he accep1able values au item may take. for
example, integers may be restricted to be
larger than Obut smallertban lO. or tliere
may be a type name ·'color.. that can only
take on the \lalues "red". "green". or "blue:·
A collection of related da1a i1ems 1ba1
are 1reated as a unit represellts an entity. In a
GIS, the databaseeu1ities are typically roads,
counties. lakes. or other types of geographic
features. Aspecific entity, such as a specific
eoumy. is an i11srance of1ha·1emil)'. Entities
are defined by a set of anributes and associ-
ate.d geographic data. In our example in
Figure 8-3. the anribu1es 1ba1describe a
328 GIS Fundamentals
county include the name, a FIPS code, the
1990 population ii, thousands of persons.
area. and the population density. These
related data items. a.re often organized as a
row or luie in a table. called a ,~cord. Spe·
cific database systems ol\en define the temis
difforently for each of these parts. For exam-
ple, in the relational database model, the
record may be caUed a row or au 11-ruple. and
the tables referred to as a relarioual table. or
sometimes as just are/arion.
You should note that the concept of an
entity. when referred to in a database. may
be slightly different than an entity i.n a GIS
data model. This difference stems from two
different groups. geograpoors and computer
scientists. using a. word for different but
related concepts. An entity in a geographic
data model is often used for 1be real-world
thing we are ttyin.g to represem with a cano-
graphic object. In contrast. computer scien-
tisis and database managers often define an
entity as the principal data object about
which infom1ation will be c.ollected. Jn the
DBMS li1uaru,e, the e,ui1y is the data object
that denotes physical thu1gs. and not tlle
thing itsel( This is a subtle distinction in
terminology, bul lhese different defmitions
can lead to confusion unless the difference in
meanings is noted. For the remainder of this
chapter. we will use the definition of an
emity as a data object.
A DBMS typ,cally supports complex
strucnires. prim.1rily ro provide data security.
to maintain stabitaty. and to allow multiple
users access. Database users often demand
shared access. when multiple usetS can
access a data set simuhaneously. If each pro-
gram or user has direct file access. multiple
copies of a database may be open for modifi-
cation at the same time (Figure $-4. top).
Multiple users may try 10 write to the data
file simultaneously. with unforeseen results.
The data saved may be the most recent, the
firs1 updates, or some mix in be1ween.
DBMSs are usuaUy designed 10 manage
multiuser access (Figure S-4. bottom) aod
prevent 1hese errors.
-
El·- (.-..", J-1--· I
P "fl- ~
....... OOMSFlteAmm
..........
P'OO'- ()1,1~
El·
[!ill -
G}
-~--·· '·{,-, J-1-·I
, :::::"°
/ ~ l ...•·u I
~- .
/ 1WWft
f'iam~ S-1; Oircct a.od dat11b.lse mam_gcment ~
tcin file: ace«, (adapted from Aronoff. 1991).
The separation of data and f.tmctions
i1110 multiple levels is often referred to as a
m11ltf-1iered an:hirecwre (figure S-5). Data
are primarily stored at the lowes..t tier. These
data may be of dh•erse types. u1cluding coor-
dinate data. auributes. rext. images, sound.
video recordings. orother impot1an1. per·
sis1ca1 data.
Data sets at the )owes, tier may be man-
aged by an individual database system (Fig-
ure S-5). The system or programs that access
rbe firs1 1ier. a, the bottom of a multi-1iered
system. is often called a tm11sactio11111cm-
flger. This transaction manager typically
takes requests from higller tiers and searches
the relevant ponioos of 1he database to iden-
tify the requested data, or perfom1 the
requested opera1ioa
The middle tier is often referred 10 as an
applica1io11s senw (Fig1tre 8·5). This tier
passes requests from higher-level tiers into a
set of instn1ctions the database(s) below can
'illlders,aud." For example. a real estate
agent may want to identify all houses in a
certain price range. in good school districts.
 Chapter 8: Attribute Data and Tables 329

and near rapid transit stations fora pros.pee·
1ive buyer. Tile applications server may gen·
erate three different requests - one to
idenlify houses in a price range, a second to
iden1ify good. school distric1s. and a third 10
find rapid mu1si1s1ations. The applications
server may tlten perfomt the operations to
different resources may be more easily inte·
gra1ed. Ifa company decides 10 redesign
1heir data e111ry in1erface.1hey may do so
e.asily if 1he user interface is distinct fromthe
tiers below. They do 1101 have 10 worry abo111
how the a1>plications server or transaction
manager access lhe databases I0\ .:er down.
1

determine where these important cri1eria are
lllCI.
The uppennos, tier of mul1i-1ieroo archi·
tec:rures is typically a user f111afoce (figure
8-5). This lier may be a display by a single-
purpose or 1opic-specific program such as a
G!S. or a Weli>-based interface wi1h 1he pri-
mary purpose of gathering requests from the
user. and presenting infonna1ion back 10 1be
user based on those requesis.
Multi-tiered archi1ectures are adop,ed
primarily to insulate the user interface from
the processing and data a, lower 1iers. :111d to
allow access to a more diverse range of data
through the lowest tiers. The parts are easier
10 change when they are isolated. and new.
The u11egratio11 or a new database 1echnol·
ogy is often easier wi1h multi-tiered ard1itec-
mres.
Multiuser access adds Sllbstantial com-
plexity to processing. For example, 1he
server must ensure that whe.n se\'eral copies
of a database are accessed, clmnges to 1be
database must be reconciled! on resubmis·
sion. If 1he updates from 1wo clien,s con0ic1.
such as when one diem dele1es a record
while a second client modifies a value for
1he same record. the program muSI resolve
1he differences: perhaps one user has higher
priority. the most recent cha nges are
enforced. or a message is sent to an opera,or
noting the ambiguity.

Desktop°' thl,C,C clienl Browser·integrated or APls

Upper .,~ QGIS ArcMap • Qpenlaye<> p B~P>

=1-----'?'"" · ~~~------~---~~: ift!t. ArcGIS Server t \Autod&sk

4, Leaflet
Application GecServer W' Mapgukle
Server •

----
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Database
Q Oracle Spatial
~ Mietosoft
't\MySOL·spa1lal ..:::- SOL Se,ver

Figure S...S: M:Ulti-ciettd arcbitechltc. 11nd common soITT\·11tc 11ltcm:uh•es. DAu1 Ilk st<>ttd :knd ac,cesscd &om
d.i.ttbMct on 1)1e bonom tier, i,nd d"'2 \'iewed m\lle$IS m~e ~I the upper tia. ApPliC':111:ions scn•ers net upon
the rcqucst and tr.mslo.te/procen i.ilfonnation paned between ,•Pf?Cr and bonom ttcr5, (n u·ell-~,·cd 5)'5•
terns tha1 adlicre to defined staudatds. the components lWI)' be tuL"Ccd, e.g.. )'OU mav :1<:c«,& da1a iu ~SOE
from QGIS. or d.11a stored i:u PostGIS from Af'CM11p (ad."lpted from Boui)dlcss). ·
330 GIS Fundamentals

Relational Databases tunities. As noted earlier. tlie rows are also

Relational d;r1abases have grown to
become the most common database design
since their imroductiou in 1968. Relational
mO<iels are more flexible dian most other
designs. The 1ables s.tmcture does not restrict
processing or queries. and is not too difficult
to understand and implemem rehuive to
otherdatabase designs. It can accommodate
a wide range of data types. and it is no1 11ec.
essary to know in advance the kind of q11e-
ries. sorting, and searching that will be
perfonned on the database.
There are typically a cluster of tables. or
relations. in a relational dataoose design. as
shown for forest and related recreation data
in Figure 8·6. Encities are represented by
rows in a table. In our forest data example.
the.re may be a forest 1able witha row for
each forest and o'lher tables represe01ing the
trails. trail features. and recreational oppor-
called records or 111ples.
Tables are related through ke,>s. one or
more colunms 1bat meet cenain .req\lire-
menls and may be used to index Ute rows.
Keys are often a colwnn that uniquely iden-
tifies every row in a table. We olieu assig,, a
unique number or code tobe a key. for
example. a Social Security number as a key
for a set of people in the United States. No
1wo people have the same vatid Social Secu-
rity number, so we can use the number 10
connect a row ofinforma1ion 10 a specific
person.
Keys are used to join data from one
table 10 associa1ed data in anolher table (Fig-
ure 8-7). Keys are the •;key.. to tile utility and
Oe.,ibility of relational databases. They
allow us to mix and match data from various
tables: to display data differently for differ-
ent projects or audiences: 10 organize our

Forests
Fore.st Nome Foresr·ID Location Size
Nontohoto
Choracteristics
I N. C<lrobno 184.447
Tro11Name Feature Olff.:ulty
Cherokee 2 N. Coroh110 92.271
Bryson', Knob v,s:c:1 E.M

Trails aryso,fs Kt1ob Ogrth E.M

Troll Nome Forest -ID Sllckrock Fo!f.s Ogrlh M
Bryson·s Knob t Sllckn:>c.k Falls Wfoll M
Shckrock Falls 2 Nonh FOi"", . M
Nor!h FO<k I Code's Qwe Ognh E
Code's Cove t CoCle's Cow: Wllfe E
Code's Cove 2 Appolcchion wrou M.O
AppolOGhlon t Appolochlon Ogrlh M.D
Appolochkln 2 Appqlochlon V,sto M.D
AppOl(l(h!<ln Wlife M.D
Appolochlan Cmp M.D
Recreational features
~e:oture Desc.r1otlon Activitv I Ac!Mfv 2
Wfall Worerfol. PhotNt!"Qnhv Swimm1nn
Oarth Old-Growth Forest Phot"'"ronhv Hik.ina Fia:urt 8-6: fores1 d.ata in a
Visro Scenic Overlook Phot-ronhv v......a relational database structure.
Wlift Wiidiife Viewl....... Phof<V>rQr,WU 8in::hno
Cmp CoOl)ing Compif!O .
 Chapter 8: Attribute Data and Tables 331

FOt"tsts Trolls
'"""'"""'

Tot,,le from R.elotio,,01 Join

L0c0110o'! S·lt lrOI HCnit
"'it Ccrolrlo IS-4 ·4'1 Bryzn s O:nob
~ CllrG~ t8,H7 tforl'l For<
.., Ccroh 1a,,o, CcdOCow:
.., COl'D~ lBU,0 Appolxlion
,c...... 9l.21l SIIQo.rOd,I FCII,
Cl'lc~t 2 .., CCl"Oli'IO
C ~ t 1-~,~~1-,.,~~~~"-,C--t-~~~--1
.., Corolo<'lo 9l.2:11
Co:i,c.', Co\oc
9l,l1l

--·
FJautt 8-7: Forest aud trails data in II tclatioi111J data structure. Rows bold records 11S.soci-
:i.1cd ,vi1b :m cnlit)', aind cohum11 l1old ilcnu. A kc)~here Forest-ID, i, u_~cd 10 joln l~blcs..

data in ways l bat help us more quickly relnrlonsltlp diagrams. also lmown as E-R
search, select, and update our data: and to diagrams. We "ill not describe E-R dia-
isolate our data from tailing programs or grams here. as llley are more appropriate for
changes in com1>t11er hardware. more advanced courses.
Figure S-7 shows a join of our forest and Given 1heir importance.. there are some
trails data in a relational data stmcture, restrictions on keys. For example. null val-
1hrough 1he k.ey Forest-ID in the Forests and ues are no, allowed 10 be pan of a key. There
Trails tables. This shows how keys allow us may be many potential keys. (cohunns that
to break our data up into severnl tables and uniquely identify each row). but typically
reap all the b<'nefi1s described above. while one is chosen for use. called a primal)· k<l)•.
providing a mechanism to link between Most tables in the database will ha\'e a pri-
tables. Note that this linkage of separate mmy key. and keys in a tabl-e are frequently
,ables is usua lly 1ra11SJJ<1ren110 11\e end user. ust<l 10 combine tables. Some keys are used
in that all or subse1s of1he forest and trails 10 inde., and add aexibility in selecting data.
data in Figure 8-7 may be displayed on
screen or printed as one continuous table.
Data from three or more distinc1 tables in a
DBMS are often joined, and columns sub-
sets displayed in what appears 10 be one
table 10 a user.
A database is often represen1ed in a
schemn. A schema is a compact graphical
representation of the conceptual model, lhe
entities. tables. keys. and the relationships
among them. It is often presented in a stan-
dard shorthand notations, usually via elllity-
332 GIS Fundamentals
Primary Oper ators
The relational algebra defu1ed by E.F.
Codd supports eight primary operators:
resrricr. project. 11uio11. imersec1ion. diffe~
e11ce. prod11e1 (all combinations of a given
set of variables recorded in a database),join
(combine tables based on ma,cbing a11ribu1e
values). and dh;de (faciLitaie queries based
on condition). Here we will focus on the
most conunonly applied database operations
in GIS (Figure 8-8). restrict. projec,. union.
and join.
Restric1 and project operations select
based on rows and columns, respectively, to
provide reduced t'1bles. Res1rict. embodied
in a roble query . serves up records based on
values for given variables. The restric.t in
Figure 8-80 is specified 10 res1ric11becurren1
set 10 those 1ha1 h;ave a size that is big or
huge - all other entries in the relation are nOI
selected (remember. ,ables are called "rela-
tions" in a relalional database). The restrict
then only returns four of the seven records.
as sli61vu iii Figure 8-So.
Restrict operations can be compound
and complex and involve more than one
attribute~Restrict operations most often
return a reduced set of rows for a table as
ou1pu1. Examples of more complex restrict
operatious. or Lib le queries. will be shown
later in this diapter.
Project operalions retum enlire columns
for a table. in effec1substning the cable ver·
1ically. as shown in Figure 8-Sb. Databose
tables may be quite large, and contain bun.
dreds of items. A gh1en analysis may con-
cern only a few of those i1ems. and so the
project operation allows onJy those columns
of interest from the table to be subset. This
may substantially increase processing speed,
reduce the s1orage space required. and ease
viewing and analysis. In 1he example shown.
ID, c~or. and size are selected from a base
relation 10 erea1e a new relation.
A union operation c.ombines tables to
ren,m records found in either o.r both
tables. As shown in Figure s.so. the tables
are "stacked" to return a new ta ble with
members of both. bur it does not show
duplicate records for chose entries 1ha1
appear in both tables. As such. 1he result of
a union is at least the size of the largest of
the two ,ables. and no larger than 1he sum
of the two rabies.
The tables used in a union mus, be oftbe
same kind. That means they must have the
same set of variables or items. It makes little
sense 10 fmd 1he union of 1wo tables when
they do 1101share the same set o! ilems.
Ajoin operation combuies 1wo ,ables
through keys. Values in one or more keys are
matched across tables. and the lll!fonnation is
combined based on the matching. Figures.
Sd sJ1ows an example of a join across two
tables, in tliis case joined through ~,e fype
item. Each type entry in the table on the left
is matched to the type value in tbe center
table, and the data are then joined or relaced
through 1he ,·alues of1ype. The 001put
records 10 the right of Figure s-&a are 1be
combined attributes of both tables. Records
in 1he ou1pu1 ,able with ID values equal 10 I
and • have type values equal 10 o as well as
the color. size. and oge associated ,,~th type
o. Those records with type b have 1he appro-
priate IDs (2. 3) and the color, ,;,e. and age
associated with type b.
 Chapter 8: Attribute Data and Tables 333

o) restrict {subset rows)

ID
I
1ype color
0 blue
size
big
•o•
old
~ c gretn big yOur19 10 1ype color size oge
3 • r<d smal m,d restrict I 0 bl"" t,;g old

•
5
d
x
blO<k boo
mauve 11,1y °'dest
older
'6 d
g
black bin
dun hoge young
oh:ler

6 g dun hog~ Vo\'"9 2 c green bg young

7 c ecru small mid

b) project {subset columns)

ro lype color oge .,,. IO color size
I 0 blue big old I blu~ big
2 ( green big you,g 2 oreen big
3 0 n:d Stl'IOI! mid project 3 r<d smotl
• d black blo older 4 block blg
5 x mauve llr,Y okle.sl 5 mauve ooy
6 g dun "'9• young 6 dun h<.9e
7 ( ecru smell mid 7 ecru smolJ

c) union
ID 'YP< color size og•
I
6
0
g
blue
dun
big
hooe
ol d
your19
IO type cok>r .,. age
union I 0 bfut big old
d
IO rypc color ..,. og•
'
6 g
block I°""
dun
older
huge young
young
2 e green big young 2 c gtt<II bog
4 d black big O!dtt

d) join {by type)

lO type type color' S1Zt age 10 1ype color ..,. oge

2
I 0

b
• blut
dun my
bog old
old
join
2
I 0

b
blu<
dun
bog
liny
old
old
b
3 b 3 b ctun Tiny old
• 0 4 0 blue b<g old

Fiaurr 8-& R.elatiQl\nl al_geb~ .is originn.lly ck6oed supported eigl1l OJ>ernlor,:. ~ fU"S'I four, ~ , bown
her<: l"C$trie1. proj"t, uruoo. and join (modified froro C.J. Date, 2004),
334 GIS Fundamentals

Hybrid Database Designs In GIS Topologiral relatiouships may be explic-

Data in a GIS are often stored using
hybrid designs. Hybrid designs store coordi-
nate data using specialized database stnic·
tures. and anribwe data in a relaiionol
database. Thousands to millions of coordi-
nate pairs are often required to represent the
location and shap,e of objects in a GlS. Even
with modem computers. the retrieval of
coordin:ue data stored in a relational da1a·
base design is often too slow. Therefore. the
coordinate data are frequently stored using
structures designed for rapid retrieval. This
in,•olves grouping coordinates for cano-
grapbic objects. for e.,ample, storing ordered
lists of coordinate pairs to define lines. and
indexing or grouping lines to identify poly-
gons. Poimers are used to link re.lated lines
or polygons. and unique identifiers link the
geographic features (points. lines. or poly·
gons) to corresponding anribute data (Figure
S-9).
itly encoded to improve analyses or to
increase access speed. Addresses 10 the pre-
vious and next data are explicitly stored in
an indexing table, and pointers are used to
connect coordinate strings. Explicitly
recording the topological elements of all
geographic objects in a data layer may
improve geograpltic manipulations. includ-
ing determination of adjacencies. line inter-
section. polygon overlay, and uetworl<
definition. Coordinates for a gi,•en feature or
pan ofa fealtrre may be grouped and these
groups indexed to speed manipu lation or dis-
play.
Hybrid data designs rypica!Uy store attri·
bute data in a DBMS. These data are linked
10 the geographic data through unique identi-
fiers or labels that are an attribute in the
DBMS. Data may be stored in a manner !hat
facilitates the use of more than one brand of
DBMS. and allows easy ~anspo.rt of data
from one DBMS to anotl1er.

Attribute data
Al'C•IO IO.Sf~Ol'G next-ore l"/!l<
7 I 6 2 A
2 I 4 c
3 3 2 5 F
4 • 2 5 0
5 6 7 A
6 5 I F
7 3 6 ;;
Coordinate Data
Arc-ID coordinates pointer to
next arc
I , ,.,, '"''"' ...,ll..,1 , r~,-'43-.~J,-,•.-..-3~....-'-,,'=::)
c, . 1u,io1J102.,3..,..3, r,.,,.,,i,., ~·l""'b
c I , 1,ru.••I ~ll·~ . .#3 Jf ,,.... 4"' ~,1 ~
Fia,u1•t 8-9: A small example ofa hywid database sys1cm for spatial data. Attribute data an: sto,r¢d in a
tt katioillll 1abk. while cootdiiuitc d111a arc, stotcd in II network or 01bc-t sirucnitt.
 Chapter 8: Attribute Data and Tables 335

Selection Based on Attributes

The Restrict Operator: Table Que-
ries
Queries are among the most common
operations in a DBMS. A query may be
viewed as the: selection of (or restric1ion 10) a
subset of records oosed on the values of
specified attributes. Queries may be simp1e.
using one variable. or they may be com·
potmd. using one or more conditions on
more than oue variable. One might search
for all the parcels with m1paid taxes, all cen-
sus blocks largertbau a square mile and with
at least 200 inhabitams. or all fire hydrants
thal ha\'en't been pressure tested. are near
high-rise buildings. and are farther than 300
m from the nearest other fire hydram. 111
concept. queries are quite simple. but basic
query opermions may oo combined to pro-
duce quite complex selectio.ns.
Many GIS softwares pro,•ide a query
builder. a graphical user interface (GUI) th.11
helps in applying selection operations (Fig-
ure 8- 1OJ. Most GU!s include a list of avail·
able fields. operations. and a sau1ple or
complete display of values for selected
fields. The user constructs q,ueries by alter-
nately selecting item names.. operations. and
entering values. This query ntay then be
applied, and features selected. Often you
may save complicated or long expressions.
to be reused later on different data sels.

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t'igu1~ 8· 111>; A q\!¢l}' building oycof the &M often pro\·ided in OlS softwan:. here from Q(HS.
-
Selcct1ou expr«s1011$ may be buil1 in the bottom paud by clickin; oo field,. opcnuors. and ,·alues il'l
!he upper p.'11teli.
336 GIS Fundamentals
The lefl side of Figure S-t I demon-
s1ra1es a simple query. A single condi1ion is
specified, mo > 20. Eacb record in 1be
selected set is shown in gray in Figure s.11 .
The right sid.e of Figure 8-1 1 demoo-
s1ra1es a oompOWlld query based on 1wo auri-
bu1es. TI1is query uses 1hc AND coodi1ion 10
select records than meet two criteria. Records
are selected I.hat have a Londuse value equal
to Urban, and a Municip value equal 10 City.
All records 1b,11 mee1 bo1h of these require-
mentsare placed iin the selected set, and
records that fail 10 comply with 1hese
require1nen1s are iin the unselected set. The
Boolean operalioins AND. OR, and NOT may
be applied in combina1ion 10 select records
that mee1 multiple criteria.
AND combina1ions l)'J)ically reduce the
size of the selecte,d set when co11Jpared lo the
individual component criteria They provide
a more strenuous set of conditions that must
be met for selection. In the example on the
right side of Figure 8- 1t, the record witl, ID
, 7 meets lhe first criterion. Londuse ,
Urban, bur it does not meet thesecond crite·
rion specified in the AND, Mun;cipoli1y • c;1y.
Thus. lhe record with ID • 7 is oOI selec1ed.
ANOs add restrictions 1ha1winnow 1he
selec1ed set
Simple selection:
records with Areo > 20.0
ID Areo Londuse Mun•C!O
I 10.5 Urben Coty
2 3303 Form County
3 24 Suburban TO'l\nship
4 960 SWurbon C.,u,,,y
5 2ZJ Urt>on Cuy
6 J0.2 Form Township
7 C«Jnfy
" Urt,on
FiJ01't 8· 11: Simple selceiioo. ap~lyiug oz.c cri1i:rion to sel«1 records (left) . aod compound sd «.tiou.
applyin3 multiple rcqu.irane:111.i (n$)1t).
OR combinations 1ypically increase or
add to a selected se1 in compound queries.
OR condi1ions may be considered as inclu-
sive criteria. The OR adds records that meet a
criie.rioa 10 a se1of records defined by previ-
ous crheria. 111 u,e query on 1he left side or
Figure 8· 12. the firsl criterion, Af'eo > 20.
resuhs in tl1e selec1iou of records 2, 4, 5, and
6. Tiie OR oondi1ion adds any records 1ha1
satisfy the criterion Munidp a City, in this
case 1be record wi1h ID • I.
The NOT is 1he nega1ion operation. and
may be imerpre1ed as meaning "selec11bose
records 1bat do no1 meet the conditio1t~The
right side of Figure 8-12 demonslrates the
nega1ion opera1ioo. The operation may be
viewed as firs1subs1in11ing equaJs for 1he
NOT. and iden1ifying all records . Then the
remaining records are placed in 'lhe selec1e<I
se1, and 1be idemified records placed in 1he
unselected set.
ANOs. ORs. and NOTs can ha\re complex
effec1s when used in compound conditions.
and the order or precedence is imponant in
1be query. Combinalions of these three oper-
a1ions may be used 10 perfonu very complex
selections.
Figure 8-13 shows 1be res11l1s of a com-
plex query. combining AND. OR. and NOT
AND selection:
records With (Londuse • Urban) AND
(Mun,cip • Crtv)
ID Areo LOl'ICluse Mi,MICIO
I 10.5 Urbon Oly
2 3303 FOm> Coun!Y
3 24 Sutxrben Township
4 960 Suburban County
5 22.1 Urben Oly
6 302 Fom> Township
c°"nty
7 4.4 Urban
 Chapter 8: Attribute Data and Tables 337

OR selection: NOT selection:

records with (Area > 20.0) records with
OR (Municip =City) Londuse NOT Urban
ID Area lOnduse: Mµ!'lr,ln ID Area londuse Municin
I 105 Urban c,1y l 10.5 Vrb<>n City

2 3303 Ferm Coon1y 2 330.3 Form COunly

3 2.4 Suburccn Tow,,stip 3 2A Sob<rilon T°""shiP
4 960 Suburban eo..n1y 4 96.0 SoburbOn County
5 22.1 Url><ln Cny 5 221 Urben City

6 30 2 Ferm T°""'sl',ip 6 302 Form r..,.,.i,1p

7 ,, Url><ln Coun1y 7 ••• lkb<>n County

Flfut~ 8~12: OR :ind NOT compound sdrctit>ili.

01iera1ions. l{ere. 1.be square brackets choose
rows with a Lo.nduse vaJue equal to Urban,
and Mill Rote ,,.,lues equal 10 B. Row 5 is 1he
only record sa1isfying 1hese cri1eria. The
curly brackets select those rows that are not
in a City. and wi1h a Densi1y grea1er 1han zoo.
This selects Row 3. and 1he flllill selected set
includes both rows. by the OR operation.
Selection opern1ions JllJIY ge1qui1e compli·
ca1ed. and long. complex selec1ion "sen-
tences·· may be saved. tJmt is. the syntax
copied in a 1ex1 file or olher reposito,y. and
applied when needed.
While dalabase queries are typically
applied 10 iables. we must remember 1hat in
a GIS. tbe 1ables are usually connected in
some way 10 geographic feaiures. Seleclions
of iable elements imply the selection of asso-
ciated geographic elements. II is always a
good idea to verify that the selection works
as e., pected when fir.;1 using a sof"vare. Ver-
ification is often easies, by "iewing the

Complex selection:
records with [(Londuse = Urbon) AND (Mill Rote = B)] OR
(NOT(Municip =City) AND (Density > 200))
ID Area Landuse Mur\lcio Densitv M,11 Rote
I 105 Urban City 1.112.2 A

2 330.3 Farm County 1.9 c

3 2.4 Suburban Township 237.5 c
4 96.0 Suburban County 981 A
5 221 Urban City 916.2 8
6 302 Farm Township 3.7 A
7 4.4 Urban County 153.8 D

FJgu1-t 8-JJ: Au exam.pie or a complex scl«cion. corubinin3 ,·arious selection opct11·

tors.
338 GIS Fundamentals
selection results, either on the table, the
geography. or both. Figure 8-14 illusirates
the results from three separate selection cri-
teria: a) that county population be greater
than 50 persons per square mile. b) !hat the
me<lian age be less than 40 years. and c) 1ha1
housing \'acancy rates be greater than 10%.
The rigbunos1 p0nel shows counties rerurned
from a query specifying that criteria a and b
and c. all be met irhe accuracy of the query
may be quickly verified by inspecting maps
of the componcm and final selcc1ions.
Figure 8-15 demonstrates 1ha1 queries
are 001 generally dis1ribu1ive, For example.
if OPI and OP2 are operations. such as AND
or NOT. then.
Ol'l (ConditionA OP2 CondmonB)
is not always the :same as
(OPI ConditionA)OP2(0Pl ComfmonS)
For example,
NOT ((Londus.e • Urban) ANO
(Munid pollty = County))
FJaui-e 8~14: Compoocnt and composite sckctiou criteria. applied to c°'intics io the oordtcMtenl U1Utcd
St11tcs. A ,'UU2l check of aittcmntt <>fll1c COlUj)Oiitc qun y (d) t1pi1u t 1ubcompoi1aus (:t·c) it oftnt bdpful.
«peci..,Uy when lwniing,.
does not yield the same set of records as the
expression
(NOT (Londu,e • \lft>on)J ANO
(NOT (Mu,,;e1po11,y. coun,y)) (8.4)
Parentheses or other delimiters should be
used 10 ensure tUla.mbiguous queries.
Relational databases may support a
st111c111red query /n11gunge knO\Vll as SQL
(pronotmced both "sequel" and "'ess k-you
el"). SQL was initially developed by the
Imema1iooal Business Machines Corpora-
tion. bm is supported by a number of soft·
ware vendors. SQL is a nonprocedural query
language in 1ha11be specifica1ioo of queries
does no< depend on the s1mcrure of1he da1a.
(al) The language can be powerfuJ, general, and
transferable across systems. and so bas
become widely adop1ed.
SQL allows 11s lO both defin.e and
(82) manipula1e data. Oata types and tables con-
taining variables of a given 1~ may be
specified. Standard operations are used 10
manipulate data, for example, 10 select,
delete, insert, and update records in a data ..
(8.3)
base. Long or complicated quer,es may be
saved in text files. or as scripts. that iuay be
debugged. modified. or used later. These
scripts may be quite long. and n,ay some-
i;) Housing d) Ol,try
't'<IConcy OcndbOl"(IC
,o,.
gr-eo·~r lt'Ol'l
 Chapter 8: Attribute Data and Tables 339

NOT [ ( t..onduse = Vrbon) AND [NOT ( Londuse = Urban)) AND

(Municip • County) ] [NOT (M unicip = County))

ID Arco l.onduse Mun1t1n ID Areo Landtls.e Munic1n

I 10.5 Urban Crty I 105 Urban C,ty
2 330.3 Form Coun1y 2 3303 ForlTI (Minty
3 2• 51.burbon Tawnsh!> J 2, Suburban Township

• 96.0 SIAJurt,on County

' 96.0 SuburbOn (Minty

5 221 Urban C,ty 5 221 Urben C,ty

6 302 Form To"""'1> 6 302 Form Ta.vn.shlp
7 ,., \Jl'llan County 7 ,, Urban County

8· 15: Sc1cctioo operations may 001 be di,tributc;d, and tbc o«krof appli~tion is ,·cry impom.01.
J,"ia:ui-t
\Vhco the NOT o~tion is applied afttt the AND (left:). a diffcttnl set of records is sc:J«1C'd than whco
die NOT opcr:uiou is ;11pplicd before the ANO (righ1 s.ick). Or<kr of opcmtion i• inlp<nttu11, and :tmbigu.ity
s.bould be rctJ,o,~cl by using p;ircnthcsc$ or othcrdelimitc".

times be accurately described as programs.
given 1heir complexity and capabilities. SQL
authoring utilities have be-created to help
wril'e, rest. and automate these scripts.
Because SQL wasn'I ini1ially designed
for spatial data processing. inany spatial
operations are not easily represented. How-
ever SQL is adap1able. so various SQL
extensions appropriate for spatial data have
been developed and are wid.ely used.
340 GIS Fundamentals

Joining Ta bles
Relatfonal da'labases are so powerful in
part because we can structure out data to
reduce duplication. ease maintenance. aud
give flexibility: much of this flexibility is
because we can join .ables. Ajoin. also
known as a relate.. uses columns in one table
to match rows across tables. Joins were illus-
trated in Figure 8· 7 and Figure 8-8, part d.
but additional examples are warranted.
Joins are based on join i1ems. In their
simples• form. a single column in one 1able
is matched to a colwnn in another table, and
a new 1able displa.yed by combining rows for
matched "alues. Figure S· l 6 shows a sunple
join betwe.en two tables. Here. Code..A and
Code..B. respec1ively. are used. If we call
Tobie Athe ',arget table:· and Tobie B the
..source table,·· then our join consisls of
matching 1be values for a row in the source
1able to tl1e 1arge11able, and "copyiug" tl1e
values from the ma1cbed rows 10 the ou1pu1
1able. The "alues aren'1 truly copied. but
rather associated and displayed 1oge1her. to
sa"e space and speed opera1iou.
Primary Keys and Joins
We ·ve noted earlier tbal kevs are cmcial
10 relational databases. and as ;uch they
have ct.nain special cbarac1eris1ics. There
are se"eral kinds of keys. most illtportant 1he
priuuuy key, a chosen item or items that
uniquely ide111ify each row in a table. We
often create and generate unique numbers as
keys.. for example. a social security number
is unique to a person; a parts ID number a.re
often unique to an objeci: SKU munbers are
unique to items in a store. JO_A can serve as
a primary key for Table Ain Figure 8-16

I Fr 1001 x Ag x l
2 Cm 1001 x Cm y 6
3 Ag 9999 z Fr z 8
4 Fr 1001 x Fp q 10
5 Fr 9999 y
6 Ag 1001 x
I Fr 1001 x Ag I
2 Cm 1001 x Ag I
3 Ag 99<J9 z Fr 8

• Fr 1001 x
y
Ag l
5 Fr 9999 Cm 6
6 Ag 1001 x Ag I

Fia;urt 8-16: Thi~. figure illu~tr.ncs a simple join. Tobit 8 is joined to Toble A. matching the ,Codt_B ,,.1.
uc:s 10 com-spood..iu3 Code_A ,·alucs, 10 create Out Tobk .
 Chapter 8: Attribute Data and Tables 341

because the values w1iquely identify the
rows. Table B in Figure 8- 16 bas three col·
umns that could serve as primary keys.
Type_B. Code..B. or Size..$. These are all
candidate ke,•s. because each could serve as
a prins,ry key. One of the candidate keys is
anointed the J!)rimary key.
Figure S-17 illustrates the join concept.
A join matches corresponding rows by key
values. In Step I. Codo..B. X values in Tobie
8 are matched 10 the COdfLA. X values in
Table A The first row in Out Table is acom·
posite or row I from Table A (IO.J\•l.
Type_A,Fr, Botch.J\•1001) and row I from
TObie B (Type_B·Ag. Sizo..B·I). A similar
1na1chu1g is perfonned for each x in Tobie B.
and row written in the Out Toble.
Step 2 in Figure 8-17 shows a similar
match for the join variable with a value ofY.
Corresponding rows are matched from Toble
B to Tobie A. and written to Out Tobie. There
is only one matching row in this case. Step 3
shows a match of the join variable Z value.
Again, there is a cross-table matching, creat-
ing new rows in the Ovt Tobie. Since there
are no q values in Tobte A. i11 this panicular
version of a join. there.are no rows written in
the output table.
Note tha1 this example is for illustmlion.
bm dataoose systems usually don' t follow a
sequeniial process as shown. nor write a new
table. Sorts and indexing are often used to
speed matches. and niatched dam are shown
in what appears as a single table. but simply

Join Tobie B lo Tobie A on Codes

I fr 1001 x I r, 1001 x ..,.,, I

Step
I
2
3
Cm
...
fr
....
1001

!CO!
x
z
)(
..
Cm
x
y
I
6
2

4
""'
Fr
1001

1001
x

x ••
I

I
'5 • ~ • ••
Fr 9999 y F, z
6 ... 1001 )( ro q tO 1001 x •• I

I fr 1001 x I F,
c..
1001 x
x
.
., I

Step
z Cm
3 ...,, ....
1001 x
z •• x I
l 1001

.,
I

2
'
5 r,
!COi
•999
x
y s Cm
r,
Fp
y

z
•
•e • •r
• ..
5 ....
Fr
1001 x
y
x
Cm
•
I

I
6 All 1001 x 10

-
1001
"'
Fr x .,
x I 1001
., 1

. .• ....
I fr 1001
z x
2 Cm
...rr
1001 x
x l ""' 1001
z F,
I

Step 3 0999 z I
'
3 4
5 Fr
1001
9999
x
y
Cm
rr
y

z
•
• 5
• ••
Fr
F< ....
1001 x A;
y
x ., •
Cm
t

6
•• 1001 x "" q 10 1001 t

Flgurt· 8. 17: .A c0t1ccp1w.Jiiation of how rows :u-c corubincd in n. join process.. Join i1cms 1\fc ,c:quc1uially
matched using Cocle_B from the '"S0\1Nc" 1ablc (Table 8) lo COJTC$poading vafoq for CoidLA in the "tir·
get" t1blc (Tobit A),
342 GIS Fundamentals
displayed from their originaJ tables: no new
table is wrinen umless expressly requested.
Also note that non-matching elements
are discarded in this example. We may spec-
ify a joiu lhal saves some or all of the non-
matching elements, and we should be aware
of these different join variants.
The primary key. or an item that could
serve as a prim,11)' key. is usually used as a
join item in the ••source·· table of a join oper·
ation. This is illustrated in the Join in Figure
8-16 ru1d Figure 8-l 7. Co<fe...B in tl1e source
Tobie Buniquely identifies each row in that
table. and is used 10 link to Table A ,~a
CO<fe.J\. As described later. when items tha1
are not candidate keys for 1he source table
are used in joins. you often ge1 ambiguous or
e1TOneous joins.
Fig,ire 8-16 and Figure 8-17 iUustrate
the most common type ofjoin. k_nown as an
im,e1'j<>i11, where unmatched rows are dis·
carded. AU alternative outer join saves the
infonnation for non-matching rows. placing
blrulk or nnll valu.es for missing items (Fig-
ure 8-18). There are both left- and right·
outer joins. depending on whe1her 1he target
or source nonmatches are in the target or
source tables. There is also a naturaljoiu. in
which equally uarued columns aren't copied.
Join
by
I f'r 1001
Type
2 Cm 1001
Ag
3 9999
4 Fr 1001
5 Fr 9999
6 Ag 1001
~
o)
2 Cm 1001 y
3 Ag 999< x
6 Ag 1001 x
Flgm'f 8. 18: Examples of inner (;11) t11td omcr (b) join&. No1c 1b:u :.n iilncr join only ilwc, minc&i11* rows,
while an o.11cr join~"" ,111h.Ks forbo1b matcbing and urunatclllllg rows..
or cross joins, in which all rows in one lab le
are combined with all rows of another table,
for example. a crossjoin of Tables A and Bin
Figure 8- 16 would result in a table ,~th 24
rows (6 rows for A times 4 rows for B).
Mas1eri11g the differences between these
types ofjoins is perhaps a bit advanced for
an introductory GIS course. bul software
may set any of these different types ofjoins
as a default method. and they mny nm be
explicitly identified by name. These and
other differenl types ofjoins are covered in
depth in most introductory database books.
but can be confusing 10 distinguish and
apply without some practice. We introduce
them here 10:
• wam you of the differences between
different types ofjoins. and to empha·
size that different types ofjoins will
1151,alJy produce different results. even
whe-n applied to 1be same data. and
• 10 stress that there are standardized
names for different types of joins.
although not all GIS softwares use
them. You should verify how joins
work when first using new software.
Figure s.1 8 illustrates a difference
between inner and omer joias. The center
1001 .
Ag x .....2I
Cm
Fr
- -
1001 y
Cm y or it may . 3 Ag 999 x
Sp w yield Fr 1001 .
4
5 Fr 999, .
6 Ag 1001 x
 Chapter 8: Attribute Data and Tables 343

table is joined to the leftmost table on tlie Foreign Keys

item Type. A resulting inner join is shown in
o. Note that only ro\\~ 2. 3. and 6 from the
"target'' table- on the left. with values Ag and
Gm for Type (our key), are re;,orded in the
output table in Figure S- l 80. because tl1ose
are the only Type values found in both
1ables. Information in ro,vs 1. 4. and 5 isnOI
retained in 1he output mble.
Figure 8·~I Sb shows au owerjoiu. in
which unmatched source table rows are
retained. Null or empty values are placed for
the non-matching anribmes of lhe source
table. as shown by the dashes in the Code
item for rows I , 4, and 5 of output table b.
You may have deduced by now that lhe
join items are crucial wbenjoiuing tables. If
the join items are not correcfly created. 1ben
the joins will likely produce unintended
results. We must pay attention 10 the join
items across cables. particularly how many
values match forourjoining items across the
source and ta:rget tables.
Afo,.eig,1 key is an item in a 1arget table
that may be used to unambiguously link to
rows in another table. Most of our examples
have used fo«ign keys. and it is helpful 10
identify them explicitly in tables so that ,re
may maiutoiI1 referential iuregrif)i. I.bat is, to
make sure we correctly join among tables.
We usually use a primary key or candi-
date key in the source table ·to link to a for-
eign key for another table (Figure S- 19). In
this example. Hunter ID is the primary key
of the Hunrer Tobie. T09 IO isthe primary
key for the Bog Record Tobie. Hunter ID is a
foreign key in tile Bog Record Tobie and
serves as a link to 1-funier Tobie. This
ensures that 1he specific harvest can be
traced 10 the bumer. e.g. a T\trkey. Bambi.
and Rudolph can be unambigt101,sly traced
back to Mark Trail.
ln another common exa_mple. a zip code
or other postal code is often used as a pri·
mruy key for a geogrnplly iable. wilh each
row in lbe table associated with a specific
polygon in a data layer. A zip code may be
added as a foreign key 10 an.other table that
contains economic characteris1ics for each

Bog Record Tobie

1-1..nf.:r
I
0 °"°""'
Primary Key,
,. ~,
l>a ..
Target Table
·-
-.......... , 10

-
Hunter Tobie ?110 M.:lleogris 90 IOPQ'o'O <m103
101211'<1
'"""'
,,..
F"'r
Norn,
Mo'1<
H~••0,
10
9110 I.,.. / /
190Z CtMn CMOditnSIS
1010 Sylv!IOC)US rol);.tSTUS
9/26/02
.C/!/89
w.op,,, '1')2l0
Bugos 8"y obt2m
1010 Atl09 Nbl'Clts 9/29/l9 l>afly O\Jck 9re.01
Roo~II Tedoy 1902''~
fudd Elm<r 1010 "- 91JO ~ ( U S virglf'IIOnul 8121/U ll<>""" ....s1
Covote
t.oPtoir ...,..,,,., •ttOI~\
wnee
0000
1902 Phcscotorc1o.s c•n~ua 8115/0S Tdy Ster Cz.a1·
9110 Rong1fcr 10,onctu, IZ/2,V1.l n0,m3
""""'' .....
Prunory '~ey,
Source Tobie
'i
\
0001 Callus 9?Mtu,
4110 AnTiloc(lpt'O cmtnc:.cno
ona111 81\J Bird
10191$7 Pro.,,._
,110 Ccococc;yx ,01•or.-t011U1 'tlll~ Rd Rla'WIU Fnlly

' -Fore,gn K•y. To'9•t Tobi•

-·
Fiju1't 8-19; Au example foreign key in a 13.rgct table. used to link to a primal)' key in1 a soune mblc.
Herc dtc Hunter ID conuc<ts tbc Hunlt r Tobie 10 lhc Bag Record Tobie. Note the Bog Re:eord
Tobie hM ill priin:U)' kC): Tog ID. M well Ai ll fotcigtt key. Hunter 10. \Vidt 11pologics to ~1d Bht1ic.
344 GIS Fundamentals

polygon. We mighl also have yel another
1able with his1orical population da1a for each
zip code. Zip codes in 1bese 1ables may serve
as foreign keys ilt joins to the polygon table.
Most joins should involve a one-lo-one
or a one·tO-ruany re1ationshjp between the
source and 1he target join items. This is why
we usually use a primary key in our source
table as the c.olumu for a joi.n, or we use can·
didate key as a join column. This avoids a
many-10-one relavionship between source
and target colwm:1s. which often causes
problems. The following parngraphs illus-
trn1e these problems.
A one-10-one relationship means that
there may be one and only one instance in a
join item of a 1arget table 1hat matches one
and only one instance of a join item in a
source table. The left side of Figure 8-20
illustrates a one-to-one match for the items
Id! and ld2. Each value of ld2 matches only
one value of !di. NOie Ihat not all values of
Id! have a match in ld2.
Tables may also be unambiguously
joined if 1here is a one-to-many relaiionsbip
between die source join item and tlle target
table join item. The join on the right side of
Figure 8-20 shows a oue-10,maoy relation-
ship between the source item ld4, and the
targe1 item IdJ. Note there are three
ins.lances ofY in ld3, but they unambigu-
ously match witlt 1be one value ofYin Id4.
We ofleu nm into problems when we
anempt joins with items 1ha1 have a many-
lo-one or a many-to-many relalionship.
These are often considered ill-ma1ching
keys. in 1bat results from a join can be indc-
1erminate - you can't predict the results in
advance. or they may change due to spurious
factors. such as pseudo random effects of
row ordering. Since you're oftt>JJ not sure of
the results you'll get, many·tO-o:ne or many·
to-many rela1ionships from tile source 10 tar-
get keys are rarely a good idea. ily requ~ing
the source item in a join to be a primary key
or candidate key. Avoid these erroneous
joins. We use a colwnn or set of columns
that uniquely identifies the rows. of the
source table. so that there is a one-1<>-0ne or
one-to-many relationship in our join.
Figure 8-21 shows an e.,ample ofan
inappropriate join. The item Typ,t. in Source
Tobie is 001a key. and thisresulu in a many-
to-many joilt There are ~vo rows in the
Source Tobie with a Type value of Fr. Both
rows may fairly match the Fr key values
found in the Target Tobie. resulting in au
ambiguous assignment for the values of
Code for those rows. Bolh Vand N are
equally supponed. hence our resulls are
unc.enain. as shown in 1he Outp~tt Tobie.

1 0
--
One-to-one, inner Join
ldl k l }cf2

'l
$VU\

(I,
Restilt

Id
2
...
• &
m
--
One·to-mony, mner jOCO

lc3 lot
y
Idl s,
Result

Id k>c s7
wo

I
y
2 b y J
'd
y ""to 4

3
' 51 • ' • z z •• 7
d 2 6 5 c x pr x pr
'~ " 9

6
•r v or y pr 4

y M y nn •
x rl x 11 9
z
""' z 7
Fia,urt 8·20: Au c:umplc of a one-to-one and onc·to-1nany rd.a1ioosb.ips b<tw«n 11.bles.
""'
 Chapter 8: Attribute Data and Tables 345

forget Tobie Source Tobie Output Tobie

Jo.n
by
l,P<
F,
I r, 1001 VO<N
I 1001 Fr v
2 Gm 1001 v
2 Gm 1001 Gm v ] Ag 9999 x
3 Ag m9 F,
F, 1001
N
• Fr 1001 VO!'N

's Fr m9
}JJ x s F, 9999 vorN

6 Ag 1001 x
6 Ag 10-01

ritutt 8--l l: An cxrunplc of a inaoy-to-many table join. whieb should be a,-oidcd. bcc.a\as.e it may lead to
unp«dictablc rt:sults.

Such un<ertaincy is rarely a good 1hing in Concatenated Keys

table manipulations or analyses. We would
have the same ambiguity if there were only
one vaJue of Fr in the Torget Table. cre.ating
a many-to-one relationship from Source to
Torgtt. Many-to-one or many-to-many joins
should be avoided. except in a co11Slrai11ed
set of circumstances.
We typically are very careful about bow
we assign and when we alter the vah1es of
primary keys. in part because of their impor-
tance in joins . We must ensure tba1we don't
duplicate key values wilhin a cohunn. and
we have to be careful in how we re.assign
values co the [Primary key through calcula,
tions or other modifications. Because null
values match nothing, or everything, we also
don·1 allow 1bem to occur in primary keys.
Many datalxlse systems have cllccks to avoid
these errors. 1:ore.xample., many onHne data-
bases l1Se an email address as a primary
identifier. and they prevent yO\I from regis·
tering twice l!lnder the same email address.
Many of 1he errors when using databases
result from com,piion of a primary key.
Most examples show keys consis1ing of
a single column. These are most co,mnon
because they arc easiest to euvision. manage.
and use. This is the idea behind unique iden-
tifiers in many databases. for example. an
in,·oice munber for a busin<?$S. unique part
ID numbers for a warehouse. ora musetun
accession number. These uo.ique IDs allow
unique items co be simply identified in a
table.
While su1gle-column id entiJlers are
most c-0mmon. we frequentUy use multiple
columns as keys. These are ,often used when
we have large. multi-table databases chat we
,,~sh to combine in several different ways.
Data from the United States Census, or the
U.S. SSURGO database discussed in the
previous chapters. use multiple tables. many
\\~th two or more coluuu1s used in combina-
tion as a key.
When multiple columns are used
together as a key. it is called a co11cn1e11ntetf
key. Concatenated keys are typicaUy formed
by rwo columns. and rarely more than three
columns.
346 GIS Fundamentals

Figure 8·22 illustrales a conc.atenated Multi-tab le Joins

key. here used to uniquely idemify U.S.
counties. Each U.S. state is assigned a
unique Federal l1tfomm1ion Processing Stan·
dard (FIPS) code_ and every county within a
state assigned a unique ccxle. but unique
only within lhe st.ate. This allows new codes
10 be assigned at lhe state level. for example.
if a new state is added. or new codes ,o be
assigned within a state, as when counties
were split to form new counties. This also
allows quick selection of data by state.
County FIPS codes (cFIPS) are assigned
sequentially. as odd numbers within these
states. from I up to the last county within the
state. cFIPS alone can not be used as a key.
for example. cFIPS • I specifies both Fair-
field County. Co11nec1icu1. and Bamstable
County. Massachusetts. Aconcatenated key
using both state a.nd county FIPS number is
needed 10 nniquely distinguish counties
across multiple st.ates.
We may have more than ooe pote11tial
key in a table (remember, the key can consist
of one or more cohuuns). but we usually
design tables with a main key. \Ve may also
join many tables to a single table. often
using different target items for each join.
Figure 8-23 shows an example of a
multi-table join with distinct keys. School
Tobie may be considered 1he "foundational"
table, and the two tables named ,County and
District are Joined 10 School Tobie 10 create
an Output Tobie.
Note that these two joins are based 011
different items. Coun1y Tobie is joined to
School Tobie based 011 values in the colwnns
labeled Cty. while tlte o;s1r;,1 Tobie is joined
to the School Tobie based on the values
fonnd in the columns labeled DisllD. Our
outpm table is shown here without the ··cop·
ies" of the colwuns (e.g .• Cty and DistID each

• ,
Vtm'tOl'II STATE COUNTY -o-J-cr:IPS PO?(k)
store FIPS - so CDn,ic,c.1icu1 Forti~ld aa:! s

w-
CoM«:tk:u· 9 8572
'""""""' 9
3

Ntv.• Momps'lff"t
r.<1re FtPS • 33
CoMectlc.ut
Massc!c.llusc:,,J
Mcs~CfK.lsc·t,
Borns!Cble
Bcrltshlrt
9
25
25
",
J
1091
U22
13'1 9

Mo~~:;c:~1~ l/~.1;l (r "

25 77 7509
~Hc~St'i!"
New Hcrnn,OV,
Corol
OICitT-c
~
33
JJ
JJ
l
J -•J•
:,6.3

.... ....••
New Htlmp.s.m Su!1IYOI\ JJ 19 '-0.5
~l'IOlk h\of\d Bristol l 50.6
Rholk I$·<11\d 3 1671

..
Connecticul
stale FIPS • 9
Rtiode is'Gl'ld
Vinnonl
Vf,'fflOfll

Vtrmont
·-
WashlngrOl'I

il<Mw,11..

"'""""
so
so
so
50
"
9

'
J
123~
359
369

574 I
.

Flgurt- 8. 22: A c<n11C:llcr121cd kc)', here ll1c cotubi1lcd sl:o"ltc RPS (sFIPS) ru.d C"()W'lt)' FlPS cadu (cFIPS).
346 GIS Fundamentals

Figure 8·22 illustrales a conc.atenated Multi-tab le Joins

key. here used to uniquely idemify U.S.
counties. Each U.S. state is assigned a
unique Federal l1tfomm1ion Processing Stan·
dard (FIPS) code_ and every county within a
state assigned a unique ccxle. but unique
only within lhe st.ate. This allows new codes
10 be assigned at lhe state level. for example.
if a new state is added. or new codes ,o be
assigned within a state, as when counties
were split to form new counties. This also
allows quick selection of data by state.
County FIPS codes (cFIPS) are assigned
sequentially. as odd numbers within these
states. from I up to the last county within the
state. cFIPS alone can not be used as a key.
for example. cFIPS • I specifies both Fair-
field County. Co11nec1icu1. and Bamstable
County. Massachusetts. Aconcatenated key
using both state a.nd county FIPS number is
needed 10 nniquely distinguish counties
across multiple st.ates.
We may have more than ooe pote11tial
key in a table (remember, the key can consist
of one or more cohuuns). but we usually
design tables with a main key. \Ve may also
join many tables to a single table. often
using different target items for each join.
Figure 8-23 shows an example of a
multi-table join with distinct keys. School
Tobie may be considered 1he "foundational"
table, and the two tables named ,County and
District are Joined 10 School Tobie 10 create
an Output Tobie.
Note that these two joins are based 011
different items. Coun1y Tobie is joined to
School Tobie based 011 values in the colwnns
labeled Cty. while tlte o;s1r;,1 Tobie is joined
to the School Tobie based on the values
fonnd in the columns labeled DisllD. Our
outpm table is shown here without the ··cop·
ies" of the colwuns (e.g .• Cty and DistID each

• ,
Vtm'tOl'II STATE COUNTY -o-J-cr:IPS PO?(k)
store FIPS - so CDn,ic,c.1icu1 Forti~ld aa:! s

w-
CoM«:tk:u· 9 8572
'""""""' 9
3

Ntv.• Momps'lff"t
r.<1re FtPS • 33
CoMectlc.ut
Massc!c.llusc:,,J
Mcs~CfK.lsc·t,
Borns!Cble
Bcrltshlrt
9
25
25
",
J
1091
U22
13'1 9

Mo~~:;c:~1~ l/~.1;l (r "

25 77 7509
~Hc~St'i!"
New Hcrnn,OV,
Corol
OICitT-c
~
33
JJ
JJ
l
J -•J•
:,6.3

.... ....••
New Htlmp.s.m Su!1IYOI\ JJ 19 '-0.5
~l'IOlk h\of\d Bristol l 50.6
Rholk I$·<11\d 3 1671

..
Connecticul
stale FIPS • 9
Rtiode is'Gl'ld
Vinnonl
Vf,'fflOfll

Vtrmont
·-
WashlngrOl'I

il<Mw,11..

"'""""
so
so
so
50
"
9

'
J
123~
359
369

574 I
.

Flgurt- 8. 22: A c<n11C:llcr121cd kc)', here ll1c cotubi1lcd sl:o"ltc RPS (sFIPS) ru.d C"()W'lt)' FlPS cadu (cFIPS).
 Chapter 8: Attribute Data and Tables 347

appear only once in the Olllput Tobie).
although the "copief' art 1ift tn diSplaytd.
Note that the joins are one-to-many in
both cases: one and only o·ne value in the
sourc.e columns may match many row values
in the target colwnns. Also note that each of
tlte join items in the source tables are
keys - C,y in the Coun1y Toble Wliquely
idtntifies each county. Md Dis!JD in the Dis-
trict Tobie uniquely identities each district.
As noted before. source items in joins are
often keys. W>iquely identifying the rows in
the source tab.le.

Counry
TC!)'e.
""''"
w.....
c~
/ School Tobie
~hf
""""
~
"" IV?<
~
l)nlll)
,._
Oistr.C-1 Tobie

-
I lli'11D ~ r ~ m

""' 2 11 ~1c-rw,I l ...... .,, .,

......,, 3

'
12
""""" """" • ..... .,. 113 O M:Ctt

I .c 624 ~ F'IQv")S
"
JJ
e«:n1t'Ol u,1tes
s..,,.ec...,,,
McJI llJ

JO ,_....., ' """ .,

2
llJ

12 ~U\on, 2
""" •s
.....

·-
Ou1pu1 Tobie
Sci>• I,,... Cty l)s,(0
~tt:nl:Stnt
"""" •z•
II

"
ee,,1tn101

...... """" ' ..

"'"'
,.,
)

........
I ... ?-.a:er

... S<,r
R F19;m

l:t F~in,
11 CenTtol l!:ktt 113
' Mdl

.... ...._ DMc:Gtt

13
10

"
scrro~s

_.._
..........
I

2
2
,.,.,
..,., .,
lll
9$
''"'
Pok I
M.-
I) Mc¢ee

,.......,,,.,
Flcutt S..23: An c:wnpk of a mulli·tablt joift. based oo di.ff'Cl'C'Ut k:eyi. Hett. County and Oistrid tables
MT joined ro 1bc School Table, to cn:.alc: 110 Outpu1 Table.
348 GIS Fundamentals

Normal Forms in Relational Databases

Keys and Functional Dependen-
cies
The previoos sections should poim out
the need to care.fully stmcture otr tables in a
relational database. and that keys in tables
are especially imponant. Poorly designed
tables can suffer from serious problems in
perfonnance, consistency. redundancy. and
maitueuam:e. Oa1a 1ha1are stored in large
tables may be redundant or with wasted
space. and long searches may be needed 10
select a small set of records. Updates on
large tables 110,y be slow. and the deletion of
a record may result iu the unintended dele-
tion of valuable data from the database.
Smaller. carefully constructed tables are usu-
ally more useful.
Consider lhe data in Figure S-24. in
which land records are stored in asingle
table. Attribmes il}(. IU(lc Pu, (.XI .. JD. AJV~···
man. Tship-10. Tship_nome., Tho I-odd. Own-
10, Own_nome. and Own_odd. Sc,me infor-
mation is Stored redundantly. forexample.
changing the Atdermon for Tship-lD 12
would require changing many rows: identi-
fying all parcels with Yomone as an owner
would require a s!arch of all records for sev-
eral columns in tbe table. This storage
redundancy is costly both b<?cause it takes up
disk space and ba:ause each extrn record
adds to the searcl:. and access ti.mes. A sec-
ond problem comes with changes in the data.
For example. if Devlin. Yamane. and
Premovic sell the parcel tliey jointly own
(first data row). deleting the parcel record
for 0,tvtin would purge rbe database of her
address and tax p,yment hiStory. lfthese
data 011 Devlin were n.,quired later. they
would have to be reentered from an e,1eroal
source.
We may place rela1ional databases in
nonnal[onus 10 ,void many of these prob-
lems. Data are suucmred in sequentially
higher norm..11 fom1s to improve correctness.
consistency. simplicity. nonredundancy. and
Stability. There are several levels in the hier-
archy of nom:i.."J forms. but the first 1hree
levels. known as the first tl,roogh third nor·
mal fonns. are most common. Data are usu-
ally structured sequentially. that is. first all
tables are convened to first nomial forms,
then convened to second and then third nor-
mal fonns as needed. Prior 10 describing

Land Records tobte. unnorm~bzed form

-·-
Wtt'·IO Aldumcn
2)0)
f-ll)

"
,,,..,.,.....
·~· n,cll-Olld
!SW
O,o,n,JO
122°"""""' -~ -
°""-""'
11.l

- .,, ""'u
,:tr,1!

- c..., ........\
618
9413
l)tS,,,,
"
lZ '"'
151'1 33/ v......... 72.Jolu, ;
..........···"
{ .........-··-·"'"'''''''''"'"'-·····-·····..·······--···-..·..-···-···................................
O,,,.JO
,_ --- 0v."l·I0 C.,u,dd
.............
......
O.,w,l<I
190 """"""'
Prest~ 12...cla.,tOl'I
'" Yc:m::rt- 72 JOfln
12-.C.IOyf'On ........,.
890
""""" "' '"""""
f'i.&m'T' 8-24: Land records 00.ta in ui.nonoalizcd fonn. The table is: sho,m in two par1, b,c1:;1u-1c it is: too
w1<k to fit across I.be page.
 Chapter 8: Altribule Dala and Tables 349

normal fomis ,ve musl introduce some ter·
minology and properties of rela1ional iables.
As no1ed earlier. rela1ional 1ables use
keys 10 connect da1a. Any column(s) 1ha1
uniquely defo1e(s) lhe rows of a lable is
called a candida1e key. The primary key for
indexing a 1ali>le is chosen from me se1 of
c.andidate keys. using a single.column key if
possible. We 'typically manage lhe chosen
key s11(b 1ba1 i1 will always be vaLid as a pri-
mary key for the table. The Porcet-10 isa
primary key for 1he 1able in Figure 8-24.
uniquely iden1ifying each row in the table.
Fu11ctio11.al dependency is another
imponam concept A1tribu1es are func1ion-
ally dependenl if at a given poinl in time,
each value of 1be dependem anrib1ue is
determined by a value of ano1ber attribute.
Figure 8-25 illusmlles 1be concept of
ftmctional dependency. The table conlains a
pans lis1. wilh ID as the primary key, and a
par1 Nome. CNum. Ctype. Thread. and Angle
at1.ribu1es. 111.i ID is unique for each row, and
so by definition, all other items are function·
ally dependeu1 on 10. lfwe know the value
of IO is 1. the:n we know 1he pan Nome is
Tec. We denote this as show1L
IO-> Name
We also see tbat Nome is functionally
dependent oo CNum. lfwe know a value for
CNum. say. 2. we know the value of Nome
\\rjll equal Ext. We see thal the converse is
also true here. CNum is also functionally
dependent on Nome. No1e 1bai this is 001
always tme. as shown for Ctype and Thread.
CType. - > Threod is tme,
bu1
Threod -> CType is not 'true
Why? Because for the value of Thread
equal to 14, CType may be eilher Eor Er. vio·
la1ing our definition of f1ul(tional depen-
dence.
In our example in Figure 8-24. we may
know lhal O,,n...odd is func1ionally depen-
dent on Own_nome. In otber words. eacb
owner can only have one resident address.
e.g.. we may not allow 1he enuy of a second
resident address. Therefore, for a given
Own_name. for example. Pnestovie, !he
Own_odd is determined. In a similar way.
there is only one TO\mship name,
Tship_nome. for each Town Hall address.
Tholl·odd. or
Ow,v,ome · > Own..odcll
Tship_nome ·> Tholl·add

ID Nome CNum CType Thread Angle

1 Tee 3 I M 12 45
2 Cop 1 E 14 20
3 Ext 2 I M 12 22
4 Cop 1 I M 12 18
5 Tee 3 I E 14 20
6 Cop 1 E 14 22
7 Ext 2 Er 14 45
Funcrionol Dependenetes
ID • > Nome. CNum. Ctype. Thread. Angle
CNum ·> Nome (or Nome · > CNum)
CType ·> Thread
Fieurr S.25: ~mplc of fUQc:lioml dcpcndcnciu.
350 GIS Fundamentals
Remember, these indicate that Own_add is
functionally dependent on OMu>ome. and
Thall-odd is l\1nctionally dependent on
Tship__nome. We must always bear in mind
that this function.,J dependency is something
we enforce. Unless we place safeguards
during data enlry and manipulation. we may
change data so that we ··break.. the func-
tional dependency. for example. by adding a
second owner address for an owner name.
Fmwtional dependencies are 1ransitive.
so if A-> B, and 6 -> C, then A-> c. This
notation means that ifB is functionally
dependent on A. and C is functionally depen-
dent on B. then C is functionally dependent
ODA.
While relational database designs are
flexible. the use of keys and l\tnctional
dependencies places restrictions on rela-
tional tables:
•There cannot be repeated records. that
is, there can l>e oo two or more rows
where au attributes are equal.
·There must be a primary key in a table.
This key allows each record to be
uniquely idetrtified.
·No member of a column that forms
pan of the primary key can have a null
value. This would allow multiple
records which could not be uniquely
identified by lbe primary key.
The First and Second Normal
Forms
We begin creating 1ables in 11ormal
fom,s by firs! gathering all our clata, often in
a single 1able. Nonna! fonns 1ypically result
in many compact. linked tables. so it is quite
common to splil tables as the database is
11on11a/i:ed, or placed iu nonnaJ rorms. Af1er
nonnalization. the tables have an indexing
system 1hat speeds searches and isolates ,ial-
ues for updating.
Tables with repeal grouping.s. as in the
table at the top of Figure 8-26. are 11111101·-
mali:ed. A repeating group exists in a rela-
tional table when an attribute is allowed to
have more 1ban one value represented within
a row. Owner-IO repeats itself for dwellings
witb multiple owners.
A table ;s iu firs, ,,ormnlforw 11'1ieu
there are no repeat colunms. The Land
Records table at the bottom of Figure 8-26
bas been uon11ali:ed by placing each owner
in10 a sepa1ate row. This ls a table lt1 the first
nonnal form (I NF) because each colunu,
appears only once in the table definition. A
t NF is the most basic level of table normal-
ization. However. the INF table strUcntre
still suffers from excessive storage redun-
dancy. inefficient searches. and potential
loss of data 011 updating. First nonnal forms
have an advantage over unnonnalized rabies
because queries are easier to code and imple-
ment. Tables in I NF are us11ally convened to
higher-order normal forms. usually 10 at
least third nom1.1l form, 3NF, but il is useful
10 understand second 11ormal fom,s before
describing 3NF 1ables.
A table ;sin second 110,111nl fonu (]NF)
ifi1 is itt fkst 1,annnlfonn nud evm,, ,1011-key
our;bwe irjimcriona/61dependem ou~,, on
the p1ima,y k~~ or on transitivefimctfonol
tlepe111/~1cies 0/1/,e primary key. Remember
that functional dependency meaus that
knowing the value for one anrib'Ute of a
record at11oma1ica.lly specifies the value for
the func.tionally dependent attribute. The
non-key a1trib111es may be direccly depen-
 Chapter 8: Attribute Data and Tables 351

Land Records table, unnormalized form

POrc:cl-JO Atdcm,on T.h>·ID Th:111 odd o.,n.10
°"~-"""" °""-°""
2303
618
Jchn'°"
DeS1tvo ,,
12 Blr<:h
Gro,,t
!5W
35€
122
457
O.,lin
$U(lt't.Z
123~
453J'q,cr
12 337
9413 Jc""'°" Blrc• !5W
"'"""" 7Zjc)TU$

o...n-10
>37
890
.
0.,,u,omc
Y<lma""
°""-"""
72.Jotus
Prurov;c: 12-.ClayTOtl
. .
o,,rHO
890
231
.
-·=
"""""""
Sl\<tmOn
.
o...n.....odd
tl..eleyfcn

Land Records table, first normal form (!NF)

0w,.,..tD
PQrCC.I • (0
2303
Aid""""
Johr,SQf\
T..... 10
12
T""'-""" lhalf·Odd
t5VJ 122
°""-""""' °""-"""
123,.£:11'1~
2303
"""""' 12
8,ch
a... 15W 337 °"""
Ym11on,e 72.JOtus
2303 John,oo 12 ll<ch
c ....,
15W 890
4>7
Pr<•"'"" 12-cletyTOr'l

...,.,..,.....
OeSllvo 35E <53.)-qb-d
618
618 O<S>lw "14 Cron• 35€ 890 '"'"""
PrurOYie 14G1ay1on
0cs0v, G....,, 35E 231 s-....
618
q,413 Johnson "12 S,ch lSW 337 Yomciii:t 72..loM

f i111rt' 8°?6:Rc1!1tion11l 1nbtcs in U1monniliied (top) mld fil'll nonnil fo11Us (bo1101n).

den1on !he primary key 1hrough some func-
1ional dependency, or !hey may be
depeudem 1hltougb a transitive dependency.
The Lond Records table in I NF at lbe bottom
of Figure 8-26 has only one possible primary
key. 1be composi1e of Porcet-lD and Dwn-lD.
No Olber combination uniquely identifies
e.ach row. However. this table is not in sec·
ond normal fonn because it has non-key
attribmes tba; are not fuoctionaUy dependeo1
only on the primary key attributes. For
example. Tsll ip_nome and Thollodd are
f,UJ<lionally dependen1 on Tship-lD.
The Land Records 1able a1 the bonom of
Figme 8-26 is repealed at the top of Figure
8-27. This iable exhibiis !he primary dis ad·
vamages of the first nom1al fonn. Parcel-ID.
Aldermon, an,d Tship·IO are duplicated when
there are multiple owners of a parcel, caus-
ing burdensome data redundancy. Each 1ime
these records are updated. for example when
a new Afdennon is elec-1ed. data must be
changed for each duplica1e record. lf a par-
eel changes hands and 1he seller does not
own anotl1er parcel represen1ed in !he table.
lbeu informa1ion on 1be seller is lost.
Some ofihese disadvantages can be
removed by converting the firs1 nom,al fonu
table to a group of second nonnal fonu
,ables. To crea1e second nonnal form tables,
we make every noo·key attribute fully
dependent on a primary key ln the new
cables. Noie 1ha1 u,e I NF table will often oo
split in10 two or more t.ables when conven·
ing to 2NF, and each ne.w 1a'ble will ha\'e its
own key. Any non-key anributes in 1he new
tables will be dependen1 on 1he primary
keys. Thebonom of Figure 8-27 shows our
Land Records convened 10 second normal
form. Each of !he tbree tables in second nor-
mal fonn isolates an observed functional
dependency, so each cable and dependency
will be described in mnl
How do we sys1ema1ically apply this
2NF criterion. that the non-key anributes be
352 GIS Fundamentals

func1ionally depe:ndent only on the primary
key. directly or through a transitive fuoc-
tiooal dependency? We must I) specify the
primary key. 2) ide.ntify the main functional
dependencies. and 3) project 1he I NF table
across the key and dependency cohuuns.
First. we m11s1 identify the primary key.
IJt our example here. the simplest primary
key is the (conca1ena1ed) key that is 1be com-
binaiion of Porcel-10 and Owner-JO. If our
primary key is a single item. 1.hen the table is
already in INF by definilion. be-cause all
non-key anribmes will depend on the pri-
mary key. However. if our primary key is
more than one column, we may .have further
work 10 coover110 2NF. focusing on depen-
dence on the componrois ofthe primary key.
Our second step is 10 identify the func-
tional dependencies. We know that parcels
occur in o,~y one 1owuship, and that each
township bas a unique Tship.10. a unique
Tship_no.me. a unique TholLodd~and one

Land records table. first normal form {INF)

pon;d·ID
2303
2303
230)
-
A~ot!l'f'IIOfl

JohMM

""""'° "
r~-ttt
12
12

,,
12
,....,..,......
8'-<h
Brd•
6'-<h
lt\dll add
!SW
I~\'/
l5'//
Ow!l-lD
122
337

,,,
890
o.,,.,,..,,.

°"""
Yom<ln<
lffstO'Jk.
°""-"""
123..p,,o

·~
72.Jotu:t
ti._doyron

-
618 OcSM Omni l>E Suon,,
o.s..... Cr<1,it )SE 890 12_doy1on
618
" Prfl'.$1(1'.~
618
903
Jo-·
DcS•Jt.1)
"
12
Cron•
11,n;h
J5E
1,w
23!
33, y"""""'
°"-""'"'""
72J<,t"'

Given functional dependencies:

Parcel- ID - Alderman. Tshtp-10
Tshlp-lO- Tshlp..11om.,. Thall-Odd
Own-ID - Own_nom2. Own_Odd

Land records tobles. second normal form (2NF)

Land Records Tobie I
J)O"Ccl-10 Akl,..mion f711>·1D T~~ TN•·add
?303 John!",on 12 O~h 1m
618 Cron I
q, 73
DtSit-.o
Jctin,Of'I "
12 a.th
35E
l>W

Lond Records Tobie 2 Land Records Tobie 3

0,.,.-10 °""-"""'• 0.,.1'\.,odd parcel JO 0,m..10
122
3)7
°""n
y"""""
1;!)_pcne
'2_1oti..s
2303
2JOl
1?.2
ll?
""'~,av.c llOJ 890
890
•57 S-cz
12..clcytoo
4IDl;la-d
61&
618
·~,
890
231 s.......... 64.J lci"IO!ld
618 231
9473 337

Flautt 8-27: Ou-,k:nhip data, ~oovc:ncd co , ~ond normal fonn.


Alderman.. Th.is means that if we have identi-
fied a parcel by its Porcel-ID. 1he Alderman.
Tship-lD. Tship..11ome. and TholLodd are
known. We assign a unique. identifier 10 each
parcel of land. and lhe Alderman.
Tsh1p_nome. :and TholLodd are all dependem
on tl1is identifier. If we know the parcel iden-
lifier~we know these remaiofog values. This
is the defini1ion of l\m<tional dependency.
We represent these ftmctional dependencies
by:
Poree.I-IO - > Aldennon
Parcel-ID -> Tship-lD
Porcel-ID • > Tship..nome
Porce.1-10 - > Tho!Lodd
These fu11c1iona I dependencies are
incorporated in a new table named U:md
Records l in Figure 8-27.
Second, oote Lha1 once. Own-IOis speci-
fied. lhe Own..name and Own_add are deter-
mined. Each owner has a t1nique identifier
and only one name (aliases nol allowed).
Also. each owner has only one permanelll
home address. Own...nome and Own...o<ld are
fm1c1ionally dependent on Own-IO. The
f1mc1ional dependencies are:
Own-IO -> Own_nome
Own-ID-> Own...add
The Porcel-10 and Own-IO are called
partial fimc1ional dependencies, bec~1use.
while bolh ar,e depeude111 on 1he primary
key. 1hey area ·1 dependenl on each other. If I
have a unique Por(el-10 . I know additional
infom1a1ion about some of the coluuu1s for
any row in th~ table. bm not all or !he col-
mnns. If I know 1he Own-ID. I also know the
values of a set of colwnns, but again, not all.
When we have a concatenated key. we mus,
identify 1.hese in our data, and they guide us
in how 10 fur tl1er split our table.
How do we get to 2NF? By projecting
the INF table across tlie primary key and
f,mcrional depe.11dencies. Remember. proj-
ect is just a way of saying we subset the col-
umns. here guided by the functional
Chapter 8: Attribute Data and Tables 353
dependencies. These par1iaJ functio nal
dependencies are represented in the tables
Land Records I and l ond Records 2 in Fig-
ure 8-27.
Fina Uy. nole thal we need lo tie lhe own-
ers to lhe parcels. These relationships are
prcsemed in the !able Lond Records 3 in Fig-
ure 8-27. Note 1hat some parcels are jointly
owned, and so 1here are muttiple owner IDs
for some parcels.
The three tables Lond Records I through
3 satisfy the conditions of a second nonual
form. Second normal fonu eliminates some
of the redundancies associat:ed with the INF.
Note !hat the redundancy in storing the
informalion on Alderman, Tship-ID.
Tship..11ame. and Tha!Ladd t,a,~ been sig-
nificamly reduced. and the minor redun-
dancy in Ow,\Jlome has also been removed.
Editing the tables becomes easier: for exam-
ple. changes in Alderman email modifying
fewer records. Finally. delet"ioo of a parcel
does not have lhe side effect of deleting lhe
infomiation on 1lle owner. o,m-ID.
Own_nome. and Own..odd
The Third Normal Form
The 2NF still contains problems,
although they are small compared to a table
in INF. They can still suffer from transitive
func1ionaJ dependencies. Ifa transitive func·
tional dependency exists in 3 table. tlten
there is a chain ofdependencies. A transitive
dependency occurs in our example table
named Land Records 1 (Figure 8-27). Note
tba1 Parcel-IO specifies Tship-10. and Tship-
ID specifies Tsl>ip_oame, ThalLadd and
Akfenmon. Io our notation of functional
dependencies:
Parcel-JD - > Tship-10
and
Tship-JD -> Tship..11ome, TholLadd,
Akfermon
This caus~ a problem when we delete a
parcel from the database. To delete a J)Orcel
354 GIS Fundamentals

we remove the parcel from tables Lond
Records 1 and Lend Reco.-ds 3. In so doing.
we might also lose the relationship among
Tship-IO. Tship.J')ome., ThOILOdd. and Akter-
mon. To avoid these problems we need to
convert the tables 10 the tl1ird nonnal fonn.
A table ;s iu the thil'rf 11onnnlfonn (]NF)
ffmul ou/y iffor t!n?1}'/uuctio11al depen-
dency A -> B. A ;s a super keJ~ or 8 is a mem-
ber ofa candidate key. This requirement
means we must identify transitive functional
dependencies and, remove them, typically by
splining the table that contains them. The
tables Lend Records 2 and Land Records 3
in Figure 8-27 are already in the 3NF.
because the keys for these tables are super
keys. Owner-IO uniquely identifies the re.st
of the row in Lond Re.cords 2, and the con-
ca1eruued key of Porcel-ID and Tship-ID are
the rows iu Lond Records 3.
However, the table Lond Records l in
Figure 8-27 is 001 in 3NF because the func-
tional dependencies for table Land Recorcls 1
are:
Porcel-lD . > Tship-ID
Tship-10 ·> TshipJlome. Thollodd.
Alderman
Tship-ID is not a super key for the table
(it does 1101 uniquely identify the row). nor
are Tship_nome aod ThotLodd members of a
primaty candidate key for that 1able. Remov-
ing the 1ransi1i\>e fiinc1ional dependency by
splining the table will create two new tables.
each of which satisfies the criteria for the
3NF. Figure 8-28 comains the rabies Lond
Records lo and Lond Records lb. both of
which now satisfy the lNF crile;ria, and pre-
serve the infonna1iou con1ained in lhe 1NF
table in Figure 8-26. Note 1hat P,aroet-10 is
now a super key for Tobie Jo and Tship-lD is

Land records, third normal form

Land Records lo Land Records lb

FD PG,,c~!-JO -- T,Np-10 FD T.shC)-10 - T s ~ . ThoU..odd. Aick.rmon
Porc~l-10 Tship·IO Tshp-JO T""P.flOl'Jl~ ThotLO(jd A.ldt:rmon
2303 12 12 Btn:h 35W
'°""'°"
618
9473 "
12 " C«1r'lt 35E OeSitvo

Land Records 2 Land Records 3

Ft> Chm IO - O,\fVWTie. (M-ru;ao Ho FUf!Ctlonol Ocl)('ndcncies
0...l'LJ)dd
Oom·TO
in
"'""-""""
Devlin
Porul-10 Own·IO

33/ Yamane
t2J~nc
12.JOhJ:S
..__ 230J 122
2303 337
890 ~.stov,c 12....cloy;o,,
457 Suor't2 2303 890
"53~
231 swmon 6.C.J'IChmOnd 618 457
618 890

••• 231
9473 337

ti&urt 8-28: Owmn.biJ> d.ltil in third oonnal form. with the fi.anctiooal dcpendeocics (FO) ®tcd at
the top of dtc table.

a super key for T<1ble lb, so the 3NF criteria
are sa1isfioo.
A general goal in defining a relational
database structure is 10 have the fewest
tables possible that contain the important
relationships and to have all 1ables in at least
3NF. Normal forms higher than three have
been described and provide funher advan-
tages: however. these higher fom,s are often
more limi1ed in their awLica1iou and depend
on 1he intended use of 1.he database.
While rela1ional tables in nonnal forms
have cenain useful characteristics. and rela-
tional databases are 1he standard 1001
adopted by mos1 large organizations. 1hey
may suffer from relatively long access limes
for specific queries. Databases may be orga-
nized around usage. or de11ormali:ed for the
most common processes. particularly when
databases are quite Ja,ge and high speed
access is paramount. These deoorrnaliza-
tions typically add extra columns or penna-
nent joins to the database structure. This
may add redundilocy or move a table to a
lower nonnal fonn. bm these disadvantages
often allow significant gains iL1processing
speed. The need to denormalize tables bas
diminished with improvements in computing
power. Howe\·er, denormalh:a1ion may be
required for ex1remely large da1abases, or
where access speed is of prim•ry impor-
tance.
Summary
A11ribu1e da1a are an imponan1 compo-
nent of spatial da1a in a GIS. These d.11a may
be organized iu several ways, bul data struc-
nires 1ha1 use relational iables bave become
Chapter 8: Attribute Data and Tables 355
the most common method for organizing and
manipulating anribtne data in GIS.
Selections. or queries. are among the
most common analyses couduc1ed on anri-
bule data. Queries mar!c a subset of records
in a 1able. ofieu as a precursor 10 subsequent
analyses. Queries may use AND. OR. and
NOT operations. among oth.ers. alone or in
combination.
Keys are important in slructuring rela-
tional data iables. PriJUary and foreign keys
are defined which are used in joining tables.
Primary keys may sometimes be concate-
naroo. or fonnoo from several colunms.
rather 1han jns1 from one column. Emry and
manipulation of key values ~soften con.
mained so tba11ables may timcrion properly.
Relational tables are often placed in nor-
mal fonus to improve correcmess and con-
sistency. to remove redundancy. and 10 ease
updates. Normal fonns seek to break large
cables into small tables 1ha1 ~omaiu simple
functional dependencies. This significantly
improves tbe maintenance aJJd in1egri1y of
the database. Nom1al forms may cause some
cost in speed of access. although this is a
diminishing problem as computer hardware
improves.
Object-relational database systems ha"e
been developed that incotpc,ra1e the mong
typing and domains of object-oriented mod-
els wi1h 1be flexibility. logic, and ubiquity of
rela1ioual data models. These e\'ohuiouary
improvements 10 1he relational approach will
continue as dalabase teclu1ologies are
ex1ended across networks of computers and
!he World Wide Web.
356 GIS Fundamentals

Suggested Reading

Adam, N .. Gangopadhyay, A. (t 997). Darnbase Issues in Geographic l11formario11

Systems. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Adler. D. W. (2000). /BM DB] Spar in/ Extender - Sparinl darn within n RDBJ.fS. Pro-
ceedings 27th International Conference on Very Large Databases. Rome. ll'aly.
Arcnar, D .. Zeller. M. (2004). Desig11i11g Geodntnbnse,: Case Studie, in GJS Data
Modeling. Redlands: ESRI Press.
Aronoff. S. ( L99 I). Geoirnphlc Jnfo rmm/011 Systems: A i\lmmgeme111 Persp.ecrfre.
Ontario: \VDL Publicauons.

Bhalla. N. (1991). Object-oriented data models: a perspective and comparative

review. Jovm,n/ ofl11fon11atio11 Science. 17: 145-160.
Codd. E.F. (1982). Relational dotabase: a practical foundation 10 productivity. Com-
11umica1ions ofthe ACA1. 25:109-l I 7.

Date. CJ. (2004). A11 /11troductio1110 Dntnbnse S)•stems (8th ed.). Boston: Pearson!
Addison-\'lesley.
Frank. A.U. {1 988). Requirements for a database management system for a GIS. Pho-
rogrammein·c E11gi11eeri11g and Remote Seusi11g. 54: 1557- 1564.

Lorie, R.A., Meier, A. (1984). Using a relational DBMS for geographical databases.
Geoprocessi11g. 2:243-257.

Milne. P.. Milt.on. S., Smith. JL. (1993). Geographical object-oriented datal>ases: a
case snidy. !111e,·nm,'011a/ Joumnl of Geogrnpl,ical b,jonna1lou Sysrems. 7:39-55.
Obe. R.O•. Hsu. L.S. (2011). PoSIGIS i11 Action. Greenwich: Mam1ing Publications.
Rigaux. P., Scboll. M., Voisard, A. (2002). Spatial Dnrnbases Will, Applicati:011s To
GIS. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann.
Teorey. TJ. (1999). Dntabnse ,\1odeli11g n11d Desigu (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Morgan
Kaufmann.
Ullman. J.D .• \Vidom. J. (2008). A First Course in Dntnbase Systems. New York:
Prentice Hlall.
Zeiler. M. (1999). Modeling Our World: A11 ESRJ Guide 10 Geodnrnbase Desigu. Red-
lands: ESRI Press.
 Chapter 8: Attribute Data and Tables 357

Study Questions

8.1 - \Vbat are the main components of a database management system?

8.Z- What are the primary functions of a database management system?

8.3 - Describe the difference between single and muhiple user views.

8..4 - What is a one-to-one relationship between tables? A many-to-one relationship?

8.5 - \Vhiieh single columns in the following table may serve as keys?

PID o..t Cir NumT SpLm

1 B or 1 55
3 D gr 2 55
5 A rd 1l 55
7 c ye 23 55
9 G oz 1 65
null x bl 9 65

8.6 - \Vbich single columns in the fol.lowing table may se1:ve as keys?

CID TStmp Osei Cir NumT Xerr

I 10·!2 B rd 1 110
3 11 44 0 gr .5 220
5 11·44 A rd 11 220
7 16.58 c gr 23 110
9 22.11 F bl 0 110
Null 23·59 H bl ·2 220

8.7 - \Vhy have relational database structures proven so popular!

8.8 - What are the eight basic operatio11s fonnally defined by E.F. Codd for the rela·
tional model?

8.9 - What is the primary reason that hybrid database models are used for spatial
data?
358 GIS Fundamentals

8. 10 - Ooe.s an OR condition result in more, fewer, or the same number of records

than the comJJ(>nem pans? For example. is u,e se1 from:
condition A OR condition B
the $ll.me.11igger. or inmller th,m the ie! from toodition A,done. or ~omliiion B
alone?

8.11 - Does an AND condition result in more, fewer, or the same mm1ber of records
as 1be compou,cu1 pans? For example. is the se1 from:
condi1fo11 A AND condition B
the same. bigger, or smaller 1han the set from condition A alone. or condition 8
alone?
 Chapter 8: Attribute Data and Tables 359

8.12 - Identify the states meeting each of the following selection criteria., based on the
1able below. No1e 1ba1 these dam are for the 1990s. and may 001 reflec1 co11di1ions
1oday:
a) S111okcrs < 20"/o
b) Smokers > 20% and illiteracy < JO
c) No1 (non-federal 1a.,es > 9)
d) UUteracy < 7 or income > 22,000
e) Ge1 more federal aid than p.1id in 1axes. and non-federal taxes > 9
O[ Firearms dea1hs < IO and income > 21.000 Jand 001 (smokers > 20}
Freorm
srn~ers Income Inlterocy deaths / Non·FedttOI Fed. Aid I
FIPS N"""" (1') ($/person) (%J 100.000 Tox Rot•(%) F•d Taxes

01 AIQbamO 22.1 18.189 15 162 8.6 171

02 Alosko 21.5 22.660 9 20 6.4 187

12 Flondo 175 21.557 20 111 7< 102

13 Georgia 195 21,154 17 13 ,1 99 096

19 j()WO 188 19,674 7 67 9.7 I 11

27 Mll'Mf'lt.SOfO 17 6 23.198 6 6 102 069

,o Okldlomo 24 7 17.646 12 !3 l 9 .8 I 48

55 W1Scons1n 19.9 21,271 7 81 102 082

360 GIS Fundamentals

8.13 - Identify 1hc cow1trics from the following table (dnln from the 1990:.) thn1 meet
the following cri1eria.
a) Per capita euergy use > 4.000 and popula1iou -< 20.000,000
b) Infant morrali1y -< 7 and life expectancy > 79.0
c) Per capita energy use -< 4.000 or [(population > 40 million) and (car thefl -< I)I
d) (Per capita energy use < 4,000 or (population > 40 millioo)) and (car theft -< I)
e) not (population > 40,000.000)
t) Population < 20,000,000 nod not (car theft > I.S)

Infant Life C<lr

Poputaticn Energy Use Morlol<ty expec1. Theft
Country (mlllionsl (bl.0'1/per ) (pe< 1000) (yeors) (%)

Aus·rrollo 19.9 5.668 4 79 2 22

Brrloin 593 5.945 5 n.s 'h
Fmlond 5.2 ¢.•56 4 78.0 05
Fronce 597 4.350 4 79 2 18
Jopon 1272 4,071 3 8t.6 01
Nerher"londs 162 5,993 5 78 3 05
Norvroy 46 6,019 4 78.9 15
South Africa 45 3 3.703 52 4¢ 5 24
Spoin 4! l 2.945 5 78.3 05
USA 291.0 8.066 7 n3 05

8.14 - \Vhat are normal fonns in relational databases? \Vhy are they used. and what
are the advamages of putting da1a in higher uonnal fonns?
 Chapter 8: Attribute Data and Tables 361

z
-
8. 15 - Sketch the output table resulting from an inner join shown below:
I di POS
WO
eo
Id2
x
y
tm
5
1
A rt A 6
y pr Q 4
y nn N 3
R rt L 2
Q mn

SJ 6 - Sketch an outer join for the 1able shown in the previous problem.

8.17 - Define 1he basic differences be1weeu !irs1. second. and 1hird 11on11al fonns.

8.1 8 - Oive an example of a functional de1>endency.

362 GIS Fundamentals

8.1? - Lisi !he single·tolWlUl funtlional dependencies in !he following table, using
the arrow noiation described in this chapter.
ID Size Shope Color Age Source
l lorge rourtd blue 10 A
2 medium rourtd green 5 8
3 smoll round red 10 c
4 medlum knobbed green 5 D
5 medium knobbed green 5 E
6 lorge round blue 10 F
7 lorge round blue 10 A

8.20 - Lis• 1he single-column func1ioual dependencies in the following table. using
the arrow notation described in this chapter.
ID Size Shope Color Age Source
5 medium round blue 5 A
2 large round green 10 8
3 smoll round green 10 c
4 large knobbed green 10 0
5 medium knabbed blue 5 E
5 medium round blue 10 F
7 large round green 10 G

9 B,asic Spatial Analyses
Introduction
Spatial dntn mwlJ• is is tl1e applica-
tion of opera.tioos to coordinate and
related attribute dala, often to solve a
problem. We may wish to identify high
crime areas. to idcmify road segments that
need repaving. or to find the best area for
wind rurbines. There are hundreds of spa·
tial operations or spatialfimctions used in
spatial analysis. and all involvecalcula·
tions with coordinates or attributes.
Spatial operations are often applied
sequenlially to solve a problem. the out·
put of each spatiai operation serving as
the input of the next (Figure 9-1). Pan of
the challenge in geographic analysis is
selecting appropriate spatial operations
and applying them in the appropriate
order.
The table manipulations we described
in Chapter 8 are included in our definition
of a spatial operation. Indeed. the selec-
tion and modification of anribute data in
spatial data !:ayers are inch1ded at some
time in nearly all complex spatial analy·
Input
tst spotlol
foyer' OJ)el'Cltion
I I
IST
ne.w
layer
Fiaurt 9-1: A sequence of spa1i:il opcr.ttions is often applied 10 obtain a desired 6nal <bl.fl layer.
363
ses. Many operations incorporate botl1 lhe
attribute and coordinate data. and the
attributes must be fi.t.rtherselected and
modified in tlte course of a spatial analy·
sis.
The discussion in the present chapter
will expand 011 rather than repeat 1lte
selection operations neared in Chapter S.
This clL1pter describes spatial data analy-
ses that involve son. selection. classifica-
1ion. and spatial operations that are
applied to both coordinate and associated
attribute data.
Input, Operations, and Output
Spatial data analysis typically
involves using data from one or more lay-
ers to create output. The anailysis may
consist of a single operation applied to a
data layer. or many operatio.ns that inte-
grate input data from many layers to cre-
ate the desired output.
2nd 3rd spohol
new operation
layer
final
loyer.
2nd .spotlQI oullpul
operation
364 GIS Fundamentals
Spa!ial operations may also require
several inpurs or generate many ourpurs.
Terrain analysis functions may take a raster
grid of elevations as an inpul data layer and
produce bo!h slope (local steepness) and
aspect (the slope directioo). In !his case.
two oulputs are generated for each mput
elevation data set. Averaging may use mul·
tiple inpm layers to produce a single output
layer, for example. annual rainfall found by
summing 12 monthly rainfall raster layers.
The output from a spatial operation
may be spatial. creating new spatial data
layers. or nonspatial. producing scalar val-
ues or a table. A layer average function
may simply calculate the mean cell value
found in a raster dlata layer. The mpm ,s a
spatial data layer. but the output is a single
number.
Scope
Spatial data operations may be charac-
terized by their Sf"'rial scope. the extent or
area of 1he input dlata that are used in deter-
mining the values at ootput locations (Fig·
ure 9-2). Spatial o_peraiions may be
characterized as local. neigbborbood. or
global, to reflect the extent of the input area
used 10 deiermine !he value a1 a given Out·
pm location.
Local operorio11s use only !he data at
one input location to detennine the value at
that same output location (Figure 9-2, top).
Attributes or values at adjacent locations
are not used in the operation.
Neighborhood operations use data
from bo!h an input location plus neart,y
locations to determine the outpur value
(Figure 9-2. center). T_he extent and relative
imponance ofvahues m !he nearby region
may vary. but the value at an output loca-
lion is influenced by more than just the
value of data found at the corresponding
input location.
G/obol operations use data values from
!he entire input layer 10 determine each out·
put value. lbe value at each location
depends in part on the values at all input
locations (Figure 9-2. bouom).
The set of available spatial operations
depends on !he data model and_type of
input spatial data. Some operauons may be
e.asily applied to raster or ,·ector data.
While the details of the specific implemen-
tation may change. !he concep1 of the oper-
ation does not. Other operations may be
possible in only one data model.
Data model characteristics \\>"ill de1er-
mine how any given operation is applied.
The specific implementation of many oper·
a1ions. for example. multilayer addition.
depends on the specific data model. A ras-
ter operation may produce a different out·
come than a Vo!C!Or operatiom.. even if the
1hemes are meant to represent the same fea-
rures. In a like manner. !he specific set and
sequence of operations in a s.patial analysis
will depend on the data model used and the
specific operations available in the GIS
software.
Spatial scope provides a good example
of this influence of data models. Cells 1n a
raster data set have uniform size and shape.
A local operation applied to a raster data
layer bas a weU-defmed. repeatable area. In
contrast. polygons usually vary in size and
shape. A local operation for a vector poly-
gon data set is likely 10 have variable size
and shape from one location 10 another. In
Figure 9-2, the local operation follows a
state boundary. Therefore. the operauon
applies to a different size and shape for
each state.
Neighborbood analyses are affected by
1he shape of adjacent state.s i_n a similar
manner. Summary values such as popula-
tions of adjacent stares may be greatly
influenced by changes in neighborhood
size, so great care must be taken when
interpreting the results of a SJ?3tial o~ra-
tioo. Knowledge of the algoathm behmd
the operation is the best aid co interpre1ing
!he resulls.
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 365

5
Loco! opero1ion:
1990 5
population
density 20 32

32 12

2
6'-<----1
Neighborhood
operotion·
number of
odjocent 6 '
stoles
5 J

10

6 '

J 1

While mOSI operations miglu be coo-
ceprually compa1ible with most spa1ial dara
models. some operatiousareeasier10 apply
in some rncdels. Most neighborhood opera-
rions are quire easy 10 program when using
rasrer dara models, and can be quire diffi-
cult when using vector data models. The
re,·erse is mtt for network operations.
which are generally easier roapply in vec-
tor models. ln many in.slances. it is more
efficient 10 coo,·en the data lletween data
models and apply the desired operarions
and, if necessary. conven the results back
to the original dara model.
366 GIS Fundamentals
Selection and Classification
Selec1io11 operations identify foam.res
that meet one or 1nore conditions or crite-
ria. In chese operacions. amibuces or geom-
etry of features arc cbcckcd against criteria.
and those that satisfy the criteria are
selected. These selected features may tl1en
be wrinen 10 a uew ourput data layer. or the
geometry or attribute data may be manipu-
lated in some manner.
Figure 9-3 silo"~ an example of a
selection operation that involves the attri-
butes of a spatial data set. Two conditions
arc applied. and 1he feanires 1ha1 satisfy
both conditions are included in the selected
setThis example shows the selection of
those s1a1es in 1he ·'lower 48" Uni,ed S1a1es
lhal are a) entirely north of Arkansas. and
b) have an area greater than 84.000 km·. '
Unselec1ed s1a1cs and a shaded Arkansas
are shown at the lop of the figure. TI1e next
two maps of Figure 9.3 show those s1a1es
1ha1maich the individual cri1eria. those
states entirely no:rth of Arkansas. and 1hose
' The
s1a1es thal are greater than 84,000 km·.
bottom panel shows those s1a1es <hat sa1isfy
both conditions. This figure illustra1es two
basic characteris1ics of selection opera-
tions. First 1berc is a set of fearures tl1at are
candida<es for sefoc1ion. and second. these
features are selected based singly or on
some combination of the geographic and
attribute data.
An on.screen que.,, 1is acommon mode
of selection. A data layer is displayed and
features are selected by a hum.an operator.
often with a mouse click or other pointing
device. On-screen query is used to gather
infonnation about specific features. and is
often used for interac1ive updates of attri-
bute or spa1ial data. For example. it is com-
mon to set up a process such 1.hat when a
feature is selecced.1he at1ribu1e information
for 1he feature is displayed. These anribure
data may then be edited and 1he changes
saved.
Queries may also be specified by
applying conditions solely 10 lite aspalial
componems of spatial data, as described in
Chapter 8. Selec1ion subse1s 111~ data 10
records of interest. and the selec.ted data are
typically processed in some wa:y, often
saved to a separa,e file. deleted. or changed
in some manner.
Selec1ion operations on tables were
described in general in Chapter 8. The
description here expands on that informa-
tion and draws attention to specific charac·
1eris1ics of selections applied 10 spatiaUy
related data. Table selections have spatial
relevance because each record in a iable is
associa1ed with a geographic feamrc.
Selecting a record in a table simultaneously
selects 1be associated spa<ial feanires: cells.
poims. lines, or areas. Spatial selections
may be-combined with table selections l'o
identify a set of selected geographic fea-
mres.
Set Algebra
Selec1ion conditions are often formal-
ized using ser algebra. Set alge·brn use.s the
operations less than (<), greater than (>).
equal 10 (•), and 001 equal 10 (< >). These
selection conditions may be applied either
alone or in combination to select features
from a se,.
Figure 9.4 shows four set algebraic
expressions and the selection results for a
set of counties iJ1the norcbeasrem UWted
States. The upper two selections show
equal to (•) and no, equal to (< >) sclec-
1ions. The upper lefl shows all counrie.s
with a value for the attribute state that
equals Vermonl. while the upper right
show'S all coumjes wilb a value· for state
that are 1101equal to New York. 111e lower
selections in Figi,re 9-4 show examples of
ordinal comparisons. The left figure shows
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 367

'

Arkansas

States entire ly
north of
Arkansas

States both
entirely north of
Arkansas
and
larger than 84.000 sq. km.

Flgurf' 9.3: An c:tllutplc of II sclettiou •rntiou based on si1.13lc or multiple condition,.

368 GIS Fundamentals

Fiau~ 9-4: E~:unpfu

of uprcnions in ut state <> New York
algebra aiki their out-
C'<>luc. Sdcclcd fca-
rur<s :u-c t.bt1dcd.

•
..

area >• 1.000 sq population < 250

density pers/sq.mf

all counties with a population > I000 per-
sons per mi2. wh;le the right shows those
with
., a density less than(<) 250 persons per
DU"'.
The set algebra operations greater than
(>) or less lhan (<) may 1101 ~ applied to
nominal data. because there is no implied
order in nominal data. Green is not greater
than yellow. and red is 001 less than blue.
Only the set algebra operations equal 10 < ·>
and not equal to (< >) apply to the.se nomi-
nal variables. AIL set algebra operations
may be applied 10 ordinal dara. and are
often applied to intervaUratio data.
argument specifies a condition on a vari·
able named oreo, and the second argument
a condition on a variable named formJn·
come. Features are selected if they satisfy
both argumems. that is. if their oreo is
larger than 100,000 ANOfonTI.Jncome is less
than 10 billion-.
Expression 2 in Figure 9-5 illustrates a
Boolean NOT expression. lllis condition
specifies that all fean,res with a variable
state which is not equal to Te.xos will return
a true value. and hence be selected. NOT is
also often known as the negation operator.
This is because we might interpret the

Boolean Algebra Boolean expressions

Boolean algebra uses the conditions 1. (area> 100,000)
OR. AND. and NOT ·10 select features. Boolean AND
expressions are most often used to combine (farm_income <. 10 billion)
set algebra condi'tions and create com- 2. NOT ( state •Texas)
pound selections. The Boolean expression
consists of a set of Boolean operators. vari-
able-s, and perhaps constanls or scalar val- 3. I (rainfall> t.000)
AND
ues. (taxes• low) J
Boolean expressions are evaluated by o~
I { house_cost < 65,000)
assigning an outcome. true or false. to each AND
condition. Fig\lre 9-5 shows three exam- NOT (crime • high) J
ples of Boolean expressions. The first is an
expression using a Boole.an AND. with two
f'izu1't' S,. S; E:ii:11.mples of 8oolc.i.n e:<preu ious.
arguments for the expression. The C.ts1

application of a NOT operation as exchang·
ing lhe selec1ed se1 for lhe unselec1ed se1.
The argt1men1of expre.ssion 2 in Figure 9-S
is itself a set algebra expre.ssion. When
applied 10 a set of fea1ures. this expression
will selec1 all feantre.s for which 1be vari-
able state is equal to the value Texas. The
NOT operation reve~es Ibis. and selec1s all
features for whid1 tl1e variable store is not
equal to Texos.
The 1hird expression in Figure 9-S
shows a compound Boolean expression.
combining four set algebra expressions
with AND. oa_ and NOT. This example shows
what ntight be a naive attempt co se.lect
areas for retirement for someone interested
in areas tltat have high rainfaLI and low
taxes (a ga.rdener on a foxed income). or
low housing cost and low crime.
The spa1ial 0111comes of specific Bool-
ean expressions are shown in Figure 9-6.
The figure shows three overlapping circu-
lar regions. labeled A. a. and C. Areas may
fall in more than one region: for example.
the center. where all lllfee regions O\•e,lap,
is in A.&. and c. As shown in 11te figure.
Boolean ANt>. OR. or NOT may be used 10
select any combination or portions of lhese
regions.
•
flaul't' 9--6: E.umpks of
c:tprcsiiom, iu Boolean
a1lgcbl'$, nnd nbcir out·
<Otu¢S. SubaC"eu, of three
rc3toc11 Ate sclcc1cd by '--'C
cotnbining. ANO, OR,
~od NOT coudi1iom: in
Boolean cxpt"cuious. NOT(A Cl< B)
A!lr i Ub-lltC':I Of f'Ollf
of sub-.,rc.:it c13.)' be
5C'l«l<d by the COITCCI
Boolean combination.
Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 369
OR conditions return a value of true if
either argument is m1e. Areas in either
region A or region s are selected at the top
center of Figure 9-6. Al'«> requires the con-
dilions on bolh sides of the· operation be
me1: ru1 ANO operation resuhs in a reduced
selection set (top righl, Figure 9-6). NOT is
tl1e uega1iou operator. it flips lhe effec1 of
the previous operations: it tums uue 10
false and false to true. TI1e NOT sho\\n in
the lower lefi ponion of Figure 9·6 renims
ct,e area 11tm is only in region c. No1e 1ha1
this is the converse. or opposite set that is
returned when using 1he comparative OR,
shown in the 1op cemer of Figure 9-6. The
NOT opera1ion is often applied in combina-
tion with the AND Boolean operator. as
shown a1 tl1e bonomcenter of Figure 9-6.
Again. th.is selec1s 1he converse (or c-om-
plement) of the corresponding AND. Com·
pare 11\e bonom ceu1er selec1ion 10 o,e top
right selection in Figure 9-6. NOTS. ANOS.
and ORs may be further combined to select
specific combinations of areas. as shown in
the lower right of Figure 9~.
Note I.bat as with table selection dis·
cussed in Cllap1er 8. the order of applica-
tion of these Boolean operations is
imponant. In most cases, y-0u will not
selec1 the same set when applying lhe oper-
ations in a different order. Parenthese.s.
brackets, or olher delimiters should be used
10 specify the order of application, Tile
A CAB A AND 8
NOT(A Al<) B) (AAN08)0RC
370 GIS Fundamentals
(Coun1y • Rice)
AND
(Wshed • Connon)
Flp rt 9. 7: Au clCalltplc
of :t Boolc:\n sdcc-1ion
~pplicd to a Kt ofco,an·
tics and \~ten.beds in tl1<e
M.idwcS-1c:1n United
$11110:s. The mid sb.i<kd
area i.s wit.bin the Cruwoo
Rin:=r wa1mhed. a rtn'bu-
tary of the. Mi:ssi.ttippi
Rl\·« , while the dadtci t
shaded ru-ea is also ..-.. ;1bin
Rice County. Minnesota.
expression A AND B OR c will give different
results when i111e-rpreted as (A AND 8) OR c.
as sbown in Figure 9·6. tban when imer-
preted as AAND (BOR c). Verify this as an
exercise. Which areas does the second
Boolean expresston select?
Figure 9-7 shows a real-world example
of a Boolean sele,crion. Coumies often must
identify areas for pollution reduction. in
this case a ponion of the Cannon River. a
tributary oflhe Mississippi River. Counties
are labeled, with 'boundaries shown as solid
lines. The Cannon River watershed is
shown as thicker lines. A Boolean AND
operation was applied to a data layer con-
taining both watershed and county bound·
aries. selecting rile areas tha1 are both
within the Cannon River waterslted and
within Rice County.
Spatial Selection Operations
Many spatial. operations select ser.s of
feanires. l11ese operations are applied to a
spatial data layer and return a set of fea-
lllleS tl1at meet a specified condition. Adja-
cency ru1d containment are commonly used
spatial selection operations.
Scon
Olmsted
Adjacency selection operations are
used to ide-utify those foarures that '1ouch..
other feanrres. Feamres are typically c-00-
sidered to 1ouch when they share a bound-
ary. as when 1wo polygons share an edge. A
targe1 or key set of polygon feanire-s is
identified. and all fean1Tes that share a
boundary with the target fean1t<es are
placed in the selec1ed set.
Figure 9·8a shows an example of a
selection based on polygon adjace-ucy. The
slate of Missouri is shaded on the left side
of Figllre 9·8o, and states adjacent to Mis-
souri are shaded on the right ponion of Fig-
ure 9-So. States are selected because they
iucl'ude a common border with Missouri.
l11ere are many ways the shared border
may be detected. With a ntster data layer.
an exhaustive cell-by-cell comparison may
be conducted 10 idemiJy adjaceut pairs with
different state values. Vector adjacency
may be ident iiied by observing the topo-
logical relarionsllips (see Chapter 2 for a
discussion of topology). Line and polygon
topology typically records the polygon
idemifiers on eaclt side of a line. All lines

with Missouri on one side and a differenl
state ou the other side may be flagged. and
the list of states adjacent to Missouri
extracted.
Adjacency is defined in Fig\trc 9-Soas
sharing a boundary for some distance
greater than zero. Figure 9-Sb shows how a
different definition of adjacency may affect
selection. Tb.e left of Figure 9-81> shows the
state of Arizona and a set of adjacent
(shaded) westcm states. By the definition
of adjacency used in Figure 9-So. Arizona
and Colorado are not adjacent. because
they do not share a boundary along a line
segment. Arizona and Colorado sh.are a
border at a point. called Four Comers,
where they join with Uiah and New Mex-
ico. When a different definition of adja-
cency is used. with a shared node
a)
b)
AdJocency
• shared line required
Cotoroao
•• Arlzono
Figure t .8: Exflmplei of s.dc-ctions based on lldjac-c:ncy. 11) Mis~sti. USA is s.hown on 1hc left 11nd aOs.1111c:s.
:idJ~Cctlt 10 Miuouri sbowu oo tbc: righ.1. b) Different dcfini1ions of 11dj:1cc:uc)' mnill in diffcrcn1 sc:l«1ioos.
Colorado is oot 11dj11c-a1t to Arizona wbc:u line t1dj11c-CU('.y is required (kft). Wt i.5 wbc:u t»de adjac-c:ncy is
ac-cqn«l (rig.bi).
Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 371
qualifying as adjacent, thell Colorado is
added 10 the selected adjacent set (right
Figure 9-Sb). l11is is another illustration of
an observation made e.arlier: there are often
several variations of any single spatial
operation. Care mus1 be taken to test the
operation under controlled conditions until
tl1e specific implementation of a spatial
operation is well understood.
Features may be selected based on
proximity. Proxintity selection typically
requires a set of selecting features and a set
of target features. All the target features
within a specified distance of the selecting
feantres will be chosen. e.g .. all weather
stations within 60 km of a watershed may
be selected to es1in1ate rainfall (Figure 9-
9). Selecring only stations within the ,vater-
shed may provide poor eslitnates ofrainfall
Aeljocency
- shoted node o t II ne reQutred
COli)rodO
Arizona
372 GIS Fundamentals

near the edge of the polygon, but using all a given distance of a set of polygons. but
gages is inefficie,u because infonnation not those that are within the set ofpolygous
from gages very faraway often isn't. belp- themselves. Users sho\lld clearly identify
ful. An adequate exteriorproxmuty ts ~ho- tJ1e selection tool function and outputs.
sen. usually by visual inspection. previous Proximil)' scll:j;tion. and most selec-
experience. or pr,elim.inaiy tests. •.nd. the tion processes more generally. typically
proximity selection apphed. Proxmuty 1s only select features that meet a given set of
usually calculated implicitly within tl,e criteria, The process often does not crea1e a
operation. in thar first the source reanires separate. new data layer of the selected fea-
and selectable features are provided, a tures. Selected fean1tes are marked On·
proximity distance and metl1od specified, screen and in the corresponding data table.
and on mm1ing tile operation. the selected bm still are pan of 1he source data set. .
set is identified. Less frequently, software Tiiere is often an additional export step 1f
requires a muhi-s1ep process in which the these selected features are destined for a
source feamres and selection layers are new data set. This explicit crea•ion
identified, and a selection layer is cre.ated. approach is usually adopted becaus~ selec:
This created layer usually contains poly- tion is often a inulti·step process. with van·
gons defining tl1e area within tl1e specified O\IS different selection tools applied
distance of the source fean1res. Tins poly- successively to arrive at a target set of fe.a-
gon layer is then used 10 select features tures.
from the targe1 set.
We often add indic.ator or classification
There are several variants of proximity variables to our data tables when we have a
selection. Oue variant selects all features complex set of selection criteria. particu-
that are at least p;anially within a give!-1 dis- larly when combining both spatial ~od tab-
tance of a set of reantres. AnoUier vanam ular selectioils. These l!ldicaiot va,,ables
selects ouly features that are entirely ~side record the membership of feanires iii
a given distance of tile o\ller boundaries of groups that match or don't match a se1 of
a set of polygons. A third variant selects conditions. Figure 9-10 illustrates a selec-
only those feamres tltat are entirely within tion for a set of counties that both contain

~:"'' .,., ;: -~ - .(,_

I o:11. ••

. •. .
.~, ·.: .:u~- n•~:~~:.:,;i.v,
:" '"-" •

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,
-~ · .t.'".t
·"'

.'JM(
~~~!,'
~
'• t J".:Y •
v
...,
.tt• \.. . .n• .•,....a• ..a,·~
....( ·-
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)
.
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.
'

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.- • .:o• ...., ..,.,. ..,,.-i.
( ..».. . 11• ..-, •
·. ( \•
,\... ,

·.~, .~ ••1""' ,.R,.u,.U•''°•"'

.\a, ~· , ,o.•.:,,"o ~ • • ~
. ·"'~.a, x;· •
"',::,,.... .-.•
-',,---- ·•
.ua , .,
•°4 :~ ·; ..,._.
:'t• •,IJ#JA ~(, \U
-· .,.u. • , JU
. •' ··-·
I
'

••
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••• . ••••
,:1<1• • .npee ' ~~ , • ,-.,.1 · "'" ·• • •
.x...,....rr, ,:u
i.t , JIU .a.:'*J
L..~:;.
, YI '
,1:f1'~·"' 'u :n,,,s
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' ' ,,.., ,m .ll,! 111 , •
.N1 .-.."77~· , IIU ,n.J
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..... . u..
'"'.U-.>\O
°" , •. -·~· '- - - •"';- ~ 0
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,'Di ·" ~ ••• _,... .._. , .U.1 ' I

fiiUn.' 9.9;An c:u:ruplc ofa sp111ial selcc1ion ~s~ on, ~xU?iir, ulecting rt'lllfal~ ga.gcs oca; 11 wa~l"$bcd
(points. Id _P!,UCI. a\·c:ragc sbown). All gages are 1dcnhbcd w11bin a 60 bu proxurut)' of tbc ,,a1crsl1
boundary (113h1 p111"1d, li3bt sqtl,Vd).
 Cha pier 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 373

part of a target watershed and hazardous
materials (Haznun) storage sites. A munici-
pality might 1mdertake an ups1ream inven-
tory if they measure a spike i.n toxic
chemicals in their water supply. Ha2ma1
sites are dis1ribu1ed 1hroughou1tbe stare of
Georgia. The Allamaha River drains much
of the cen1r31 ponion of the s1are. A spatial
selection identifies counties l1la1 contain a
portion o f 1.he watershed. and a table sele~
1ioo identifies l11ose com1ties containing
Hazma1 si1es. A column may be added 10
the-county table and values assigned to
record this set of potential source counties,
to be used in subsequem analysis.
Figure 9· 11 shows one flowchart ofrhe
geoprocessing analysis in Figure ?-10.
While the analysis is relatively simple. and
the steps primarily operations on the tabu-
lar data. the llowchan sl1ows 1he da1a. spa-
tial operations. ru.1d orde.r in a succinct
manner. It is good praclice to flowchart all
mulli-s1ep spatial analyses. and the value of
the flowchart grows with rile comple.xiry of
the analysis.
Caution is helpful when applying sub-
sequent sp:llial operations to a data set with
selected features (like the r.ainfall gages in
the rigln panel ofFig11re 9°9) since many
subsequent operations are possible. Some
operations by defauh only ac1 on selec1ed
feamres. while 01her operations apply 10
the entire data set 1l1e choices are often
software-dependent, and vary by operation.
and so you should consult the documeuia-
tion or rest e.acb new spatiail operation
when firsl using it to avoid unintended
results.
Comai11111e111 is another spatial selec-
tion openuion. Comainment selection iden-
tifies all features that contain or surround a
set of target features. For example. the Cal-

lrdc4for vonoble <~tee to

SIOC't: wt rotmt>ers 1'11) t

ID Co.int At't'O JnSet

12 M«*'<ll'\ 7J I
28 Ur'ICOll"I 6.6 0
19 &ri((' 216 0
41 Lof'·:J 10 ii

figur~ 9. 10: An c:.'C.'lmpli: of i:ndic~tot ,·Wblcs 10 ttcord sc1 mcmbdship. We wU.h co idc;iuify cowuies with
IJ.i1U1rdou, 1natcri~b site$ (H:.iaiut, upper left) 1lu11 cour.:iin p~t1 of the Alu1tll3WI R.h-cr w11tcn.licd (upper ccn,
ttt), We may fIM appl)' a ~tial sel~tioo oo counties with the watc~d boundary (upper right). tbcu a
cable sclcct1«ll oo lbc coinc1dcut counties to identify those wi.1h Hazm111 sil« (lower left). A column. Jt.crc
n1Utlcd foSc-1. n12y be lidded to ickruify 1.hc t dccicd cou.utics il'l fwthct proccuiug (.bonoo, center and ri$ht).
374 GIS Fundamentals

Counties
County with
HozMot ~ HozMot
Sites \ Sites
~ ' Creat e InSet item:
~_J InSet = I if HozMot > 0
Inset • O otherwise

Altomoho
River
Waler·
J County
HozMot
\

shed Sites with

Indicator
variable
Flgurt 9...11: An e:-x:uttplc: flowc:b,'11 (or die' Aham.W HuM:1.1 1i1c: 1m2l)'&i1. While: siil'lplc:, this &bows bow
$p:)1:i,il :ind lnbul:ar. o~liOUJ tnigh1 be represented ppbic:all)'•

Fi;un !t· lZ: Au example of~ sc:lc:c:tio11 baKd oo c:ontaiwncnt. AU 1it11tes: c:oni:afoiug a
portion of the Missiuippi Ri\'tt or i.1s cn"butaric:s 11rc selected.

ifomia Depanment of Transportation may may be used to identify these jurisdictions.

wish to ideruify all counties. cities, or other
governmental bodies that contain some
portion of Higb,vay 99, because they wish
to improve road safety. A spatial selection
Fig11re 9· 12 illustrates a contairunent
selection based on the Mississippi River in
North America. We wish to ideuttify slates
that co01ain some po11ion of the river and

its tributaries. A query is placed. identify.
ing the features ctuu are contained. here the
Mississippi River oetworl<. and the ta.rget
features that may potentially be selected.
The target set in ctlis example consists of
the lower 48 states o(the United States. All
states lhat contain a portion of the Missis-
sippi River or its tributaries are shaded as
pan of the selected set.
Classification
Clns.s{f,cation is a spatial data opera-
tion that is often used in conjunction with
selection. A classification. also known as a
reclnssificm;.c,, or recodi11g, will categorize
geographic objects based on a set of condi-
tions. For example, all the polygons larger
than one square mile may be assigned a size
value equal to Lorge, all polygons from 0.1
to I square mile may be assigned a size
equal 10 Mid. and all polygons smaller than
0.1 square miles may be assigned a size
equal to Small (Figure 9-13}. Classifica-
tions may ad<l to or modify the anribllte
Size
Smoll
Q ,.w
. L""!l"
Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 375
data for each geographic object. These
modified anriblltes may in rurn be used in
further analyses. such as fo·r more complex
combinations in additional classification.
Classification may be used for many
other purposes. One common end is to
group objects for display or map produc-
tion. TI1ese objects have a common prop-
erty. and the goal is to display tbern with a
uniform color or symbol so the similar
objects are identified as a group. The dis-
play color and/or panern is typically
assigned based upon the values of an anri·
bute or anributes. A range of display
shades may be chosen. and correspoodiog
values fora specific anribu~e assigned. The
map is then displayed based on tilis classi-
fication.
A classific,a1ion may be viewed as an
assignment of feamres from an existing set
of classes to a new set of classes. Weiden.
tify fearures that have a giv,eu set of values.
for example. parcels 1llat are above acer-
tain siz:e. and assign them all a classifica-
tioa value, lil tl1is case tlie class "large."
Parcels in another range of sizes may be
assigned differem class values, forexam-
ple. "mid" aod "small." The attribute that
stores the parcel area is used as a guide to
assigning the new class value for size.
TI1e assignme111 from iupu, anribute
values (area) to new class values (here.
size) may be defined manually. or the
assigmneut may be defu>ed automatically.
For manual classifications. the class transi-
tions are specified entirely by the human
analyst.
Classifications are often specified by a
table or array. The table identifies the input
class or values. as well as tl>e output class
for each of this set of input values. Figure
9- 14 illustrates the use of a. classification
1able to specify class assignment. Lnpu1 val-
ues of A or 8 lead 10 an omput class value
of 1, an input value of Eleads to an ou1pul
value of z. and an inplll value of I leads 10
an output value of 3. The table provides a
complete specifica1ion for each classifica.
tion assigumem.
376 GIS Fundamentals
Figure 9- 14 illustrales a cla.ssificalion
based 011 a manually defined table. A
human analyst specifies the In items forthe
source data layer via a classification table.
as well as ct,e corresponding output value
for each In variable. Out values musi be
specified for each inpul value or there will
be undefmed fearures in ct,e outptu layer.
Manually defining the classificaiion table
provides the greatest control over class
assigruneut Alternatively, classific.ation
tables may be auaonrntically assigned. in
that a number of classes may be specified
and some rule embodied in a computer
algorithm used 10 assign outplll classes for
each of the input classes.
A bir,a,,, classification is perhaps the
simplesi form of classification. A binary
clas.sification places objects into two
classes: Oand 1. ·irue and false. Aand B. or
some other two-level classification. A set
of fealures is selected and assigned a value,
and ct,e complement of the set. all remain-
ing fearures in the data layer. is assigned
Ille differenl binary value.
Source layer
A
E
A _eJ Classification
r toble
A I
B In Ou1
B Output layer
A I
I B I
E 2
I 3
Figure 9· 14: The cl.assi6c111ion of a d1cm:ttic fayer. Valuc-.t 11tc $i\"C'l'.l 10 s:pccifie anribut« ln t1. <:tusifi·
c:nion tnble, which is u,cd, in nirn. to MS:ign d:h,c~ i1) Jin output la)'c:r.
A binary classification is often used to
store the results of a complex s.elecrion
operation. A sequence of Boolean and set
afgebra expressions may be used to select a
set of feamres. A specific 1arge1attribute is
ideotified for the selected set of Ceanires.
TI1is target attribute is assigned. a unique
value. The target attribute is assigned a dif-
fcrcot value for all tmselected fearures.
TI1is creates a c.olumn that iden.tifies the
selected set: for example, all counties ct1a1
are small, blll wict, a large pop11lation.
For example, we may wish to select
states at least partially west of the Missis-
sippi River as an intermediate $lep in an
analysis (Figure 9-15). We may be using
this classification in many subsequeot spa-
tial operations. Thus. we wish to store this
characteristic. whether the state is west or
east of the Mississippi River. States are
selected based on location and reclassified.
\Ve record this classification by creating a
new anribute and assigning a binaiy value
to this attribute. I for those parcels that s.11-
isfy lhe crileria, and Ofor !hose 1ha1 do nol
t
 Cha pier 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 377

(Figure 9-1 5). TI,e variable is_west records Data-defined Classification

lhe s1a1e location relative to the Mississippi
River. Addi1ional selec1ion opera1ions may
be applied. a11d tl1e created binary variable
preserves the information generated in the
inilial selection.
Previous examples have shown vector
data. b\ll wc may also reclassify raSler da1a.
[f the input raster values are nominal or
ordinal data. the reclassification will look
very similar 10 1he vector examples shown
in Fi_gure 9-14. A lis1 of inpul and corre-
sponding outputs are provided. and the
reclassification operates oo a cell-by-cell
basis. \Vheo intervaVrntio raster data are
used as input. then input range.s are
required rath-er tl1an specific inpm values.
This distinc>ion is described in detail in
Chapter 10.
Manually defining the dassification
table may not always be necessary. and
may be tedious or complex.. Suppose we
wish 10 assign a se1 of display colors 10 a
set of elevation values. There may be thou-
sands of distinct elevation values in the
da1a layer. and it would be iuoouven.iem at
bes1 10 assign each color manually. Dam·
defined cl.assification methods. where class
intervals are automatically derived from
mies applied to the inpm darn. are often
used in these instances.
An amomatic classificacioo uses some
mle 10 specify 1he input class to output
class assigrunen1s. The input and output
class botmdaries are often based on a se1 of
parameters used to guide class definition.

• -
--t··-
;-a-

... - - ,-
r •. :J .I'--'
·~''il/'i.
·--{-.;...o:..i \',f,'-Q~~~
- -d,....\j'.1.,-.
_;,{;)> ...
'><~-·
.... =,.-- \.-- ,/IJ/~::.... - -· ..
\-.i ..../ - L._-
·? .__ J .._: ~ :-1 ,.,,
~frj'P-;Zr!
.1,:-f!!~
~
~·~ .
States west of the main
~ '."~ • ....__ ' f/ I branch of the Mlsslssippl
"· I , ' - '"\ River assigned I. east of
! ~ \ \J the River ossign-ed O

Clossiflcot,on t able
sfote name ,s_fts-t
Atobcomo 0
Arizono I
Arkonsos I '0

Coloro<lo 1
Connecticut 0
.

Wvomino 1

fl~u~ 9. 15: An example of ll binruy c l.Msific:uio,n. Fci1fttf'cs ,ire_pbccd i111<> 1wo claucs in;, biMty cliw:ifi··
cal1ou. wes:t (J) .ind C-3$1 (0 ) of tbc M.issinippl Rh·c:-r, The i:la5sific..ition toblc codifies dtc anigomcut,
378 GIS Fundamentals

A poteruiaJ drawbac.k froman auto.
mated class assignmem stems liom our
inability to precisely specify class boundar-
ies. A mathematical fonnula or algoritlun
defu,es the class boundaries. and so spe-
cific classes of interest may be split. Thus.
the analyst sacrifices precise control ove.r
class specification when an autc,mated clas-
sifica1ion is used.
Figure 9-16 describes a data layer we
will use 10 illustrate automatic class assign-
ment. TI1e figure shows a set of"neig.bbor-
hoods·· with populations that range from O
to 5133. We wish to display the neighbor·
hoods and populations in three distinct
classes, high, medium. and low population.
High will be shown in black. m-?dium in
gray. and low in white. We must decide
how to assign the categories - what popu-
lation levels defme high. medium. and
low? In many applications. die classifica-
tion levels are previously defmed. 111ere
may be an agreed-upon standard for high
population, and we would simply use this
level. However. in many ins1ances the
classes are no1 defined. and we must
choose them.
Figure 9-16 includes a bar graph
depicting the population frequency distri-
bution; this type of bar graph is commo,tly
called a bistograni. The frequency bisto·
gram shows the number of neighborhoods
that are found ia each bar (or ''bin'") of a set
of very narrow plpulation categories. For
example. we may count the number of
neighborhoods tha1 have .a population
between 3.000 tc 3. 100. Approximately
S.1% of the neighborhoods have a popula-
1ion in this range. so a venic.al bar corre-
sponding to 8.1 units high is plotted. We
coum aod plot the histogram values for
each ofour narrow categories (e.g .. the
number from Oto 100. from 100 to 200.
from 200 to 300). until the highest popula-
tion value is plol!ed.

Neighbomoods
- l.074 polygoos
- PoP\llotion for ne,ghborh<>ods
ranges from O to 5.133 (3 oulliers > 3.300)

A bar g:r<lph shows lhe: frequency of

neighborhood populotion. e 9 . 81 % of the
neighborhoods have o POJ:MJIOhon between
3 000 and 3.100

...-
•
"" ---
population

Fi&""' 9-16: Neighborhood polyaQns l);od popuL,tiQn levels uwd in ttlbscqurnt c.xnmple, ofclau:iticatic>n
a.wignmc-ot. Tii,; populatio~ for ti,,.,,., l,074 ii...igbb<n:bocxh 1"3Dgo; from O to S, IJ3. The b~ogram M th,;
lower ria:ht sbows tfl.c frequency distribution. NO(c tba1 ihcrc it a b~.ak i.u th< ('ban bc-tw«ll 3,500 and
S,000 ,o show tltc tbttc "oullie:r"' m:i~tborhoods with popubtiont itbo\'c 3,300.
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 379

Our primary decision in class assign· Figure 9-17 illustrates an equal-inter-

ment is where to place the class bOundar·
ies. Should we place the boundary between
the low and medium population classes at
1,000, or at 1.200? \Vhere should the
boundary between medium and high popu-
lation classes be placed? The location of
the class boundaries will change the
apJX'arance of the map. and also the resull-
ing classification.
One common method for automatic
classification specifies 1be number of out-
put classes and requests equal-interval
classes over the range of input values. TI1is
equal-lute,,·a/ classificarion simply sub-
tracts the lowest value of the classification
variable from the highest "llue. and
defmes equal-width boundaries to fit the
desired numbe.r of classes into the range.
val ctassi!ic,tion for the population vari-
able. Three classes assigned over the range
ofO to 5,133 are specified. Each interval is
approximately one-third of this range. This
range is evenly divided by I.711. The small
class extend; from Oto 1.71 1, the medium
class from 1.712 to 3.422, and tl1e large
class from 3.423 to 5.133. Population cate-
gories are shown colored accordingly on
the map and tlie bar graph, with the small
(white). mocium (gray). and large (black)
classes shown.
Note that the low population class
shown in white dominates the map: most of
the neighborhoods fall in this population
class. This often hapJX'US when there are
feamres that have val\les much higher than
the norm. There are a few neighborhoods
with populations above 5,000 (to the right
of the break in the population axis of the
bar graph). while most neighborhoods have

Equal -interval classification

O PU
1711- 3<41~
3422 · 51ll

FIJUJ't' 9- 17: All cqrn.tUotcn'JI cl.Aui6~111ion. Tbc muge Oto 5,1 J3 i.sspli1 into l}u« ~utd~11r1s.
Colors ar¢ assigned as sb0\\1l iu 1hc map ofthe laye:r(left). aod iu the frequency plot (ngb1 , Note
tb1:: td.1ti,«ly (<iw polyaom ,1u.ipc.d 10 tbc. hii,h d ,11uc11 W bJ.,,d:.. A ("w Miplborboocb wi popufa·
tioiit oc.nr 5,000 s.bifi 1l1t dau b<luncurict upwanL
380 GIS Fundamentals

populations below 3,000. The outliers shift
the class boundaries 10 higher values. 1711
and_ 3.422. res11ltlng in most neighborhoods
falhng m the small population category.
Anlllher common mi!ihod for class
assignment results in an equnl-area classi-
fication (Figure 9 -18). Class boundaries are
defined 10 place an equal proportion of the
study area into each of a specified number
of classes. This t<sually leads 10 a visually
balanced map bec.ause au classes have
approximately equal exten1s.. Equal-area
classes are often desirable. for example.
when resources need 10 be distribmed over
equal areas. or ,v.hen equally sized overlap-
ping sales territories may be specified.
. Class width may change considerably
with an equal-area classification compared
10 equal-interval. An equal-area classifica-
tion sets class bo1.mdaries so that each class
covers approximately the same area. A
clas.s may consist of a few or even one
large polygon. This results in a small range
for the large polygon classes. Cla.sses also
tend ro have a narrow range of values near
tJ1e peaks in the histogram. Mat1y polygons
are represented at the histogram pea.ks. and
so tbese may correspond 10 large areas.
Both of these effects are illustrated in Fig-
ure 9-18. The middle class of the equal.
area classification occurs at population val-
ues between 903 and 1223. This range of
populations is near the pea.k in the fre-
quency histogram. aud these population
lev_els ~e associated with larger polygons.
Tius nuddle class spans a range of approxi-
mately 300 population u1tl1s. while the
small and large classes span near 900 and
4,000 population units. respecti vely.
Equal-area assignments may be highly
skewed when there are a few polygons wilh
large areas. and these polygons have simi·
tar values. Although not occurring in our
example. there may be a relationship

Equal-area classification

O· 901
90) · 12:lJ
- 122, 51.)J

(;'
c
.,.
:,
.
.. .
!
'

population
fia:urt 9-18: Equal4rca elas1-ifaation. Oau bouudari« arc set Rieb th.at ~cb class ba, appro".i.
m1udy lhe S;*'-!)C. total :itta. Tbit oftcu Je11ds to a ssnlllkr ran~ wbnt poups of &cqucut classes arc
fatu~. In llu.1 11!111t.1ncc lhc ulc:di!11n c1tU8 spru1& a ,niall ral'lgc, fro,u 963 10 1,223. while d ie ]\igb pop·
ula11onclus ~m.ii 1-allg:C tho.11, alruo,t JO cim" broader, from 1.224 to S. 133.
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 381

belween the population and area fora few
neighborhoods. Suppose in a da1a se, simi-
lar 10 ours 1here is one very large neighbor-
hood dominaled by large parks. 11,is
neighborhood has bolh !he Jowes1 popula-
1ioos ru1d larges1 area. An equal-area classi-
fkation may place lhis neighborhood in its
own class. If a large parcel also occurs wilh
high popula1ion levels. we may ge11hree
classes: one parcel in the small class, one
parcel in 1he high popula1io11 class, and all
1be remaining parcels in 1he medium popu-
lalion cl.ass. \Vll.ile most equal-area classifi-
ca1ions are 001 this extreme, unique parcels
may sirongli• affec1 class ranges in an
equal-area cl:assification.
We will cover a final me1hod for au10-
mated classifica1ion. a method based on
natural breaks, or gaps, in the dala (Figure.
9-19). Narural breaks classifica1ion looks
for ''obvio11s"' breaks. 11 a1temp1s 10 idemify
naturally occurring clusters of data; not
clus1ers based on 1be spa1ial rela1iousltips.
bm ra1her cl11s1ers based on an ordering
variable.
There are various me1hods 11sed 10
idenlify narural breaks. large gaps in an
ordered list of values are oue common
me1hod. 11,e values are listed from Jowes1
to highest. and the largest gaps in values
selec1ed. Barring using gaps. low poims in
ct,e frequency his1ogrrun may be used 10
iden1ify breaks. There is usually an effon 10
balance the need for rela1ively wide and
evenly dis1ribuied classes and 1be search
for natural gaps. Many narrow classes and
one large class may not be acceptable in
many instances. and !here may be cases
where 1he specified numbe.rof gaps does
not occur in 1he data histogram. More
classes may be reques1ed 1han obvious

Natural breaks classificati on

0 - 1130
1130 • 2156
- 2156 • 5133

FJeurt 9~19': Nttn1t11l breala claui6ciuiou. Boundruic-.s bc:twcrn daue1 arc placed wbcr,c uat\ltal a;aps
or ]ow poinl.s occur iu the frcquci:icy distribu1i011..
382 GIS Fundamentals
gaps, so some natural bre.ak methods
mclude an alternative methOd. tor example.
equally spaced intervals. for po~ions of the
histogram where no natural gaps occur.
Figure 9-19 illustrates a na1t1ral break
classific.ation. Two breaks are evident in
the histogram, one near 1300 and one near
2200 persons per neigbbod1ood. Small.
medium. and large populations are.
assigned at these junctures.
Figure 9-17 through Figure 9-19 illus-
trate an important point: you must be care-
ful when iut4:rpr1:Ling clas.s maps. be(..11Use
the appareot relative importauc! of catego-
ries may be manipulated by altering the
staning and ending values in each class.
Figure 9-17 suggests most neighborhoods
are low population. Figure 9-1 S suggests
that high population neigbborhoods cover
the largest areas and that they ;w,, well
mixed with areas of lower population..
while Figure 9-19 indicates the area is
dominated by low and medium population
neighbort1oods. Precisely because there are
no objectively defined populatiln botmdar-
ies. we have great flexibility in manipulat-
ing the impre.ssion we ere.ate. The legend in
class maps should be scrntinized, and the
range between class boundaries noted
The Modifiable Areal Unit Prob-
lem
A fundamental challenge in spatial aual-
ysis is that polygons may be redassified and
grouped in many ways when there are no
objectively recognizable catego1ies. Con-
sider census data. These data arecollec,ted at
the level of individuals and houieholds but
are reponed at the aggregate le,~I of census
bloc.ks, block groups. tracts. or counties. An
analyst using fine-scaled block data may
elect to group blocks together in order to
more readily map or analyze the data. The
most common reason for grouping basic
units like blocks is wanting 10 match 1benuo
existing analytical frames such as school dis-
tricts. neijUlborhoods. or wate.rsheds. Spa-
tially grouping bloc.ks entails aggregating
their values for population. age. and income.
or other census 111easures. These subsequent
vatues wtll depend ou the stze. shape. and
location of tbe awegated polygons. as seen
for mean population age in Figure 9-20.
This general phenomenon whereby attri-
bute values vary by spatial grouping. known
as the modifiable areal tuiit problem or
MAUP. has been exploited by politiciaus to
redraw political boundaries to one party or
another's - but generally not the country' s
- advantage. The process of aggregating
neighborhoods to create majority blocks for
poliri<'Jtl :utv:rnUlgP. ,wii- nnmM gerrym.:rnder-
ing after Massachusetts governor Elbridge
Geny. when he crafted a political district
shaped like a salamander.
There are two primary characteristics of
the MAUP that may be manipulated to affect
aggregate polygcn values. The first is the
:011i11g effect. tha: aggregate statistics may
change by the shape of the units, and the sec-
ond is the si:e effect. that aggregate statistics
may chauge with the area of the tlllits. For
example. the mean income of a unit will
change when the boundaries ora unit
change. either ba:ause of a chauge in zone
or a change in size.
MAUP effects may substantially iuflu-
ence the ,ialues for each unit. and hence sub-
sequent analysis. Openshaw and Taylor
published results in 1979 that illustrate
MAUP dependencies panicularly well. They
analyzed the percentage of elderly voters
and the number c,f Republic au v0ters for the
99 COlmties in Iowa. They showed that the
correlation between the elderly vo«ers and
Republican v0tet munbers ranged from 0.98
to -0.S I by varyi1,g the scale and aggregation
units that grouped counties. Additional work
bas shown that mullivariate statistical mod-
els based on aggregate data are similarly
dependent on tl1e aggregation m1its. leading
to contradictory results predictions.
Numerous studies of the MAUP have
shown how to identify andfor reduce the pri-
mary negative impacts of1he zoning and size
effects. The primuy recommendation is to
,\"01k ' "ith lhe must basic \u:iits of measu1e.
In our census ex1.mple. this would be 10 col-

lect and maintain information on the indi\'id·
uaJ person or household. This is often 001
possible: for example. aw,ga1ioo is specifi·
cally required 10 01ain1ain 1he anonymiiy of
llle census respoodeo1s. Howe-~. many
effons allow recording and maimaining da1a
on llle primary unils "ill,in a GIS frame-
work. and lhis should be implemen1ed when
possible. Willl reosus daia or Oilier confi-
dential infonnation. the ne.."tt best thing is to
use llle smallest units a\'ailable when possi·
bit.
A second way 10 address llle MAUP is
based on optimal zoning. Zooes are designed
to ma,imize ,ia.riation bttween zones while
minimizing \:ariation \\ithin zones. Optimal
zooes art difficull 10 define for more lllao
one ,,ariable. because variables often do 001
change in concert.. for example, an optimal
se1 or zones for de1ennuiog traffic densities
may 001 be an op1imal for average age. Old
people are no more nor less likely to live
435 388
• -
296
,._,..."""" l t 2S
j
Chapter 9: S.Sic Spatial Analyses 383
near busy or low lraffic roads. Op1imum
zoning approacbts are bes1 applied when
interest in one variable predominates.
Anolller approach 10 solving llle MAUP
in,'Olves cooducting.,, s..:t of sMSitivity ;103J.
yses. UnilS are aggrega1ed and rezoned
across a range ofsizes and shapes and llle
anal)-s<s perfonned for each set. Changes in
llle resulls are ob',erved. and llle sensiri,,jty
10 zone bowidarits and sizes oOled. These
1es1s may identify the relative seosilivities or
different variables to size and zoning effects.
Robust resul1s imy be iden1ified. for exam-
ple. a\'erage age may not change over a
range of sizes and unit combinations. }~t
may change substmtially o,·er a narrow
range or sizes in some areas. This approach
requires many compu1atioos. because it uses
replicaled runs for each set of variables.
zone le\'els. and mapes. This often over-
whelms 1be available coo,puting resources
for many problems and agencies.
•
39 8 31 395 C23
384 GIS Fundamentals

Dissolve
A dissoJ,,e function is primarily used 10
combine similar feature.s within a data
layer. Adjacen1 polygons may have idemi-
cal values for an anribu1e. For example. a
wellands dala layer may specify polygons
with several subclasses. such as wooded
we1lands. herbaceous we1lauds. or open
water. lf an analysis requires we identify
only the wetland areas vs. the upland areas.
then we may wish to dissolve au boundar·
ies between adjace111wetlands. We are only
interested in prese1'1ing the wetJru.ul/upland
boundaries.
Dissolve operations are usually applied
based on a specific 0 dissolve" anribute
associated with each feanlre. A value or set
of values is identified that belongs in the
same grouping. Each Line 1hat serves as a
boundary be1ween 1wo polygon feamres is
assessed. The values for 1be dissolve auri-
bute are compared across the bouodaiy
line. If tl1e values are tl1e same. lbe bound-
ary line is removed. or dissolved away. If
the value.s for the dissolve attribute differ
across the boundary. the boundary Line is
left intac1 .
Figure 9-21 illustrates tlte dissolve
operation tliat produces a binary classifica-
tion. This classification places each state of
the contiguous United States into one of
1wo categories. tl1ose emirely west of the
Mississippi River {l) and those east of the
Mississippi River (O). The attribute named
lsJVes1 contains values indicming location.
A dissolve operation applied 011 the vari-
able 1s_west removes all st.ate boundaries
between similar sta1e.s. This reduces the set
from 48 polygons to two polyg-0ns.

Dissolve operation

Dissolve table
dissolve I
state: name is_we.st value

AIObOm<l o__ _ E
Arizona 1 w
I w w
Arka.f'\SOS E
Colorado
I-
I w
~nntttkuf 0 I:
.... -- ....
Wyoming I w
Fi&UJ'f 9-ll: Au Ulustratiou ofa dissoh·c operation. Boundaries nrc reruow:d when 1hcysq,a:rntc s.1a1cs
with the same \'aluc for the dissol\'e :mn"butc is_west.

Dissolve operations are often needed
prior 10 applying an area-based sele<:tion in
spatial analysis.. For e.><:unple. we may wish
to select area.s from tl1e natural breaks clas-
sification shown OD the left of Figure 9-22.
We seek polygons 1ha1 are greater than 3
mi2 in area and have a medium population.
The polygons may be composed of multi·
pie neigltborhoods. We typically must dis·
solve the boundaries between adjace111,
medium-sized neighborhoods prior to
applying the size test. Otherwise. two adja-
cent. mediun,1 population neighborhoods
may be discarded because both cover
api;roximately 2 mil. Their total area is 4
mi· , above tbe specified threshold. yet they
wilJ not be selected unless a dissolve is
applied fust.
Before dissolve
f le:urot S,. 22: An c,c;smplc ofit diuoh'c opcr.'11ior1. No1c 1be: tcmo,':U ofli.ne:s se:p11r:t11ing poly·
goo., of 1bc umc siz;e: clllff., Thi$ grudy ~
Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 385
Dissolves are also helpful in removing
unneeded infonna1ion. After the classific,,.
1ion into small. medium. and large size
classes. many boundarie.s may become.
redundant. Uuneeded boundaries may
inflate storage and slow processing. A dis-
solve has the advantage of .removing
uw,eeded geographic and tabular data.
thereby simplifying data. improving pro-
cessing speed. and reducing data volumes.
Figure 9-22 illusttates the space saving
and complex.ity reduction common when
applying a dissolve functio:n. The number
of polygons is r1.'<luced approximately nine-
fold by the dissolve. from 1.074 oo the left
to 119 polygons OD the rigllt of Figure 9-22.
After dissolve
cc, chc number ofPQlygou,.
386 GIS Fundamentals

Attribute Aggregation In a Dis· Aggregation functions allow us to pre-

solve Operation
We often wish 10 transfer infonuatiou
in the anribute table when applying a dis-
solve function. For example. we may wish
10 fmd the total population of a set of
neighborhoods tbat are within walking dis-
tance of a set of bus stops. Each neighbor-
hood polygon contains a population count
attribute. ru1d we wish ro stam the values
across the neighborl1oods that correspond
10 each bus stop. Tbe new dissolved poly-
gons. represeotin g 1he neighborhoods clos-
est to each bus stop, will c.ontain a summed
popula1ion variable. We might 1hen do fur.
tiler analysis co identify areas where new
bus stops might be needed. or to recom-
mend a change ia bus frequency.
serve infonnation in a dissolve operation.
1ypically we may sum. average. calcula1e
tJ1e range. maximum., minimum, or other
common s1a1is1ics. and assign these to the
0111pu1 1>0lygons. The func1ious iu-s1 ideu-
1ify lhe adjacenl polygons lhal will be com-
bined 10 form tl1e new polygons. and then
apply 1be specified operation 10 1arge1 attri-
bute variables. Figure 9-23 diagrams a dis-
solve that sums cos1across input polygons.
Adjaceo1 polygons oflhe same iype are
combined. and 1he values of the component
polygons sununed. Different a11alyses .
migl11 require differem aggregaiioo s1aus-
1ics. e.g.• average. maximum, or range
(Figure 9-24).
Some of 1he variables migl11 be non-
sensical as inputs or as outputs. so care
mus1 be taken when aggrega1iu_g during a
dissolve. This is panicularly rrue for area
averaged values, or for c.ategoric.al or orcti-

e
ID l'Vl'IC
0 I
Cotl
l.000 "'"0"' ""
1979
... "
49 0
b
c ~3·
3 6.000 -
3.000
5
2
2011
1957 24'~- 0
I
-
d I 2.000 9 1989 83 0
•
f
2
2
7.000
9.000
0
I
1959 19
1991 206_
I
I
'

Polygons ourput _ _/
from Dissolve / ---

Output polygon X lakes volues from input

po1y9ons w1fh type•l. rows o end d obove.
Tobie output ,um of Cos, • 1.000 • z.ooo • 3,000
from Dissolve
ID Cos1
z Ot.Jtput polY90n Y t~es volue.s rro,m ,nput
X I 3.0·00 polygons with type. J, rows bond c ObO'le,
sum of CoS1 • 6,000 • 3.000 • 9.000
Y 3 9,000
z 2 16.000 Outpul polygon z takes vofues rrom mpul
polygons with type•2. rows e ()fl(i r above,
sum of cos, • 7,000 • 9.000 , t6.000
FiguN< 9-23: AD owimp!e 11.~g1uio11 d,uing a diuokc opcrn.Lion. Adjicctll JH?lygons o~ the 1:1:1nc lypc: IU'C.
combi.11ccl. For ~d• cQmbimtlon. tbc inp1,1t polygon1. cc»i.s llfC summed a.ud 1bi.ti 11,uu :amgncd l'O a cost \lUl•
able for the a~gatQCI polygon iu 1hc output data layer.
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 387

nal values as inputs. If an analyst averages Aggregates of categorical or ordinal

the average population of two inpot poly-
gons. the res11h is an erroneous average for
the output polygon. except in the rare case
when both polygons ba,•e the same area.
Proof of this result i.s left 10 the reader.
variables also require caution. as the aver-
age or sum of ordinal or ca·tegory values
has meaning in relatively few applications.
Aggregating land cover. for example.
would make no sense if it a,'Craged the
numerical values for forest and agriculture.

"'7
~ O') "12!..
10
'
',
'°"'
,...,.
""
""' ..."
...
Sro,,d Exmp
S!O!US
:
e
'
'
j

....
6.000

' l.000 •' ,,,. .,z,

' '
1011
10~1
c

•
' ' '""" '
' ....
'"'' ""
A tunolc T'21!cs
•• 1'9~9

/1,
1.gg,eqa1e tt,e / ./°' °'\ or-.. R~t J~·
:<.m "' c;.os,
lt> type: Coit
X I lOOl'I
ID
: )(
Y
Ip
I
l
wio

~
O I
.., ., QOOO A.'.'t'*
Stand OQC:
z l I
·
'
..
l !0..000
z 10 type: A.'{( A9(
'
., l ~\

Fi&Ul'f 9~14: D iffcrcn1 aggregation OJ)fflltioos lllllY be applied, lltld appropriate. for diffcr,rn1input ,·Wblc::s.
Here att c:uuupltt of sum. a,"C":l,igc, :u.d 1naxi,mun ope1:uion.s applied duri113, n di.uolvc opcrauou.
388 GIS Fundamentals
Proximity Functions and Buffering
ProximUy fimclio11s or operations arc
among 1he most powerful and com.mon
spatial analysis tools. Many imponam
questions hinge on proximity. the distance
between fean1res of interest. How close are
schools to an oil Iefinery. what neighbor·
hoods are far from couveitlence stores. and
which homes wil I be affected by M
increase in freeway noise? Many questions
regarding proximity are answered tlu-ough
spatial analyses iu a GIS. Here we focus on
proximity functions that create new fea.
mres and layers. rather than proximity
selection. described earlier.
Proximity functions modify existing
feanires or ere-ate new features 1hat depend
in some way on distance. For example. one
simple proximity ftmction creates a raster
of the minimum distance from a set of fea-
tures (Figure 9-2:5). The figure shows a dis-
tance function applied to water holes in a
wildlife reser\lC, "'a1er is a cnicial resource
for nearly all animals. and the reserve man-
agers may wish 10 ensure th.al most of the
area is wi1hin a shon disl3ucc of water. lo
this ins1ance point features are entered that
represent the location of permanent water.
Fla:n~ 9,2S: An cnmplc of:. di&tan¢c fuuctioa. This distflltcc: fwtetion is applied to a poin1 dtua layer alld
Ctt:'l!CS ll l'Ulcr cbl:it
bycr. Titc rastC'I' fa)'C'l' coi11:ains lhc dUt:al'I« to d,c rtcnr«I \\'Mer fc2n.trc.
Water holes are represented by individual
point$. rutd rivers by a group of points set
along 01e river course. Aproximity func-
tion calculates the distance to all water
points for each raster cell. TI1e mio_imum
distance is selected and placed ju an output
raster data layer (figure 9-25). The dis-
taoce function creates a mosaic of what
appear to be overlapping circles. Although
u,e shading scheme shows apparently
abrupt transitions. 1he ras1er ceUs comain a
smooth gradient in disrance away from
each water feature.
Distance values are most o:ften calcu-
lated based on the Pythagorean formula
(Figure 9-26). These values are typically
calculated from cell center to cell center
when applied 10 a raster data set. Although
any distance is possible. the distances
between adjacent cells change in discrete
intervals related to the cell size. Note that
distances are nor restricted 10 even mulri-
ples of the cell size. because distances mea-
sured on diagonal angles are 1101 even
multiples of the cell dimension. There may
• woter point
distance 1o
water (m)
0
6.000
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 389

be no cells that are exactly some fixed dis·

distance • y(x2 • y2) 1ance away from u,e 1arge1 feamres: how-
ever, there may be many eel.ls less than or

...
~4- -1~-+-..... I greaterthan that fixed distance.

..•.'
Buffers
..
.. ..
Buffering is one of the most com·
monly used proximity functions. A buffer
. . is a region that is less 1han or equal to a
28-. 20 10 :10 20 specified distance from one or more fea-
rures (Figure 9-27). Buffers may be deter-
20 14 10 10 20 mined for point. line. or area featt1res. and
for raster or vector data. Buffering is the
10 10 10 20 process of creating buffers. Buffers typi·
cal.ly identify areas that are "outside" some
10 14 22 given threshold distance compare.d to those
"inside'' some threshold disrance.
10 10 14 22 28
Buffers are used often because many
spatial analyses are concerned witlt dis.

-
10 20 22 28 36
cance constraints. For example. emergency
diston<:e from nearest planners may wish to know which schools
target cell 10 are within 1.5 kilometers of an earthquake
units
fault a park planner may wish 10 idencify
Fi2ort 9-26; A dislioui fuoC;tion i pplied to n all lands more cl!an 10 kilometers from 1he
raster data sc-1. nearest highway, or a business owner may
wish 10 idencify all po1eo1ial customers
within a given radius of her store. All these
questions may be answered with the appro-
priate use of buffering.

Vector buffer Roster buffer

buffe:r
distance buffer
distone

ou1put/
output buffer
buffer
:fiau1'f' 9-27; Exnmplc, of vector and raster buffc" derind from polygonal fc.,turc,. A. b,1,1ffcr i, dcfio«l
by 11,ok ~ that are within some buffer distance how the input fca!UTC$,
390 GIS Fundamentals
Raster Buffers
Buffer operations on raster data entail
calculaiing 1he dis1ance from each source
cell center 10 all other cell centers. Output
cells are assigned au in value whenever the
cell-10-cell dis1a1:,ce is less 1han 1he sp~i-
fied buffer distance. Those cells thal are
further lhan die buffer dis1ance are
assigned an out value (Fig\lte 9-28).
Rasler buffers combine a minimum
dis1ance func1io1, and a binary classifica-
tion function. A minimm,11 distance func-
tion calculates th,e shortest dis1ance from a
se1 of1arge1 feanues and s1ores this dis-
tance in a raster data layer. The binary clas-
sification function splits the raster eelIs into
1wo classes: 1bose will, a distance grea1er
1han 1be d1reshold value. and those wi1h a
dis lance less 1han or equal 10 a threshold
value.
Buffer distance • 15 units
dl:tont;~ fl"Q(Tl neorn,
t(l(9et cell
36
OUISlde IQtgCt
buffer
d1srance "''""'
buHe:r
cfJstonce
cell· 0
d1stonce
rtda.s$ed reclossed redossed
os out os ,n os in
Flgul°f' 9 •.28: Raster bu.ffcriua: as a combuuitioo
of disuu1ce nud cllt,uific2tion. Herc. cdh less
di.ao JS \lllits &om lbe target cells arc iden11fied.
Buffering with raster data .may pro-
duce a "s1air-step" boundary. because lhe
distance from feamres is measured between
cell centers. When 1he buffer distance mns
parallel and near a sei of cell boundaries.
1he buffer boundaiy may "jump" from one
row of cells to lhe. nexl (Figure 9-28). 1l1is
phenomenon is mos1 often a problem when
1he raster cell size is large rela1ive 10 1he
buffer disiance. A buffer dislance of 100 m
may be approximated when applied 10 a
rasrer wilh a c-ell size of 30 m. A smaller
cell size relative to the buffer distance
re.suits in less obvious "stair·stepping. ·· TI1e
cell size should be small rela1ive 10 the spa-
1ial accuracy of the data. and sun.all relative
10 the buffer diSlauce. If d1is rule is fol-
lowed. lheu s1air-s1epping should no1 be a
problem. because buffer sizes should be
many times greater than tJ1e tu1cer1ainty
inherent in lhe da1a.
Vector Buffers
V~1or buffering may be applied 10
point. Hoe. or area features. but regardless
of input, buffering always produces an out·
pm set of area fearures (Fig\ltC 9-29). There
are many variations in vector buffering.
Simple buffering, also known as fired dis-
tance bufferiug. is the most common form
ofv~1or buffering (Figure 9-29). Simple
buffering identifies are.as that are a fLxed
dis1ance or greaier from a se1 of inpu1 fea-
mres. Simple buffering does nor distinguish
between regions that are close to one fea.
mre from !hose d1a1 are dose 10 more 1han
one feanire. A location is either witbht a
given distance from any one of a set of fea-
tures, or farther away.
Simple buffering uses a uuiifomt buffer
disiance for all fea1ures. A buffer disiance
of 100 me1ers specified for a roads layer
may be applied to every road in the layer,
irrespec1ive of road size, shape. or locmioiL
IJl a similar mam,er. buffer distances for all
poims in a poim layerwill be unifonn. and
buffer distances for all area features will be
11,cd.
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 391

Vector buffers
points lines polygons

input
source
featur es
•
•••
•
0
• •
cs ~
output 0 0
buffer /"')
features W
0 0
Fi.au•" 9-29: Vcctor~Jffcl"f produced from poU11. line.. or polygon iupul fc.,t1.1rcs. [11 oll c11i.cs.. the Q1,1tpu1 is
a set o( polrgoll Ce\1tur¢,.

Buffering on vector poilll data is based
on the creation of circles around each point
in a data set. The equation fora circle with
an origin a1 x,o. y, O is:
r -= Jxz+y2
where r is 1he buffer distance. The more
general equation for a circle with a center
at x 1, Y!· is:
r = J<x - x 1) ' • (y - y 1) '
Equation (9.2) reduces to equation (9.1) at
the origin, wl1ere xl • O. and y1 • 0. The
general equation creates a circle centered
on the coordinates xi. yl. with a buffer dis-
tance equal to the radius. r. Point buffers
are created by applying this circle equation
successively to each point feature in a da1a
laye.r. The x and y coordinate locations of
each point feature are used for x1 and Yl,
placing tl1e point feature at the center of a
circle.
Buffered circles may overlap. and in
simple b\lffering. the circle bo\lndaries that
(91)
occur in overlap areas are removed. For
example. areas within IO kllll of hazardous
waste sites may be identified by creating a
buffer layer. We may have .a data layer in
which hazardous waste sites are repre.
sented as points (Figure 9-300). A circle
with a 10 km radius is drawn around each
point \Vhen two or more drcles overlap,
imernal boundaries are dissolved. resulting
in ooocirc\llar polygons (Figure 9-30b).
(92)
More complex buffering methods may
be applied. These methods may identify
buffer are.as by the number of fealures
within the given buffer distance. or apply
variable buffer distances depending on the
characteristics of the inpul feanires. \Ve
may bt imeres1ed in areas !bat are near
multiple hazardous waste sites. These areas
near multiple hazardous sites may entail
added risk and therefore require spe<:ial
monitoring or creabnent. \Ve may be man·
da1ed to identify all areas within a buffer
392 GIS Fundamentals
a) point layer
• overlap dissolved
•
•
c) compound buffer.
overlap identified
08
~()
~Q0
Figul"f' SI.JO: \iu:iouii: lypci of poi.in bufftli. Si.mpfc: buffen diuokc al'C:U nc-.11r 1:nubiplc fc:~llltCS., mon:
c01nplcic butfcr5 do oot. Mul1iring b~1ffm pro,;dc disiauc:c-dcfincd 1:oocs aro1,1od each fc:"'1.irc.
distance of a hazardous waste site, and 1he
number ofsites. In most applications, most
of the dangerous areas will oo close to one
hazardous waste site. but some wil I be
close to two, three. or more sites. The sim·
pie buffer. described above, will not pro-
vide the required information.
A buffering variant. referred to here as
compound buffering. provides the needed
infonnation. Compow1d buffers maintain
all overlapping boundaries (Figure 9-30c).
All circles defined by the fc<ed radius buf.
fer distance are generated. 111ese circles are
then inte~ected to fom1 a planar graph. For
each area. an attribute is created 1.hat
records the number of features within the
specified buffer distance.
Nesred (or m,ultiring) buffering is
another common bufforing varianl (Figure
9-30d). We may require buffers at multiple
distances. in our hazardous waste site
example. suppose threshold levels have
been established with various actions
required for each direshold. Areas very
close to hazardous waste sites require evac-
b) simple buffer.
00
cs
uation. intem1ediate distance require reme-
diation, and areas farther away require
monitoring. These zones may be defined
by nested buffe~.
Buffering on vector line a11d polygon
data is also quite coaU11on. l1le· fonnation
of line buffers may be envisioned as a
sequence of steps. Fi~l. circles are created
1hat are centered at each node or venex
(Figure 9-3 t ). Tangen! lines are then gener-
ated. These lines are parallel to the input
feature lines and 1angem to the circles that
are centered at each node or verte.'<. TI1e
tangent lines and circles are joined and
imerior circle scgmcms dissolved.
Variable distauce buffers (Figure 9-
32) are another common variam ofvector
buffering. As indicated by the 11ame. the
bufferdistance is variable. and may change
among feamres. The buffer distance may
increase in ste1>s: for example. we may
have one buffer distance for a given set of
feamres. and a different buffer distance for
the remaining fean,res. ln contrast. the buf.
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 393

We often require more stringent protec·

y tions furuter away from large rivers lhan

r,o~en•~e) for small rivers. and give large landfills a

wider berth than small landfills.

r
1<:J-- ~.)
I / ~
or
vtrttx
x many otlter instances when variable dis-
Fia:ort 9.JJ: The c«a1ioo ofa lioc buffeut a
(L'Ccd distlUIC~ r.
fer distance oiay vary smoothly: for exam-
ple, tlte buffer distance around a city may
be a function of the population density in
the clty.
There are many instances for which we
may require a variable distance buffer. \Ve
may wish to :specify a larger buffer zone
around iarge fuel storage facilities when
compared 10 smaller fuel storage facilities.
Figure 9-Jl illustrates the creation of
buffers around a river network. where dis-
tance varies by river size. The increase in
distance may be motivated by an iocreased
likelihood of flooding dowinstream or an
increased sensitivity to pollution. \Ve may
specify a buffer distance of 50 km for small
rivers.. 75 km for i111em)ediate size rivers1
and I00 km for large rivers. There are
tance bulfers are required. for e.xample. for
road noise, smoke stacks, or landfilJs.
The variable bulfer dis·iance is often
specified by an attribute in the input data
layer (Figure 9-32). A portcon oflhe anri·
bme table for the river data, layer is shown.
The attribute table contains the river name
in nvtrjde11tifier and the buffer dislance is
stored in buffchst. The anribt.ne t:iuftdist is
accessed during buffer creation, and the
silt ofth~ buffer adjustoo auto,ttaticaUy for
each line segment. Note bow the buffer size
depends on the value in buffd!st.

nver.Jcfentifier buffdlsr
mlsslss,:ppt 100
m,ssoun 50
orkonsos 50
Ohio 75
tennessee 75
\, st. croix
Illinois
75
75
wisconsm 75
.-1,u1't 9.JZ; An iUmtrntioo o(a \'ariablc distance bufftt. A line buffet" is sb0\\1) with .i \-ariabk buffer dis,.
taucc based Oil a nverJde:t'4'11\.e:r. A ,'3.nabk buffer distaooc. b\lff'dtsr. i.upccificd in a cable aud applied for
each ri,·cr sc,i11<u1.
394 GIS Fundamentals
Overlay
Ove1·/ay opernrfo,,s are powerfol spa-
tiaJ analysis tools. and were ao i_mportaot
driving force behind !he development of
GIS technologies. Overlays involve com-
bining spatial and an:ribute data from two
or more spatial data layers, and they are
among the mos, conunon and powerful
spalial data operations (Figure 9-33). Many
problems require the overlay of themat:i·
cally different data. For example, we may
wish to know wb.ere there are inexpensive
houses in good school districts. where
whale feeding grou!lds overlap " 1tl1 pro-
posed oil drilling areas. or 1he locaiion of
fam1fields lhat are on highly erodible soils.
In 1he latter example. a soils da1a layer may
be used 10 identify highly erodible soils.
and a current land use layer may be used to
idemify lhe 10<:atious of farm fields. The
boundaries of erodible soils will not coin-
cide with I.he boundaries of the fann fields
in mos1 instances. so tl1ese soils and land
use data mus, somehow be combined.
Overlay is the primary means of providing
this oombil1a1 ion.
I I
Fla111'f' 9..J.3: Sp:ninl cL11a O\'crlay. Ch•crl2y c:01nbioc:1 bo1h the: coordi1u 1c infonmuion nnd 1hc: atb1"butc:
in£onmtll011 acf'Qfs diffc:reut dala layers..
An overlay operation req1ures tha1 data
layers use a common coordinate system.
Overlay uses tl1e coordinates that define
each spa1ial feature to combine· the data
from the input dala layers. The coordinates
for any point on 1he Eanh depend on lhe
coordinate system used {Cbapcer 3). If the
coordinate systems used in the various lay-
ers are not exactly the same. the features in
the da,a layers will no, align correctly.
Overlay may be viewed as the venkal
stacking and merger of spaiial data (Figure
9-33). Features in each data l•}'et are set
one "on top.. another, and the points. lines.
or area feamre boundaries are merged it110
a single data layer. The attribute data are
also combined so that the new data layer
it1cludes the infonnaiion contained in each
input data layer.
cttribu'ru t« ~ B
•
ovvloyo11nbures eombll'led
ottrib.ltc.s for bye.rs A d.t B
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 395

Vector Overlay related. A value of 1 for the IOattribute in

Overlay wbe,1 using a vector data
model involves combining the point. line.
and polygon geometry and associated attri-
bllle da1a. This overlay crea1es new geome·
try. Overlay i ,wolves the merger ofboth the
coordinate and attribute data from two vec·
tor layers into a new data layer. The coordi·
nate merge.r may require 1be i.ntersection
and splitting of lines or areas and the cre-
ation of new features.
Figure 9- 34 illustrates the overlay of
two vector po lygon data layers. This over-
lay requires the imersection of polygon
boundaries to create new polygons. The
overlay combines attribute data during
polygon overlay. The data layer on the left
is composed of rwo polygons. There are
only two auriibutes for Loyer 1, one an iden·
tifier (10 ). and the other SPOCifying values
for a variable named ctoss. The second
input data I.ayer. Loyer 2, also contains two
polygons. and two attributes. 10 and cost.
Note that the two tables have an anribute
with the same name. ID. These two ID attri-
butes serve the same function in their
respective data layers. but tl1ey are not
Loyer 1 has nothing to do with the ID value
of I in Layer 2. It simply identifies a unique
combination of anributes in the output
toyer.
Vector overlay of these two polygon
data layers results in four new polygons.
Each new polygon contains the attribute
information from the corresponding area in
ct,e input data layers. for example, note
ct,at the polygon in the output data layer
with the 10 of I has a class attribute with a
value of O and a cost anribute with a value
of 10. n,ese values come from the values
found in the corresponding; inpu1 layers.
The boundary for the polygon with an ID
value of 1 in the output daia layer is a com-
posite of the boundaries fo1u1d in the two
input data layers. The same holds true for
ct,e other three polygons in the output dara
layer. These polygons are a composite of
geographic and anribute data in the input
data layers.
Tbe topology of vector overlay output
will likely be di tfereu1 ft61il lhai of tile
input data layers. Vector overlay functions
typically identify line intersections during

Loyer I Loyer 2 Output toyer

geogrophie doto geogrophlc data geographic doto

I : -, . ; \
·- l
r- - - -· A - ). 2 /
•
I I •><..
I

\__L/J
'
l,
2
I
I 1 I
r
'-
-3
4

otinbut~ doto attribute doto ottribute doto

ID Closs IO Cost IO Clo" Cost
I O I 10 I O 10
2 100 2 5 2 100 10
3 0 5
4- ]00 - 5
-
Fia:urr 9-34: An example of nxtor poJygou overlay. In thii. c:wnple. outpul cbta coulain II C"ombin.3tiou of
the 3c-o;rapb.ic (coordinate) data aod die attribute da1a oftbe iu(>UI da1a l:1.ycrs. New fcatutca 1n.11y be: created
wid1 ropolo3ie:11J rd.tuioruh.ips di.tri11ct from tbosc fo~ltld in tbc 1npu1 d1ua Uycn.
396 GIS Fundamentals

overlay. Intersecting lines are split and a
node placed a1 ct1.e intersec1ion poin1. Thus
1opology must be recreated iJit is needed in
further processin,g.
Any type ofvec1or feanire may be
overlaid with any 01her type of vector fea-
lllle, al1hougb some overlay opera1io11s
provide useful in:fonnation and are per-
fonued infreque11tly. In theoty. points may
be overlaid 011 point. line, or polygon fea-
1\lre layers. lines on all three types. and
polygons on all three rypes. Point-oo-point
or point-on-line overlay rarely results in
intersecting fearures. and so they are rarely
applied. Line-on-line overlay is sometimes
required. for example. when we wish 10
idelll'ify the intersections of 1wo networks
such as road and railroads. but ct1ese also
are rare occurrences. Overlays involving
polygons are the most common by far.
Overlay 01Hp111 typically takes the !ow-
e.st dimension of the inputs. Th:is means
point-in,polygon overlay results in point
0111p111. and line-in-polygon overlay results
in line output. This avoids problems when
multiple lower dimension featUJ'eS intersect
wict, bigher dimension fearures.
Figure 9-35 illustrates an instance
where multiple points in one layer fall
within a single polygon in an ove.rlay layer.
Output attribute data for a feature are a
combination of the input da1a anributes. If
polygons are output (Figure 9-35. right.

Output polygon layer

f \

Input po lygon Input point / ID type name closs

layer layer
x coonty Gr<!ene ?,
- A
f \ H!C. Ur2. or YO?
.s
c•
' ID ctoss
Output point Iayer

ID type nome A
f-
HIC
- x
•
B Ur2 y
1 county Grewe
C YO
z• •

10 type nome class

Flautt 9..35: 0."c.tlay outpu1 1ypicaUy t.Akcs 1be dimrntion
of1!tc lo,,'cst-ordcrinp u. Polygon outpt11 from pci111 and
x coonty Greene H!C
polygon o,·c:rlay (ri~t. top) results i.u \WC"crtninty bc:cnuse y county Greme Ur2
th«< arc s:~"fflll yom1sthat (aU wilhiocacb pol)'$OU.. Point
outpu1 it l1t~1nb13uou.s (bonom riglu) . z county Green; YO

top), there is ambiguity regarding which
poim attribute data to record. Each point
feamre has a value for an atrribute named
class. It is not clear which value should be
recorded in the output polygon. the class
value from p,oint A. point S. or point C.
\Vhen a poill't layer is output (Figure 9-35.
right. bottom). there is no ambiguity. Each
outpm point "feamre contains the original
point attribute information, plus the input
polygon feature attributes.
Ooe me1hod for creating polygon out-
put from point-in-polygon overlay involves
recording the attributes for one point
selected arbitrarily from the points 1.hat fall
within a polygon. This is usually not satis-
factory because importam info,mation may
be lost. An alternative involves adding col-
mnns to the output polygon to preserve
multiple points per polygon. However. this
would stiU result in some ambiguity. such
as, what should be the order of duplicate
attributes? It may also add a substantial
number of sparsely used items. 1bus
increasing file siie inefficiently. Forcing
the lower order output during overlay
avoids these problems. as shown in the
lower right of Figure 9-35.
Note that the number of artributes in
the output layer increases after each over-
lay. This is illustrated in Figure 9-35, with
the combinarioo of a point and polygon
layer in an overlay. The ou1put point attri-
bute table shown in the Jower right portion
of the figure contains four items. This Out·
pm attribute ·rable is a composite oftbe
input attribute tables.
Large attribute tables may resuh if
overlay operations are used to combine
many data layers. When the output from au
overlay process is in tum used as an input
for a subsequent overlay, the number of
attributes in lhe next output layer will usu.
ally increase. AS the number of anribmes
grows. tables may become unwieldy. and
we often delete redundant anribu1es.
Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 397
Overlays that include ru polygon layer
are most conunon. \Ve are often interested
in die combination of polygon fean1Ces
with other polygons. or in finding the coin-
cidence of point or line fe:uures with poly-
gons. What co1m1ies include hazru·dous
waste site.s? Which neighborhoods does
one pass tllfough on Main Street? Where
are d1ere shallow aquifers below corn-
fields? All these examples :involve the
overlay of area foa1Ures. eit11er with other
area fean,res. or with poim or line features.
Clip, Intersect, and Union: Spe-
cial Cases of Overlay
There are d,ree conunoo ways overlay
operations are applied: as ru clip. an imer-
section. or a 1mio11.
The basic layer-on-layer combination
is the same for all three. Tiiey differ in the
geographic extent for wbicl1 vector data are
recorded, and in how data from the attri·
bute layers are combined. [ntersectiou ru,d
union are derived from general set cbeory
operations. 111e intersection operation may
be considered in some ways to be a spatial
AND. while the union openrtion is related 10
a spatial OR. The clip opem1ion may be
considered a combination of an intersection
and an eliminaiion. All three are couunon
and supponed in some manner as stand-
alone functions by mosl G[S software
packages.
A clip may be considered a "cookie.
curter" overlay (Figure 9-3"6). A bounding
polygon layer is used to define the areas for
which features will be output. ·n1is bound-
ing polygon layer defines t!,e clipping
region. Point. line, or polygon data in a sec-
ond layer are ''dipped'' with the bounding
layer. In most versions of the clip func1ion.
the anrib111es for die clippitig layer are no,
included in 1he output data layer. A clip is
most often used when sub-setting data geo-
graphically. to reduce data ·volumes when
working on a small area included in larger
da1a layers. A city manager may only wish
die set of streets within d1eir city boundar-
ies. clipped from a statewide roads layer.
398 GIS Fundamentals

Clip
Catchments by
Counties

Extent of the clipping layer.

the boun dories and attributes
of only the clipped layer

;~~ ~.,,)-....p,,..,-.,r::::r...,,_.-....J."'9,t'-'

.,.,...,,,..._.
Figu1'f' 9-36: A clip is a common ,·ariatiou of OY«la)' operatioos. Titc dip prcs«vcs iufonnatioa only from
the dipped (or ta'lc:t) data fayer and oo)y (or the: atta of the <:lippi11~ (or bom1ditt3 laycr). The attn"butc table
of tltc: outJ>Ut L,ycr 1ypic:illy c:onll\izl8 n.11 tltc :'l.llribufcs of the dipped byer(b~. Catduncntt), 11.11d none:
from the: clipping ~ycr(Coi;ntic,).

ln our example shown in Figure 9-36.
the bounding or clipping data layer consists
of seven counry polygons. and tl1e target or
clipped data laye.r contains many small
catcluneol bounctaries. The presence of
polygon auribmes in tl1e bounding layer is
indicated by the different shades for the
different county polygons. The output from
100 clip consists of !hose portions of catch·
ments within tbe clip layer boundary. Note
that 1he clip layer boundaries, here coun·
ties. are 001 included in the ourput data
layer. Also note that only the anributes for
the clipped catchment layer are output.
Users should be certain 1hat transferred
variables s1ill have valid values after a clip.
If an area field is included in the input
layer, rite value may be wroog if il is not re-
calculated. Other area-based values may
also be in error. e.g.. a polygon densi1y or
counis of included features. Si!lce software
defaults vary, tl1e behavior of the specific
software 1001should be idemified.
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 399

An imersectiou is another multi-layer operations. Since new geographies with

combination. and may be defined as an
overlay that ftises data from both layers.
but onJy for the area where bolh layers con-
tain data (Figure 9-37). Features boundar-
ies Crom botb data layers are combined.
801h layers serve as data and as bounding
layers, so lh~t any parts of polygons tl1a1
are in one layer but nor another are clipped
and discarded.
The same caution oo relevancy and
recalculation. of combined. area-based vari-
ables applies 10 the output from intersec-
tion opennio,,s as applied 10 clip
Intersect
Catchments
•
differing areas are created. attributes trans-
fe1Ted from the component fearures may
need new inteJJ>retations. Most implemen-
tations simply copy !he values from !he
input features 10 the coincidem omput fea-
tuies. For example, a county area for each
polygon will come from the input cou11ty
polygon. While this was valid for each
input county in Figure 9-37, it will be repli-
cated for each polygon in tbe output layer.
and should be interpreted as 1he area for !he
contributing county. not tl1e area from that
county in the (usually smaller) outpul poly-
gon. Summing across polygons with a
and
Counties

Extent of the clipping layer.

boundaries and attributes
of both layers
~~~

<? l)d(o10 Cour,I) &

tht CDnnon RNtr
Fi&m't 9.J.7: Au intcrs«1ion i, anotbc:r <onu11.00 O\ -«fay opctation. Both the boundari« andda.1a Mt
coiubllte:d in Ilic ouipul. bu1ooJy for the tltt:IIS 1b111 :'ltt co1u11ine:d in the clippi.J1j l~ytt. Counties itt thii
e:xnmple:. TI1c p:U"licul.,r \OftW:J~ tool t)'Pic:11Uy requires you c,r;plici1ly idn11:ify lite: clipping lllycr.
400 GIS Fundamentals

given county value will usualJy not give an
accurate coumy area. Each output variable
should be scrutinized and the value origin
and contents clearly understood.
A 1111io11 is a~0ther kind of overlay. It
retains all data from both the bounding and
data layers (Figure 9-38). No geographic
data are discarded in the union operation.
and corresponding attribute data are saved
for all regions. New polygons are formed
by the combination ofcoordinate data from
each data layer.
Note that there are often many null or
empty attribute values in unio11 output lay·
ers. Data in non.overlapping areas are
absent and so cannot be assigned. e.g ... out.
side the county layer botwds but within o,e
waiersbed layer bounds in Figure 9-38. The
presence or null values may alter subse.
quent operations.
Many software packages support addi-
tional variants of overlay operations. Some
suppon an Erase or similarly-11ame<I func-
tion. whkh is the complement lo the cl.ip
function. In au Erase function. .areas cov-
ered by the input layer are "cut out.. or

Union
Catchments
ond Counties

Extent of both layers. boundaries

and ottributes of both foyers. but
note ..unknown.. or null values
in non-overlapping regions
N ~ ~
c9 v , - «uttv & St Crocx Sur.o1er Rt,'Cf'
0

t',; WoP-,ntJ10'\ C(u!ty ~ SI Croil"·SI t.-otcr· ~ytr

fi2ul'(' 9-J3: A unic:m opernlion. Oa12 from two !Ayc:n a.R" combined. iuchidiog •my arens tbal 1UC conl~incd
by one b\11 not botl1 da1a layers. No areas nor attribute data arc discatdcd. or"cl~ ·· as in tl.c in1cl'k'C,lio11
lllld dip opcr1uio1U. Bla:11k 01 null \'lllucs 11tc 1ypically assijl)td in the ntc:u conuuned in 011c buc 1101 dtc o,bct
L,ycr, c:.g., in the c:x:unplc where tlte count>' 1$ Ii.tied as ..Unkr1own.••
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 401

erased from the bounding layer (Figure 9-
39). Ern.sures may cut existing polygons
apart or. where there are coincident lines in
the two data layers. may preserve the edge
of existing polygons. In some versions.
there is a tolerance distance that aUows for
lines that are.n 'I exactly coincident in dif-
ferent layers. but are meant 10 be. 10 be rep-
resented only once in the 0111p111. This
tolerance distance effectively serves as a
snapping distance. and moves the vertices
in one layer on a nearly coincidc!ll edge 10
ma1ch vertices in the other layer. As with
snapping during digitization or other over-
lays. 11\is may help reduce i11corrc;:1or
unwanted geometries.
The Erase function is particularly us~
ful when updating a portion of a data layer.
in that old. 0111 of date. poorer quality. or
otherwise inferior data may be clipped out
of a section and newer data substituted.
Erase is also often usel'ul in spatial analyses
that include criteria specifying areas that
are greater than some distance from a set of
fcamres. A buffer firnc1ion identifies areas
that are less than ,he target distance, and
ct,ese amy then be removed from consider-
ation using au erase openuion.

Counties Catchment

Erase Counties with

Catchment
Counties. cotchment areo
removed I

. --

FJantt 9~39: An c:(,implc of n.a Emsc opcmtion. Fcnhu·a in i n inpu1 l~>'tt lll'C ·•emscd" Mscd on the
O\ltCT boooda:ry of nn fflliiog pc:,lygon. Thi, Oj>ffi11io11 is oftm u;ed in cdi1illg or c-.i.rtogn.pbl~ models
that ~ify a.rca mno,·al ba;¢d oo a buffc~ layer.
402 GIS Fundamentals

There are other variants on unions or A Problem In Vector Overlay

i01ersec1ions. Mos, oflhese specialized
overlay operatio1JS may be created from the
application of union or overJay operations
in combination with selection operations.
Veclor overlay is often a time-conswn-
ing compu1a1iou"1 process, due 10 !he large
number of lines clla1 must be compared. A
vector overlay typically require.s repeated
tests ofline intersection, a relatively simple
se1 of calculniiou:s. bu1 !here is often a large
number of line segments in a data set. Each
line segmenl must be checked against
every olher Une segment requiring perhaps
billions of tests for line intersection.
Polygon overlays often suffer when
there are common feamres that are repre-
sented in both input data layers . We define
acommon feamre as arepresemation of01e
same pbeoomenou in different layers. Fig-
ure 9-40 illustrales Ibis problem. A coun1y
boundary may coincide wict, a sta1e bound·
ary. However. differem versions of the s1a1e
and county boundaries may be created
independently from two adjace.n1 states,
using different source materials. a1 differ-
ent times. and using differem systems.
Thus. these two representations may differ
even ct,ougb 1hey idemify ct,e same bound·
ary on the e.arth surface.
In most daia Jayers, 1he differences will
be qui1e small. and will 001 be visible
excepl at very large display scrules. for
example. when the on-screen zoom is quite

common
boundary

..-------:: slivers
/
I

l ;::i
'
' 1
.. .. --,
\
......,,
"· -...
I ··--. .
. .....
I --"-

1-i
I I
Fla:ui·t 9•.ao: Slh·c t pol)·goru may occur wbc11 n,·o rcpr«cntatfon<t of ll (canttt arc combin«l. A couw.tou
b<>wul:uv bcn\'ccn 1\\'0 fc::inarcs htts been da\\'cd from diffcrclll M)\U'Ccll. The: rcprc:Scttll'Uion1 clifftt
5ligbdy. This results io s111~ll g~ps and ••4,lfrcr'" polygons along the margin between th«c two layers.

high. The differences are shown in the
larger-scale uiset in Figure 9-40. When the
couory ao<I s1ate data layers ate overlaid.
many small polygons are formed along 1he
boundary. These polygons ate quite small.
but they are often quite numerous.
These .. s.liver.. polygons cause prob-
lems because there is an entry in the anri-
bute table for each polygon. One-half or
more of the polygons in the output data
layer may be these slivers. Slivers are a
burden because they take up space in the
attribute table bul are not of any interest or
use. Analyses of large data sets are hill·
dered because all selections. sorts. or other
operations must treat all polygons. includ-
ing the slivers. Processing times often
increase exponentially with the number of
polygons.
There are several methods 10 reduce
the occurrence of these slivers. One identi-
fies all couuuon boundaries across differ-
ent layers. Toe boundary with the highest
coordinate accuracy is substituted into all
other dara layers. replaci,1g the less aau.
rate represe1nations. This involves consid-
erable editing. and most common wbe-n
developing n.ew data layers.
Another method involves manually
identifying and removing slivers. Small
polygons may be selected. or polygons
with two boumding arcs. couuuon for sliver
polygons. Bounding lines may theo be
adjusted or removed. However. manual
removal is not practical for many data sets
due to the high number of sliver polygons.
Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 403
A third method for sliv,er reduction
involves defining a snap distance durillg
overlay. Much as with a snap distance used
during dala developmenl (described in
Chapter 4). this forces nodes or lines to be
coincident if they are widilo a specified
proximity during overlay. As with data
entry. this soap distance should be small
relative to the spatial accur.acy oftlte inpm
layers and the required accuracy of the out-
put data layers. lf the two representations
of a line are within the snap distance then
there will be uo sliver polygons. ln prac-
tice. not alJ sliver polygons are removed.
bm their numbers are subsrantially
reduced thereby reducing the time spent
on mmmal editing.
Automatic sliver detection and
removal should be applied carefully, as
t11ey may delete valuable data. Only small
slivers should be removed. with small
defined as smaller than an area, length, or
width tltat is wonh tracking for a given
problem or analysis. This distance may be
set by the accuracy of tl1e dara collection,
or by the requirements of t11e analysis. lf
polygon edge locations are only digitized
to within one merer of Iheir true position, ii
makes little sense to maintain polygons that
are less than a meter in any dimension.
However. if slivers are removed that are
substantially wider and longer than a meter,
some valuable information may be lost.
404 GIS Fundamentals
Raster Overlay
Raster overlay involves the ceU-by-ceU
combination of 1wo or more data layers.
Data from one layer- in one c-ell location
correspond ,o a cell in anolher dala layer.
The cell values are combin<d in some man-
ner and an output value assigned to a corre-
sponding cell in an output layer.
Raster overlay is typicaly applied 10
nominal or ordinal data. A number or char-
acter stored in each raster ctll represents a
nominal or ordinal category. Each cell
,:alue corresponds to a category for a raster
variable. This is i11US1ta1ed in the inpu, da1a
sets shown a1 the left and center of Figure
9-41. Input Loyer ArepresealS soils data.
Each raS1er ceU value cormponds 10 a spe-
cific soil value. In a s.imililfmanner. input
L= B records land use. with values I. 2.
and J corresponding 10 particular land uses.
These data may be combined 10 create
areas fusing the two input layer, - cdls
with values for both soil type and land use.
There a.re as many potential output cat-
egories as there are possi~le combinations
of input layer values. In Figure 941 there
are two soil types in 1.ayu A, and three land
use types in layer a. There may be 3 x 2. or
~rA ~B
Ge~o:ua
A 8 8 l
-
A 8 8 l
A A a l
Attrb.t< dc.t~ At'Ta..•c dcta
• ·--
'""
A
~
c......,
:J)
)
.......,
--
l.......,
Ffl'"'
6 different combinations in the output
layer. No1 all combinations will. nec_essarily
occur in the overlay. as shown m Figure 9·
41. In this example only four of the six
overlay combination; occur. Unique identi·
fier, mUSI be generated for eacb obsen-ed
combination. and plac.ed m the appropnate
ceU of the ou1pu1 rasier la)"er.
The number of possible combinations
is important 10 note beo!use ii may change
1he numberofbinarydigi1s or bytes
required to represent the output raster data
layer. A raSler c<ll 1ypicaUy contains a
number or character. and may be a one-
byre imeger. a 1wo-byte integer. or some
other size. RaSler data sets 1yp1cally use the
smaues, required da1a size. AS discussed in
Chapter 2. one unsigned byte may Slore up
lo 256 different ,-alues. Raster overlay may
resull in an ou1pu1 <Illa la)-er that requ~es a
higher number ofbyies per cell CoOS1der
the overlay between two raster data layers.
one Iayer1ba1 contains 20 different nominal
classes. and a second layer with 27 differ-
ent nominal classes. There is a total of 20
times 27. or 540. possible ou1pu1 combina·
tions. lf more 1ban 256 combinations occur.
the. ou1pu1 data will require more than one
byte for each cell. ~icaUy 1wo bytes will
l l
A2 8l a,
l
AZ , ,.l Bl
- ·
]
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 405

be used. This causes a doubling in the out· a nearest neighbor, bilinear interpolation,
put file size. 1\vo by1es wilJ hold more than cubic convolution. or some olher resam·
65.500 unique combinations: if more c.ate- piing fonnula 10 crea1e a new layer based
gories are required, then four bytes per cell on Loyer 2 but compatible with Loyer" 1.
are often use<!.
Raster overlay requires that the input
ras,er s~tems be compatible. This rypi·
c.ally means Ibey should have 1be same cell Loye,..r-'1- ~ - - - - - - ~
dimension and coordinate system. includ-
ing the same origin forx and y coordinates.
Jf1bc cell sizes differ, there will Likely be \
cells in one layer that match pans of sev- J.- •
eral cells in (he second inpu1 layer (Figure
9-42). This may resull in ambigui1y when
defining 1.he inplll attribule value. Overlay
may work if'the cells are integer multiples
with the sam,e origin. for example. the
boundaries of a I by I meter raster layer
may be set to coincide with a 3 by 3 raster
ceuf]
layer: however Utis rarely hap~,is. Oa1a
are norn11lly conver1ed to compatible raster
layers before overlay. This is most often
done using a resampling. as described in Fiturt 9-42: Ow:rlaid raster 1aycn should b¢
Chap1er 4. Io our example. we migl11 «>1np111ible 10 cim1tc uurunbipous ovc1•fay. In
choose to resample Loy,:r 2 to match Loyer tbc O\'~rl11v depic1cd 11crc it is tlOt dear w!1ich
c:<tl, troro•Loyer 2 ,liould be c:orubiocd ";lb ,d A
I in cell size and orien1a1io11. Values for iu Layu- I.
cells in Loyer 2 would be combined through
406 GIS Fundamentals

An Example Spatial Analysis
Fig,1re 9-43 and the following figures
briefly illustrate an application of basic
spatial analysis. \Ve seek to identify suit-
able areas for wi11d farms. based on two
criteria: areas with high average wind
speeds and low population density. High
average winds are preferred because the
energy produced at a site increases with
wind speed. Low population densities are
preferred because land is less expeusive
and tl1ere are fe1ver neigl1bors to bother.
This simple example does not include obvi-
ous additional factors. such as the distance
10 power Lines. avoiding pro1ec1ed lands. or
the difficulties of building offsl1ore vs.
onshore. but it does illustrate how data may
be combined iu a set of simple spatial ti.mc-
tions to answer a question. Trus analysis
requires wind data of appropriate accuracy.
spatial extent. and appropriately stmuna-
rized. For examp le. I might wish to base
my anaJysis on average daily wind speed.
or maximum hourly wind speed for a day.
or maximum daily wind speed. If these
data do nol exisl.. l would need lo eilher
change the problem formulation. my analy-
sis methods. or develop the data from exist-
ing sources. For example. if a gridded dala
set does not exist, but there are point obser·
vations from a ue1wotk of weat!1et statfons.
I might use interpolation or other methods
(described in Chapter 12) 10 estimate wind
s~d across 1he study region. These con-
siderations highlight ru1 important early
step in spalial analysis: we must assess the
available data. and determine if it is appro-
priate for our intended analysis. If no1. we
must create the required data or modify our
analysis.
For this example. wind data were
obtained from the U.S. Department of
Energy. and population data from 1he U.S.
Census Bureau. \Vind data were reclassed
to !hose ,-.lues (4 or greater) toot provided
suitable potemial energy (Figure 9-43). We
miglll represent this graphically as shown
in Figure 944. where the input and output
layers are shown as boxes. and the spatial
operation noted inside au ellipse. Arrows
show the direction or flow of tbe analysis.
The categories used in the recla.ssilication
should be based on prior knowledge: here.
we might know that wind levels below lhe
category 4 are unsuitable for the wind tur-
bines to be used. In general. thresholds or

Witltd f wind speed

::J•
• I

. :,.1• \
. Recloss

- ~ "" wind categories

•
... ,I
.......
"""""'"
Fliurt 9-A3:Atnu with 1ui1:ablc:
:l\'tr.lJe \\~tld speM$ la~ r00,11id·
cud fi111h<"r. A th:resbold i , deter·
mined and used i.n a reclassification
opC":r.u-ion to idn11il"y acccptllblc
lln.1$..
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 407

selection values depend on the problem

under considemtion. and should be well-
justified by additional background infor-
mation.
Wind
Selection of areas with a s11itably
Speed
\
Recloss
sparse population is sho,"n in Figure 9-45.
Here, data are placed into two c.a,egories.
sparse and dense. AS with the wind classifi-
cation. the classes should be based on some
external iufonnatio1~ e.g., land prices drop
or the likelil1ood ofinlle neighbors drops
wind< 4 • low
below a specific populatioll density tbre.sh-
wind > 4 = high old. It also assumes the inp,ut census data
layer provides polygons with population

Wind
Class
) density suitably calculated. for example. in
persons per square mile. If.not. this calcula-
tion will have to be perfonned prior to the
rec lassiticatiou.

fta:uu 944; A gniphic representation of the

spatial opcratiou 10 C=m'llc: a wiud class b)'CT
from wind Sp<c:d data.

Census doto

Recloss

flaun !>-4S: Arc:w with 1.uffi-

c:ic:i1dr Sp3.l"SC' pop11l.,tiOllS
were 1d¢:1ati.ficd by rc:dOOfy.
int U.S. CCll!iU5 data.
... ...... -
408 GIS Fundamentals

Here the thre-shold for density is set at

IO persons per square mile. and polygons
reclassed accordi.ngly. creating a new data Popula-
layer. A graphic representation of the spa-
tial operation is shown in Figure 9-46. tion \
Reclassed layers were then combined Density \
in au overlay operation, and selected to
identify areas that have both low popula-
tion densities and high wind speeds (Figure
-------
Recloss
9-47). In practice, this will involve several dens. < 10 • sparse
steps in a spatial operation. ";111 separate dens. '!:, 10 = dense
overlay, selec1io11. and reclassification
steps. TI1ese steps are abbreviated in Figure
9-47. showingjusi one general opera-
tion.They are mo.re fully sketched in Figure
9-48. Chapter 13 offers more in-depth dis-
Populo- I
cussion of how wecau use spacial analysis
tion __}
to develop models that help solve problems Class
like 1his one, where we are finding loca-
tions for an acriv.ity. fi&lln' 9.46: Oiagm.m rq1n:.sa1ti11g the pop\1fa,
tion rtl:'lasaifi~tion.

populolion classes wind categories

--~~-~
'
L·~·-~-~~~'(~~Ldc_~
-·
Overloy, Select. and Recloss
I
,.

Flflut'f 9--47: These i.utamcdi.atc la)'C19 :II'<' combined in au o,·crlay opcratiou., aud then :ucas
sdcc1cd b:olsc:d on critcrin for c1ch t'dUlt:u:it grogmphic unil
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 409

Wind Both
Closs Closs

Recloss
windohigh and
popdens=low -+ suit=high

all others - suit•low

\
Popula-
t ion Suit-
Closs able
Sites
Fi&urt 9--f8: A graphic rcprekntation of the final li1Cp$ in d~ c::-camplc spari11.I ao11J)'li._ Thi, ,-,phic
cxparukon F:igurc 947 to explicitly show the ovc:rla)' a,Ki rccWsification oprn1ti.OM. and the m1nmcdi111c
lnyet ~uircd couccpnssUy. and when usinj most currcrtd)' a\':tilablc software.
410 GIS Fundamentals
Network Analysis
Nerworks are common in our lives.
Roads. powe.rlines. telephone and television
cables, and water distribution systems are all
examples or networks we milizc many times
each day (Figure 9-49). Networks must be
effectively managed because they are crucial
10 civiliza1ion and represcm subs1an1ial
investments. Spatial analysis 1ools have been
developed 10 help us design. use, and main-
tain necworks.
A 11etu'Ork may be defined as a set of
connec1ed feamres. often 1ermed 11odes or
centers. These features may be cemers of
demand, centers of supply, or both (Figure 9-
50). Centers are c·onnected 10 at least one
and possibly many 11en,-.,·k li11ks. Links
interconnect and provide paths between cen.
ters. Traveling from one center 10 another
often requires traversing many separate
links.
Network analyses. also known as net-
work models, are used 10 represent and ana·
lyze the cost, time, delivery, and
Fizurf' 9-49; Nctv•orks in 8 OIS arc used to rcprC5Ca1 ronds. pipe-lines. power lnt.iismissiou grids. rivers,
aod 01.bcr conncc-tced systems tJtr0t1Jb which important rcsou.rc:es flow.
accumulation or resources along links and
between the connec.ted centers. Resources
flow 10 and from the center.I through tl1e net-
works. In addition. resources may be gener-
ated or absorbed by the links 1hemselves.
The links 1ho1 form 1he networks may
have attributes that affect the flow. For
example, J~re may be links tha1 slow or
speed up !he flow or resources. or a link may
allow resources to flow in only one direc-
tion. Link attributes are used to anode! flow
charac1eris1ics or !he real network: for exam-
ple. 1ravel on some roads is slower ~tan oth·
ers.. or cars may legally move in only one
direction on a one-way street
The concept of a rrnush cost is key to
many network analysis problems. A transit
cos, reflec1s the price one pays to move a
resourc.e lluough a segment of tbe network
Tra11si1cos1s are 1ypically measured in lime.
distance. or mone1ary units: for example. i1
costs 10 seconds 10 travel through a link.
Costs may be constant such that it always

takes 10 seconds to tnwerse the link regard-
less of direc1ion or 1ime of day. Al1ema-
1ively. coses may vary by lime of day or
direction, so it may take 15 seconds to tra-
verse an arc during morning and eve,1ing
rush hours. bm IOseconds odierwise. or ii
may t-ake twice as long to travel north to
south !ban 10 travel sou1b 10 north.
We will discuss lhree types of problems
that are commonJy analyzed using ne1works:
rome selec1ion. resource and 1erri1ory alloca-
tion. and traffic modeling. There are many
types of net,vorking problems: however,
1hese tl1ree are among 1he 111os1 common and
provide an indication of the melhods and
breadth of ne•twork analyses.
Route selection involves identifying a
"besf' route based on a specified sel of crite-
ria. Rou1e selec1ion is often applied 10 find
the least costly route that visits a number of
centers. Two or more cente.rs are identified
network links
• centers
Transit cost
from A to B
along thi-s link
is 12.4 units. \
All links have
an associated ·- -;-----..
transit cost. A 8
Fil""' 9..50: Bnic: nctwori: d cmctlU. Co tten ~re c:onn«tcd by II sc:t oflitil..'S. Costs ni.\y be .11uoci.,1c:d
"iili tra\·miug the links. Network 1m.alysii typi(',111)' in\·oh-c, ruo\"Ulg tuOI.IK" or dcmnncb among
c:c:ntm.
Chap1er 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 411
within a network, including starting and end·
ing centers. These cen1ers must alJ be visited
by traversing 1he ne~vork. There are usually
a very large number of altemalive routes, or
pa1bways. lhac may be used 10 visil all cen-
1ers. The bes1 rou1e is selecced based ou
som-e criteria. usually the sltortest. quickest.
or lease cosily rou1e. Funberrestric1ious may
be placed on 1be ro111e: for example. 1be
order in which centers are visited may be
specified.
Rome selection may be used 10 improve
the movement of public tra11sponation
1brough a necwork. School buses are often
routed using network analyses. Each bus
muSI s1ar1 and finish al a school (a cen1er)
and pick up children ac a nu.mber of s1ops
(also centers). The shor1es1 pub or 1iroe
route may be specified. Alternate routes are
analyzed and 1he "bes1" rou1e selec1ed.
41 2 GIS Fundamentals
Selection of the best roule iuvol\les an
algorithm 11la1 reeurs.ively follows a leas1-
cos1 se1 of arcs. begiruting ai the current
node. A set of interconnected network links
is identifie<I. as ,vell as siart and desiination
cemers (Figure 9-51). The roote from s1ar110
destinalion locations is typic.ally built itera-
1ively. One route finding algorilhm adds the
leas1-cos1 link at each siep. Mulriple paths
are tested ullfil a path connects the start and
des1ination centers.
This simple 1,uethod begins at the stan
ceuier. Paths are exiende<I by adding the link
that gjves 1be lowes1101al cost for all paths
currently pursued. The initial set of candi-
date links consists of all those connecting to
1be staning poim. The lowest cost Link is
added. as shown in Figure 9-520. The link
with a va]ue of six is chosen. Now the set of
candidate links consists of any Link con-
necre<l 10 this selecte<l link (the rwo links
with cosls of 15 a.nd S. respectively), plus
any cowiected 10 •he s1aning point. All paths
destination
• 6
3 13
12
• 5
7 7
II
13
'
9 travel cost
~
10
Fizune 9+~1: Ao aam1>lc network. S1.t11 11nd di:iti.n111ion cculc" 1uid costs for link 1nt\"C~I
lll'C , bon"tL
are examined. and the link added that gives
the lowes1101al path length. ln F.igure 9-52b.
two links are added. Note 1ba1 tbe liul<s
added are not connected 10 the initially
selec1ed link. Tliis would have given a total
cost or 14 (6 pius S) or 21 (6 phis IS). while
the selected Jinks give a lower path cost of
12. Now. the candidate links are those con-
necied to any of the selected Jinks or 10 the
start point. Since all links from the start
poin1 have been selecte<I. only those con-
nected to candidate Jinks are examine<!. Of
these. lhe loweSl cost path is adde<I. The link
with a cost of 8 that is auached 10 1he ini-
tially selected link is c-bosen (Figure 9-52c).
The candidate sel expands accordingly. and
is evaluated again. Verify that 1be links
shown in Figure 9-52d and Figure 9-52e
should be the next. cumulative l<>w cost
paths selected. This method is used unliLlhe
des1ina1ion is reached. and 1he leas1-cos1
path identifie<I (Figure 9-53).
7
•
5
11
2
15 3
9
11
12
15 8 I 7
8
6
12 12
start
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 413

Creating the least-cost path

8
o) b) c)
6
12 12
-· _ .:.;12= ---<l6 12 4- -=--- -o----

d) e) - --'4'--~
8 8
8 8 6
6
12 12 12 12

destination

'
••
'
.--··- ---- 6 7

4
'
'' 3 12 13
' 5
'' 11
'•
-.. -... ---·-- . .
4
5
2

•' 15 3
'
' 7
11 '' 7 9
'
'
' 11
13 ''' 4 12
- ---
' - - ..... -
' 15 8 I 7
''
9 •' 8
•' 6
••
10 ••' 12 12
start
Fip1'f' 9-SJ: l<:a!;l-CO$l path (or the cxrunplc route finding aJioritJuu described in die text.
414 GIS Fundamentals
Many different pathfindiug algorithms
have been develope<I, most ofwbicb are
much more sophisticated thao the one
described above. :Note thal the described
pathfinding algor;tlun bas a rapidly expand-
ing munber of lin:ks 10 evaluate at each step.
Computational burdens increase accord-
ingly. A subset of all possible candidate
paths may be. examined because it_becomes
too computauonally llme-consummg to .
examuie au possilble paths. Most pathfinding
algoritluns periodically review the total
accumulated cost for each candidate path.
and stop following some highest cost or least
promising paths.
There are many variations on this route
fotding problem. 11,ere may be multiple cen-
ters that must be visited iu a specific order.
and c.arriers defined to transport specific
amoums to or from centers. Centers may add
to or subtract from a carrier: for example.
some centers might represenl houses with
cbildre1t other centers may represent
schools. and carriers represent buses that
trausport children. House'l must be visited to
pick up children. lbut a bus bas a fLxed capac-
ity. These children must be. 1ransporte~ to the
school, and there. may be time constramts:
for example, children cannot be picked up
before 7 a.m. and mus1 be at school by 7:55
a.m. Nerwork·based route selection basbeen
successfully used to solve 1bese and related
problems.
Resourt:e a/locario11 problems involve
the apportiorunen1 of a network to cemers.
One or more allocation centers are defined in
a network. Territories are defined for each of
these centers. Territories encompass links or
non-allocation centers in 1be network. These
links or non.allocation centers are assigned
to only one allocation center. The features
are usually assigned 10 1he nearest center.
where distance is measured in time. length,
or monetary units..
Resource allocation algorithms may be
similar 10 rou1e finding algorithms in that tlie
distance om from each center is calct1lated
along each path. Each center or arc is
assigned to 1he nearest or least.cost center.
The route finding method is exhatistive in
resource allocation. in that all routes are pur·
sued. DOI just UIC least-cost roote. The romcs
are measured outward from eacb allocauon
center (Figure 9-54).
Variations on resource allocation
include setting a center capacity: The center
capacity se1s an upper limit on _resourc_es tliat
may be encompassed by a terruory. Lmks
are assigned to the nearest center. but once
the capaci1y is reache<l, no more are added.
Max.itnum distance also serves t-0 limit the
range of the territory from the ~enter. Both
of these restrictions may result m some lut3S·
signed areas. that is. ponions of the ne1work
that are not allocated 10 acei.11er.
Resource alloca1ion analyses are use<I in
many disciplines. School dimicls may use
resource allocation to assign neighborhoods
10 schools. Tl>e type and munber of dwell-
ings in a district may be included as nodes
on a network. The munber of ch ildren along
each link is added umil the school capaci1y is
reached. Resource allocation 11~1y also be
used to define sales terril'ories. or to de-ter.
i!lifie if a iltW business s~ould i;.e loeared
between existing businesses. IfenougJ,.cus-
tomers fall betwee11the temtones of ex1stmg
business c.enters. a new business between
existing business centers may be justified.
Tmf!ic modeling is anou,er oft-applied
fonn of network analysis. Streers are repre·
sented by a network of interconuected mes
and nodes.Attributes associated with arcs
define travel spee<I and directio11. Anributes
associated wi1b nodes iden1ify n1ms and 1be
time or cost required foreach tum. Illegal .or
impossible turns may be modeled by Sf<Ct·
fying an infinite cost Traffic is placed m 1he
network. and movement modele-d. Boule.
necks. transit times. and underused routes
may be identifie<l. and this infomiation use<I
to improve traffic management or bmld
additional roads.
Traffic modeling througb networks is a
subdiscipliue in il:s own right. o·ue to the
cos1 and importance of1ra1isponation and
traffic management. a great deal of emphasis
bas been placed on efficient traffic manag·
men1. Transp:>nation eugit1eers, compmer
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 415

o allocation center
~--r--c-·- T--T·- .j[--T"---r-T--?"---"'r=-=-=
I\
11
1,
I'
ri t-- -1 :ri:--,
, 'J..''
••
~--rL.Jt.-:..'"!-~ .._
'
~

~ -I
- --
-- I I
t

I
I

-
II J \ ...,,I f I ! ~
I

I
<.::;
..._.f
-l
'f'-+- ... ---,
l_J, '\ II
' I
!) ',~---' i.-
-
, ---~ --•
I
1 •

II
I
I
rx--- _,...._,i J J
I'
·-
I
I

I""'
\

t r--+-. I
._1-
I
I
f""'•
",, - -..
-
~

....
- -
I 1 I I I
t I I I / ,.., I I
---+--+-----1-.( - ., ~ - · -
I I -"' .,,.
• ' I ~ ~
..... ......
•
- =
1
= =;
' <

I' r LJ ( ·~i D
- ~ ~•
fla,urt 9-5.,: Alloc:uiou of uctwork linla 10 distinc1 ccntm. NctWOl'k liub orrcsour«s an: ani8J1<d to 1.bc
"nct1n:S1.. "nla, whm dirial'I"' ,n.,y ~ d,1,nni11-cd b)' pb)'Sinl di.11autc1 or by 1:0111,, ln\\'cl 1it11t, or ao,n,
0 1hcr l.,ctor.

scientists. and mathematicians have been found in literature listed at the end of this
modeling traffic via networks for many chapter.
yeors. An in-depth discussion of network
analyses for traffic management may be
416 GIS Fundamentals
Geocodlng
Geocodiug. aJso k:ttown as linear ,.efer--
eudng. is another co,ll!llon appli~a1ic~u of
spatial network analysts. Geocodtng 1s lhe
process of spatially referencing point fea·
rures based on the address of the feamre and
knowledge of an address range for d1e ~jnear
network. Geocoding is commonly applied 10
business sales. marketing. ,•ellicle dispatch
and delivery operations, and organizing cen.
suses and other govemment information
gathering and dissemination activities.
Geocoding requires a set of addresses
associated with a set of linear feamres hke
roads. Typically, a1 least the starting and
ending addresses for links in a network are
known. These starting and ending addresses
define an address range. and 1be range is
assumed to linea~y span the cOlUlE'Cting line.
Poims on lhe line may be "geographically
coded" (lience the name geocoding). in tl1a1
given an address. we may calculate approx,.
mately where the address should occur on
the network link (Figure 9-55).
Ceocodlng Iht! oddress 321 ML ,l(mg Dnv'i?
is placed 01 lhe Jocotion thOI 1s
(321-301)/(359-JOI) • 0.34
of the clistonce: from the 30l location Toword
the 359 Jocotiott betl/E't.n Ttw'd and Fourth
streets. CoOTdlnole vo!ues ere e:slimoteel to
be opproximotety
Xltt • X301 • 0 34·(X359-X1C1}
Y311 • YJOl • 0 34 (Y3~-Ylo1l
Geocoded addresses are typically
assumed 10 arrayed uuifornily al<lng the link.
n ,e start and end addresses are assumed 10
be al the ends of the link. The estimated
location oftl1e geocoded address is based on
a linear imerpola1ioo. beginning at the start-
ing address and adding a length proportional
10 the address divided by the address range
(Figure 9-55). The estimated location may
be placed within the block or lme segment.
Because geocoding only estimates
where locations are, these locati,oos may
contain substantial error. These errors may
be larger than the error associated with the
linear fearnres along which the geocoded
addresses are placed. Figure 9-56 illustrates
some sources of error. Geocoding typically
involves a regular. linear interpola1ion of an
address across an address rauge_ Address
ranges are usually assigned ordi11ally. ,~bile
1he geocode is aJ1 intenral estimate. ln Figure
9-560, address 250 is not halfway between
200 and 300. and address 240 takes up an
entire block. This ordinal/imerval mismatch
may be particularly bad inrural areas, where
development over a long time period may
J L'---_J l
tJncotn Avt.
M l King Or
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 41 7

o) 100 zoo 300 400

~ 130 170 • • JlO 370 •
110 I 1so I 190 i10 250 310 I 350 I >9o
· · · · · - - 11111
·
120 -
!<O ·
180 II 320
I lI l
3b0 II
302 .3~0 388

b)

.. • -!
.,,
978
995
••
t007

\026
Iii
IOJJ

• •
!064
\07\
'i

fl&lll't 9..S6; Jdio~yncralie dcvclop11i.<n1 Utaf fC$Uh iu oon-li.ncar addrC$$ k9U¢n«s. on lhc growtd.
so mon may r«ull wbc-n i c«odina: is apphed. Gcocodinjt is t)'picalt)' applied witb 31111.m uuptioo
or l\ linc;1r duan'bution o{~ddrcUcs :ttroH II r:ansc. When thil i.s 1101 tmc, llt illw1r11ted wi1h "ddrcu
2SO io part o. abon. or 1026 in pm b. g~odcd loc.ationt: will be in error.

resull in subS'lantial nonlinear address so any application of geocoded data ntust

arrangements. Figure 9-56b illustrates this,
with address 1007 almost opp-OSite address
I026. and numerous iucoosistent intervals:
for example, 'the 22 address units between
1071 and 1093 are separated by a shorter
distance d1an lbe 12 address m1i1s between
995 and 1007. Also bear in mind tltat there
are some regions in the world where
addresses are not assigned lo a linear fashion
along streets. bul may instead numbered in
the order buildings were created or refer 10 a
cardinal direction and distance from the
nearest intersec'lion. These nonlinear
addresses can cause substantial confusioIL
allow for these inconsistenc.ie.s, or the data
must be e,'llluated and corrected.
Geocoding is often combined with net-
work analyses 10 determine sbonest path or
time travels to a set of locatfons. Delivery
locations may be generated from a list of
orders to a business. The locuions of these
addresses are generated via geocoding. The
locations may then be entered into a network
search algorithm and the 01nimal route
planned. Businesses save t11illions of doUars
e.ach year applying 1.hese.basic spatial analy-
ses.
41 8 GIS Fundamentals
Summary
Spa1ial analysis. along with Olllp pro-
duc1ion. is one of the most i.mponant uses
of GIS. Spalial analytirnl capabilities are
often lhe reason we obtain GJS 3lld inves1
subs1antial rime and money 10 develop a
working system. Any analy1ical operation
perfonned on spa1ial or associa1ed anribute
data may be considered as spatial analysis.
Spatial operations are applied 10 input
data and generate output data. Inputs may
be one 10 many layers of spatial data. as
well as nonspatial data. Omputs may also
number from one 10 m,111y layers or scalar
values. Operatioos also liave a spatial
scope. the area oi the input data that con-
tribmes to output values. Scopes are com-
mo,~y local. neigbborliood. or global.
Selection and classification are amoug
tbe most oft-used spatial data operations. A
selection identifies a subset of the features
in a spatial database. The selection may be
based on attribute data. spatial data. or
some combination of the two. Selection
may apply set or Boolean algebra. and may
combine these with analyses of adjacency.
connectivity, or containment. A selected set
may be classified in that variables may be
changed or new variables added that reOec1
membership in rbe selected set.
Classificatioru may be assigned auto-
matically. but the user should be careful in
choosing the assignment. EquaJ.area.
equal-interval, ai1d natural breaks classifi-
cat.ions are often used. Tbe nature of result-
ing classifkation.s may depend
subs1amially on lhe frequency histogram of
tbe inpm data la}'er, panicularly when out-
liers are present.
A dissolve operation is often used in
spatial analysis. Dissolves are routinely
applied after a classification. as they
remove rcdundallt boundaries 1hat may
slow processing.
Proximity fu11clions and buffers are
also c.ommonly applied spatial data opera-
tions. TI1ese functions answer questions
regarding distance and separation among
foatures in the same or different dala layers.
Buffering may be appLied to raster or vec-
tor data. and may be simple (with a uni-
form buffe.r distance), or complex (with
multiple nested buffers or variable buffer
distances).
Overlay involves 1.he verticaJ combina-
tion of data from 1wo or more layers. 80111
geomet,y (coordinates) and attributes are
combined. Any combinat'iou of points.
Jines. and area feamres is possible.
although overlays involving at least one
layer of area features are most common.
TI1e results of an overlay usually iake 1he
lowest geometric dimension of the input
layers.
Overlay sometimes creates gaps and
slivers. These occur most often. when a
colllmon featUre occurs in two -0r more Jay~
ers. These gaps and slivers may be
removed by several techniques~
Neiwork models may be cemporally
dynamic or static, but they are constrained to
model the flow of resources throuttli a con·
~
ne<:ted set of linear and poim fearures. Traf-
fic flow. oil a.nd gas deUvery, or electrical
ne1works are examples of feacur,es analyzed
and managed with ne1work mod!els. Route
fiuding. allocation. and Oow are commonly
modeled in networks.
Geocoding. or linear referencing. is
used to calculate approximate l,oc.ations
along a linear segmem when tlte endpoint
addresses are known. Often 1iseo in census
and delivery applications, geocc.xling works
best when addresses are uniformly spaced
across the segment. Because it is an
approximation. geocoded locations are
expected co sometimes be in error. and
1hese errors are often more freq\lem in mral
or sparsely addressed segments. Linear ref-
erencing may also be used to locate
changes in linear feamre characteristics. for
example. road surface or accidem loca-
tions.
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 419

Suggested Reading

Ahuja, R.K... Magnanti. T.L., Orlin, J.B. (1993). Neh,·01* Floll's: nieo,y, Algorit/111,s,
a11d Applicatio11s. Englewood Cliffs: Premice Hall.

Aronoff. S. (1989). Geographic J11fonuario11 Systems, A A1anagemem Perspectfre.

Ottawa: \VDL Publicauons.
Batty. M.. Xie. Y. (1994). Model strucmres, exploratory spatial data analysis. and
aggregation. Imt.runtioual Journal <>/GeogropMcal /11/ormntiou S_yJ·tems. S:291-
307.
Bonham-Carter, G.F. (l996). Geographic lnfonuntio11 Systems/or Geoscientists:
Modelling ,..itJ, GIS. Onawa: Pergamon.
carver. S.J. (1991 ). Imegrating mulli<riteria e,'l\luation with geographical infonna-
rion systems. !111ematio11a1 Joumnl of Geographical b,fonumion Systems. 5:321-
340.
Cl1ou. Y. H. ( 1997). £.'Cp/o,-iug Sparial Anafrst's ht Geographic Inform1uio11 Systems.
Albuquerque: Onword Press.
Cliff, A.D .. Ord. J.K.. (1981). Spatial Pl'OUSses: Models mid Applicatio11s. London:
Pion.
Cooper. L. (1963). Location-allocation problems. Operations Research. 11 :331-342.
Dale. P. (2005). Jm1'0d11ctio11 10 M01ltemm;cal Techniques Used iu GJS. Boca Raton:
CRC Press.
Daskin. M.S. (1995). Nem-01* and Discrete Location - Models, Algorithms. and
Applicmious. New York: Wiley.

OeMcrs.. M . (2000). F11udame111ols o/Geogmphic I11/on11aH011 Systems (2nd ed.).

New York: \Viley.
De Smith. M.J .. Goodchild, M.F.. Longley, P.A. (2007). Geosparial An(llysis: A Co111-
preheusil'e Guide 10 p,-fuciples, Techniques aud Softwnl'e Tools. Le-icester:
Wi.nchelsea Press.
Hcuvclink. G.B.M. Burrough. P.A. (1993). Error propagation in cartographic model-
ling using Boolean log.ic and continuous class1fication.. !111enu11ional Jo11mnl of
Geogn1phical iufon11atior, Systems. 7:231-246.
Laurini. R., Titompson, D. ( L992). Fuudame1110/s ofSpatia/ l1iform01io1' SJ~tems.
London: Academic Press.
Lombardi. J.. Stern. E.. Clarte. G. (2015). Applied Spatial ,Wodelli11g a,id Planning.
London: Routledge Press.
Malczewski. J. ( 1999). GIS mu/ Multic:.,.iten(l Declsfon Analys;.s. New York: \Viley.
420 GIS Fundamentals

Manin. D. ( 1996). Geog,.nphica/ lufonuarion Systems and their Socio·economic

Applicatio11s (2nd ed.}. Loudon: Rou1ledge.
McMaster. S.. McMas1er. R.B. (2002). Biophysical and human-social applications.
J.D. Bossler (Ed.). ,\fa1111a/ o[Geospnria/ Scieuce a11d Tecl,110/ogy. London: Tay-
lor and Francis.
Momnonier, M. (1993). How To Lie With Maps. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
National Re.search Council of the National Academies (2006). BeJ-011d ,lfappi11g:
Meeriug N(1{ional Needs Throuflt £11/uwced Geographic Juformmiou Science.
Washington D.C.: 1l1e Nationa Academies Press.
O'Sullivan, D.• & Unwin. D. (2003). Geograpl,;c i11fon11a1io11 a11a(J~is. Hoboken:
Wiley.
Openshaw. S.. Taylor. P. ( 1979). A million or so correlation coefficients: Three exper-
iments on the modifiable areal unit problem. N. \Vrigley (Ed.) SrnrfsticnJ Appffc.(1-
rio11s in the Spatial Sciences. London: Pion.

Steinitz. C.. Jordan. L. (1976). Hand-drawn overlays: Their history and perspective
uses. landscape Arcldtectul'e. 56; l46-157.
Stillwdl. J.A., Clarite, G. (2004). Applied GIS a11d Spatial A11a(vsis. New York:
Wdey.
Worboys. M.F•• Duckbam. M. (2004). GIS: A Comp11ti11g Perspecti,·e (2nd ed.). Boca
Raton: CRC Press.
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 421

Study Questions

9..1 - Deline and give examples of local, neighborhood, and global spatial operations.

9.2 - Describe selection operations.

9.3 - Describe set and Boolerui algebra.

9.4 - Write the simplest Boolean expressions that result in the grey area, selections:
o) b)

A 8

c) d)

A 8

c
422 GIS Fundamentals

9.5 - Write the simplest Boolean expressions that result in the grey are.a selection:

o) b)
A B A B

c c

C) A d) A
8
8

c c
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 423

9.6 - Perfonn the following reclassification:

ID cotg.
l A

recloss 2 A
3 8
5
~ A
9
3 5 8
6 6 8
7 A
B A
9 c
10 c

9.1 . Perfunn the foUowing reclassifica1io11:

Recloss by ID
,,,..,-- to assign Type:----
JD Tvne
1 c
z f
3 c
4 d
5 5 d
6 c
7 e
8 ~
424 GIS Fundamentals

9.8 - Reclassify tJ1e following polygons, according ro the colunm Area. into ·small
( <18.000). medium ( 18.000 10 45.000). and large (> 45.000).

ID Arto TY!lt
0 l00,074 low
l J0.2•0 high
2 14,228 hlgh
3 17.770 hlgh
4 43.923 low
5 8.688 hlgh
6 46,169 mid
7 87.915 1ow
8 7.762 high
9 23.318 mid
10 62.201 low

L
II 10d,7d9 mid
12 19.036 mid
ll 15,239 hlgh
14 111.718 low
15 14,85<1 hlgh
16 16.948 hlgh
17 77.985 low
18 8.281 lllg~
19 27.437 mid

9.9 - List and describe three differen1 classification methods.

9.10 - What is the modifiable area unil problem (MAUP)? Why is it important? Whal
is 1he zone etfec1. and what is the area effect?

9.11 - Whal i.s a dissolve operaiion? What are they iypicaUy used for?
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 425

9.12 - Perform a dissolve operation on the variable Type for the layer depicted below:

0 100.074 low
I J0.240
"'"
2
l
14.228
:1.no """
..,h
,• 43923
S.688
low

• 46169
"""
""'
'
8
9
10
87.915
7.76Z
23 318
bZ.iOJ
-"""
low

IOW
104.749
" """
...,..
19036
"
..
13 l~.239
14 m.11e IOW
1.i:.s,, l'li;II'

..
16 lb.9.tll
17 n.985 low
8.281
19 27.43.!. "'"
""'-
9.13 - Perform a dissolve operation on the variable Type for the layer depicted below:
10
0
....
J00.07.C b ...
I JO.Z40 ....
2 14 228 high
11 no high

....
l
• 43.923 low

• high

•
7
"~.169
87915
low
low

• 7,762 high
9
10
23.318
62.201 ""'
IOW

II
12
104 1'9
19.034 ""'
"""
13 15.239 high

.."
16
111.718
14 854
l~.9"48
low
..,h
hi;h
17 n.9U tioh
18 • za1 high
19 27 4J7
""'
426 GIS Fundamentals

9. 14 - Draw th.e resultant polygon boundaries and complete the table in a dissolve
operation that ,calculates the sum of Count. based on Closs. Label each polygon start-
ing lowercase a, b. c.... and enter the label in New!O in rhe outpm table for 11,e coJTe-
sponding row.
JD Closs Counl Type Cos-r
A l _ _ 11 Form 1.000
a z 9 Form 900
c 1 3 Ranch 1.100
0 Suburb
E
1
z '
21 SlJburb
200
700
F z 1, Form 800

I
G I 6 Ranch l ,200

J
NewlO Closs Coum
1
·-- '
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 427

9.15 - Draw the resultant polygon boundaries and complete the table in the dissolve
operation that calculates the average of Cost, based ou Type. Label eaclt output poly-
gon staniug lowercase a. b. c .... aod emer the label in NewID in the output table for the
corresponding row.
tD Closs Count Type Cost
-
A I 11 Form 1.000
B 2 9 Form 900
c I 3 Ranch I 100
0
E
F
I
2
2
4
21
14
S\Jburb
-
S\Jb<lrb - 200
700
For~800
c I 6
--Rench -
1200

'
I
New!O Type Cost

9.16 . Select the most appropriate characteristics for the buffer below. Is it simple.
multi-distance, or variable distance? Does it retain or dissolve intersections? Is it
interior or e:<terior?

-t,000
meters
428 GIS Fundamentals

9. 17 - Sketch out the output from a variable distance buffer applied to the set of
points shown below. Draw output buffers that dissolve tl1e boundaries between areas
that fall within multiple buffers.

4
•
ID
I
2
)

•5
<l<,1
100
200
150 -
300
100·
zoom
- 1
6 800 • 5
7 200 •
8 100
9 150
•2
7
•

•s
.6 9
•

9.18 - Sketch out the output from a variable distance buffer applied 10 the set of
points shown below. Dissolve boundaries for imersectiug buffers.
5.
ID distOJ1ce
1 I 250
• •4
2 2 0
7
..3 • 6 3 1500
•
4 500

8 5 0
1.000 •
meters 6 500

7 250

8 250
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 429

9.19 - How are raster proximity functions different from vector proximity fimctions?

9.20 . Wby arc o\llp\11 fcan,rcs in vector overlay typically sci 10 chc minimum dimco-
sional order (poinc, line, or polygon) of Che input fcacurcs?

?.21 - Complece the cable for the veccor poinc overlay shown below:

Loyer 1 - - 1n1cr1c,1 - -• Loyer 2 - - ro ~ote - -- 01..nput

• •
J
A J
•·
• I
•
m
•·
B
•• ,P
• 0
•
0
' • 0 l • ' l ) •
IO Lndcov cou-nty IO rn,me type
A tents, \'10lk1,,,a m Boul(ltt' CZy
B
""""' ""'°'" n EkJHc YoBo

o"" ""'
0 Roe1M!1c
p LelCr

9.22 - Complete the table for the vector poim overlay shown below:

L<iye:r J - - wrt6se-ci - l<lyer 2 - - 10 ut'Ofe--- Ou1pu1

• ,I

A
•· l
,2
)

l
' ·' '
8
c I
,3
.s
• • 0

0 l
' ' ID l
' • 0 I
' •
"
r
IO ,'°"" stts
A c" r,, I ~f1 ~
8
c
WII

"""
.,,,.
leosc '
•'
•
STM<
x<
I f
430 GIS Fundamentals

9.23 - Sketch both tlte output polygons and the resultant attribute table from the over·
lay shown below:
Spo.ficl l)oto

..
l
+
.
Tabks
It> .,.. .,.., . IO ~,...
COi.i'ii')' .storus
.. ; I
I f«
.....
1902
+ ,o Polk ....... •• '
I I
2

' ....... 2007

1957
zo ...... UM
""'"" ---- --- --l··-···---·
I
I

I'

9.24 . Sketch both tl1e output polygons and the resultant attribute table from the over·
lay shown below:

Spollol Doto

e
• • •
l
I •
10
"" - ,. V/cM
""' ""'
-
1 1215 E.'Vf
2
--
1863
f---
u ....
• • " """"'
a 2
•••
187
I
i
' 1919
l ' '" ---- ---- --l---·----
e • c.... .?,)12
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 431

9.2.S - Co1nplete the table in the polygon union diagrammed below:

•
b •
,g
B • • ·h

'
1D 5f01US tonirl
A prlVCI e. ~ ~ense.
8 pub IIC _po,tc

ID
•
•
d
•

9.26 . Complete tl1e table in the polygon union diagrammed below:

• • •
2

' . f •

.
ID t.ndc.ov. county
• """"'
rorn, h ,'Cllo'No
Ln«lln

10
•
b
ID ._
1 E""'
2
""'"' -
1.111r

<
••
[ •• f

t •L
J
[
432 GIS Fundamentals

9.27 - \Vhal is the sliverproblem in vector layeroverlay? How might this problem be
resolved?

9.28 - Sketch t"be output of the raster overlay sbowu below, providing both cell values
and lhe output table with ID and count variables.
Layer I

A A • B x x x x
A A B B w w x x
A c c B w w w x
A c B B w \'/ w w

IO ~ C.Oul'\f 10 lype count

I • B
7
6
I x
\V
7
9 --
I
---'--------
I'
2 2
) c :; :

9.29 - Sketch the outpu1 of the rasieroverlay shown below. providing both cell values
and the output table with ID and coun1 variables.

Loyer I Loyer 2
A B B B x y y y
A B a B x w x x
c c c B w y y y
c c c c w w y y

ID type count ID type count •

I

t A 2 t x 7 I
__ ________
3
2 6
c
7
7
2 w 9
·-- >--
_;_
I
I
I
:
9.30 - Describe/define ne1wark models. What distinguishes them from other spatial
or temporal models?

9.31 - What a.re the common uses for ne1work models? Why are the.se models so
important?
 Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analyses 433

9.32 - Calculate and record the geocoded address for the boxes labeled A, C, E, G, I,
K. M, 0. and Q in the figure below:

Bendigo St
ln<Jloo R

&
~
~~ ~
li\l"
r<

"'"' lo1-
~

§
~ ~ R lS § Yorro ~d
liiJ l!!I m ..l2ll Im Q .iliJ
»
Ill: 1£'

~ OegllbO Rd
~
~
Bendigo 51

9.33 . Use tile figure above to calculate and record the geocoded address for the
boxes lal>eled 8. 0. F. H. J, L. N, P. and R.
434 GIS Fundamentals

9.34 - If you s1an with the layer on the left, and wish to create the layer on tl1e right.
what would be the table you would use for the re<:lass operation at o). and \\1l.at single
spatial operatioo would you use in b) 10 obtain the desired result?
o)

1 3 ReCIO$$
Table

4 b) ope.roflon

5
6
0 b

9.35 - If you s1a11 with the layer on the left, and wish to create the layer on tl1e right,
what would be the table you would use for the reclass operation at o). and ,mat single
spatial operation would you use in b) to obtain the desired result?

o)
1
Recla.ss
Tobie
2
5
b} optrotton
6 8
3 7
9
b
0

d e
 435

10 Topics in Raster Analysis

Introduction
Raster analyses range from the simple to cepts and knows a broad range of raster
the complex. largely due 10 the early inven- analysis methods.
tion. simplicity. and flexibility of1he raster Raster analysis falls into different cate·
data model. Raster cells can store nominal. gories. Map algebra is the fo11nda1iou for
ordinal. or interval/ratio data. representing a many raster workflows. Tb.iis frnmfog in mm
wide range of variables. Complex coostnicts draws on rasteranalyses sp.anning local.
may be btult from raster data, including net- ueigbboruood. zonal. or global operations.
works of c0111nected cells. or groups of cells To these can be added more involved proce-
to fom1 areas.
dures relating 10 bulfering. overlays. and
The Oe:tibility of raster analyses bas cost-surfaces and many otb,ers besides.
been amply demonstrated by the wide range
of problems 1hey help solve. Raster analyses
may predict the fate of pollutants in the
atmosphere. disease spread. animal migra-
1ion. and crop yields. Time varying and wide
area phenomena are often analyzed using
raster data. Raster analyses are applied to a
range of scales. from fine grained problems.
for example. in U.S. EPA analysis of poJ.
hned Supemmd sites to NASA global-scale
estimates of forest growth.. Local, st.ate, and
regional organi2atio11s use raster analyses at
many scales in between (Figure JO· I).
The long history of raster analyses has
yielded tools valuable 10 many GIS users.
Tools often share a concepnml basis and
may be adap,ted to several types of prob·
lems. In addition. specialized raster analysis
methods have been developed for less fre-
quently encollJltered problems. The GJS user Fii:m'I!' 10 1: flood riskmaps.JWO<:!uced ,-ia
4

compkic nistcr an,ilyais. Maw,wg Rood risk

may more eCfectively apply raster data anal- combines dc\'llltios,. ptteipi1:uia,, 1idlli 1111d
ysis if she understands the m1derlying con- s toml surge, :md olhn" rn11cr d..-.1:a.
436 GIS Fundamentals

Map Alg ebra

Mnp algebra is the cell-by-cell combi-
nation of raster data layers. The combiJtatioo
entails applying a. set of local and neighbor-
hood functions. and 10 a lesser extent global
functions, 10 raster data.
The concept of map algebra is based on
the simple. flexible. and useful raster grid
structure. Simple operations may be applied
10 each grid cell. IFunher. raster layers may
be combined 1hro11gh operations such as
layer addition. subtraction. and muJtiplica-
1ion.
Map algebra entails operations applied
to one or more raster data layers. Una,,,
operations apply 10 one data layer. Bi11a1y
operations apply 10 1wo data layers. and
higher-order operntions may involve many
data layers.
A simple unary opera1ioo applies a func-
tion 10 e.ach cell in an input raster layer, and
records a calculared value to the correspond-
ing cell in an 0111pu1 raster. Figure I0-20
illustrates the mul1iplica1ioo of a raster by a
scalar (a single number). Mullip lying a ras-
ter by 2 might be denoted by 1he eq11a1ion:
Ovt1ayer • l.nloyer · 2 (lO.t)
Eacb cell value of tn.Joytr is multiplied
by the scalar value 2. and the result placed in
the corresponding cell in OU1loyer. Other
unary functions are applied in a similar man-
ner: for example. each cell ns1y be raised to
an exponent, divided by a fixed munber, or
converted to an absolu1e value.
Binary operations also involve cell-by·
cell application of operations or l\1nc1ions.
but they combine data from two raster lay-
ers. Addition of two layers might be speci-
fied by:
Sumioyer, L~rA . l ayer6 ( 10 2)

2x
5 7 2 3 3 5 7 2

-t
9
8
7

8
10
8
7
7
'
J

'
4
•
•
'
3
7
J

3
2
\ 3 ' 2•6
lO
8
'
3

)
2 3 l •

10
18
"
20
•
8
6
12
.6)
,.
2
0
l
2

l
'
3 l
16 16 6 8 6 7 10
-
·3
-
14

16
14
,.
8

8
(o)
8

6
•
4
i 11

8
II

10
(b)
8
6

fi&uff" 10-?: AD aninplc of mter ~!:ions. On 1hc left s:idc{o). cnch iuput ccU is: mul•!l)lii:d
by the value 2 . and the res.uh stored ui the co1l'C6poudi.ug output locatiou. TI.c right side (b} oftl.c
h,utt ilhastttncs lnycr additiou.
 Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 437

Local
function
e.g.,

10 12 42
3,() 9 4
· 12 8 !5
plus 4

t• 16 46
34 13 8
· 8 !2 !9

Flaurt· 10.J: Local fu11ctio1u auign oupm ,-alud tbn.1 depend on <btn. 0111)' &om the. co1Topoudi1ij i11ptt1
l~tion.

Figure 10·2• illustra1es !his rasteraddi· Neighborhood operations gather input

tion operation. Each value in LOytr'A is added
to the value found in the corresponding cell
in LoyuB. These values are 1hen placed in the
appropriate raster cell or S•"'•""'· T11c cell·
by-cell addition is applied for the area cov-
ered by bolh Loy«A and Loye..S, and !he
results are placed iu Sll~yer.
As with vectoroperations. raster opera-
tions may be categorized as local. neighbor·
hood. or glol>al. Local operations use only
the data in a single ceU10 calculate an output
value (Figure 10·3). Neighborhood opera-
tions use dam from a set or cells. and global
operations us,e all data from a raster data
layer.
from a focal cell and smrotmding cells 10
calculate output values at the focal cell (Fig-
ure 10·4). The neighborhoods may ,•ary in
size and shape, often using rhe nearest 4 or S
cells along with a cen1er cell, but sometimes
using larger, different rectangular, circular.
or 01her sba~s.
The concepts of l<x:al and neighborhood
operations are more unifonuly sp«ified
with raster data than wi1h vector cL1ta. Cells
within a layer have a w1ifonn size., so a local
opermion has a unifonn input area. ln con·
trast. vectors may represent irregular poly·
gons with vas1ly ditJerenl are.as. A local
operation in a given raster is unffonn in th:n

Neighborhood
function
e.g.•
I( 12 42
30 9
•
•• 8 15

neio"l)o(ho<>d
1lfo.iumum
I
33 •2 •2
30 42 <2
)0 30 !7

f i.a;urt- 10--1: Neighborhood fouctioru use iup,1t ,.1lucs from a foc111I nnd .1dja.ccnt cell, to uk11l.1tc values
for ,be COITCspondiug O\llpul ~IL
438 GIS Fundamentals
it specifies a partlcular cell size and dimen-
sion. while a vect,or local operation entails
non-uniform areas within most layers.
NeighborbOO<I operations se1s are also
more unifonnly defined in ras1er than vector
data sets. A raster ne.ighborhood specifies a
fi,ed number of cells and arraugemen1: for
example. 1he neighborhood might be a cell
plus the eight surrounding cells. This neigh-
borhood ltas a unifonn area and dimension.
Vector neighborhoods depend not only on
the shape and size of the target fea1t1re.. but
also on the shape and sizes of adjacent vec-
tor feamres.
Global operations in map algebra may
produce unifonn omput, or they may pro-
duce different values for each raster cell
(Figure 10-S). Global operations may return
a single number. lJ)lated in every cell of the
output layer. The global maximum function
for a layer might be specified as:
OU!..num , ~IObolmcx(ln..Joy«)
This would assign a single value lo Out-
_num. The value would be the largest nun•·
ber found when s~ching all 1be cells of
tn.Jay<r. This ''collapsing'"of data from a
two-dimensional :raster may reduce the map
algebra to scalar a lgebra. Many other func·
lions return a single global value placed in
Globol
function
Flaurt 10..5: GlobA.J functions integrate iJiput from 11n ciui.rc IA)'C'r 10 uku.J:uc OUlpUt \'11lue1.
every cell fora layer, for example. the global
mean. maximum. or minimum.
Note that in our examples all have the
same extent. e.g... LoyerA and LoyerB in figure
I0-2 cover the same area. TMs may no1
always be lme. When layer extents differ.
most GIS software will either restrict the
operation to the area where inptu layers
overlap, or place a null or a ..missing data''
indicator into cells where input data are lack·
ing. This number ac1s as a "no d'.aia" flag.
indicating there are no results. II is a unique
placeholder that indicates no ,-.lid data are
presen1.
Incompatible rastercell sizes cause
ambigui1ies wbeu combining ras1er layers.
TI1is problem was described briefly in Chap-
1er 9 and is illustrated here. The left side of
Figure 10-6 shows a rnsier mismatch. Sev-
eral cells in t.oyer2 correspond 10 cell A in Loy·
erl. If these two layers are added, there are
SC\'eral potential input values fro- Loyu2 cor.
(I0,3) responding to one input value fo.r Loyer!. The
problem is compounded forcen e bec.ause a
portion of llie cell is not delined for Loyer2.
There is input ambiguity in .most raster
operations. One might argue the best choice
uses Loyerz with comple1e overlap. or mean
or median number for all overlapping cells.
orsome weighted average. This ambiguity
will arise whenever raster darn s.ets are 1101
aligned or have different cell siz:es. While
e.<J .•
lO 12 42
30 9 4
·I 8 15
globo~
moX1mum I
42 42 12
•2 42 42
42 •i 42
 Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 439

Loyer!

/ cell B Resompled Loyer2

Loyer2
cell B

cell A
ceII A
-- .....
~
~
L
__.. -/v
FIJUJ't 10-6 : b:ompatibl~ ccU sizw:cs or pid cdg« s.bould be hannouiz:cd ,ia rcsamplinJ: prior 10 analysi.J.

the GIS software may have a default method
for choosing the "best'" input when cells mis·
match. these decisions may not be univer-
sally best.
Analysis is usually best served by a
prior re sampling of the data into a compati-
ble coordinate sys1e111, using the transforma·
tion and resampfu1g methods described in
Chapter 4. The analyst may select a template
or standard layer in a specified coordinate
systent \\;th a specified staning coordinate.
such as lhe lower-left cell values (Figure 10-
6). With a fixed dimension and starting
point. all cells unambiguously match across
layers.
440 GIS Fundamentals

Local Functions
There is a broad number of local timc-
tions (or operations) that can be conve- Table 10-1: Common local mathematical
niently placed in one of four classes: funciions.
mathematical tiui<tions. Boolean or logical
operations. reclassification, and multilayer Function Descrip lion
raster overlay.
Add, subtract, Cell-by-cell combination
multiply, and with lhe aiitl:lmelic oper.
Mathematica l Functions divide atlon
ABS Absolute value of each
We may generate a new data layer by cell
applying matllem;:uical functions 011 a cell-
by-cell basis to input layers (Figure 10-2. EXP. EXP10. LN. Apprles base· e and base
Table 10-1). Any number of inputs and out- LN 10 10 exponentiation and
logarithms
puts may be supp,omd. depending on the
function. SIN, COS, TAN, Apply trlgonomeU1c rune-
ASIN,ACOS, tioos on a cell-by-cell
A broad array of mathematical timctions ATAN basis
may be used. witb a few constraints. Raster
INT, TRUNC Truncal~ cell values, out.
data value and type are perhaps tl1e most pvt Integer portion
common constrai11ts. Most raster models
store one data value iu a cell Each raster MODULUS Assigns the decimal por-
tioo or each ceu
data set has a data 1ype and maximum size
1ha1 applies 10 each cell: for exan,ple. a 1wo- ROUND Rounds a cell vatue up or
byte signed integer may be stored. Mathe- dOWT'I IO nearest integc,
matic.al operation:s that create noninteger value
values. or \'lllues laiger than 32. 768 (Ille SQRT. ROOT Calculates the square
capacity of a two-b)1e integer). may not be rool or specifies other
stored accurately in a two-byte inleger out- root of each ceu value
put layer. Most sys1ems will do some form POWER Raises eaeh cell to a
of a111oma1ic type conversion. but there are defined power
often limits on the largest values that can be
stored. e\'en with automatic conversion. from tlllits ill meters to units llle3S\lred in
Although the set of fimciions and func- feet
tion names differ among software packages, Note that although many sys1ems will
nearly all Jl'ICkages suppon the basic arith· lei you perform these operations on any type
metic operations of addition through divi- of raster data. lhey often only make sense for
sion. and most provide the trigonometric inte1'1aVratio da1a, and may renirn erroneous
functions and 1heir in"erses (e.g.. sin. asin). results when applied to nominal or ordinal
Tnmcation. power. and modulus fi.mc1ions data. Nwnbers may be assigned 10 indicate
are also conunonly supported, and Yendors population density by high. medium, and
often include add,tional functions they per- low. and while the sin function may be
ceive 10 be of special interest These ns11be- applied lo these dala, lhe resulls will usually
matical func1ions are often applied in raster ba"e tinle meaning.
analysis. for exoruple. when ruulliplying
each cell by 3.28 to convert height values
 Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 441

Logical Operations cally restricted lo l and 0, even !hough there

There are many local functions tlun
apply logical (also known .as Boolean) oper-
ations to raster data. A logical operation lyp·
ically involves 1be comparison of a cell 10 a
scalar value or set of values. and outputs a
"true" or a ''false'' value. Tme is often repre·
sen1ed by an ou1pu1 value of I , and false by
an output value ofO.
There are three basic logical operations,
A1''D. OR. amd NOT (Figure I 0-7). The
A1''D and OR operations require iwo input
layers. These layers serve as a basi~ for com-
parison and asS1gnmem. AND ~qlllres both
input values be 1nie for the assignment of~
tnie output. Typically. any non-zero value 1s
considered 10 be true. and zeros false. Note
in Figure 10-701ha10111p111 values are rypi-
may be a range of input values. Also note
1ha1 !he.re may be coils where no data are
recorde.d. How the.se are ass.igned depends
on !he specific GIS system. Mos1systems
assign null 0111p111 when any input ism1ll:.
others assign false values w.hen any mput ts
null.
Figure 10-7b shows an e.,ampleofd1e
OR ope11nio1t This cell-by-cell comparison
assigns t.rue 10 the ouipm if eithe.r of the cor-
responding input cells is tme. Note 1ha1 11te
cells in either layer or both layers may be
1rue for a 1n1e assignuwn~ and that in ibis
example. null values (N) are assigned when
either of the inputs is null. Some uuplemen·
1a1ions assign a tnie value 10 the ou1pm cell
ifaoyofthe inp111s is non-null and non-zero:

Input Output
o)
1 3 l t 0 1 0 9 0 1 0 l

0 ti 2 ·I 0 5 2 5 0 N l I
AND = - ~

I 2 5 0 0 2 N 2 0 1 N 0
0 t N N O l -3 4 8 a 1 N N

b)
1 3 1 I 0 1 0 9 1 l 1 l
0 N 2 -1 0 5 2 s 0 N 1 1
OR =
I 2 5 0 0 2 N 2 l 1 N 1
0 t N 0 .J 0 1
N
' 8 N N

cl

NOT
I

1
3
N

2
I

2
5
1
·1
0
- =
- ,_ -
1

0
0 0 0
N
,_ a
0 a
-- 0
a
1

0 l N N t 0 N N
442 GIS Fundamentals

the reader should consull the manual for the
specific software 1001 lhey use.
Figure I0-7c shows an example of the
NOT operation. This operation switches true
for false. ana false for 1111e. Nole 1ha1null
input assigns null output.
Finally. note 1ha1 many systems provide
an XOR operation. known as an eXclusive
OR (not illustrated in our examples). This is
similar 10 an OR operntioo. except that true
values are assigned 10 the outpm when only
one or the other of the inputs istrue. but not
when both inpms are tme. This is a more
restrictive case than rhe general OR. and
may be used in ins.tances when we wish to
distinguisJ1 among origins for a tme assign-
mem.
Logical operations may be pro,~ded
that perform ordinal or equality compari·
iOns. or 11la11es1 if cell values arc null (Fig-
ure 10-S). Ordinal comparisons include less
than. greater than. less than or equ.,110,
greater than or equal 10. equal. at1d not equal.
Examples of these logical comparisons are
shown in Figure 10-Soand b, respectively.
These operations are applied ceU-by-cell.
and lhe corresponding 1:me or false output
assigned. As shown in Figure 10 -So, the
upper left cell of the first input Layer is not
less than the upper left cell of the second
input layer. so a O(false) is assigned to the

Input Output
a)
l 3 l l 0 l 0 9 0 0 0 1
0 N 2 ·l
less 0 5 2 5 0 N 0 I
:

l 2 5 0 than 0 2 N 2 0 0 N l

0 I N N 0 .3 4 8 0 0 N N

b)
l 3 l 1 0 l 0 9 0 0 0 0
0 N 2 ·1 0 5 2 5 I N 1 0
equal :

l 2 5 0 0 2 N 2 0 I N 0
0 l N N 0 -3 4 8 I 0 N N

c) l 3 l 1 0 0 0 0
0 N 2 -l 0 I 0 0
ISNULL :

I z 5 0 0 0 0 0
0 l N N 0 0 l l

f iJUl't' 10-3: E.~aDIJ)lc, oflogic~I comparison OJ)<nlton for r&$lc:rdaua uts. Oulptn values rcQOrd the
ordioal compari.so:iu for inputs. with 11 I sjpi.if)'llli tnac: aud a Ofalse. The IS1'tULLopcrn.riou assisus
1ruc ,•alucs 10 the ourput wttct'le,•cr 1hc:re arc: Jil.iHil'lt input dtl12.

upper left cell in the output layer. The upper
right cell in tile first layer is less than the cor-
responding cell in the second input layer.
re.sul1ing in the assignment of l {tme-) in the
output layer.
We often need to test for missing or
unassigned values in a raster data layer. The
operation bai no standard name. and may be
variously c.alled via ISMtSStNC, ISNVLL. Ol
some otherdescriptively name fimction. The
operation tests each cell for a null value.
shown as N io Figure I0-Sc. AO is assigned
to the corresp,onding output cell if a non-null
value is found. o,herwise a I is assigned.
These t<sts for missing values are helpful
when identifying and replacing missing data.
or when detennining the adequacy of a data
se.t and identifying areas in need of addi-
tional sampling.
Figure 10-9 shows an example of a logi-
c.al comparison among two cL11a layers. The
left and cent"11 panels show land cover for
an agriculniral area, with three categories:
corn ( I), soybeans (2). and all O<hers (0). We
may be ime~ted in identifying aues that
were rotared between these two crops. or
from 1hese two crops to other crops over the
2009-2010 time period. The logical equal
comparison between these layers reveals
equol
I corn I corn
fl beens (l beons
II other Ill other
fla.ut-t 10-9: An ex:unple of a lo3ical operation ,ipplicd co catc~orica.l data. Jicrc laudusc cbissc:sofcom (\'llluc:
= l). SO)k~1is (2), and other erops (0) O\'cr1wo time periods. The-cqu.:1J opet:1tion rctunli ,0 where bnd
h.-, dwagecl. and 1 where ii 1'°'' remained consiant O\'Cl' these two period$.
Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 443
areas that have changed. If the cell ,,llues
are not equal across the years. the logical
equol comparison will ren1m a value of o.
while areas that remain the same ,,~IJ main-
l3ut the value of I. Further fogical compari·
sons. 11su1g class ,~tues. could identify how
much each of the component crop types had
changed.
Note that logical operators may be
applied to interval/ratio. ordlinal, and cate-
gorical data. although ordinal comparisons
should be carefully applied ·to categorical
data. For example, ui our crop types example
in Figure 10-9. soybeans areassigne<l a
value of 2. and are '·larger" ·than com. but
this distinction does not imply that soybeans
are somehow two limes larger. more ,•alu-
able or anything other than just different
from corn.
--
1 unchanged
1iJ cl>onged
'*
444 GIS Fundamentals

Reclasslflcatlon ics of the implementation mus! be docu-

Raster reclassification assigns outpnt
values that depend oo 1he specific se1of
input values. Assignment is mosl often
defUJed by a table. ranges of values. or a
conditional test.
Raster reclassification by a table is
based on ma1chiog input cell values to a
reclassification lab le (Figure 10-l 0.). The
reclassification 1able specifies the mapping
between input values and ompm values.
Each input cell value is compared to entries
for an ''in.. column in the table. \Vhen a
match is found. tbe corresponding "out"
value is assigned 10 1he output easier layer.
Uruna1ched inpul values can be handled in
one of several ways. The most logically con-
sistent manner is ·10 assign a nuUvalue. as
shown in Figure J0- lOo for the input value
of - l. Some software simply assigns the
input cell value when there is no matC-11. As
with all spatial processing tools, the specif-
me111ed and undersiood.
Figure 10.lOb illuslrates a reclassifica-
tion by a range of values. This process is
similar to a rcclassifica1ioo by a iablc. excep1
that a range of values appears for each entry
in the reclassification 1able. Each range cor-
responds 10 an ou1pm ,•alue, This aUows a
more compact representation of 1he reclassi-
fication. A reclassifkation over a range is
also a simple way to apply the al!tomated
reclassification rules discussed at length in
Chapier 8 - 1he equal in1<rval. equal area.
natural breaks. or other atnomatcd class-cre-
ation methods. These automated! assignment
methods a.re often used forraste.:r data sets
because of !he large number of values they
contain.
Data can also be reclassified to selee1
the inpm source based on a condition. These
"conditional" functions have varying syntax.
but 1ypicaUy require a condition. that resulls
in a tnie or false O\ltcome. The vaJue or

Input Output
ou1
o)
l 3 l l
'"0 0 x t x x
I x
0 N 2 ·l Rec loss 0 N b N
2 b ;
by
l 2 5 0 toble 3 f x b s 0
4 e
0 l N N 0 x N N
5 s

b)
1 3 1 I In ron,ge out 0 b 0 0

0 N 2 ·l Reclass 0 10 1.5 0
0 d b N
;
by 1.51035 b
l 2 5 0 ranges 0 b c 0
3 5 to 10
0 1 N N N
'd 0 b d d

Fi1u1•t- 10-10: Rastef'r«lwiftca.tion by 1ablc U111td1i.na (o) aod by table range (b). Co both casic-s. input
cell ,'llluei :trc com~rcd 10 tbc ..in" cohut\n ofd1c 111blc. A 1tutc11 it found and lite corrcspoiM!ing
..ou(' \1llues .usipd.
 Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 445

source layerassigned for a tn1e outcome is
specified. as is 1be Vlllue or source layer
assigned for a false omcome. An example of
one conditional function may be:
Output a CON (rest, out if true, out if false) (10.4)
ofir-then slatement. Note thal the value that
is ou1pu1may be a scalar va[ue. for example.
the number 2. or the value ourput may come
from the corre.sponding location in a speci-
fied raster layer. The condition is applied on
a cell-by-cell basis. and 1he 0111p111 V11lue
assigned based on the results of tl1e condi-
1ional 1es,.

where CON is the conditional funccion. test is

1he condition to be tested. ovt ,, ""• defines
the value assigoed if the condition tests irue.
and out If false defines the value assigned if
the condition tests false (Figure 10-1 1).
Readers familiar with compu1er program-
ming languages will recognize CON as a kind

Output • CON (Loyer A < 3. LoyerB. LoyerC)

LoyerA
1 3 l l

0 5 2 ·I

4 2 5 0

0 I 7 5
Loyer8 LoyerC
I
x
x
x
x
y

x
y

y
(is LoyerA < 0 b

0
b

b
b

b
b

x x y y ~~ 0 b b 0

y y y y 0 0 0 0

L
Output

x
x
b

b
y

x
y
y
_j
0 x b y

y y 0 0

Fl2m~ 10~11: Rcclanificatiou by condition anii:llS a..n output based on a conditi01Ull test_ ht lhis cxai.uptc.
c:td1cdl in loy,erA il comp.,rcd to die muttlxr 3. FotloyerA cdl, with \'llh.tcs leis thrut 3. d1e coudition
c,-aluates to be tnie, nnd tbc ootput ccll ,·nhu: is 11.$$-ig:ncd from t..cyet6. If die LOverAcell ,·ah1c is equal to
or~tcr than 3. then th< output cc:U ,·aJuc: i.sassigncd fiotn loytrC.
446 GIS Fundamentals

Nested Functions lnitOutpur • ASS (lnpvtJ.ayer) (10.5)

Local functions may be nested in analy-

ses. Functions are nested when a fllnction is
used as the argument of another function.
For example. we may wish to take the nam, FinolOutput , LN (lni!Ouipul) (10.6)
ral logaritlun (LN) of all the cells in a layer.
The mathemalica! LN fu nction is only
defmed for positive values. When inputs are
negative. we need 10 either accep1 null val- \Ve could do lhe same thing by neSling
ues in 1he output data layer, or process these 1he fuoc1ions. if allowed by lhe (HS sofl,
input cells in 3 different manner. We could ware:
do 1his by applying lhe absolute value fuuc-
1ion (ASS) to create an intermediaie output.
\Ve could then apply 1he LN fllllction 10 ibis
ou1pu1 for our fmal resuh. This could be Flnol0u1pvt • LN ( ASS (lnput_Loyer)) (10 n
described as the equations:

Output • CON (ISNULl(LoyerA). LoyerB. LoyerC)

Lcy<rA

5 l I I

0 N 2 N
-
2 5 0
'
N N 7 5
LayerB
I
b
• • b
(! Loyi;rA null?) x x y y

0
• b b
..:::.,/~
y x y y
a a 0 b x x x x
0 0 0 0 x x x x

L _J
Outpul

,_x x y y
y
• y b

x x x x
0 0 x x

f ia;urt 10-U: LOQl lofieal opcrn.tious may be wmbined.. flus example altows tbe lSNULL fuuc-tion
nnbcckkd iu the condittoiull fiu.ctiou, CON. As described in Fi3ute J0-10. the first A!i\lnleUt in thi:s CON
fiull!tion defines the Boolc:.n tc,t. Herc, if lhc cell \'aluc in Loye.rA is null (N), then the condi1ic:,11nl 1clit
rct\lms a troc ,·ahi.c. This c.'(ccut" tbe followlug cutry, nn~nignn1e11t to the outpu1 from ~ . Jf the cell is
non-null. ISNUll ren1ms a ,-aJuc of {alse. and the Output cell ,..,.Jue assigned from the corresponding loca-
tioii il'l la"fE'.rC. Note the Output ,•11Jues ate o orb. from LoyerS. (or the cdlt in LoyerA 1J1.111 h.\\'< miJJ (N) \'lll-
ucs.

Figure 10-12 shows anotlier example of
nested runciion. Ou1pu1 values are assigned
from 1wo different inpm layers. Cell values
are assigned rrom LoyerS when t.ayuA values
are null and from LoyerC wht?n t.oyerA values
are non-null. This might be desirable ifwe
have an inc.omplete bul othemrjse high-qual-
ity da1a set a:ud we wish 10 fill missing val-
ues from 1tie nex1 best available da1a. Map
algebraic exp-ressions with nested ftmctions
can become quite complex, bo1 also may be
quite effecti\l,e and efficient in solving com-
plex problems.
Raster Clip and Overlay
Clip (or subset extraction) is another
common 1ype oflocal raster function (Figure
10-13). Source and 1empla1e data layers are
specified and an output data layer creal'ed.
This ou1pu1 layer contains only 1be values of
1he source 11lai are indicated by the 1empla1e
layer. The nature of the template and outpu1
data layer values depend on lhe specific
implememalion of1he raster extraction.
Template values are typically assigJJed a
value of I for 1bose cells 1ba1 are 10 pass
1htough 10 tl>e output and a Oor null value
for 1bose th.11 are 10 be ignored. 0111pu1 val-
ues for lhe clipped area are copied from the
source. while- ou1pu1 values for 1he area out-
side 1he clipped region are typically assigned
a nuUvalue, or the value 0.
Care must be taken to ensure there are
no ambiguous cells c.reated by this conven.
Source
I 3 4 7
6 J 2 ·I
Clip
I 2 5 0
0 1 3 2
Fii::ure- 10- 13: Au ilhalmlion of a r:ister clip (or c.-<tnu:tion) Opcnltion. \•;dues from :1. source l:1.ycr arc
e:<tracled based oo valu« iu au c:<trnetion template.. Output ciclls arc oftoru assigned n null \'3.luc. N, iu
the "outside'' area.
Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 447
tion. For example, if there are null values in
both lhe source dam layer a11d 1be area out-
side 1he clip. one cannot be cenain if 1he
nulls come from the source ,or indicate a
region outside 1he clip area. Special coding
or 01ber provisions can be used 10 avoid
rhese a mbiguities.
A clip using ras1er daia n~,y also be
implemented as a reclassificalion and then a
mulliplication. Nole 1ha1 in Chapter 9, we
described 1he vec1or clip function as a spe-
cial case of O\lerlay in whic.h the attributes
and interior geometry were ·saved based on
1he bom1daries in a clipping layer. Tl\is clip·
ping layer serves as an ou'lli ne or area tem·
plate for which data are retafaed. ln a raster
clip. 1he clipping layer may be represemed
as a se1 of cells with a vah1e of l embedded
in nonclipping cells with values of 0.
Figure 10-14 illus1ra1es a raster clip
operation that is a c.ombinalion of cell redas·
sification and mulliplica1ioru. The first s1ep is
10 identify the se1 of values llllll defines 1he
dip area. This is the portion of the inpul data
laytr 10 lie w.insftrttd to tlie outpUI data
layer. Individual cell values or cell values
over an interval or range may be defined.
These may come from a selection based on
raster values. from a lis1 of "'1llues. or from a
previous spatial operation such as a buffer.
A clip template is created 1ha1 defines a
binary mask. a set of cells cbm "mask" our a
ponion of an input layer. Cells 10 be passed
1brougb 10 lhe ou1pu1 layer are se110 lhe
Template Output
0 0 0 I N N N 7
0 0 I I N N 2 ·l
•
0 I I I N 2 s 0
0 1 l 0 N I 3 N
448 GIS Fundamentals

Input roster
2 2 2 8 8 2 2 2
2 2 2 8 8 8 2 2
2 3 3 3 8 8 8 7 C!Jp roster
2 3 3 3 8 8 8 7
0 0 0 0 I I I I
3 3 3 6 6 6 7 7 0 0 0 0 l l l l
3 3 3 3 6 6 6 7 x 0 0 l I l l I 0
3 6 3 6 6 6 6 6
0 0 I I I 0I 0
3 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
0 0 I I I 0 0 0
0 0 I I 0 0 0 0
0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ou1put roster
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8
0 2 2 2
0 0 0 0
8 8 2 2
0 0 3 8
3 8 8 0
Fi~utt 10-14: A rastcrdip open.lion 1~y be pcrfonned \i a multipli-
catton of a binary uusk. Au i.itput ttlStCT(lcft) bas be-en cuultif.Hcd by a 0 0 3 3
3 8 0 0
bin111y rnster. Cdl·byo.ecll mul!iplic:uion pAH« tlU"OUgb uc 1 input
cell corre,ponding to a I in llte clip raster (center), 11nd pa"" through 0 0 3 6
6 0 0 0
a O for alJ other cells to tlk: output f'Micr (nplt) . Note I.bat zero values 0 0 3 3
0 0 0 0
ate 1.01 allowed in thC' input r.titct bcuusc they Wl\'e the same. cff«t
:.s :terot in die clip,n1s.1rr. 0 6 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

value l (Figure 10.14). Cells 10 be "clipped
away" are set co the value O. l11e clip tem-
plate or layer is then multiplied by the input
easier, yielding rut ou1pu1 easier. Cell-by-cell
multiplicaiion by l passes values 1hrough 10
lhe ou1pu1layer. Mulriplicalion by Odiscards
values for 1he cell, resuhing in a clipped ras-
ter to 1he area of U1terest
Raster overlay combines features from
1wo or more darn layers. and is among 1he
most useful of spa1ial func1ions. The feanires
in raster data corre.spond to cells, or perhaps
groups of cells wi1h 1be same \'3lues. but as
with vector overlay. great utility is often
gained from comlbining data from diffe.rent
layers.
There are some differences between eas-
ier and vec1or overlay due 10 the differences
in the da1a model. Ras1er overlay is of1e11
restricted to nominal data. The cell values do
1101 typic.ally represen1 continuous variables
such as temperanue. bu1nu.her categorical
variables such as type or township name.
Allhough rasier overlay may be imple-
mented so that it admitS continuous num-
bers. this iypically resul1s in too many
unique cell combinations to be of much
value. If continuous da1a are used, 1hey are
often convene<l 10 ca1egories firs1: for exam-
ple. rainfall may be assigned to :low.
medimn, or high classes.
Raster overlay involves the cell-by-cell
comparison of values in two or more layers
(Figure 10-l 5). The values in each inpul da1a
layer are associated with a specific combina-
tion of addi1ional variables. and these addi-
1ional variables may be recorded in an
attribute table. Each unique co111bina1ion of
cells from the two layers is iden1ified. and
assigned a new ideo1ifier (0u1-10) in 1he 0u1-
Note the two input attribute tables
PVT l<JYtr.
are combined in a corresponding fasl1io11. ln
Figure 10-15 you C9JJ see tile upper left cor-
ner of 1he 0\/lp<,1 ~ r has 1he corresponding
type and nome attribute values from Input
layer J. and the JO and cost atlribute values
from Input IOyer 2.
 Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 449

--
Roster cells Attribute. tcbles

a 0 a b
Input 0 0 c c • SI\Jbblr\$
b buppk,51
loye.r 1
a a b c • ......
0 0 c 0

overlay

Input x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
10
x
v
....
C~I

low
layer 2
y y y y
-y y
f-
y x

I ,,... "°""' ID , ...

• .,,.,.,.,. " ....
(~ CM-10
I I I z
• nm " ....
l
Output
l,oyer I l 3 3 \ 2 buf)J)kiSt
./ ~
' "v high
....
4 4 5 6 • • ....
,tubt,,,\S

• • b v
bul)r)ki$$
.,, ....
4 4 6 l • nodo

Fi.&llt't' 10-1$; .R..i.stCT o,·crl.1y in,-olvc.s lbc ccll-by..ccll c01n1.>im1tioo of da1.i in 1mihiplc J11y·
Cl'$. Kew O\ltput ,iatucs arc g,cn<-ratcd for each unique combinatioo of input \'alucs.

Recall th.at in many implementations of
1he raster data model 1here is a many-to-one
relationship l>enveen 1he raster cells and the
attribute rows. This occurs bec.ause multiple
cells correspond 10 each row. Also note tlta1
the cells may form disjunct regions of the
same type; f<M°example. figure 10- 15 shows
a ceJJ of type o in the lower Ce.ft comer of
Input~ 1 th.al is not contiguous with 1be
rest ofthe o cells in Lo~r t. This combina-
tion carries through to 1he output, where
1here are disjw,ct groups of cells with out-ID
values of 6.
450 GIS Fundamentals
Fuzzy Membership and Raster
Overlay
Raster data n,ay be reclassified into
/11::y sets. typicaUy to represent uncerc,inty
or ambiguity in set membership. For exam-
ple. laud covtr mapping requires assigning
distinct classes like water or upland. There
may be some uncertainty if an area near a
shoreline is water or upland. Similarly, land
cover along a suoorban/n~al edge ns,y be
ambiguous. because mis-interpreting a lawn
for a hayfield cuay change a cell assigmnent
from one class to another. Similar ambigt1-
ities due to data source or conversion or
assignment methods may resull in fuzziness
in raster \lalues. \Ve sometimes wish to
reflect this ambiguity.
We lll3Y reprcse01 uncertainty in our
measurement withji,::y member.ship val-
ues. Suppose we have a fores r/noo-forest
classification map based on satellite data.
Recall that die level of infrared reflectance
may be used singmy or in combination with
other remotely-sensed image bands to detect
vegetation. Our classification process often
provides an estimate of the per-pixel likeli-
hood of our assigDDlent being correct. e.g..
some cells are categorized as forest wi1h a
likely 99% ac.curacy, whi.le other cells have
only a 55% chance of being forest. We may
wish to represent 1his uncertainty in mem-
bership. again witJ1 fuzzy sets.
it1pu1 Rotter
<
l JO
0 3 2 5
2 I 4 I 9
Io•
f 0.6
l 3 0 9 11
2 , 8 •,10
. !l
c,04
I Ol
3 8 ti -- ;s
r•
'
I.:
F lt.1n-l' 10-16: Ft~• Sci iaui_gmncitL Rlllclcr t'llluet on the lcfl c01TC1po11d 10 .t probsbili1y of n•nnbcn.hip 10
a clllSS (center), "'-'"<din a fuuy raster (right).
Fuzzy se.ts may be assigned via a mem-
bership function (Figure J0-16). In our Ctlt·
rent example. we may repn."Sent the surety a
pixel is dense vegetation from the infrared
index we use 10 assign the vegeration type.
Ground visits. or truth. may show tba1cells
with a strong infrared index are always vege.
uuion. while those with a weak index are
not and intenucdia1e indexes ar,c split. We
may develop a graph 1hat shows. our c.er-
tainty as a function of the infrared index that
connects specific levels oftlte index with the
vegetation set
Fuzzy raster cells are then assigned
based on 1he input values. rrnnsferred
through the membership func1ion. to give a
corresponding fuzzy value. Higb values
reflect high likelihood of membership in the
vegetation se.1, while low values represent
low likelihood of membership.
Fuzzy rasters may be combined in vari-
ous overlay operations. often in ~stimating a
membership or suitability 1hat depends on
several factors (Figure 10-17). For example,
it may be impMAnt 10 idemify ripllfiaJi
zones near water courses in a semi-arid envi-
rooment Vegetation is a good indicator of
riparian zones, but there are noru·riparian
areas with dense vegetation, and riparian
areas withom vegetation. We might also use
ele\'ation data and derivatives to help with
the riparian/upland zone assignment. For
example. riparian areas tend to be natter
than adjacent landscape due to s.edime.nt
Fu:· ftaster
.. ,,ZO O ·H O A Oto
0.ii!d
•o.c, ooo a,~
~
:Ho o.:uc•
o~a o.c1 0~1 Ot.o1 ,cc
 Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 451

deposition, and they are close to tJ1e same
elevation as the rivers running through them.
Local topogmphy within riparian areas make
the slope and height relationships somewhat
fuzzy, and so I may develop membership
(rn1ctions (or each oftbese (actors and prob-
ability of riparian membership.
Fuzzy membership rasters may then be
combined in several ways 10 assign member-
ship. Fuzzy OR overlay assigns the probabil·
ity of cell membership to the largest value of
the component cells. In our example, the
riparian membership value fora raster cell is
the largest value for th.it cell from the vege-
tation. slope, and rise above waler cells.
Fuzzy AND assigns the miruimmn of the
component cells. and hence is more conser-
vative in assignment. Other versions include
fi1zzy product, sum. weighted sum, and
gamma combina1ions.

Fuzzy Roster Overloy

OensE: Ve tfOtlOl'I I.Ow SIOl)t 1st Terrace
00 036 C28 c« 0,1 Otl o,a v.ll OS 0 5,1 0 11 02: 001 01.a on
0 ' 0 ~ (,.r~ o,, 0.6" 00? 01• 077 4,,1
o•• 0 11 0 11 co~ o.•.t 08':

02<) 036 O!,O 0.0 076 Ot> oo, en 093 08. ooi c 10 oiz 0,1 0<>3

0 8 0.lol o., · 0.M 100 0.4; O?I ".OJ OM ,oo OCN OOb 0.06 C.8l 0(...t

03' 08! 0.88 n t.: o.n

.
00 I 00 OCJ 037 Oil2 0 1!. 005 OS) 08' C88

.•
,•
.-·)
··1
\.
•

'' , >'
,
Fuzzy CR Combination Funy .a.ND Cotnb1not1on
01]
. "' 018 01Vi on 00 021 O.C::' 0.&oil 041

o,a o,o O J< ¢'/'.¢ 088 002 0 12 004 0 5-1 0.(,0

0 2<l C J6 ":-0 Ovl O<J 0 07 007 01? 060 0 ,.

C <I 047 0'7 <l 87 100 0"" °" 000

0
ObJ 09'

0.36 oa, 088 100 :.oo oin oos 03} 0"" 08'

Fijtlltt 10-17: Ft1z:zy sets: o,·fflay way take se,·ttaJ Coons, iuc:ludina OR corubioations, as.signing the higbes1
comc:idnt1 fuzzy numb«. or AND combiiiati:ou. aui31Ung the !owe.st coiucido u fuzzy nwubcr.
452 GIS Fundamentals

Neighborhood, Zonal, Distance, and Global Func-

tions
Neighborhood fuoc1ioos (or operations)
in raster analyses deserve an extended dis-
cussion be.cause they o ffer substantial an., .
lytical power and flexibility. Neighborhood
operations are applied in many analyses
across a broad range of topics, including the
calculation of slope. aspect and spatial cor-
relation.
Neighborhood operations most often
depend on the concept of a mov;ug window.
A"window.. is a configurationof raster cells
used to specify tbe input values for an opera·
tion (Figure I0-1S). The window is posi-
tioned on a given location over 1J1e input
raster, and an operation applied that involves
the cells contaioe<I in the window. The result
of the operation is usually associated witl1
the cell at the center of the window position.
The result 0(1be operation is saved 10 an out-
put layer al the center cell location. The win·
dow is then '1moved'' to be centered over the
adjacem cell and the computation repeated
(Figure 10- 18). The window is swept across
a raster data layer, usually from left 10 right
in successive rows from top to bonom. At
each window location. 1he moving window
function is calculated and the resuh output 10
the new data layer.
Moving windows are defined in parl by
their dimensions. For example. a 3 by 3
moving window has an edge length of thre<e
cells in the x and y directions. for a total area
of nine cells. Moving windows niay be any
size and shape. but they are l}'Pi~ally odd-

• •

•
fla:un 10-18:TI,e concept of a mo"i.ug window inrnstcrncigbborbood opmiliom. Herc.
II J by J ,.,indow is
swq,t from left 10 righ.1and from lop lo bottom ,icross a t11S-1¢r lay«.
The window a1 each Joc111ioo defines t.bc input ccllt used in II r:u.tet opcratioo.

numbered in both the x and y directions to
provide a narural center cell. ru>d 1bey are
typically square. A 3 by 3 cell window is 1he
most common size, allhough windows may
also be rec1a11gular. \Vmdows may also have
irregular shapes: for example. L-shaped. cir-
cular. or wedge-shaped moving windows are
someiimes specified.
There are many neighborhood functions
1ha1 use a moving ,,~ndow. These include
simple functions such as mean. ma.timum.
minimum, or range (Figure 10- 19). Neigh-
borhood functions may be complica1ed, for
example. the s1a1is1ical s1andard devia1ion.
and they may be oonarilbmet-ic. as the func-
tions that retum a cowll of the numberof
unique values. or tlie mode. or a Booleru>
occurrence. Any function that combines
infonnation from a consistently shaped
group of ras1er cells may be implemeuied
wi1h a moving window.
Moving window functions may be ariili-
meiic. adding. subtracting. averaging. or olh-
erwise matbe.matically combining the values
aroUttd a ce,mal cell, or they ,nay be co;n.
parative or otherwise extrac1 values from a
set of cells. Common statistic.al operations
00 00l ~
Mean \ M • d l ~Minimum
00-I ( ""- ffil
Range
Stope Aspect "'
00 00 00
Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 453
include caJculating tJ1e largest value, the
mode (peak of a bis1ogram). median (middle
value). 1he range (larges, minus smaUesl). or
diversily (nwntrer of differenl values). These
neighborhood operations are useful for many
kinds of processing.
Consider the majority operation, also
known as a majorityfilter. You might won-
der why one would want to calculate a
majority filler for a da13 layer. Da1a smooth-
ing is a common application. We described
in Chapter 6 bow multiband satellite data are
often converted from raw image daia to land
cover classificaliou maps.Tl1ese classifiers
often assign values on a pixel basjs, and
ofte-n result in many single pi'<els of one land
cover 1ype embedded wi1bi11 ano1her lru>d
cover type. These single pixels are often
smaller than the minimum mapping unil the
smallest unifom1area that we care 10 map. A
majority filter is often used ·10 remove this
classification '1J.oise.''
A majori1y filler is illus1ra1ed in Figure
I 0-20. 11 illustrales NASS crop data for an
111~ in cen1tal 1t1diaful. base.:t on classified
sa1elli1e images. There are over 40 common
land cover types in the area_ but these have
Fi&m't 10~19: A g:iwn rutcrncigb-
borbood may ddiric the i1lpUI for
$C'\'crnl railer ncigliborbood opcrn•
tioos. Here a 3 by J ucighboruood
is q>«ifiC'd. These uiuc cells may
be tUcd H Utpul for m e:in, inedilln,
r.uioimuw, or ~ nwnbcr ofother
functions.
Mox
Majority
454 GIS Fundamentals

• rood
.. ,am
• 1>eons
OOlht.r
.J'..A,sma.,onty soof
beol'\S,
A nrighborin,i ,ens:
tht ceMer cell is
- . - r<clossed rrcm corn 10 beons

i.;
No moJority in the .; neighboong cells. ~
so 1he center cell is not re,lossed.
_ oflel retcins us votue of be<lns _

Flgutt 10,20: An C'."tampk ofa m.ajority filter npplicd 1011. raster data I.ayer from a claui.ficd satcUite i.n'-'lge.
M.:111)' isoL,tcd cells arc: con,"cr1cd to the cntcgor)' of the domi.i,11111 w rroundi1ig class.

been reclassified iiuco the dominanc 1ypes of
developed (road). com. beans. and otber
crops. Each pixel is 30 m across. and the
image on cbe left is NASS da1a as delivered.
Nole cbac com and beans dominate. bu1 cbere
are many "stray.. pixels of a dissonant vege-
cacion 1ype embedded or on 1he edge of a
dominant cype in an area: for example. bean
pixels in a com field. orcom pixels in a be.an
field. These scray pixels usually do 001 rep-
resent realicy. in 1ha1 ahhougll cbere may be
1he isolated plao1 or cwo from previously
deposited seed in these annual crop rota·
tions. che patches alnlos1 never approach 30
meters in size. The embedded ce.lls are most
often mis.classifications due to canopy thin-
ning or perllBps weeds below cbe crop. and
are often below the minimum mapping wiit.
The illustta1ed majoricy filter councs cbe
values of1he four cells sharing an edge wi1h
any given cell. ff a majori1y, me.ailing 1hree
or more cells. are of a type. cben Ille cell is
output as chis maj oricy cype (lop. Figure 10-
20). lf a majoricy is no1 reached. as when
o,uy one or two cells add up 10 the most fre-
quent type in the four bordering cells, then
1be center cell ,•alue is unchanged in the ou1-
pu1 (bonom. Figure 10-20). The removal of
most of the single pixel "noise'" by the
majority filler can be observed in 1be classi-
fied unage on the rigtu side of Figure 10-20.
There may be many variants for a given
operation. The majoricy fi11er just discussed
may assign an outpul value if only 1wo oftbe
four adjacenl cell values are most frequenl,
or use the Sor 24 nearest cells to calcula1e a
majority. The dependence of output on algo-
rithm specifics should always be recognized
wbeu applying auy ras1er operation.
f igure 10.21 shows an example of a
mean calculation using a mo\ling window.
The function scans all nine values in the
window. It swns them and divides the sum
by lbe number of cells in uie window. thus
calcula1ing the mean cell \'l!lue for the inpu1
window. The multiplication may be repre-
 Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 455

seuted by a 3 by 3 grid containing the value
one-ninth ( J/9). The melll\ value is then
stored in an OUlJ)\11 da1a layer in the locarion
corresponding to the center cell of the mov-
ing window. 1'he window is then shifted to
the right and 'lhe process repeate<l. When the
end of a row is reached the window is
returned to lh.e leftmost colulltlls, shifted
down one ro,v. and tl1e process repeated umil
all rows have been included.
The moving window for many simple
mathematical functions may be defined by a
kernel. A kernel for a moving window func-
tion is the set of cell constants for a given
window size :and shape. These constants are
used in a function at every 010\'ing window
location. The kernel in Figure 10-21 speci-
fies a mean. As the figure shows. each cell
value for the l npU1 kJye-r at a given window
position is mwltiplied by dte corresponding
kernel constant. TI1e result is placed in the
Output layer
Note that when the edge of the moving
window is placed on the ma.igin of the origi-
nal raster grid. we lose tile outside rows and
columns in our output raster. This is illus-
tnned in Figure 10-21. right. The moving
\\~ndow is shown in the upper right corner of
rhe input raster. Jf we place 'lhe center cell
for tl1e window 111\y ttigher or further 10 the
right tllen pan of the kernel will fall outside
our input data. Output values are not defined
for tl1e cells along tlie top. l>onom, 111\d side
margins of the output raster when using a 3
by 3 window. Each neighbo:rhood operation
applied to successive output layers may
erode the margin f\artber. For larger kernels.
e.g. 5x5 or 7x7. we loose a wider margin.
We commonly address ibis margin ero-
sion by defining an oversize<! snidy area.
Data may be Josi at Lhe margins. bul these
data are not importam if they are outside tlle
area of interest.
Different moving windows 111\d kernels
may be specified to implem.ent many differ-

Input layer f moving window

; - - kernel
10 12 13 12 II
1/9 1/9 1/9
8 II 12 12 10
"' ,,. 1/9 1/9 13/9 • 12/9 , 11/9 • 12/9 , 12/9 ,
10/9 , 10/9 , 11/9 , 9/9 • IU
7 9 10 II 9
l/9
"" J/9
8 9 9 11 8 Output
layer I
9 10 12 10 8
10.2 11.3 ll I

92 10.4 10.2

92 10.l 9.8

flJurf' 10.21: An c.:ctunp!c of II mc-111\ full<:tion 11pplicd ,-i:1 a n\O\'in3 w11idow. ln~n fayer cell ,-ah.ic:s f:ro1n
a 3 bv 3 mo,ing window (upper left) IIR 1m.dtipllcd b)' a kcmd to sp«ify conupoudmg oulpllt cell val·
uos. Thi, process is ~pc.filed for each «U in t.bc input layer.
456 GIS Fundamentals

ent neighborhood fw1c1ions. We mighl be
interested in the differeuce in a variable
across a laudscape. for example. changes in
canopy height 10 detecl tl1e boundary of a
recem forest fire.
Edge derectiou may be based on c.om-
paring dilferences across a kernel. The vaJ.
11es on one side of the kernel are s11btrac1ed
from the values on the other side. large dif-
ferences result in large output values. while
small differences resuh in small 0111pu1 val-
11es. Edges are de:fined as tl1ose cells with
ou1pu1 values larger tl1an some 1hreshold.
Figure I0-22 ill11strates the application
of an edge detection operation. The kernel in
the cemer 1op of Figure 10-22 amplifies dif·
ferences in the x direction. The values in the
left of three adjacent cohunns are subtracted
from the value in the corresponding right·
hand row of cells. This process is repeated
for each cell in the kernel. and d1e values
smnmed or averaged across all nine cells.
Large differences result in large values.
either positive or negative, saved in the cen-
ter cell. Small dilferettces between die left
and right col11mns lead to a small n11mber in
1he center cell. Spatial structure such as an
abn1pt change in ele,•ation may "be detected
by this kemel. Tiie keniel in 1he cen1er-bo1-
tom of Figure I 0-22 may be used 10 detect
diJferences in the v direc1ioo.
There are functions known as lu'gh-prus
filter. witb kemels that accenn1ate differ-
ences between adjacent cells. These bigh-
pass filler kernels may be usefuU in identify-
ing lhe spikes or pits that are cha.racteris1ic
of"noisy" data. Cells identified as spikes or
pits may then be evalua1ed and edited as
appropriate, removing the erroneous values.
High-pass kernels generally con.rain both
negative and positive values in a panern that
accenlual'es lac.al differences.
Fig11re 10-23 demonstrates 1he use of a
high-pass kernel on a dala set containing
noise. The elevation data set shown in tbe
top portion of the figure contauis a number
of anomalous ce.lls. These cells have
extremely high ,,.Jues (spikes. s.hown in
black) or low values (pi1s. sh0\\11 in white)
relative to nearby cells. If uncorrected, pits
and spikt! will afftct slope, aspo!CI. and
other terrau1-based calculations. These

A
0 40 l~O 0 0
Input Kernels
layer 0 ,o •O 0 0
0 0 0
0 80 80 0 0
980 980 940 940 940 honzonto l 0 ·I
difference 0 0 0 0 80 80 0 0
980 980 940 940 940
0 80 80 0 0
980 98C QOC 900 900
980 980 qoo 900 900 B
-980 980 -90C 900 900 vert1co 0 t 0 0 0 0 0 0
difference 0 0 0 0 0 40 40 40
l 0
0
0 0 <O 40 ,o
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

Figure 10,22: There is ,i llltJc uumbcro( kcmds used with ruo\'inJ; wiudows. The kc111d ou cop amplifies
cliffttcnees ill die horitont11I dirct1ion., while tile kc-md on tile bouom lllnplifics diffcmic.ct ll~ the \'crtic:\.I
dircctio11. ThcK and other kernels may be '"ed to detect sp:c:ific fc.nt\U'C$ in a cbtn layer.
 Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 457

... "'g· .. .....

.
Input layer with "noise·

r-- .
.. ~· ..•• ·~ ••,,. ·,,.,.,.~ ,,....
••• t,Cl ! 1.1. r~

"' ...
'" "'
1:1
"'
,. .... m
""
"' • ~
-
- lt0'1 ltJl1 tCU
kernel for
high~poss filter
.,., " "" .... .. ... -"' "' "' ... .,.
. J:C!
"'
..' ---- ""' "'
11r,11 l1co, tCQI'

~.'
'"
,;,
"'

-.,~...... ., ... ,. "' ...

·I ·l
" " - ·- ,- -
., • ., "' .. ..."' ... ...
~

·l n,
m•
'" "' "'
1;:.;E ... ... .. ....
·l

"' "' "'

"
.... "' ... "' '" ...
( I'" ... ~· t3.., ·~ ... ...
f----
:or-
>-
.. ...
"" ...., , "' ,., ... "'
.111:u:1ct•

,,...
---
... ,:,
~ >R
rn
... '"
1. . . . . .

• •
-
·~· ...
,, "~ ,., ••• .., ,,. "' "', "' " , "'
...,.., .,... '" ... .,"' "' '" -. ..., l I.JC.
...
..
I•"- ""
•1: ;r• :oc1
..
... ... ... ,,, •«• ... = .., "' "'
'" "' "" ..., ""' '"' '" ... .. -
'"'
t.l~ M

..,
"'
..,

9
"""'"'
'"
.-,
,,., ;1.,1 •••
··•• [1<m
,n

,,., ""
1,0
... "" ... ... "" ....
i·~
•.. ''" ,,-~ 1•11 ... ... •= -- \\JO
.. OU 1>0
!ClO _11111
m

sp,kes • pits 0
/ Ouput layer
l. 35.7 ~ t;,,tj--1-j--j-1,-r-!-~--+--;--t-,-+-;
~ n ,Ul !fl 1n 1(0 tll IW 1'!4 ~ ,> •I ., .. , ''°
- -""' -

....) h u ..... :o lll

'Ill tl~ II'\ u, t,,11 M, /"> .. -I Ill n IH I NI

~
110 ~ 10, !I llf 10? lilt 1-'° 10 ff !Cit 14. JO, I~

u. n ... « u, "
\I<) I
l¢J l(I'

1...
1t>

~ '6' al
~
1,. 1•;11 16: 10, IM
1111 1»
'"
.,

f ia:o~ JO. ;u; An e-AAmplc of a mo,;ng wiodow f\lnctioo. Ras1crd.,1a oftC"U contain ~001112lou, '":noi" ..
(dad. and Li$111 cells). A high·pau filter ,ind kcmcl. shown at top fdl. highlights ••noisy" cells. Local diffCJ·
enc« ate 11ru3lilificd M> lh111llllomalous «lb ntt c:u ily idt1nificd.
458 GIS Fundamentals

locally extreme ,,,,lues should be identified
and modified.
The high-pass kernel shown contajns a
value of 9 in the center and •I in all other
cells. Each value is divided by? 10 reduce
the range of the 01ttpu1 variable. The kemel
returns a value near the local average in
smoothly changing ams. The positi\•e and
negative values balance, rerurning small
numbers in flat areas.
The high-pass ke.mel generates a large
positive vah1e when centered on a spike. The
large differences between the center cell and
adjacent celJs are accentuated. Conversely. a
large negative vnlue is generated when a pit
is encountered. A:11 exan,ple shows the appli·
cation of the high-pass filter for a cell ne.,r
the upper left comer of the input data layer
(Figure I 0-23). Each cell ,,,.Jue is multiplied
by the corresponding kernel coefficieo1.
These numbers are summed, and divided by
9. and the resttlt placed in tlte corresponding
output location. Calculation results are
shown as real numbers. but cell values are
shown here recorded as integers. Output val-
ues may be real numbers or integers.
depending on the. progranuning .algorithm
and perhaps the specifications sel by the
user.
The mean filter (Figure I0-24) both
"Sm<>Olhs.. data and increases sparinl co,•o,f.
once in lhe output da1a set. A\ler.aging com-
bines nearby cells. bringing hjgh or low
values nearer the local mean. Tlte nearby
values become more similar. meaning 1bey
have a big.her spatial covariance (discussed
in greater depth when in the spatial predit·
tion section of Chapter 12). Large numbers
are found near large nwnbers. and small near
small. Low spatial covariance means nearby
values are unrelated - knowing lbe value at
one cell does not provide much Unfommtion
about the values at nearby cells. High spatial
covariance in the ''real world" may be a
good thing. lf we are prospecting for miner-
als, then a sample with a high value indicates
we are probably near a larger area of ore·
bearing deposits. However. if the spatial
au1ocorrela1ion is increased by 1he moving

,,----~~~ six common cells that contribute

Input loyer r to adjacent output values
····-······--·····
10 l2 !! 13 12
. It
11 ! ' ~on
8 12 12 10 ernel
I

7 9 j 10
!
u
·~ .... .........
9 ~ Ou1pU1
layer

8 9 9 u 8 \
102 JI 3 IL i
9 '\o 12 10 8
__..,--
~ -----
92 10.4 10.2
m eon
kernel
- 92 10.J 9.8

f i.JUJ" 10-N : A ruq\-ing ,,-inc!Qw m11,y increllK s.patia.l «worinucc.. Adjacent output «111. .slmc :mnny iupul
<:c.U values. In 1:bc m~ fiw<:tiou shown bC-1'1:. tbis ricsuhs in similar outptll ccll ,'lllu«.
 Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 459

window function, we may gel an O\ferly opli· Zonal Functions

mistic impression of our likelihood of s1rik-
ing ii rich.
The spatial covariance increases with
many moving will<low functiolli b«ause
these. ftmctioru share cells in adjacent calcu.
lations. NOie the average function on the lefl
of Figure 10-:24 shows sequential positions
of a 3 by 3 wD!ldow. The average of l 1.3 is
calculated for the left window location and
placed in the omput layer. The window cen-
ter is then shifted one cell to the right. and
the average of II.I for this location calcu-
lated and placed in the corresponding outpm
cell. Not< that there are six cells in common
for these two means. Adjacent output cells
share most of their oells in the mean calcula-
tion. When a panicularly low or high cell
occurs. it affects the mean of many cells in
the output dota layer. This causes the outputs
to be quite similar. aJ1d increases 1he spatial
covariance.
Zoual funetions apply operations based
on defined regions. or zones, wi1bin an area.
Typically, the zones are recorded in a dala
layer. with a unique identifier for each zone.
A fonction is then applied based on 1he zone.
e.g.. to ca.lcu.lale averages, a range. largest
values. or tabu.late areas witb.in zones. Figure
I0-25 illustrates summarizinion of U.S.
National Land Cover Data (NLCO) for a set
of coumy zones in central Minnesota. Here,
the area atl<l percent land cover by aggregate
rype were sununarized by counlies. with
each county serving as a zone.
There are many reasons for applying
zonal func.tions. We often wan1 to summa·
rize data for defo1ed units in a regio1t
including 101al population iu a county. aver·
age rainfall in a watershed. or number of
impoverished families across neighb<>r-
hoods. More complicated analyses may
require different operations 'be applied to dif-

Zonal Statistics of Raster Land Cover(%) by Vector Boundaries

Al1ken Crow WJOg Ca,rtton
.
Pine

,.,,
,_. ......,
Morrl,on Mltlct L..at-s K,1n.tb«
W1t:ter
DevNoped
For-en
Shr't.ib/Gr.lSS
a .a
2.1
28.?
U
13.6
S..6
<O.l
1.6
1.1
3.•
l?.7
LI
39.I
L6
•••
n.,
1.7
...•
o.•
,.,
L9

36.8
0.6
Agrlgutt...-e
VIC!'tlllnd
1.1
>2.)
U.9
21.0
11.7
.,.. 1a.a
34.I
<&4.4
2A.O ,..,
27.7
,...,
32.7

~. A.i t,~n
•

Fl;ttff' 10.2:S~ St111i&tiC1 al'C' often cakuJmcd by zones, be.l'C c:ociraetint limd C:O\"c:t C31etorics from :. rattCT
l.:lycr-, ~ 11,cd on iona. dcfinc:d by :1 , -cct~c:ounty bo.1.nd:u-ics (blnek. linu:).
d.1.1a
460 GIS Fundamentals

Il'\.J.oyer OutJ.oyer • ZoneAvg (In..Loyer. ZoneJ.oyer}

7
' 2 3 6 10
,-.
l 3
-ll 1•0
I l 9
Out_Loyer
~
l 8 7
'
J 1 2 7 8 10 ~ ZoneAvg 2.7 27 2.7 66 6.6 66
2 2 u 7 lO 12 27 27 27 66 66 66
5 8 10 9 13 11 27 27 92 66 92 66
Zone.J.oyer \
27 66 66 66 92 92
0 0 0 b b b
2.7 27 66 92 92 92
0 0 0 b b b
66 66 92 9.2 9.2 92
0 0 c b c b
0 b b b c c
0 0 b c c c
b b c c c c
.-
Flautt 10.26,: AU cxt1n1plc of 11 :zott2l function. A\'Cl::'IJCS Mc c:dcu.J:ucd bdscd oa 1hc zones i!<>ttd
in Zone_L1ycr,

ferent iOQes; for example, we may be creal·
ing an eleva1ion data set from many sources.
and we may wisl1 to use the highest-quality
data in zones where it exists. and use succes..
sively poorer data in other zones. Zonal
func1ions give us these capabilities.
Figure I0-26 illustrates the application
of a zonal fimction. In Utis example. the
function calculates the zonal average for
ht.Lo,.,, based on zones defined by
zonuaver. The syntM here is
Out_Layer •
ZoneA"9(1n_Loyer, Zone._Loye:r)
There is no standard syntax across soft,v11re.,
so the specific order and interpretation of
operands depend ,on tile software used.
Note that the output here is a raster. with
identical values in all the cells of a given
zone. This is a rather c-0mmon version of a
zonal functions. Many GIS softwares may
create a table witb zonal identifiers and sum-
mary values. with or without an 01.11put data
layer.
Zones may be defined in vec1or or ffi$ter
layers, depending on the software. If raster.
zonal f1mctions may require compatible
coordinate systems. cell sizes. and orienta-
1ions. although sometimes software will
automatically cooven via projection and res -
ampling. as needed.
Cost Surfaces
Many problems require an analysis of
travel costs. These may be mone-tary costs of
travel. such as the price one nms1 charge to
profitably deliver a package from the nearest
( 10.8) distribmion cemer to au points i:n a region.
Travel costs migb1 also be meast.1red iu 01_her
units, for instance, 1he time it lakes to travel
from a school to the nearest hospital. or as a
likelihood, such as the chance of a noxious
foreign weed spreading out from an intro-
duc1io11 poi111. These analyses may be per,
fanned with the help of cos! sr11foces.
A cost surface contains the minimum
cost of reaching cells in a layer from one or
more source cells (Figure I0-27) . The sim-
plest cos1 surface is based on a unifom1
 Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 461

travel cost. Travel cost depends only on the
distance covered, with a 11,ed cost applied
per uni1distance traveled. This cost per unit
distanc.e does. not cJ1ange from cell to cell.
There are no !barriers, so the straight line dis-
tance is convened 10 a cost. First, the dis-
tance is calculated from our source or
stoning location to each cell AS illustlllted
in Figure 10-27. 1he distance is calcula1ed
based on the Pyllmgorean fonuula. Dis-
tances to tacb cell in the x and y directions
comrib111e 10 lbe total distance from a so1u-ce
cell or cells.
The distance from a source cell is com-
bined with a fixed cost per unit distance to
calculate travel cost. As shown in the right
side of Figure 10-27. each distance value is
multiplied by the fs,ed cost fac1or. Tins
re.suits in a cost surface. a raster layercon-
taining the ,ravel cos, 10 each cell. lf1here
are multiple source cells. travel costs are cal-
culaled from e.ach source cell, and the lowest
cost is typically placed in tlte ou1p111 cell.
Note that distance is commonly mea-
sured a1 least two ways - • s1rnigh1 line
(Euclidian) distance, as shown in Figiare 10·
27, or as a row-column distance. A row-col-
urnn distance is me-.asured arong the row and
column axes. and is by defin,i1ion longer 1Jian
1he straight-line djstance. Straight line dis-
1ances are preferred in mos, applica1ions,
al1hough they are more ditr.cuh to imple-
ment.
Travel cosis may also 1"" calcttla1cd
using africHon s,nfnce. The celJ values ~fa
friction surface represent lhe cost per urut
travel dis1ance for crossing each cell. Fric-
tion surfaces are used 10 represeo1 areas with
a variable travel cost. Imagine a large mili-
1ary base. P31t of the ba~e may inclu~ flat.
smoo1h areas such as dnll f.elds. parking
lots or parade grounds. These areas are rela-
1ively easy 10 cross. witll correspondingly

Distance Surface Cost Surface

distance: • V<x2 • y') cost ~ d1sTonce: • fixed cost foctor

e.g.,
e.g.. o. V<20' . 10' > cost • d1sTonce • 2

= 22.4
,, /
source source
20 ' '-.. -..to cell
40 20
cell
.... ./
[/'
/
22 4---
• 14.1 10 44.8 28.2 20

28.3 22.4 20 56.6 44.8 40

Flaun I0-21: A co~t 1\uf.1.ce ba,cd Oll ll f-t., cd co,t ~r unit disb11oi:. Minimum dista.occ from n s.ct of
,oon:c «lh• it multiplied by a fixed coo *tor to )'lcld a ~st surf<Kc,
462 GIS Fundamentals

low travel times per unit distance. Other
parts of 1he base uiay be covered by open
grasslands. Wbile 1be s11rface may be a bil
rougher, travel times are still moderate.
01ber ports may be composed of fores1s.
These areas would have correspondingly
high travel times, as a vehicle would have to
pick a pa1h among tl1e trees. Finally. tliere
may be areas occlllpied by wa1cr. fen~s. or
buildings. The.se are.as would have effec-
tively infinite 1.ravel times.
Each eel.I in d1e fric.tion surface contains
the cost required 10 traverse a ponion of the
cell (Figure I0·28). A value of 3 indica1es i1
costs 1hree units ( of time. money. or other
fac1or) per unil distance in die cell. If a cell
is IO wide and costs 3 w1i1s per uni1 distance,
and 1he cell is crossed aloog 1he width. then
the cost for traversing the cell is 10 limes 3,
or 30 uoi1s.
The aclual cost for trave.rsing the cell
depends on the distance ,raveled lhrough 1he
cell. When a cell is traversed parallel 10 1he
row or column edge, then the distance is
simply tlie tell diilleoSioa. Wilen a cell is
1raversed a, any otlier angle. lbe discance
will vary. It may be greater or less than the
cell dimeusion. depending on lhe angle and
loca1ion of lbc pa·1b.
The travel cost required to r.each each
cell is lhe minimum accumula1ed 101al of the
cost times the distance to a source cell. We
specify a minimum accumulated cost
because if 1bere is more lhan one source cell.
1here is a large munber of po1emial pmhs 10
each of these.source cells. Distance across
each cell is muhiplied by the friction surface
cos1for 1lu11 cell and s11mmed for a palb 10
ac.cumulate the total travel cost. The lowest
cos1 p.1th from a source location to a celJ is
usually assigned as 1be crave! cost 10 1ba1
cell.
Figure I 0.28 shows an example of cal·
culations for the friction cost along a set of
paths. These are straight line palhs thal
lta\'el eilber p<1rallel 10 1be cell boundaries
(purely in an x or y direc1io11) or a1 some
angle across cells.
Sample calc11la1ion oflhe fric1ioo coses
fora path parallel to the x-axis is shown at
lhe 1op middle and on 1he left side of Fig11re
10.28. NOie 1ba1 wbeo traveling parallel to a
cell boundaty, one half-cell width is lrn-
ve~ed ill tlie s1a,1ing And Mdittg cells. lmer.
mediate cells are crossed a1 a full cell wid1b.
\Vhen moving from the slarting cell to the
adjacenl left cell, a friction surface value of
l is eoco11n1ered. lhen a friction s11rface
value of 3. One-half the disrance, 5 units. is

cost = ce ll dist ance • friction output cost s urface

friction surface?
3 1 ~F CoSI •
3
- (5 . I)

~· /.,/
'9 ,,,.~ "·
. ($ • 3)

20
50

2
~ ~
~..... I 1
\ Cost •
..___ (5 6 • I)
39.2 14.l 10
(5.6 " 3)
2 1 1 (5 6 • I)
. (5.6 . 2) 42.3 22.4 ,!O
39.2
10 10
...,_. urtti --+ +-- uni•s -+
Fi&u1·t- 10-18:A co1,t surfnc:c: b,u cd 011 s~1i.11I\' \"1.riablc t:nn'Cl C:05'1s. A fric:1io11 ,,lffac:c spcc:-ifics the fP:Uit Uy
varying co5t of tm,·cling through rn.&t¢rceu.._ The diitn.zw;-c tra,·mcd tbrougb each cell is multiplied by the C:0$1
in the 6icrion swiacc. The ,·alues arc sunuutd for och path 10 yield a total cost.
 Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 463

through the top-right cell at~ per-un_it fric-
tion cost of 1. One,balftbe distance is
through the adjacent cell to 11te left. at a per-
uni1 friclion cos1 of 3. The total cost JS then
the distance traveled in each cell multiplied
by the per-11ni1 (ric1ion cost of the cell:
5 "1• 5 ' 3• 20
The friction cost when traversing cells at
an angle. is illustrated at the bottom le~ ~d
bonom center of Figure 10-28. The fr1cuon
cost is the sum of the cell cost per unit dis·
tance multiplaed by the distance traveled in
each cell. The path begins a1 the source cell
and ends rwo cells 10 the left and one cell
down. Each intervening cell is traversed for
a distance of 5 .6 cell units. The distance tra-
versed in each cell is multiplied by tile fric-
tion value for each cell. The total cos1for
this leg is:
5.6"1, 5.6 "3 , S.6' 1 • 5.6 '2 • 39 2
In general. the cost of a11y path is
expressed as:
where d, is the distance and c, isthe cost
across eaclt cell of a patlt.
(10.9)
Many sofrwares calculate the C\U11ula-
1ive cost for the most d,rect pmh usmg a
slightly different approach, called dte n>w-
column disrm,ce. Rather than travel along a
straight line path. the row-coh1mn distance
travels from cell center to re.II center (Figure
J0-29). Calculations are much easier
because 1he leng1h of the pa·th wi1bin each
cell is constant with row cohmm distance,
and for square cells this distance equals the
cell width (or height). The distance Ill each
c-ell , 1aries wben using the straight line dis-
tance. and so the time required to calculate
the accmnulated distance is substantially
increased. The row/column distance gives
(I0.10) the same relative cosls for travel from a
source cell to each target cell. but the abso-
hne costs change (compare ·11_1e costs on the
right of Figure 10-2$ to the nght of Figure
I 0-29).

cost • . output cost :surface

row/column distance · friction
fric tion surface
3 3
•
1~·
-· '"
Cost •
(5 ' I)
50 20
$<XJr ce
cell
- -· , (5 • 3)
........_ , (5 ' 3)

..-
2 l I • (5 • l)
.. •
•
(5
(5
' I)
• 2)
55 40 10

2 I J 55
45 30 zo
_ ,o -+
Uf'll1$

fii:ur~ IOi.29: Cakulacions of th,: lr:m:I cost from a sourc,: c<"U Co ~b other cell usU~g ro,,·<olunm
distaucc C;11kulatioos.
464 GIS Fundamentals
Many implementations of a friction sur·
face or cos1 function allow you 10 search for
the minimum cost to travel 10 a cell from a
set of source cells. The straight line distance
may 001 be 1he "leas1 cosily." and so al1ema-
1ives may be examined. There are many
routes from any siou.rce cell to any de.stina.
1ion cell, thousands of distinct routes in most
instances. Software iypicaUy implemems
some optimization algorithm to eliminate
rou1es early on and reduce search time,
thereby arriving at the cost surface in some
acceptable time period.
No1e 1ba1 barriers may be placed on a
cost surface 10 preclude travel across por-
tions of the surface. These barriers may be
specified by seniog 1he cos1 so high 1ba1 no
path will include ·rhem. Any circuitous rou1e
will be less expensive than traveling over the
barriers. Some so:ftware allows 1he specifica-
1ion of a unique code 10 idemify barriers. and
this code precludes movement across the
cell.
Summary
Raster analyses are essemial 1ools in
GIS. and should be 11nders1ood by all users.
Raster analyses are widespread and we11
developed for ma:ny reasons. in part d11e 10
1be simplicily oftbe daia sirucmre. the ease
with which contimuous variables may be rep·
resemed. and 1he long bis1ory of rasier anal-
yses.
Map algebra is a concep1 in which ras1er
data layers are combined via sunuua1io11 and
multiplicalion. Values are combined on a
cell-by-cell basis. and may be added. sub-
1rac1ed. 11111hiplied. or divided. Care must be
taken to avoid ambiguous combinations in
1he output that originate from distinct input
combinatious.
Raster analyses can be locaU. neighbor-
hood. zonal, or global. Local analyses are
very conunonly us«i because they are eS$en·
tial to many lasks. Neighborhood operations
are particularly common in raster analyses.
and may be applied with a moving window
approach. A moving window is swept across
all cells in a da1a layer. 1ypically mulliplying
kernel values by da1a found aronnd a center
cell. Window size and shape may be modi-
fied a11he edges of the da1a layers. Moving
windows may be used 10 specify a wide
range of combiuatorial. terrain. and statisti-
cal functions. Zonal functions can mimic
some elements of vector analysis by identi-
fying regions as 1he basis for work. Global
functions. examined above in the context of
map algebra. typically draw on all cells in
1he raster 10 come up with sin.gle values.
Finally. 1bere are general analyses 11ta1
may be applied using ras,er data selS. Com-
mon.ly used are buffering and overlay. but
1he1e A~ joined by mo~ sophis1;ta1ed forms
such as cost or friction surfaces lhat are an
imponant subse1 of proximity aualyses that
may be easily applied in raSler ruialyses. A
cos1 surface identifies 1he iravel coslS
required for movement from a specified set
of locations.
 Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 465

Suggested Reading

Berry, J.K. ( 1986). A mathematical strucnire for analyzing maps. £1m'rr:,11111emal

Management. l 1:317-325.

Berry, JJC. (1987). Fundamental operations in computer-assisted mapping. /111er11a-

tio11al Journal of Geog,.ophic /11/on,,ation Systems. l:119-136.
Bonham-Carter. G~F. ( 1996). Geog,.aphic /11fonua1io11 SystemsJo,· Geosdemists:
ModeJ/ing lt'ith GIS. Ott.awa: Perga1J1on.

Burrough, P.A.. McDomtell. R.A. ( 1998). Pl'inciples oJGeogmphical h,formntion

SJ.rems (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Cliff. A.D .. Ord. J.K. ( 1987). Spa tin/ A111ocC1-reln1ion. New York: Methuen.
DeMcrs. M.N. (2002). GIS Modeling in Raster. New York: Wiley.

de Smi1h. M.1.. Goodchild. M.F.. Longley. P.A. (2007). Geospalial Anal)'sis, a Com·
pre.l,eusfre Gufde ro P;iuciples. Tec/111iq11es. and Software Tool~·. Leicester: Mata-
dor.
Eashnan. J.R.• Jin, W., Keym, P.AK., Toledano, J. (1995). Raster procedures for
mutci~cri1eria/muhi--0bjec1ive decisions. Photogmmmern·c Eugiueen'ug and
kemore !ienni,g, 61 :S39- S47.
Eastman. J.R. (1997). idrisifor lf7ndou·s. Worcester: Clark University.
Hengl. T. (2006). Finding the right pixel size. Co111p111ei·s and Geosciences. 32: 1283-
1298.
Mitchell. A. (1999). T/,e £SRI Gnide 10 GJS .4nalJois: Geogmpl,ic P1111erns and Rela-
rionsbips. Redlands: ESRI Press.

Morain. S ., Baros. S.L. ( 1996). Raster Imagery in Geograpllic Jufor111(llf011 Sysrems.

Sama. Fe: OnWord Press.

Tomlin. C.D. (1990). Geographic b,fon11ation Sysrems and Cartographic Modeling.

Uppe.r Saddle River: Prentice-Hall.
Usery, E.L. (1996). A conceprual Framework and Fuzzy Set lmplemenra1ion for Geo-
graphic Features, in Geogmpltic Objects witlt !uderermiume 8owuiaries. P. Bur-
rough. A. Frank. I. Masser. F. Salge, eds. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Vojtekova, J., Vojtek. M. (20 19). GIS-based landscape Stability Analysis: a Compar-
ison of Overlay Method and Fuzzy Model for the Case Study in Slovakia. The
Professio11a/ Geog,·apher, 71:63 1-644.
466 GIS Fundamentals

Study Questfons

10.l • What is map algebra?

10.2 - Why musl raster layers have compatible cell sizes and orientations for most
raster combination operations?
10.3 - \Vhat is a null value in a raster data set? How is 1his mill value typic.ally treated
in a raster operation?

10.4 . Perfom, the listed raster operations.

Perform the folloYiv'lg ope.r<Jtions with o

3 2 4 ti 9 1 3
J>eJ Wind0',',1, cente~d on the noted cells·
1 © 5 20 14 8 7 -ove:roge. on th.? puitogon.
-srondord devlotlon, on the clrc.le.
7 13 2 1
' & ti
·mo)Of'(lum. on tht 1tlonglt.
12 11 10 8 5 6 10 -V(J'ue range. on lne sQUOre .
·average. on the eltlp,e.
3 2 1] 17 12 'iili' 9 -m~dion, on the sror

(I) 5 6 8 3 13 16
19 17 9 ti @ 7 15

10.S. Perfom, the listed raster operations.

Perform the followmg operot1ons v.,th o

3 2 4 ti 9 1 3
Jx3 wtnd<Jw centtN.:d on the noted cell,.-
1 6 5 20 14 8 7 -0Yero9e on the pentagon
-stondord deviohon, on the clrcle.
7 @ 2 I & 9 ti
-rnoximixn, °"tht 1nongJEe,
12 ti 10 8 5 6 10 ·V<JI~ range, on tlw: square,
-cwer09e. Oii fhe tlllpse,
3 'T
= I 17 I<;'>] ti 9 ·mtdlOtl. c)l'I rt'.t StQI"

8 5 [I 8 3 13 16

19 17 9 ti @ 7 15
 Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 467

10.6 - Wbal are the values in cells CI. C2, C3, and C 12 in tl1e output layer?
Con(Loyerl < 2. o. 1)
Loyert
2 N ! 2
! N ! 3

• I 2 0
Outpur
N 2 N I
Cl Cl CJ C4
C5 ,. C7 C8

C9 c,o en c,2
C,J C15 C,6
'"
I 0.7 - Wbal are the values in cells CS. C7. C IO, aud C 13 in tlte oulpul Uayet1
Con(Loyerl < 2. o. 1)
Loyer I
2 N ! 2
1 N J 3

• I 2 0
Oufput
N 2 N I
Cl Cl CJ C4
C5 ,. C7 C8

C9 c,o en C!2

C13 C,5 (!6

'"
468 GIS Fundamentals

10.8 - What ar-e the cell values for cells Cl, C3, C4, and CIO in the output layer.
below?
Ou1pul • CON((loyerA .. N), t, loyerA)
loyerA.

N N I 0

I N 2 N

N 4 N N
Ou1 w
N
0
' I
Cl CZ CJ c,
cs C6 Cl cs
C9 CIO Cll C12
Cl3 C14 Cl5 C16

10.9 - Wbat are 11te cell values for cells C2. CS. C7. and C l I in the ompm layer.
below?
Output • CON((loyerA=cN), t, loyerA)
loyerA

N N I 0
I N 2 N

N 4 N N
Output
0 t N I
Cl C2 CJ c,
cs C6 Cl C8
C9 CIO Ctl Ct2

C!J C14 CIS C!6

IO.IO - Give an example of a nested operation.

 Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 469

10. 11 - Whal are the values in output cells C9. CIO, Cl I, and CI2?

Output = CON(ISNULL(loyerA). 1. N)

loyerfl
I N N 0
0 N 2 I

N l 5 0
Output
N l N I
Cl C2 C3 C4

cs C6 C7 CB

C9 ClO Cl! Cl2

Cl3 Cl4 Cl5 Cl6

10.12 - What are the values in output cells C7, CS, CI3, and CI6?

Output = CON(lSNULL(loyerA). I. N)
loyerA
I N N 0
0 N 2 I

N I 5 0
Output
N I N I
Cl C2 C3 C4

cs C6 C7 CB

C9 CIO Cl! CI2

Cl3 Cl4 Cl5 Cl6

10.13 - \V'hal is the scope of a raster operation'?

10.14 - D<>es a NOT operation applied 10 a raster cell value containing a, NULL value
rentm a ~VLL value. a zero value. a I. or some other non-null value?

10, 15 - D.iagram an Ai'ID operation on a ras1erda1a cell.

4 70 GIS Fundamentals

10. 16 - Provide the answer for the following logic.al operations:

1 I 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
and =
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
or =
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

10.17 . Provid,e 1he answ,:r for lhe following logical operations:

0 0 N 3 0 5 0 1
1 0 0 3 1 0 0 1
and =
1 7 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 N 0 1 1 0 1 1

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 9
0 0 0 I 1 0 0 I
or =
3 0 0 0 1 1 N 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 6 0
 Chapter 10: Raster Analyses 471

10.18 - Describe how Jocal arithmetic functfons can be used to apply a ,cJip function
in a raster euvironmeut.

10.19 - \Vhat is a kemel in a moving window operation'! Ooes the kemel size or
shape change for dilferem ponions or the rnster data se1? Why or why not?
10.20 - \Vhat moving window operation would most likely use the kemel below?

·2 ·I ·2 ·I ·2
-1 0 0 0 ·I

·2 0 25 0 -2

.J 0 0 0 .J

-2 -1 ·2 -1 -2

10.21 • \Vha1 moving window operation would most likely use the kemel below?

I 2 I

0 0 0

-I -2 -1

10.22 - \Vhat is me.ant by high spatial covariance in a raster data layer?

4 72 GIS Fundamentals

10.23 - Calculate the cost of travel between A and B. ru1d A and C, over the cost sur·
face below. both by straigh1 line. and by row-<:olumu paihs.

Source/target cells
A

B c I 10 units
Cost surface
3 5 6 8
4 1 7 5
1
2
2
5
4
1 6
I 1 [SJ1 remember. the
diogonol of o square
is 1.41 x t he edge

10.24 . Calcula1e 1be cost of travel be1ween A and B. aud A and C. over the cos, sur-
face below, bo1b by s1raigh1 line. and by row.column paihs:

s ourceItarqet cells
A

B c [ 10 units

Cost surface
2 4 7 8
3 I 7 9
I
5
1
1
4
4
1
7
2
[SJ1 remember. the
diogonol of o square
is 1.41 x t he edge
 473

11 Terrain Analysis

Introduction
Elevation and related terrain variables
are important at some point in almost every·
one's Life. Elev.11ioo and slope cl\ange across
1be Landscape (Figure 11 -1 ). and •his varia-
tion detemiimes where rivers flow, lakes
occtir. and Ooods are frequeol Terrain ,,aria-
tion influences soil moisn1re and hence food
production. Terrain in large part affec1s
wa1er qualicy 1brougb sedimeo1 generation
and 1ranspor1. 11 sirongly influences irans-
ponation networks and the cost and methods
of building cons1ruc1ion. Terrain variables

fian~ 11· 1 : Au e:<rui'11c of .t fcou.i.n·baKd ii~gc ofdie western Vniti:d Stales. Shnding, b:i.s,c,cl oo loci!
clc:,.-tioo. c:::inphuiz« tcm.in shape:. Topographic featttrcs are dcari)' ickotified. inchidua,g 1.bc Cc.-ntral Val-
ley ofCali.ion,ia a1 tbc left oftbc imaj:c. and to lite center and ri3bt. the pamJJd mowua.1os aud ,-alleys o(
the B!ltill !llld R.·•ugc tcgion (courte.t{USOS).
474 GIS Fundamentals

are frequently applied in a broad range of
spatial a11alt, es (Table I l -1).
Given the imponance of elevation and
other terrain variables in resource manage·
mem. and the diffic11lties of man11al 1emin
analysis. it is not :surprising 1hat terra in anaJ.
ysis is well develcpe<I in GIS. lndee<I. it is
often impractical 10 perfom, consis1en1 1er-
rain analyses without a GIS. for example,
slope calculations over large areas based on
manual methods are slow. error prone. and
inconsistent. Elevation change over a hori-
zontal distance is difficuh to measure. these
measurements are slow. and e.s1in1ates are
likely 10,.,,ry among human analysts. In
contrast. d igital slope calculations are easy
to program, consistent. and have proven to
be as accurate as field measurements.
Both data and melhods exisl to extract
imponant terrain ,.,,riables via a GJS. Digital
ete,•ation models (DEMs). described in
Chapters 2 and 7. have been developed for
most of 1he world using methods described
in Chapters 5 and 6. and DEM renewal and
improvement cootinues.

Table 11- 1 : A subset of commonly used terrain variables (adapted from

Moore e t al., 1993).

varlable Desalpllon Importance

Helgtl Elevation abOve base Tempe,a1Ure, vegetation, Visit>illty

Slope Rise relalive to Waler flow, flooding, erosien, travel

horizontal di$1.ance cost, oonstructlon suitability,
geology, insolatlon, soil depth

Aspect Oownhlll direction of lnsotaUon. temperalure, vegetation, sell

steepes1 slope Cha,aaertstics and mo1s1ura,
vlsJblllty

upslope area watershed area Sotl moisture. water runoff volume and
above a point timing, poUutlon or erosion
hazards

Aowlenglh Longest upstream see11men1 and erosion rates.

flow palh co a point

upslope 1eng1h Mean ot total Sediment and erosion rates

upstream now path
lenglh r,om a poinl

Profile Curvature parallel to Erosion, water now acceleration

o.irvature sk>pe dlrecuon

Plan curvature Curvature perpendlc- Water flow convergenoe, soil water,

ular 10 slope direction eros.bn

Vislbilily Site obstruction rrom Ulfllty location, viewshed

given viewpoints preservation
 Chapter 11: Terrain Analysis 475

Calculations are based on cell values Slope and Aspect

assigned 10 a regular grid. We use the con-
cept of Z ,•alues. the height stored in the ras-
ter arrays. to extract infom1ation about
temiin. using 1he magnitudes and pa11ems of
cbanges in Zacross the grid (Figure 11-2).
For example., tJ1e height differences between
adjacent cells or in a neighborhood of cells
are used 10 calculme a local slope (slope in
Figure 11-2). TI1e angle and orientation of
lines defined by x, y, and Z values near a
poin1 are used 10 calculate 1he normal vector
al righ1angles 10 the local surface (Figure '
11-2). Local curvature and slope direction
are also calct1!med by differences ill Z values
in a neighborhood.
Many terrain analysis functions can be
spec~fied by a ma1bematical operation
apphed to an appropriate moving window.
The ~ ul1s from \hes~ ma1hematical opera-
tions m mm provide unponant infomiation
aboul terrain characteristics that are helpful
in spatial aua.lysis.
Slope.and 3.5pect are 1wo commonly
used terram vanables. They are required in
many s1udies of hydrology, ,conservation
site planning. and infras1ruc1Ure develop:
ment. and are the basis for many other ter-
rain analysis functions. Road constniction
costs and safety are sensi1iv~ 10 slope.
Watershed boundaries. Oowpa1hs and dil'l.'(·
tton, erosion modehng, and viewshed deter-
mination (discussed later in Ibis chapter) all
use slope and/or aspect data as input. Slope
or aspecl may be useful in ntapping both
vegetation and soil resources.
. SIOJ)e is defined as the chru1ge in eleva-
l!on (a nse) with a change in hori2on1al posi-
i•on (a run). See~ in.cross section, 11,e slope
1s related to the nse m eleva'tion over 1be nm
in horizontal position (Figure 11-3). Slope is
often reported in degrees. between zero
(Oa1). and 90 (venical). Tbe slope is equal 10
45 degrees when the rise is equal to tl1e run.
The slope in degrees is calculated from the
rise and nm through the 1angen1 trigonomet-
ric function. fiy definition, the tangent of 1he

NormQl
direcilon

z... oh~lght. ~ g z, • 9 .C2 ft

.t\Z; Is 21 21. , 9. t.Z,a 1, 955. 942 • IJ
The :vrfotc nqm,al ond ~lc)f:)c. dir(¢1t0ns 01 My poinr ore
coleulat~d ftan \'OMOus ozu

!la:ure ':?~~: A d~ictiou of., stuf:.m: rcprcscmcd by a ras1cr DEM. aud cbRn,tes io z ,,atucs (or cdls med
,M C31C'\ 1.1lll1Ut \':U10US tC1Tllm llltn'butc:S..
4 76 GIS Fundamentals

Slope os ptrcen1. ~: · 100 : ; god

l :
: .J «ll
•.VS · 100 ·,< - SIOJ)<

SIO~t OS d•grtts • lj) \

• iori 1(,VB)
·"···1· . ,
\
;\ ,. '

..
-··.
.. ~·.-/
.

B Flgtu'e 11...,: Slope dil'C'c:1io11., ~lOWtL Al gray

To <:orwert from percent slope to degrees.
opply formulo.
e.g. 3% • hOw mony degrte.s'
nm::,ws for 5omc example loc111J011, 11bove, often
change, ,ubstantiall>' among cells oo a r2stcr sur·
face. Slope c:11.lculatson1 in 1hr« dim.c mions
l'C'quil'C' 1.he cont idcr11tion of ttll ,·o.lucs s1uro1t11d·
ing 11,eclL

A/B • 100 • 3, lhen A/B • 3/100 • 0 .03

then tori1 (0.03) • 1.72 degrees (Figure 11-4). Slope changes in a complex
way across many landscapes. and calct1la·
fia:urT ll-J: Slope formula. showing tbe rise
(A). nm (8). ru,d slope •ogle(~~ 1ions of slope must factor in 1he rebttive
changes in elevations arow1d a central cell.
As demonstrated iu Figure LJ-4. the
slope angle(~) is !he ratio of the rise over aspect. or slope direction. often does not
the CUil as shown in (Figure 11·3). The point parallel to 1he raster rows or columns.
inverse tangent ora measured rise over a nan Consider tlte cells depicted in F,gure I L-5.
gives the slope angle. A steeper rise or
shorter nm lead to a higher$ and hence
steeper slope.
Slope may also be expressed as a per· 42 45 47
cent. calculated by I 00 1imes !he rise over
1be run (Figure Ill-3). Slopes expressed as a
percent have magnitudes from zero (flat) to
infinite (vertical). with a sign convention 49
inconsistendy defined. Some aud1ors define
a positive slope as uphill (0 Jo +oo). and a
nega1ive slope downhill (0 10 -«>). while 0111.
ers define slope 0<1ly downhill (O10 +oo). A
slope of I00%occurs when the rise equals 44 52
the mn.
C~l,~l~!ing $lope from~ rnter ~·1~
layer is more complicated than in the cross. fl1turt- 11.S: Slope direction oo a n,ter n1r-
section view shown in Figure 11·3. The ras- f11.cc u1.W1ll)' docs llOI poiiu from cell ccn1c:r
10 c:,cll c:nuer. Tituefol'C', fonttube tlint ~CU•
ter cells occur at regular intervals across an ntcly rcpre, enl i lopc 011 a surf::,.,cc intcgrnlc
irregular terrain surface. Slope direclion at a k \'ctal cells wrrouudiog the center cell.
point in the lands(ape is typically measured
in the steepest direction of elevation change

Higher elevalions occur al the lower right
corner. and lower elevations occur tow3rd
the upper left. The direction of steepest slope
trends from one cornertowards tJ1e.other, but
does not pas~ directly through the center of
any cell. How do we obtain values for the
rise and nm? Which elevations should be
used 10 t.1lcu!a1e slope? Intuitively we
should use some combimuion of a number of
cells in the vicinity of the center cell, per-
haps all of them.
Elevatioo is often represemed by the let-
ter Zin l'errnin functions. These terrain func.
tions are usually calculated with a
symmetrical moving window. A 3 by 3 cell
window is most conunOIL aJthougb 5 by 5
aud other odd-numbered windows are also
used. Each cell in the window is assigned a
subscript. and the e.levation values found at
window loca1ions referenced by subscripted
Z values.
Figure I ll-6 shows au example of a 3 by
3 cell window. The central cell bas a value of
44, and is referred to as cell Zo· The upper
left cell is 1eferred 10 as Z1• lhe uwei center
cell as 22• and so on through cell Z8 in the
lower right comer.
Slope at each ceoter cell is most com·
monly c.alculated from the formula:
2 is perhaps the most obvious and provides
s = o,on (~ )' + (~)
y ,, ' z,
42 45 47
'• • ,,
40 44 49
z. - z,
44 48 52
x
fiam't' 11-'; Slope ~kul_.ation W.sed on cells ndjau:ent to 1be ceotcrcdl.
Chapter 11: Terrain Analysis 477
where s is slope, aton is I.he inverse 1ru1gen1
l\uiction. z is elevation. x and y are the
respec.tive coordinate a.«es. and dZ/dx and
dZ/dy are calculated for each cell based on
elevation values surrounding a given cell.
The symbol dl./dx represents tile rise
(change in Z) ove.r lhe nm io the x direction.
and dZ/dy represents the rise over the run in
they direction. These fonnulas are combined
to calculate !he slope for each cell based on
I.he combined change in elewation in the x
and y directions.
Many different fommlas and metl,ods
have been proposed for calculating dZ/dx
and dZ/dy. The four ue(lre.st cells method.
shown in Figure 11-6 and at the top of Fig-
ure l l-7, is the simplest. and uses the four
cells closest to Zo:
dZ/d• , (Zs· Z,l/(2C) (11 Zl
f!Z/IJ; • (Zi • Z7)/(2C) (tlJ)
Here. C is the cell dimension and the Zs are
defined as in Figure 11·6. T.his method uses
the four cells that share an edge with the
focal cell. z•. 25 . Z2• and Z7 • in calculating
dZ/dx and dZ/dy. This four nearest method
(11 t) reasonable slope ,~Ines tUld:er mmiy circum-
s1ances.
tor Zo:
dZ/dx • (49 • 40)/20 • 0.45
dZ/dy • (45 - 48)120 • -O.l5
slope, oton {l(0.45/. (-0.1sl1°5 )
• 25.3°
4 78 GIS Fundamentals

Four neo rest cells

elevation values kernel for dZldx kernel for dZldy
z, • z, z, ~
,.
42 45 47 0 0 0 0 I 0

40 44 49
•
-1 " 0
z,
I
•
0
~

0
.. 0
'• • ,, ,. z, z,
44 48 52 0 0 0 0 -l 0
OZ/a,,.• (Z, • Z, )12C dZldy, (Zz • Z 1 )t2C
dZ/dx * dZ/dy .
(49 • 40)/20 • 0 45 (45 • 48)120 • -0 15

Third order finite difference

elevation values kernel for dZ/dx kernel for dZ/dy
z, z, z, • z,
'
42 4.5 47 -1 0 1 1 2 1

40 44 49
~

-2
~

0
.. 2
z,
0
~

0
.. 0
z, z, z, z, z,
'
44 48 52 -1 0 l -1 -2 -I
- c-10-- dZ/dx . dZ/dy.
((Z3 • z, ) ·2<Zs · z,) ((21 - Z6 ) •2(Z, - 2 7 J
·(Z. • Z,, ))/SC ·(Z3 • Z8 )J/8C

dZ/dx • dZ/dy.
[ (47 42) • [ (47 • 52) •
2 (49 • 40) • 2 c,s . 48) •
(52 • 44) 1180 (42 • 44) )/80
• 0.39 • -0 16

slope • oron[(0.39)' · (-016l'J0 ' • 229•

Fi&u1"' U -7: F0\13' near«t cells met.bod (1op} aud third order finite diff'crcocc rucdk>d (bottoitti
explained on the ucxt pa3c), used iu cakul.atl.ltf slope:. C isc:dl s12c :md dZ/dx :md dl!d,f :uc the
c:b:utg:n ifl cle\'lltion (riK) with d1111)@:c.C in honiont:il ~tion (nu1). Note tbll.t different i lopc \'alun
al'C produced by the difftte11l mcthod-,.

A common altemate method is known
as a 1/til'd oro,e,·fi11ite dif!ern,ce approach
(Figure 11 -7. bonom). This .method for cal-
ctdatiug dZ/dx and dZ/dy differs mamly 111
1he number and weigh1ing it gives 10 cells in
1he ,;ciniiy of 1he cemer cell. The four near-
e.st cells are g iven a higherweigh! lhan the
"comer" cells. but da1a from all eight neares1
cells arc 11sed..
Several other methods have been devel-
oped 1ha1 are hener for calcula1ing slope
uoder certain rondilions. Better means that,
on average. a method produces more accu.
rate slope es1ima1es when compared 10 care-
fully c0Uec1ed field measurements.
However, no method has proved best under
all 1errnin coi,ditions. Li1eramre on the me1h-
ods.. their derivation, and application are
IiSled al the end of1his chapter.
Comparative snidies have shown the
two methods described here to be among the
best for calculating slope and aspec1 over. a
wide range or condi1ions. The method usmg
the four nearest cells was among the best for
s,uoolli 1ertai:u. and tl1e 31d older finite dif-
ference approach is often among 1he bes1
when applied to rough terrain.
Aspect is also an iruportam terrniu vari-
able that is commonly derived from digital
elevation data. The aspect at a poinl is the
steepest dow11bill directioi!. The direction. is
typic~lly reported as an azimuth angle. with
zero in the direction of grid nonh., and the
azimuth angle increasing in a clock~vise .
direction (Figure l 1-8). Aspects defmed this
way take values benveen Oand 360 degrees.
Flat areas ha"e no aspect. because there is no
downhill dire-ction.
Aspec1 (c.) is most often calculated using
dZ/rJx and dZ/ dy:
where aton is. the inverse langent funcl'ion
1hat renirns d.egrees. and dZ/dy and dZ/dx
are defined as above.
Chapter 11: Terrai n Analysis 479
N
'
Fia:urit U-& Aspect may be reported as ao azi·
mu1h IWjlc. mct11Uttd clockwise io dc:~ci f.rc.n
north-
As with slope calculations. estimated
aspect varies with the methods used 10 deter-
mine dZ/dx and dZ/dy. Tests have shown ,he
four nearest cell and third order finite differ.
eoce methods again yield among the mos1
ace11rate results. with the third order me1hod
among the best under a wide range of terrain
condi1ioos.
Profile cunnture and pfn11 c11n·nt11re are
two other local topographic indices that are
important in temiu analysis and may be
derived from gridded elevaiion data. Profile
and plan curvature are he.Jpful in measuring
and predicting soil water conte111, o,·erland
flow. rainfall-runoff response in small ca1cb-
men1s. and the distribution of vegetation.
Profile cm'\•awre is an inde~ of~he s.ur·
face sh.ape in the steepest downhill drrect1on
(Fiiture 11-9). The profile curvature may be
envisioned by imagining a vertical plane.
slicing downward into lbe e.artb surface.
with the plane containing the line of steepesi
descem (aspect direc1ion). Tbe s11rface traces
a palh along the face of this plane, and the
curvature is defined by the shape of this
path. Smaller values of profile curva111(e
indicale a concave (bowl shaped) path in the
downhill direction, and larger values of pro-
file curvamre indica1e a con.vex (peaked)
shape in the downhill direc1ion.
480 GIS Fundamentals

0 • I (z... Z~)/Z· Zoltcl Fi;utt U-9: Profile cun-..nttc and

Z: z, z, C • ( (Z, • Z1>12· Zo i,cJ
pl11n CW'\'llturc measure 1hc loclll h:f..
111in s.bapc. Fonnulas (left:) combine
\·alues. nUTOund:ing n «nt·cr cell with
z. z, r.<z>. 21 .z. .z.)1,c.1
'• cocflicicntt l.ba1 ~,·cal cooca\'ity or
com'Cxity i111hc k\'cl (plan) and
C·!2,·2,)/2C
'• z, z, do,\11bi.LI (profile) di,m:1ioos (bc:low).
H,(Z_.-Z,)/ZC.
- c-

plG"I C.Ul'\'Otute
?(Ct-11. EGl • FGM)

ci. H'
prof1k CIIW't\J't
·2(DG1 , £>i ,FGti)

c'. M2

Different softwares apply differeo, sign
conventions, sometimes maki_ng concave
curvamre positive, somelimes assigning
them negative values. Raw values are
reported in some versions. while other soft-
wares scale curvatures over a standard
range. e.g.. from O 10 I00. As with most spa-
1ial analysis. the specific software imple-
men1a1ion should be verified over known
1es1 cases.
Pfau cw,·nn,re is the profile shape in the
local direction of level. at right angle 10 the
steepest direction. This me.ans plan cur\la-
ture is measured al a right angle to profile
curvanire (Figure 11-9). Piao c1,rvan,re may
also be envisioned as a vertical plane slicing
into the surface. and is measured in a hori·
zomal plane. The surface traces a patb on the
face of lhe plane, and I.he plan curvature is a
measure of the shape of Iha, path. Concave
plan cu.rvamre values are small or negati\le
for sloping valleys or clefts. while convex
plan curvamre values al ridge and peak si1es
are large or positive.
 Chapter 11: Terrain Analysis 481

These concepls of directionaJterrain

shape may be developed fonher 10 identify
1erml11 or mo,phometric/eawres. These are
characleristic terrain e.leme1Jts inc.luding
planes. peaks. passes. saddles. channels,
ridges_ shoulders. 1oe slopes, aod pits (Fig-
ure 11-10). Each of these shapes has panicu-
- -"<""-
- --:->--
Peak
lar terrain a11rib111es that often affec1
important spatial variables. For example.
soil is lhinoer and water scarcer on ridges
and p•aks because they are convex. while
materials accmnulate in pits: and d1annels.
Terrain features may be identified by
observing the convexity in i:be plan and pro-
file directions. For example~peaks are char.
acterized by convex shapes tin both the x and
y directions, a ridge is convex in one direc·
tion but relatively flat in another. while a pit
is concave in orthogonal directions (Figure
11-10). Formulas similar 10 1bose in Figure
Flaurt' 11. 10: Morphornctric feature t)'l)C.1 m11y 11 -9 have been developed 10 measure the
be defined by the relative bcig.!11$.. aod heoce convexity and concavity in specified orthog-
dircctfonal co11,"C"Xity. o( adjac:cot cells (adapted
from Jo Wood. 1996). onal directions. T~e "arious combinations
may then be applied to identify ierrain fea-
tures (Figure ll -11).

tiaurt" u . lJ; Tcmiin m<>1pbometty, or n,orl)l1ome~c: feat\ll"CS. may be deri,·cd from dircction3I conn:xity
incas:ures. Atmllded map of a 11,ouutainous arc-.1 shows ,1lllcyt aud cbaw,cls (left). wbichi arc: idauificd visi
inorpl1omc1ric COT.till :uuilysc::s aud sbowu as unif01mly Wdcd arcat (right).
482 GIS Fundamentals

Hydrologlc Function s completely conlained wi1bin Lhe- \Vatershed.

Digital elevation models are used exien·
sively in hydrologic analyses. Water is basic
to life, commerc.e, and comfort. and there is
a subs1amial inves1men1 in water resource
moui1oring. gathering. protection. and man-
agement. Spalial functions are applied to
DEMs 10 yield important information on
hydrology.
A watershed is an area that contributes
flow to a poim 0t1 tbe landscape (Figure 11•
12). Watersheds i:11ay also be named basins.
contributing areas, catchments. drainages..
and subbasins or subca1clunen1s. The en1ire
uph.iU area that drains 10 any point on a land-
scape is the watershed for that point. Water
falling anywhere in the ups1reao1 area of a
watershed will pass through 1ba1 point
Watersheds may lbe qujte small. For exam-
ple. 1be wa1ershed may cover only a few
square meters on a ridge or high slope. Local
high points have watersheds of zero area
because all \\'liter drains away. Watersheds
may also be qui1e-large. including con1inen-
1al are.as that drain large rivers such as the
Amazon or Mississippi Ri\oers. Any point in
the main channel of a large river has a large
upstream watershed.
The drainage 11e11,·01* is !he se1of
streams and rivers in a watershed. and it is
AS shown in Figure 11·12. tlte s1ream net·
work often shows a dendri1ic pa'llern. with
smaller watercourses branching off from
larger segments as one moves upstream. The
base of the drainage necwork is often calle<I a
pour poilll or 0111le1.
Flowdirectio11 is used in many hydro-
logic rutalyses. The tme surface flow direc-
tion is 1be palh water would 1ake. if dtunped
in sufficient excess on a poin1 so as to gener-
a1e surface flow. This excess wa.ter flows io
1he steepest downhill direction. usually set
equivalem 10 the local aspec1.
The use of aspect to assign flow direc-
tion may be wrong. particularly in nearly Oa1
areas and in built environments.. Water flows
bOlh above and below the surface; if subsur-
face Oow is large. ignoring ii may cause
errors. If soils have different pem,eabilities.
or re.sistance 10 flow. then substtrface now
direction may be different 1han surface flow
direction. In s1eep. imdeveloped terrain.
lhere. is a strong downslope gra\~itational
grodie,u !llai ofie11 dolllittates. ill.id surface
and subsurface flow directions are often sim-
ilar. so aspect provides a reasonable approxi-
mation of overall flow direction_ In fla1 or
nearly tla1 terrain. soil permeability may
dominate. causing different subsurface and
surface flow directions. Ditches~culvens .

••
• ' . \
•,

·-
••

Fi&UN" 11-12: The waters.bed and drainage oetwork for tbc Brule Rin:Tin
uortlKtU Miunesota. Water cltains downslope from bia)ll.and lakes. at the leA
11.1~ l~p. 1ow11rd .Lllk~ Superior, ~11.be lower riiflt. ·me wtucrsl1cd 11rc11 eon-
tnbuhog lo tbe m"Cr , flow, tbc m ·cr path. ruid lnl:.c locn.liom o.o be m,,ppcd
from a DEM. .,,,,......
 Chapter 11: Terrain Analysis 483

/ .. ,.. ../' ••....... "' ""\ , r

.i

"! "'/
-":_.!,A ··," r\"
/
P'\ "\ ""t "'\ ..-.
-- ..- :, "\
"' "" "/ ~ flow direction

..-
...
-
-· "'; "\ "\.. " ...
"' "'\ "''-. '"'-.
••'-. "' "' ....
watershed from
flow direction

·, ...\, -
~

"'\
\ \
'".......
- °/' /
\
;"1"
droinoge network
from flow direction •
upstream oreo

,..
""'.. _,,,,. ·-~ -;-- -,
" "; ,.I ";
I -/
"';
-;
Fl~•~ U- 13: Flow dir«tiou (arrow. and nwubc:rrcfic:ctiujl a?Umub degrees). w1uc:nhcd. ind dnijnagc- uc-t-
wo1·k shown for• m51cr grid. Elc,'2tion d:u:11 arc used lO dcfu1c: d1c: flow dircc1ion for c:ttl1 c:dl. Tock flow
d.ircc1lon1 IUC' thcu used to <ktmni:i,c: 11 mimbcr ofimpor1~ot hydrolog.ic ti.mclious.

buried storm :sewers. and oLher built features but this leads 10 more complicated raster
alter flow directions in ways that aren't rep- s1n1cmresand calcuJa1ions.
resented by terrain. However, subsurface \Vhen ihe flow diredlo11 arrow from one
drainage and built features are oflen based cell does 001 point exactly a,1 the adjacem
ou modified ilow directions 1ba1 are first cell, we may distribute 1he Oow to more than
derived from surface shape. one adjacent cell. There are various ways to
Flow direc1ious may be envisioned as au dis1ribu1e flows among adjacent cells. The
arrow from a single cell 10 a single adjacent D8 method is common. and assigns all flow
cell, and stored as compass angles in a raster from a cell to the cell with the steepest
data layer (Fi,gure 11 •13). Acceptable values
are from O10 360 if1be angle is expressed in
degrees azimuth. Alternately. flow direction
can be stored as a number i11dit•1ing the
adjacem ceU ·10 which water flows. taking a
value from I to S or some other unique iden-
lifier for each direction towards cells..
The use ,of a sin_gle Oow direction is an
incomplete represen1a1ion in many
instances. ceals often exhibit divergent flow.
in muhiple di.rec.tions out of a cell to muhi·
pie adjacent cells (Figure I l-14). Flows may
also be convergent, with m11l1iple cells con-
tributing 10 a cell. The most common flow
direction methods provide a single direction
for each cell. so divergent and some conver·
gent flows are no, represented. One solution
involves recording sub-cell flow directions, fianN' U -H : Au C:<llmplc of simple (fl), co1ivcr·
gcut (b), aod divcrgciu (c) flow~
484 GIS Fundamentals

downhill grndienl (Figure 11-15, lefl). The nOI been widely implemented. A more com-
OS is simple 10 understand. program. and mon option is 10 use higher-resolution raster
store. but is panicularly poor at representing data such that raster cell size is ssnall enough
divergent flow and now in low-gradient to make within-cell divergence or conver-
areas. This can cause large errors in deri\'ed gence impacts negligible.
measures such as upslope contributing area Flou·1ux ,mwlmi011 m~a, conrt-ibuting
or soil moisrure indexes, and lead to atypical oren, or upslope area are otbe.r important
drainage networks in nearly Oat areas. Out· bydrologic characteristics. A Oow accumu-
put flow direction rasters derived from the lation area function is based on a flow direc-
OS method may be represented with only S tion surface. The flow accumulation
codes, allowing a simple and compact data function places a value in each cell that is the
layer. area uphill that dra.ins to that eel I.
Altemative flow direction methods may Watersheds may be identified once a
assign Oow 10 multiple cells. and hence rep- flow direction surface has been detennined.
resent some forms of divergent now. One Flow direction is followed "uphjll'" from a
common method. known as D-it!fiuio,. dis- point. until a peak is reached. Each uphill
tributes flow 10 oae downslope cell when the cell may have many con1rib111ing cells. and
flow direction is exactly toward the center of the flow into each of these cells is also fol-
the cell. and otberwise assigns a portion of lowed uphill. The uphill list is ace11mulated
the flow 10 each of the two adjacent cells in recursively umil all cells contributing 10 the
the downslope direction (Figure 11 -15. slarting ceJl have been identified. and thus
right). The split is proportional 10 the a11gles the watershed is defined.
be1weeu tbe steepest downslope direction
and the respective cell cemers. This reduces Flow direction in Oat areas is difficult to
!he main shortcoming of !he OS method, calculate and prone 10 error. ASpect is wtde-
while slightly increasing complexity. fined in a 1ntly Oat region. because there is
zero gradient. Flow directio!ls i11 these cases
While perhaps more accura1e in many may be strongly influenced by small height
conditions, multiflow direction systems have errors. so flow directions are sometimes

08·-··· ·····~ ................................

........ . .'' ... .. '' ...._D-infinitY,................ .... ................ ''
... .. ' ... '
.. '
''
. .. ..
... ...
'
..... '' '
..: .
:
.
'
..
.: ..:
'

............... ........,. .............. . '

.=··········-···:-··············.
.
'
..
..' ... 0 l .
i.. . . . . . ...l..............<'-'~- ----1..
: :
..
.
.. "•
.:···············~··············
. ......... ·····iI

..
: : 2 . 2
...... .... .
. ... . ..
. , , ,oouoo,o, . . , .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .. . . . ..,,•••• • .
............
. ..
.................................... ..........i
~

Celi l <>,SiQntda 1/ 4$ • floworeo tor cell O

All now ort:o ror ctn o ossqitd 10 ctll I
CeU 2 ossigned a:1•5 · now oreo for cell O
f i.zm·t- ll-1S; The DS Row di.r«tion mctllOd (abo,·e left) anigu, all flow lo lhe cell center c'lot.est lo
the flow direction (cell I). while the D-iufinity method pa11icions tbc Row to the two cc:Us 1w.arc:st the
Row direction. J)C'OpOrtioiul to tJ~ How dittction nniks (edit 111.0d 2. l'iptt).
 Chapter 11: Terrain Analysis 485

manually specified. or the aspect calculated
using a larger cell size or neig)lborhood. The
neighborhood may be successively
expanded until an unambiguous flow direc-
1ion is defined.
Vector incision is another common
melhod for prescribing flow diree1ion in flat
areas. A vec1or Oowpali1. e.g .. a digi1ized
stream segment. is overlain with the raster,
and raster val ues modified downstream
along 1he vec1or 10 specify an appropria1e
fl.ow direction. The most common approach
lowers elevations along the flowpath, taking
care 10 noc crea1e a sink aloc1g or at the end
of the flowpalh.
A dro;nage network is the set of cells
1hrough whic.h surface wa1er flows. Streams.
creeks. and rivers occur where now direc-
tions converge. Thus. a flow direction may
be used 10 produce a n•1p of likely stream
location, prior to field m..,pping a stream
(Figure 11-13, Figure 11-16 ). A drainage
ne1wod< may be defined as any cell that bas
a contributing uphill area larger than some
threshold. These drainage netwod<s are only
approxiruaiions. because the melhod does
not incorporate soil texture. depth. porosity.
subsoil water movement. or other properties
that affect surface flow. Nonelheless. a
drainage ne1work deri,•ed fr-0m terrain data
alone is often a useful first approximation.
The uphill area for each cell may be calcu-
lated. and 1be area compared 10 the threshold
area. The cell is marked as part of the dra.in·
age netwod< if the area SUIJ>asses the thresh·
old.
A drainage ne.twork may have discontin·
uous lines when local small dams or sink
areas capnire Oow. where all surrounding
cells point into. and none out of. a location
(Figure 11-16). This may crea1e cells imme-
diately downhill from the sink that bas a uro

I J I I \ ..... • - • • • •I

/~~
I
• I \
• -- - l.\ •
I ,r . /

' I
'· • -· - .- - ./

.. ".. --
• •
. ,... .....
' /
• \,
'· ./ •

' .,.. / \ / ..... .....

- -·
_. I / / / _. / /

"

- .-
-
/ / I I
•
\

1
I
I•
•
I

I
I
I
/
/
/

/
,•

~
.-

- .,..
I I
!
.,.. / I I I I I I / .,.. / . -· • .-
_.,
-· __. / I I I / / ...... .,.. _., • / /

- ..... -. -· / I / / / ...... ...... ...... /

fi&:nn.' U· 16: Flow di.-rcction (bl.a~k OJT()\\'5) cakul!ltcd owr a ,lufacc, Tl.e rigl11i.idc ,ho,,·u Rowline
/ / /

(don«t. blue Lil el«trouie edition) alou~ 111 coi1,·e1ge:su zone. wi1b ,·alue, above I.be suzface: accumulation
threshold. On rtJ1c left of the fif;'Ul'C is. ti ocal still.:. with aU Oow ditcctiocis. poinlina, inwnrd. 11-c flowlinc
froin 1bc 1q,pa lcfl cnlet1 the ,ink nJd doci n<>t e."(.il.
486 GIS Fundamentals
upstream are.a. The stream will end, bul then
may begin again f\1nher downhill. Namral
sinks may be qui1e common in knrsr regions.
where sinkholes occuron the surface due to
collapse<I subterraneBll caverns (Figure 11·
17). Hydrologic sinks are also common
along drainage ways in dry areas where
check dams are built 10 reduce Dash flooding
or store water. Pits are also common in areas
of deranged topography, for example, in lite
relatively Oat. recently glacia1e<l 1errai11. In
mos1 other areas. pits are often data ar1ifac1s
and do not represenl real geography. Pits
represented in DEMS should be evalua1ed
earlier during processing 10 de1ermine if1bey
are real. and how processing alters results.
Random errors in DEM elevation values
often create spurious pil.s (also known as
false sinks). Because our technologies for
crea1iog DEMs ace imperfect. DEMs often
contain these pits that aren't on the Earth's
surface.
Spurious pi1s are found in mos1 DEMs
due to small elevation errors. For example,
DEM dara collected wirli LiDAR often lidve
a small ground foo1prin1. and may sample
small features that are above the surrom1ding
ground level. A laser image over a recentJy
Flgurt t t. t 7: E.xrunples of 11. discom.inuous iltcam nctw·ork, wi1b downslope Row s1oppi.ng 11.1 a link (A}.1t!ld
then rcs.t.)11ing downllill (8} wl1cn the Qow a~cu1nnlation threshold is ~Jilin s,~ucd. ibc san1c kind of
break is o~en·ed 31 a roaid cl'O$$.ing (C aud D). although th<rc is likely t1 cuh·c11. uol rqlfekotcd in the 0 1:M.
plowed field may retum spol heigh1s for
local mounds and furrows. incomple1ely bar-
ves1ed crops. and fami machinery. A log or
dense sJm1bs in a steep.sided ravine may l>e
miside111ilied as 1he ground surface. creating
a borrier in 1be data 1ha1 doesn'1 represem
tme conditions. Pits can be artifacts of inter.
polation methods lha1 are used 10 fill in lhe
grid values in unsampled loea1ions. Pos1 pro-
cessing aims to remove these spurious read.
iugs. but 1hey are commoo nonelheless.
Pi1s may cause problems ov·er locally
flat surfaces, often along drainage ways
(Figure 11-18). Flow direc1ion and flow
accunmlation func1io11s oft'en return errors
due to spurious pits. particularly near water·
courses. These low areas are shown as white
pa1ches in 1he figure. Tiiese appare111 ponds
do not exist in many landscapes~ in that an
erroneous pi1in a stream course-creates false
basins.
Pi1s causes errors in subsequen1 hydro,
logic calcnla1io11s. Drainage networks are
incomplete, flow accumulation values are
100 Jow. and warershed~ may be impr6jlerty
iden1ified when pi1s are encoumered (Figure
11-19).
 Chapter 11: Terrain Analysis 487

f luurt- U· l3: Examples of crrotm>us pits ca11Kd by DEM cmm. The liiht-colorcd areas along dntinagc
wa)'I fflO'I',· local depressions that arc anifacts ofdata cnon. aod do1ft extst on the landsc<11pc, Drnin:agc net·
worb acid wucnhcds based oo uufiUcd OEMs wiJJ be- i.n «ror. because t1w: Row ditectioos based oi, the
DEM• will be inw11rd ZII 11.ll pill.

Filled
' - water- I!
shed ~~-:-' :,..~~{.;;
1-streom -stremn '·
:..,-_.c:;- 1
r ~ /',..
!.<""

Fl,a:utt 11-19: \\'iltmbcdi aud stream networks dctiue11tcd from uucouditiom:d DEMs (lc·ft) often rcsuh in
ouu ini strcntn flC@n\OltS (:u o. b, d, :ul<l e), atid incoo.1plc1c \\'lttmbcds (upsltdtru from 0t and b, :n)d :u c).
488 GIS Fundamentals
DEMs must be "conditioned" to remove
erroneous depressions (Figure 11-20). Thls
involves pi• ideo1;6ca1ioo, followed by
either tilling or downcutting downstream
cells to remove the pi1. A 1breshold is often
specified above ,vhich a pil is considered
true pan of the landsc.ape and not removed.
This 1breshold is 1ypicaUy larger than com-
mon venical errors in 1be da1a bu1 also less
1hru1 any 1rue, "on 1he ground." pil dep1h.
Known pils may be ideo1ified prior to ct,e .
filling process and left wuilled. Once spun-
ous pits are removed. further processing to
ideutify watersheds and drainage networks
may proceed.
The pil may substan1ially aher the DEM.
and 1he scope of aher.uion may depend on
1be me1hod (Figure 11 -21 ). A fill process .
raises the values of a Jocal depression unllJ
all cell values Bte a, least equal to the value
a1 the local "rim" or edge of the depression
(Figure 11-21. cemter). This may create a flal
surface. with no unambiguous drainage
direc1ion. so some vBtiams of I.be fill process
add a small slope owr large fill are;is 10
ensure drainage 1oward a downhill direc1ion.
Pi1s may also be removed 1brough a.breach-
ing process (Figure 11-2 1. bottom). m which
cells along a S1eepes1 gradien1 are lowered.
Condition DEM
I wa,ershed from a DEM is shown in Figure
Flow Direction
I soream threshold. aod watershedl boundaries
Flow Accumu lation
I diJferen1 sorean1 locations and. in some
Stream, Threshold
I Several other bydrologic indices have
Place Outlets
l mo1]>hOme1ry rela1ed 10 bydrography. These
Watershed
Fii::u1't 11·20: Steps in11 watmbeddclineatiou.
searching a specified surrounding area 10
idemify the s1eepes1 downhill 1i111b.
As shown in Figure ll·2l, breaching
may sometimes bener reflect the true drain·
age pa1hways rn1her U1a11 fills. and may
re.suit in more "natural" landscapes. IC often
depends o~ the narure of •!•e depressio.n.
whe1her i1 ,s due 10 a SJl"rious. ~mall ,so·
lated low elevation value (fill usually pre.
ferred for conditioning). or a nanow. high,
linear feamre. often built and witb a culven
or 01her subsurface drainage way (breach
usually preferred for couditionillg). Un~or1u-
nmely, many GIS softwares do U04 provide a
breach fi.rnc1ion. even though breachmg 1s
increasingly useful for high·resolution
DEMs based on LiDAR over urban or buih-
up areas.
Drainage and wa1ersbed geography
inferred from 1errain analysis depend sub·
stanlially on 1he algorillun used. particularly
for flow direction, so care should be oaken III
iden1ifying the me1bods and thresholds th.11
give suffic.iently accurale results for the .
imended 1aik~. Many softwares oilly provide
depression filling. and 08 flow direction.
and ofteo result in erroneous flowpaths 111
fla1 or near-fla1 terrains. The broadeso range
of general bydrologic and genenil terrain
analysis tools are curremly provided by
Whi1ebox GAT, developed and rna1n1a1oed
by John Lindsay a, the Uoiversi1y ofGuelph.
To review, the steps for identifying a
11-22. DEMs are conditioned as needed. and
then the flow direction. accumulation.
calc11la1ed. Differeu1coodilioniug and flow
accumulation methods may resu It in slightly
cases. wa1ershed boundaries.
be,,n developed 10 idemify locally conver-
gent or divergen1 1errain posi1ious. or 1errain
indexes are used in many subsequem 1opo-
graphlc and hydrologic analyses. such as
predic1ing plant conun?mty compas1!mn or
growth. erosion modeling. or es11maung 1he
 Chapter 11: Terrain Analysis 489

Fia:u~ l1·21: A DEM (top} with b1~c siub al A through O a, a rc-.suh of highway bcnm1, with scnta.1
s.unlltt si.nla in 01htt loc11t1ont. SU:W: a-c ttmo,·cd by either:. f'ill process (middle), or btt3Chin,: (bot·
10111). Breaching reiuh-.: in an output ,,ufi11c:c 1m1 i.l morc acci.1r.11c for1110i.1applic:21ious.
490 GIS Fundamentals

Conditioned Elevation

f i&llr" ll-22: An e;ump!c of die stcpi. required tocrcalc watmbed and clrnin.igc uctwork fen.hares from a
digi1al elevation 1nodet

rainfall required to saturate an area and pre·
dic1 lhe likeliltood and io1ensi1y of flooding.
The specific cntclm,em area (SCA) is
defmed as lhe 101al area draining 10 a poin1
relative 10 droirulge widtll, in ra11er d.11a sets
calculated as
SCA , AAEAJC (11.5)
where AREA is the accumulated surface area
upmeam from a poim. and c is 1he ras1er
cell dimension. Srrenm pou-er index (SP[) is
defined as:
SPI • SCA • ton (bl (11.6)
where bis tlte slope ma poun. and SCA is as
defined above. SPI is used 10 identify the
po1en1ial erosion a1 a point which depeuds
both on the upstream area and hence ability
to accumulate water. and the local slope.
which drives the erosive energy in water
flow.
Perhaps the mos! commonly applied
wetness inde1< is calculated by:
w - ln( -SC~
ton
(11.7)
where w is the weiness index at a cell. SCA is
the specific catchment area. and ~ is the
slope a1 lhe cell. This index bas been shown
to effectively represem the increased soil
wetness due to large upslope areas and low
slopes, parliC'Ularly when combined wilh
plan curvature and profile curvamre mea-
surements. These factors sort terrain along
ridge-10-s1ream and conve~·to-concave gra·
dieo1s.
There are m.any other topographic iodi·
ces. e.g.. for estimating total solar radiation.
surface air drainage. orsurface roughness.
Chapter 11: Terrain Analysis 491
These and others are described in the refer-
ences a1 lhe end oflhis chapter.
Contour Lines
Co111011r li11es. or 1opog.rapbic contours.
are co1lnected !lites of u11ifonn elevation that
nm at right angles 10 the local slope. Contour
lines are a common feature on many map
series; for example. they are depicted 011 1he
USGS I:24.000 scale.nationwide series, and
Bri1ain·s 1:50.000 Ordinance Survey maps.
The shape and densiry of coniour lines pro-
vide detailed infonnation 011 terrain height
and shape in a 1wo-dimensionel inap. with·
out lhe need for con1i11uous 1one shading.
Both color and continuous tone printing
were importan1 limi1a1ious for pa.st canogra-
pbers. Comour lines could be easily drawn
with simple drafting tools. Although contin-
uous tone printing is much ress expensive
today. contours will remain ,commonas they
have entered the culture of r.n,,p making and
map reading.
Several rapid. efficiem methods have
been developed for caJcuJating contours,
ei1her from points or from grid daia (Fig11re
11-23). Early contour maps and DEMs were
Contour placement
d \,...----Pomr with he19h1
Ht,
. '. ·- - H I
. ·- ···
of He
d2
H,
A contour passes through a height value
He at a point on the straight line be-
tween known points with heights
Hb. Hf (see above). Here, we ensure
Hb <Ht. The point Is at a calculated
distance d2, as shown in the diagram
above. according to the formula:
dz = d i , Hr - He
H, - Ht,
FI11urt u ..2J: Contour liuc locatio,u att oAe:it
cs.1un1ucd from poi111 hc:ig!11 loc111ions. a• a lindr
proportion '?f the be-igl1t and d~a.111:e diff'crc,,ces
l,ct\,·«o pouus.
492 GIS Fundamentals
developed fromheight measurements at a set
of points. While useful. these poin1s did 001
provide clear depictions of elevation. Con-
tour lines of fixed value.s \Vere interpolated
linearly between nearest measurement
points, as shown in Figure 11 -23. Later mea-
sureme.nl met.hods either identified contour
Lines directly from stereopairs (see Chapter
6). or derived them from mechanically or
electronically produced rasters. Raster to
co111our geuera1ion also typically follows a
camera ~ otion
linear interpolation. For a raster~appropriate
adjacem cell centers are selec1ed. and con-
tour values intelJ)Ola1ed as illustra1ed in Fig-
ure 11 -23.
Contour lines are typically created a,
fixed heigh1inlervals, for example. every 30
m (I 00 fl) from a base heigh1 (Figure l 1·24).
Because each line represents a fixed eleva-
tion above or below adjacent tin.es, the den-
sity of contour lines indkates terrain
s1eepness. Poim A in Figure I l-24 falls in a
f'ia:m" U -24; Coc11oun may depict tcmiio
(«itUtcs suc:c-ined>'· tis showo in this cou-
tout nup, Jook.iui \"Ct1ically downw11td on
till' J:J"ell fl~O:\'.in,lllllV sho\1.fl iu lhe pl10IO.
The i.m..,ge mdudu. the Roynl An:hef llUd
North Dome. fioru Yosemite: Valle>'· Cali·
fontia. Cl1.<i1l~* in dope, cl.i:ll's, o, 'Cl't1.11n~
;md puks nre ;ill ,uccmcd)' :rcprcsn1tcd by
contour lines.
 Chapter 11: Terrain Analysis 493

flat area (the .foreground of~,e photo, al bot·
tom). where elevation does no1 change
much. ru1d there are few contour lines. Steep
areas and cliffs are depicted by an incre.ase
in contour density. as shown at poin1 s. with
changes ln steepness depicted by changes in
density (above and below point C). Peaks,
such as Ille lop of Washington's column. o.
and Nonh Dome. E. appear as concentric
rings. Note that contours may succinctly rep·
resent complex terrain stnK:tll!es, such as the
curving arches in 1be cemer of1be photo-
graph, and siJ.Own below point C. and the
overhanging cliff, to the left ofpoinl F.
Profile Plots
Profile plots are another common deriv,
a1ive of elevation data. These plots sample
elevation along a linear p,vfile path. and dis-
play elevation against distance in a graph
(Figure 11-25). Elevation is typically ploned
on they a~d$, and horizontal distance on 1he
x axis These profile plots are helpful in visu-
alizing elevation change. slope. and cumula-
tive travel <tis1a11ce along lhe specific profile
path. Profile plots are common on 1he edges
of maps. particularly maps of off-road. bicy-
cle, or cross.cowitry routes.
Profile plots otkn have some level of
vertical e.x..1ggeration bec.ause horizontal dis-
tances are usually much larger lhau elevation
gain. Ver1ical e,,aggeration i·s a scaling factor
applied to the elevation data when shown on
the graph. For example. Figure 11-25 shows
a square graph tha1 depiclS approximately 31
km across the Earth's surface. The vertical
eleva1ion axis spans approximately 2.5 km
over Ille san1e dimensions on the graplt This
is a ver1ical exaggennion of approximately
12 (from 3112.5).

Elevation Profile
_3000

-"
1'!
~ 2500
~

c:
:B 2000
j A
w
1500

1000 +-~~~~~~~~~~~.--'

0 IOCOO 20000 30000

Distance Along Profile (meters)

Fiaur. 11.H :An e,uirnplt of, pro6le plot The pl'bfile p:i1h i, thcwn on !ht di,dtd relief in~~e (lef1). with
the ;tarting point A aod ending point 6 . The profile plot is ;bown on the rigl1t, with corrcsponclmg mirting
aod cod.in; poimtt. The ploc shows the chai1;c io clc,'ati:oo 11lollfil the path. Note tha1 the ,·Cl1lical cxaag,crat100
hett ia n.ppt0xir1u1dy 9 10 I.
494 GIS Fundamentals
Vlews hed s
The \Tewshed for a poin1 is the collec·
tion of areas visible from that point Views
from many locations are blocked by terrain.
Eleva1ions will bide poin1s if lhe eleva1ions
are bigber chan the line of sight between die
viewing point and target point (Figure 11-
26).
Viewsheds amd visibility analyses are
quite important in many instances. High-
volt1ge p-0wer lines or cell 1owers are often
placed atl'er careful coosideration of their
visibility, because mos.t people a.re averse to
viewing lhem. Communications antennas.
large iudustrial comple.'<es. and roads are
often localed al least partly based on their
visibiliiy, and viewsbeds are specifically
managed for many parks and scenic areas.
A viewsbed is calcula1ed based on cell-
10-cell imervisibiliiy. A line ofsight is drawn
belween the view cell and a potentially visi-
ble 1arge1 cell (figure 11-26). The eleva1ion
of this line of sight is calculated for eveiy
illlervening cell. If the slope to a target cell is
- visible terrain
- hidden t errain
lines of sight..__~ /
viewpoint
Fi1,urt 11-26: Mechanics of de6i:iio3 a ,'ie\\,.
sbcd.
less titan lhe slope 10 a cell closer 10 lhe
viewpoim along the line of sigh1. then 1be
target cell is 001 visible from the viewpoint.
Specialized algorithms have bee n developed
to subs1an1ially reduce the time required 10
calculate viewsbeds. bm in concept. lines of
sighl are drawn from each viewpoin1 lO each
cell in 1he digital elevation data. lflhere is
no intervening terrain. the ceUis classified
as visible. The classification ideutifies areas
11ta1 are ,~.sible and areas that are hidden
(Figure 11-27). Viewsheds for line or area
features are the accumulated viewsheds from
all the cells in !hose features.
 Chapler 11: Terrain Analysis 495

Shaded Relief Maps incoming light ray and the s.urface nom1al,
shown as 0 in Figure I 1-29. The surface nor-
A shaded ,~liefmap. also often referred mal is defined as a line perpendicular 10 the
to as a hU/shode map, is a depiction of 1be local surface. Direct beam sunlight striking
brightness of terrain refleclions given a ter·
rain surface and sun Joca1ion. AJ1bough
shaded relief maps are rarely used in anaJy.
ses, lhey are among the most effective ways
10 conumu1ica1e the shape and sm,c1ure of
1emiin fearures. and many maps include
relief shading (Figure I l-28).
Shaded relief maps are developed from
digiL,I elevation da1a and models of ligh1
ref1ec1ance. An anificial sun is "positioned'"
a1 a Jocaiion in 1he sky and ligh1 rays pro-
jecied onto 1he surface depicted by 1he eleva-
tion data. Light is modeled that strikes a
surface ei1ber as a dire<:1 beant. from 1he sun
10 1he surface. or from background ..diffuse··
sunlight. Diffuse light is scattered by !he
aunospbere. and illuminaies "shaded.• areas.
ahhough 1he ;Jh1mina1ion is 1ypically much
Jess than that from direct be.am.
f'ia11~ u .,?9: Hi.1.lsmde IU3J>$ $li,ow n-Oectauce a, II
The brightness of a cell depends on the fom,ion of the angle.. 0. between sunbeams and mr·
local incidence angle, 1be angle be1ween 1he lice oomlal.t.

N A

Fli,u·t 11-28: Relief shad.in; is often added as a backjround ''\uidcr" o ther mapped data to pro,iidc a ~ o{
1crr11i11 UL,pc and i!cep1\cn . This sl1J1din1 pro\'idcs :1 truff·d.nnctisiorul pcrtpccti\'c (or~ nU:ppcd Atu, .u
<.kmoruiratcd in tJiis: rcltcf $li.,clirig of ll U.S. Oeologic1tl S\1n·ey 1:24.000 sc11lc q\aand~g;le mnp.
496 GIS Fundamentals
the surface at a right angle (9 = OJ provides
the brightest rerurn. and hence appears light.
As 9 increases. the angle between the direct
beam aud the ground surface deviates from
perpendicular. and the brightness decreases.
Diffuse sunlight alone provides a relatively
weak return.. and hence appe.ars dark. Com-
binations of direct and diffuse Light result in
a range of gray shades. and tliis range
depends on the terrain slope and angle rela·
1ive to the sun'slocation. Hence, sub1le van.
ations in terrain a:re visible on sbade<I relief
maps.
Calctllating a shaded relief surface
requires specifying rhe sun's position. usu-
ally via the solar zenith angle. measured
from vertical down to l11e sun's location. and
the solar azunuth angle. measure(! from
nonh clockwise 10 Lhe sun's position (Figure
I l-30). Local slope and surface azimuth
define a surface oom,al direction. An angle
may be defined between the solar direction
and the surface nonnal direction. shown as 9
in Figure 11 -30. As noted earlier. the amoum
of reflected energy decreases as Oincreases,
,-
/ Suppon is panicularly strong for hydro logic
N ysis. witlt functions for calcnlatiJlg various
..
" ' tdcncc O'lg!c 9 •• cquol 10:
co,•11 co,()) co,(•) • ,-n(i) Pl(•) co,(o. - 4) :
whet-c z I• fl\c. .olOI" Z:Cl'lith crglc
<» is 11M sob"oz1f'l'a1Jlh mglc
sis the Arl«e. "°"11\ol slope oiglc
a 1s the a.1rlocc l'IOl"fflcl az,muth Cl'lglc
Fi&un" 11-30: Oin::<:1 be.Am rcRcct:incc uuy be ul~
cufatcd as sho,m a1,o\·c from tbc im:idcncc angle.
9. bctwc,:u the i.ncomin1; sunbeam and cbc local
s.urf~C'c nontul. Tlioc suti11cc l'lonnnl i• defined by 11
IU1c papcndiculnr llo the: locnl s.1uf;t1cc pl::\nc.
and this may be shown as various shades of
grey in a hillshade surface.
A shaded relief map also requires a cal-
culation of visibility, often prior 10 calcnla1-
i11g the rcflecL1nces. Visibility 10 the s110 is
de.termined; if a cell is visible from the sun,
the slope and aspect values are used to
assign tlte cell brightness.
Terrain Analysis Software
Terrain anaJysis and DEM data manage-
ment and analysis are imponant enough to
be include(! in most general-purpose GIS
packages, including ArcGIS. GRASS.
ERDA$, ldrisi. and Manifold. \Vhile they
suppon the most co,mnon se1of terrain and
hydrologic analyses. none of tl1ese packages
include.s the broadesl range of terrain pro-
cessing and analysis functions. Specialized
analyses are often performed using software
with a specific focus on terrain analysis.
These include tl,e Whitebox GAT. from tlte
University of Guelph. and commercial tools.
such asthe Watershed Modeling System
(WMS) by the Scientific Software Group.
Whitebox GAT con1ains what is likely
tbe most comprehensive sel of 1errain analy-
sis functions in a freely available package.
surface and stream link processing and anal-
flow direction. accumulation. and watershed
delineation methods typically not supported
by 01her packages. Basic terrain modifica-
tion. LiDAR da1a input and processing. and
general raster GlS funclions are also sup-
poned.
LandSerf is a package with panicularly
strong support for terrain shape .and geomor-
phological analysis. in addition to a strong
focus on surface visualiz..1tion. Multiple
methods of calculating and combining first·
and second-order terrain gradie11ts are sup-
ported. as well as basic elevation data con-
version and processing. Land Serf is written
in Java. and hence available across the wid-
est range of operating systems.

ArcHydro is a set ofbydrologic analysis
tools wrineu :as an extension 10 ArcGIS. 11
suppons a falrly complete set of hydrologic
and watershed delineation fi.mctions.
Then: are many other packages avail-
able. inch1di11g SAGA. TAUDEM, Surfer.
TAP, and MitroDEM. which provide various
specialized capabilities. and may be wonh
investigating for users interested in term.in
and hydrologic analysis.
Summary
Terrain analyses are commonly per-
fom1ed witlti11 the framework ofa GIS.
These.analyses are important because l'errain
governs where and how much water will
acc1u11ula1e <m the landscape. bow much
sunlight a site receives. and the visibility of
human acth~ties.
Slope and aspect are two of the most
used terrain variables. Bolh are commonly
calculated via trigonometric functions
applied ina moving window to a rnsrer
D£M. Several kernels have been de,-eloped
to calcula1e changes of elevation in x and y
direc1ions. and these component gradients
are combined to calculate slope and aspect.
Chapter 11: Terrain Analysis 497
Profile curvanire and plan curvature are
1wo other impor1an1 terrain analysis fimc-
tioos. These functions measure the relative
convexity or concavity in the terrajn, relative
10 the downslope direction for profile cuf\'ll·
nire and the cross-slope direction (or plan
curvature.
Terrain analyses are also used 10 develop
and apply hydrologic functions and models.
Watershed boundaries, flow directions,
flowpa1hs. and drainage ne1works may all be
defined from digital ele,•a1ion data.
Viewsheds are ano111<,r commonly
applied terrain analysis function. Intervisi·
bility may be computed from any location on
a DEM. A line of sig)l1111ay be drawn froan
any point to any 01her point. and if there is
no intervening terrain. then 'the two points
are intervisible. Viewsheds are often used 10
analyze the visibility of landscape alterations
or additfons. for example, when siting new
roads. powerlines. or large buildings.
Finally. relief shading is another com-
mon use of terrain data. A shaded relief map
is among the anost effective ways 10 depict
terrain. Terrain shading is often derived from
DEMs and depicted on maps.
498 GIS Fundamentals

Suggested Reading

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 Chapter 11: Terrain Analysis 499

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Agr;cullurnl nnd Forest Me1eorology. 40:233- 249.
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500 GIS Fundamentals

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Wood. J. (1996). 111e geomorphological characterization of digital elevation models.
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Zhou. Q.. Liu, X. (2004). Analysis of errors of derived slope and aspect related 10
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 Chapter 11: Terrain Analysis 501

Study Questions

U J - Whal are digital elevation models, and why are they used so often in spatial
analyses?

11.2 - How are digital elevation data created?

11.3 . Write tl1e definition of slope and aspect and the mathematical formulas used 10
derive them from digital elevation data.

11.4 . carculate dZ/dx and dZ/dy for the following 3 x 3 windows. Elevations and the
cell dimension are in meters.

windows 4-neoresl cell 3rd-order finite drfference

o) 110 113 118 dZ/dx • dZ/dx •

112 114 119

111 117 121 dZldy, dZ/dy •

b) 6, 63 62 dZ/dx • dZ/dx •
65 64 64
70 68 66 dZ/dy, dZ/dy •

c) 18 23 17 dZ/dx • dZ/dx •
21 2, 19
20 22 18 dZ/dy• dZ/dy ,
502 GIS Fundamentals

11.5 - Calculate dZ/dx and dZ/dy for die following 3 x 3 windows. Elevations and the
cell dimeosio!l are in meters.

windows 4-neorest cell 3rd-order finite diffef<!nce

o) dZ/dx,
108 112 115 dZ!dx =
119 116 118
113 118 119 dZ/dy= dZ/dy =
• JO·

b) 68 63 61 dZtdx • dZ/dx:
69 67 66
70 71 72 dZtdy• dZ/dy •

c)
15 19 18 dZtdx = dZ/dx •
19 20 19
21 23 24 dZl<ly= dZ/dy •

11.6 - Calculate 1be slope and aSJ)<lCI for 1be underlined cell values. using the four
nearest cell method.

712 709 707 703 704

710 706 704 700 702

-
708 705 705 697 700
-
711 709 705 696 694
-
714 712 708 703 698
- 10-
 Chapter 11: Terrain Analysis 503

11.7 - Calculate the slope and aspect for the underlined cell values, using the four
11eares1 cell me,hod.

712 709 707 703 704

,,
706 704 700
710
.,
705
- 702
708 705
- 697 700

7!1 709 705 696

- 694"
714 712 708 703 698

11.8 - Calculate lbe slope and aspecl for !he underlined cell values. using 1he 1hird-
order fiui1e difference me,hod.

712 709 707 703 704

710 706 704 700 702

-
708 705 705 697 700
-
711 !22 705 696 694
714 712 708 703 698
-10 --

11.9 - Calculate the slope and aspect for the underlined cell values. using 1he 1hird-
order finite difference method.

712 709 707 703 704

"
710 706 704 700 702
-
•>
708 705 705 697 700
-
711 709 705 l96 694
714 712 708 703 698

11.10 - Plot a graph of slope in degrees (on x axis) against slope in percent (y axis).
Which is usually farger. slope as degrees. or slope expressed as percenr?

11.11 - \\'hat is a.n elevation contour?

504 GIS Fundamentals

11.12 - Draw the approximate location of contours for the following set of points.
Stan contours at the 960 value and use a 30 unit contour interval. For this ex,ercise. it
is pennissible 'to estimate the contour locations visually: you do not have to calculate
the distances between points 10 place the contour Jines.
• U:16 lOU
10,0
tOtO
• 1092
•
10Ja
!O~
1010 ml 1014
Ill? 107J

IIUi' 10;13

.... ""
, . .1
10 . .

.
10<.3
11011 1081 1. .,
lOl<
lOll
.
.., ,... '"''
1009 1000
10-4 7

....
1038 1010

•
1041

10.tO
•
!:,)Cl
10)) 101~
•
.. ....
100.a
•
 Chapter 11: Terrain Analysis 505

U .13 - Draw the approximate location of contours for the following sel of points.
S1an contours at the Ovalue ruid use a 200 uuit coniour interval. For this exercise. it is
pennissible to estimate the contour locations visually; you do not have to calculate
lhe distrui.ces be1weeu points 10 place lhe contour lines.
563 1078
766 429
160
• • • 306
•
• • 381
571 •
912 • 588
578 •
235 • 632 640 •
1102 • 313 940• •
• • 395 • 10<0
795
• • 8:15
J242 • •
• 384 937
•
942
•
377 • •
128 ;i1267 317 925
1312
930
• 512
• 1281 • •
• 1302
• • 530 • •
1306
• 1306 1317 823
1136
• 596
•1318 •
• 674 30!
956 • • • •
• ii16 401
• • 884
547 •
•
73! 1062 • 1188
•
• 391
•
~90
1013 • 5'8
706 •
• • 983
5,2 •
969
• • 582
• •
1110
662
492 592 644
•
• • 1032 • •
987
• 900
739
•
1!3&
• •
1049
1379
753 • •
663
• !248
• 1417
•

U.14 - What is the fonnula to calculate a contour height from two measured eJeva.
tions?
506 GIS Fundamentals

11. 15 - Using the figure below. calculate the distances to the listed contour line along
the shoncs1pa-tit between points. The example shows the distance calculation from
Point A to the c.ontour wit.h value 250, along the straight line from A to B. wa1en the
values of A and B are shown. and the distance from A 10 B is 148.
Discance from B 10 the 300 concour on the line B • D. when d80 i~94
Distance from E to the 250 contour on the line E · D. when dEo is 115
Distance from C 10 the 200 contour on the line C • D, when dco is 188
Distance from E to the 300 contour on the line E. G, when dee is 248

A.210. _ _ _d=••~- -~·260

c1,r.onc:c A 10 co-,to1.r wAA ,so 1, F.420
!18<1, tt! . fr!IO- dO}
Cl«> · llO)

·o .310

c.1ao ·

G.340
E.220

11. 16 - Using the figure above. answer the following:

Distance fr.om A to the 200 contour on the line A · C. when d,c is 94
Distance from E to the 300 contour on the line E· D. when dAc is 115
Distance from F to the 400 contour on the line F - G, when dFc is 17$
Distance from B to the 350 comour on the line B. F. when d8, is 224
Distance from E to the 250 contour on the line E • G. when dEc is 248

11.17 . \\~1a1 are the plan curvan,re and profile curvature. and how do they diffe(?
 Chapter 11: Terrain Analysis 507

U.18 - Define the waters.bed boundaries and possible stream locations in the digital
elevation daia depicted below:
JIJ Joo .JbY J8l

J.il.. 380 38A 392

.C09 405 405 <101 380

)7!1 17~

399 397 .co1 m 331 .381

)18
508 GIS Fundamentals

11.19 - Define the watershed boundaries and possible stream loc.ations in the dhdtal
elevation data depicted below: -

604 639
742 666

767 685 608 578 457 426

734 789 721 578 512 421 443 512 506 503 378 315
668 765 826 728 579 558 489 534 513 366 330
705 767 784 785 761 675 607 545 440

11.20 . Define the foUowing: solar zenith angle. solar azimuth angle. and solar inci-
dence angle.

11.21 • Omw a diagram illustrating the solar incidence angle. and identify ,vhat site/
terrain factors affect the solar incidence angle.

11.22 . What are viewsbeds. when are Ibey used. and bow are they calculated?

11.23 - What is a shaded relief map? How are the values for each cell of a hiillshade
surface calculated?
 509

12 Spatial Estimation: Interpolation ,

Prediction, and Core Area
Delineation
Introduction
Spatial prediction methods are 11sed 10
estimate values from known locations al
unknown ones (Fig11re 12-1). ,\n obvious
q11estion is. why estimate? Why not just
measure the value at all locations? Predic-
tions are required because lime and money
are limiting. At a more basic level. 1bere is
an infinite number of potential sampling
locations for any continuous variable in any
study area. arid it is impossible to weasure at
all locations. \Vhile there is a finite n11mber
of discrete objects in all studies. there are
11s11aUy 100 many 10 measure them all. Prac,.
tical consiraims usually limit samples 10 a
subset of the !)Ossible lines. polygons.
points. or rasrer cell locatious.
Spatial prediction may l>e required for
other reasons. Besides cost. some areas may
be difficult or impossible 10 visit. A parcel
owner may prol,ibit entry. It :may be 100 dan-
gerous to collect samples. for example. in
part of a park because Lions may eat the
sampling crew. or elephants ·trample them.
Spatial prediction may l>e required due
10 mis.sing or otherwise unsuitable samples.
If it is difficult. expensive. or the wrong sea·
son for sampling. it may be i:mpossible to
replace lost samples. Samples may be dis·
covered as unreliable or st1specf once the
measuring crew has ren1med. Suspecl ''out-
lier" points are often dropped from data sets.
These now missing points may be cn,cial 10

_..._
Fi.v;urt' 12· 1: Air-qu.,lity ,.tries acrou !Pace 11nd time, iu,d is
only oi~s:urcd in a fcwlocalious. Spabal estOuatiou methods
are couunollly us~ to prcdic1 air quality at wsam:plcd loc-t1·
1io11s (counc.1r U.S. NPS).
510 GIS Fundamentals
the analysis and. if so, the missing values
es1ima1ed. FinaUy. es1ima1es may be
required when changing to a smaller cell size
in a raster data sel. The ..sampling.. fre-
quency is set by 1he original raster. and vaf.
ues must be estimated for the new. smaller
cells.
Spatial i111e1polatfou is the predic1ion of
variables at u1uneasured locations. and based
on a san1pli11g of the same variables at
known locations. Most interpolation metll·
ods rely on the nearest points to estimate
missing values, and use some meas.ure of
distance from known 10 unknown values. We
might have meaSt1red air pollution at a set of
towers across a region. but need estimates
for all loca1ions in tha, region. lmerpolation
is routinely used Qo estimate air and water
temperalu.re. soil moisture. elevation. ocean
productivil)•. pop,.1a1ion density. and a host
of additional variables.
Spar;a/ prediclion also invol\'eS the es1i~
matioo of variables at unsampled locations.
but differs from inlerpolation in that esti·
mates Me based a.t least iii pMt on other vafi.
ables. and often on a total se, of
measurements. \Ve may use elevation to help
estimate temperamre because it is often
cooler at higher locations. A map of eleva-
tions may be coo1bined with a set of mea-
sured temperatures lo estimate temperatures
at unknown J()(:ations.
Acorenma is characterized by high use,
density. in1ensily. or probability of oceur·
rence for a variab le or event. Core areas aJe
defmed from a se·t of samples.. and are used
10 predict the frequency or likelihood of
occurrence of an objec1 or event. Home
range.s for individual animals. concenlra-
tions of business nctivity. or centers of crint.i·
nal activity are all examples of core areas.
There are several methods that may be used
iu ideutifyi.ng these core areas. These meth-
ods typically draw from a set of sample
poims that consrinue even1s.. such as an
observation of an animal. a busi11ess loca-
1ion. or a crime thin has been committed.
Spatial prediction typically 1ransla1es
from lowerspatial dimensions to the same or
higher dimensions. This means we typically
generate poims or lines from po:int data, or
areas from point, line, or area data. Predic-
tion meihods allow us 10 extend the illform,1-
tion we have collected, most ofieo 10 "fill in''
between sampled locations, bul .also to
improve 1he q11aLi.ty oflhe data we ha,-e col·
lected.
Spatial prediction methods may also be
used to 1ransla1e infonnation from a higher
order to a lower order. that is, 10 estimate
poim values from data collected or aggre.
gated to area or lines. We may have pop11la-
1ion data reported far an area. a11d we may
wish to estimate popula1ion for a specific
poin1 within this area. This may be affected
by the modifil1ble aret:1/ ,mir problem. a com-
mou baz:11d in spatial estimation method!
described in Chapter 9.
Wha1e,-er !lie methods used. spatial esti·
ma1ioo is based on a set of samples. An indi·
vich1al sample consists at leas1 of the
coordinaces of the sample locatjon and a
measuremem of llte variable of illteres1 a, the
sample location. We may also 01easure addi-
tional. related variables al the sruuple loca-
tion. Coordina1es should be measured 10 the
bjgbes1 accuracy and precision that is prac1_i-
cal. given cost and time cons.trainls and the
imended use of 1he data . Sample ,'llriables
should be measured using accurate. stan-
dardized, and repeatable methods.

Sampling
Estima1io11 is based 011 a sample of
known points. The aim is ro estimate the val·
ues for a variable ai w1knowu locations
based on ,,atues measured at sampled loca-
tions. PlaMiog will improve 1he quality of
the samples. and usually leads to a more effi·
ciem and accurate iu1erpolatio1L
We control two main aspects of the sam·
piing process. First. we may control the loca-
tion of the samples. Samples must be spread
across our ,vorking area. However. we may
choose among different paaerns in dispers·
ing our samples. The pattern we choose will
in tum affect the cost of our samples and the
quality of our imerpolacio11. A poor discribu·
tion of sample poincs may increase errors or
may be inefficient, resulting in unnecessary
coses.
Sample size is the second main aspect of
the sampling process we comrol. One might
believe the correct number is "as many as
you can afford:· however. ibis is not always
the case. A law of diminishing returns may
be reached. and fiinher samples may add rel·
acively Unle information for substancially
increased c.os,lS. Unfortunately. in mosl prac·
tical applications. the available funds or time
are the main limiting factors. Most surfaces
are undersam.pled.. and additionaJ funds and
samples would usually increase che quali1y
of the interpolated surface. To date. there
have been relatively few studies or well-
establisbed guidelines for decenoiuing che
optimum sample number for most interpola-
tion methods.
There are thnes when we co01rol neither
the distribution nor 1be number of sample
points. Th.is often occurs when we are work-
ing with "found .. variables. for example. the
distribmion of illness in a population. We
may identify the households where a family
member has contracted a given illness.
Allhough we can control neither the number
nor the distribution of ill people., we may
wish co use these "samples.. in an incerpola·
tion procedure.
Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 511
Sampling Patterns
1'here are several commonly applied
sampling patterns. A systematic snmpli11g
pn11em is che simples, (Fig,ire t2-20).
because samples are spaced uniformly at
fixed X and Y illlervals. The intervals may
001 be 1he same in both directions. and che x
and Yaxes are not required ·to align with 1he
northing and easting grid directions. The
sampling t)Qttem often appears as poims
placed syscemarically along parallel lines.
Syscemacic sampling has an ad,,amage
over other sampling panems in tenns ofease
in planning and description. Field crews
quickly understand bow co lay out the sam·
pie panem. and there is little subjective
judgement required.
However. systematic sa.mpling may
have disadvantages. It is usually not the
most statistically efficient sampling pauem
because all areas receive the same sampling
intensity. If there is more interest or varia-
tion in ce.rtain ponions of the study area. Ibis
preference is not addressed by syscemacic
sampling. The difficulty aod cost of travel-
ing lo the sample points is cLOt considered. It
may be difficul1 or impossible to scay on line
between sampling points. R,ough rerrau,.
physical barriers. or Jack oflegal access may
preclude sampling at prescribed locations.
In addition. systematic sampling may
introduce a bias. particularly if there are pat·
terns in cbe measured variable that coincide
,,~th the sampling interval. For example.
there may be a regular succession of ridges
and valleys associated with underlying gco-
logjc coodition.c;. If the systematic sampling
in1e.rvaJ coincides with this pauem. there
may be a bias in sample values.
Rnndom sn111pli11g (Figure 12-2b) may
avoid some. bui nol all. of the problems that
affect systematic sampling. Random sam-
pling entails selecting point locations based
on random numbers. Typically. both 11\e
easting and northing coordinates are chosen
by independent random processes. The.se
512 GIS Fundamentals

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fi&i.a•T I ?-2: E.umplc:s or o) 5)'$tc:m.itic:. b) r.mdom, t) c:l\lster. and d) ndapth-e sa.inpl.ing poucms.
Sample points arc shown as solid circle, . Coutoun Cor lhc: sur6ioc are shown as line,. Sampling mc:th·
ods diff« ii:i the. dll'ttibutiou of t:1unplc: po11\1s.

may be plotted on a map and/or listed, and
1hen visited wi1h !he aid of a GNSS or other
positioning technology 10 collect 1be sample.
The points do not have to be visited in the
order in which they were selec1ed. so in
some instances. travel distances between
points will be quite small. On average. the
distances will be no shoner tban with a sys..
tematic sample. so travel costs are likely 10
be al least no worse than with systemalic
sampling.
Random samples have an advantage
over S)'Stematic samples in tluu they are
unlikely 10 n1a1cb any panen, in the land·
scape. HeJ1ce. 1he chances are lower for
biased sampling and inae-curate predictions.
However. like systematic sampling. ran-
dom sampling does nothing to distribute
samples in ar<l:ls of high varia1ion. More
samples than necessary may be collected in
unifom1 areas, and fewer samples than
needed may be collected in variable areas. In
addi1ioo. random sanipling is more compli·
cated and hence more difficult to unde.rstand
1hi!il sys1ema1i¢ l.'\Jiipli!lg. More lftiiniug
may be required for sanipling crews when
implementing random sampling. Random
san1pli11g is seldom chosen when sampling
over large areas. due 10 these disadwrncages
and relatively few advantages over alterna-
1ive sampling strategies.
Cluster ~·amp/iug is a technique 1bat
groups samples (Figure 12-2c). Clustercen·
1ers are chosen by some random or system·
atic method. with a cluster of samples
arranged arotu1d each center. The dislances
between samples within a cluster are gener·
ally much smaller than 1he distances
between duster centers.
Redtieed crave! time is the primary
advantage of cluster samples. Travel times
withing a cluster are shone,. A sampling
crew may 1rn,·el several hours 10 reach a
clus1er center. buJ only a few minu1es
between each sample within a cluster. Cius.
tersarupling is often used in natural resource
Chapler 12: Spalial Eslimation 513
surveys thal entail significant off.road travel
because of the reduction in U3Vel times.
There are several varia11ts of cluster
sampling. Cluster cemers m.ay be located
randomly or systematically. Samples "ithin
a cluster may also be plac.ed al random or
systematically around the clus1er center.
Both approaches have merit. although it is
more common to locate cluster c.enters at
random and distribu1e samples within a clus·
ter according 10 some systemaric panent.
This approach is used by the U.S. Forest Ser-
vice to conduc.i national sur"eys of fores1
conditions. and by many prospectors during
111ineral exploration.
Adnpti"e sampling is a final method we
\\ill describe. 11 is characterized by frequent
sampling in variable areas and sparse sam.
piing in uniform areas (Fig,ire I 2·2d). Adap-
tive sampling greally increases sampling
efficiency bec.ause smaJl.scaJe variation is
bener sampled. large. relat,vely homoge-
neous areas are well represented by a few
samples. reserving more samples for areas
wi1b higher spatial ,•11tiation.
Adaptive sampling requires a way to
estima1e feature varia1ion priorto field visits
or while in lhc field. or repe-a.1 visi1s to the
sampling areas. Sample density is adaptively
increased in areas of high variation. Some·
rimes ii is quite obvious where the varia1ion
is grea1es1 while in the field. For example,
when measuring elevation. i t is obvious
where lhe terrain is more va,iable. Sample
density may be increased based on field
observalions of steepness.
lfchere is no method of identifying
where the fe.atures are most ,,ariable while in
the rield. then sample densi1y ca111101 be
increased "on the spot." Samples may
require office or lab foranalysis to estimate
variation. Sample locations are tlieo selected
based on local variation. T11e list or map of
coordinate loca1ions may be generated and
used as a guide in collecti.ng subsequent
samples.
514 GIS Fundamentals
Spatial Interpolation Methods
There are many differem imerpolation
methods. While 1netbods vary. aUcombiue
the sampled values and positions 10 estimate
values at wimeas"red locations. Matbemati·
cal functions are used lhat incorporate dis-
tance between the interpolation points and
the sample poiJlls with the values at the sam-
ple points. Methods differ in tlie mathemati-
cal functions used to weight each
observation. and 1be number of observations
used. Some interpolators use every observa-
tion when estima!ing values at unsampled
loanions, while other inteipOlators use a
subset of samples. for example. the three
points nearest an llnmeasured location.
Differeot interpolation methods will
often produce different resullS. even when
using the same input data. This is due to the
differences in the mathematical firnc1ions
and number of da.ta points used when esti-
mating values for the unsampled locations.
Each method may t,a,•c unique characteris-
tics. and 1be overall accuracy of an interpola-
tion will often depend on the method and
san,ptes used.
Accuracy is often judged by the differ-
ence between the measured and interpolated
values at a number of withheld sample
points. These withheld points are not used
when performing the interpolation. but are
checked against the interpolated surface.
However, no single interpolation method has
been shown to be more accurate than au oth·
ers for every application. Each individual or
organization should test several sampling
regimes and interpolation methods before
adopting an interpolation method.
Interpolation 111e1hods may produce one
or more of a number of different output
types. lnterpolation is often used to estimate
values for a raster data layer. Other methods
produce coniour fo,es. Couiour lines are less
frequently produced by interpolation meth-
ods, but are a common way of depicting a
continuous surface. At least one interpola-
tion method defines polygon bound.1ries.
lmerpolation 10 a raster surface involves
estimating unmeasured values al the center
of each raster grid cell. Raster layer bound-
aries and cell dimensions are specified, in
mm defining the location of eacl1 ras1er cell.
We will describe 1he most commou
interpolation methods and apply them all to
a single data set 10 facilitate comparisons.
Figure 12-3 shows sample points for ozone
data for the eastern United States. collected
by various beallh and envirorunental agen-
cies. and an index value for the 2014 year.
Denver is to the extreme left. New England
in the upper right, and Atlanta illdicated by
the cluster of sampling ntar the tower right
oftltis figure. Circles are sized and colored
to reflect the 9Sth percentile measurement.
in p3rts per billion (ppb) during daytime
hours. a value related 10 injury caused by
ozone exposure. We~1tber, combustioo,
chemical release, and topograpruic coudi-
1ions can combine ro create hazardous con·
centrations. particularly for vulnerable
populations. Since it is expensive and diffi·
cult to make precise ozone measurements.
the nerwork is limited. and 1bere is a need to
interpolate between sampling stations. These
sample points will be used to de.mot1Strate
the application of various interpolation and
spatial prediction melhods in the following
sections of this chapter. Estimated ozone
concentration surfaces for each method wiU
be shown.
Note that the comparisons and figures
are only to illustrate different interpolation
methods. They are not to establish the refa,
tive merit or accuracy of the \1arious med1·
ods. The best ioterpolation m<ihod for any
given application depends on the character-
istics of the variable 10 be estiniated. the cost
of sampling. available resources:. and the
accuracy requirements of the user.;,
We oeed an independeot err-or measure
to oblain a good estimate of the interpola1ion
accuracy. Accuracy estimates m;,y be
obtained with a withheld sample technique.
where the surface is fit to the data withhold-
 Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 515

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Fla,m~ 12-J: Mc:asurc:rucnl points and ,·:dues for indicator ozone co1m:ntratioo for 2014. HiiJtc:r<on¢CU·
tNuioo.t Mmt publi,c hc11hh. wi1b ~:idings O\'a' 85 p11t1:s per billion auocillted with d:un.'1.Jc 10 lung: fi.uic,
tion. pnrtic:uJarly i.n the ~ldcrfy, c:~.itdrrn. :ind J1stlnnn1ks, These 5tnnplc cbt., will be used ln!cr l111h.i.s
ebnpter to dffnotu1Jn;te uiterpobhOn methods.

ing one data ~ int. The error is es.tima1ed a1
the withheld point as tbe observed minus the
imeipolated values. The sample is replaced.
a new sample selected and withheld. and the
surface fit and erroragain detennined. This
is repeated for each data point A less effi.
cient testing method entails collecting an
independent set of sample points that are
withheld from the interpolation process.
Their measured values are tl1e11 compared 10
the interpolated values. and the mean error.
ma."imum error. and perhap.s other error sta·
tistics identified.
516 GIS Fundamentals

Nearest Neighbor Interpolation other variable we may measure at a point.

Nearest neighbor imerpolatioo. also
known as Thiessen polygon interpolation.
assigns a value for any uns.ampled location
that is equal 10 the value found at ctie nearest
sample location. This is concepmally the
simplest interpolation me.thod. in the sense
that the mathematical fw1c1ion used is the
equality function. and only one point. the
nearest point, is used to assign a value lo an
unknown locatiolll.
The nearest neighbor interpolator
defmes a set of polygons. known as TI,iessen
polygons. All locations within a given
Thiessen polygon have an identical value for
the Z variable (in this and other chapters. Z
will be used 10 denote the value of a variable
of intereS1 at an X and Ysample location}. Z
may be elevation,. size. production, or any
Thiessen polygons define a region around
each sampled point that have a value equal
to the value at the nearest sampled point
The transition between polygon edges is
abn,pt: that is. tbe variable jumps from one
value to the next across the Thiessen poly-
gon bo,md.1ry.
The three-dimensional perspective rep-
rese11ta1io11 of an interpola1ed neares.t neigh·
bor surface illustrates sonw characteristics of
output surfaces (Figure 12-4). Heights in 1he
figure correspond 10 the input values al the
points. The polygon bas a unifonn value tliat
corresponds to the input sample value. Pofy.
goos are of irregular size. and values change
abniptly along the polygon edges.

FlJtUT 12-4: A l.brtt-dUncnsjonaJ pcr$pcC"ti\'c rcprcscutalion of Thiessen (ncatnt neighbor) polnons. a,c11-
cr.111cd b>• i.iucrpoL11ion for:\ sel of Slt1l!Plc poi11t1 (bl:\d: dou). Nole that MOS IU'e 11Ui3,t!cd lhc \'11fue of die
nearc:$1 4llmplc p<>inl. cn:.;ating a $c1 of UR"gi.dnr polygon;. Vt.lucs dw1gc 111.mapdy !llong the pc>olygon edge;.

•
• •
• •
0 •
Figure 12-5 shows our ozone sample
points and Tbiessen polygons based on the
sample points. Note that sampling is denser
near some urban areas. panicularly dte Pltil·
adelpbia-New York City co1Tidor in the
upper right, Denver on the left, and St.
Louis. Dallas, and Atlanta along the mid 10
Lower porrioos of the figure. Thiessen poly·
gons are sn:i.aUer where sampling density is
highest.
Thiessen polygons provide an exac1
imerpo/01or. This means the interpolated
surface equal;; the sampled values at each
sample poinL The value for each sample
location is preserved. so there is no differ·
ence be1weeo 11te true and interpolated val-
ues at the sample points. Exact inierpolators
have this admirable quality. but often are not
the best interpolators at unsan1pled points:
for example. the Thiessen polygon method is
usually in error at nonsampled locations.
often more so than other inexact interpol•·
tors.
Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 517
Fixed Radius - Locall Averag ing
Fixed radius interpolation is more com-
plex than nearest neighbor interpolation. bul
Less complex than most other interpolation
methods. In a fixed radius imerpola1io11 a
raster grid is specified in a region of interest
Cell values are estimated b•sed on 11te aver-
age of nearby samples.
The satnples used to calc11Ja1e a cell
value depend on a search radius. The search
radius defines the size of a circle that is cen-
tered on each cell. Sample points fow1d
inside the circle arc averaged 10 interpolate
1be value for that cell (Figure 12-6). Points
outside the circle are ignored.
Figure 12-7shows a perspective view of
fixed radius sampling. Note thal there is a
sample data Layer. shown a, '!be top of Figure
12-7. venically aliSJled witb the interpolated
surface. This surface is a raste.r data layer
\\itb interpolated values in each raster cell.
A fo~cd radius circle is cemered over a ras1cr
cell. The average is calculat.ed for all sam-
ples comained "ithin the sa:mple circle. and
thi.s average is placed in the appropriate out-
518 GIS Fundamentals

• obs.e.rvot,on
+ inrerpolotion PQlflt
Input Output

•
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, 10

. 15

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Fla:ui•t 1~6: A dia.pam and c11::uuplc of a fixed r:ldiut i.ittC!}'Olatiou. Values with.in each ~mp,lioi;: ci.r<lc
-att l\\'a'a$,Cd to ntmutc an Oll1puJ ,·:'lluc for 1.bc corrcspo11din3 poinL

Input sample layer

c=:)
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. C. )
output value is
the average of .
three sample.s
\ . . . . ~ - - ~ - ~ - r - - - - f:ixed radius
sample size
C)

output value
is based on Interpolated
one sompte surface
Flaui'f' 12-7: A ~ t i\'c di11pmn of fixed nidiw umpling. A circle it centered on c~cb i'tl.i-l'crcdl
loc.n.lion.. S,unplef ·within tbc cirdc c0111ri\mtc lo die \'aluc a,i.igocd 10 ucl1 com,pot1ding nutcrccll
(adapted froru Mitichcll. 1999).
 Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 519

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Flgnrt 1.2~8: Ol'i~lUll cbt11 ai,d -..,upk pointt, nnd ft fl.iced rndittt llltcrpol111ion. Note lh111 this method
inny lcrwc pps in ~reu of '!).vie tiutiplct, iind 11\'cr.\Jc O\'crdc1:tSC 11nmplc areas.. 1.t'lcre:i~iog the IWcrng•
lug radlUs w;ill d«rc\llSc g11ps. but iocrQsc data Sl))oothiog Ill highly s;arupled IU'C.I&,

pu1 rasier cell. The process is repe,ned for
eacil raster cell in the surface. Tile fixe<I
radius circles are shown corresponding 10
three raster cells. contauliog three. zero. and
one sample points. respectively. Circles may
contain no points. in which c.ase a zero or no
da1a value is place<! iu lhe rasier cell. The
radius for the- circle is typically much laiger
than 1he raster cell's widtb. This means cir-
cles overlap for adjoining cells. causing
neigllboring cell values to be similar.
The fixed radius: interpolator tends to
smoolh tlte sample da1a (figure 12·8). Large
or small values sampled at a given point are
maintajned when only that one sample point
falls wilhin a search radius for a cell. Values
are brought toward the overall sample mean
when averaged \\rjthin a search radius.
The search radius affects the values of
the interpolated surface. Too small a search
radius resuhs in many emp1y cells. with no
data or null ,•alues. Too large a search radius
may smooth lhe data too much. In the
extreme case. a search radius may be defined
that includes all sample points for all cells.
resulting in a single in1erpola1ed value for all
cells. Some intermediate search radius is
chosen.
Fixed radius interpolators are not exac1
io1erpolators because they may average sev-
eral points in the vicinity of a sample. and so
1hey are unlikely 10 place the measured value
al sample points in lbe inle!Jlolated surface.
Inverse Distance Weighted Inter-
polation
The im-erse distance weiglued(ID\V)
interpola1or es1.i1ua1es lhe value at unkllowu
points using the sampled vatues and distance
to nearby known points. The weight of each
sample point is an inverse p.roponion to the
distance. thus 1he name. The fanller away
1he point, the less weight the point has in
520 GIS Fundamentals
helping define the value al an unsampled
loca1ion. Values a,e estimated by:
Z;
Ld"IJ
j
(121)
I IDW is an exac1 interpolator. lmerpo-
i::d~
j IJ
where ZJ is the estimated value for the
unknown point at. loe-at:ion j. d, is the dis-
tance from known point I to un~own point j,
Z, is 1he value for the known poim 1. and n is
a user-defined exponent Any number of
points greater than two may be used, up to
all points in 1he sample. 'Typically. some
fixed number of close points is used: for
example. 1he three ne.arest sampled points
will be used 10 es1imate values a1 unknown
locations. Note 1hat n controls how fast a
point's influence ·wanes with distance. The
larger then. the smaller the weight (1/d"ul-
so the less influe10ce a point has on the esti·
mate of the w1known point.
Figure 12-9 iilus1ra1es an IDW interpo-
lation calculation. The three nearest samples
are used. Each measured sample value is
kno.....n p()in I knowt"I po1rH
50 30
·~~· 1nterpo101ed
point
• 3945
52
k~po101
Fi&Ul'C' l l-SI: An example: c:Jilc:u.lation for a lincM
llm::ri;c dis.tao~ wd$,ht<:d intc:rpolator. Tbe values
with
l1f cac1t lroov;-i,poi.i•1(50, 52 , 30) 11tc 11.\'<~gcd
wcifhts based on 1J1c di.s12nccs (di, d.2. d3) from
the mtc:rpob1tcd poim.
weighted by the inverse of the distance from
the unknown. intel]lolated location. These
weighted values are added. The result is
divided by tJ1e sum of lhe weights 10 "scale..
the weights to the measurement units. This
produces an es1ima1e for the unsample<l
location.
lated values are equal to the sampled values
a1 each sampled point. As a <\! becomes very
small (srunpte points near the interpolated
loca1i_onl: the 1/dij becomes very large. The
contnbuuon from the nearby sample point
dwarfs the contributions from aUI other
points. The values l/dtj are very near zero for
all i values except the one very uear the sam·
pied poim. so 1he values a1 all other points
are effectively multiplied by zero in the
numerator of the lDW equation. The sum in
the denominator reduces 10 11\e weight Vdi.
The weights on the top and the bottom of t~e
row equation become more similar, and the
fraction approaches 1. Thus. a1 a sampled
point. the !DIV intel]lolation fonnuta
reduces to:
( 12.2)
1
d"u
By simple division this is reduced matht·
matically 10 Z;, the value measured at the
sampling location.
lnverse distance weighting results in
smooth interpolated surfaces (Fi,gure 12-10).
The values do not jump disconti nuously at
edges. as occurs with Thiessen polygons.
and sometimes with fo<.ed radius interpola-
tion. While IDW is easily and 1Yidely
applied. care must be taken in evaluating the
values of n and i. The effects of d1anging n
and i should be tested in an ove~ampled
case or using retention and repeat fitting
methods. described later. where adequate
 Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 521

..
• ojo

•
•
• .
••
• .. ......
• •
•• •
I' •
•
.
~. ,,
•

'
le,
•
• •• •
•
., 0" • •
.e. .
: ·..
•

.,,
8oA.u."
,.. ,··~
•

• •
ti •J.; ':'.'...V. • 0
0

;,.;o -.~)
•
'
..i;..,

.,
.-----i
• ,.f A• •
• •:•: • <>
..
O»'IC. #0
• ••
•
... 1:1·6~
~!-t!
l •?/'
• '
;< •• ...n 71.74

... i
•
• •
•• 71·~
1, Ti

• • • " lib

.•,ofo;)
,• ..
'
••
•• •
• •
•••
.
•
•
•• •
•
• •
'
• ••

0
8

'
•
• .,
Flautt IZ...10: lnwrsc di&tancc wci;btcd U1tclpolariou typically r«ulls in a SlllOOtb. ;ap-~c SU1face.
E~poncm 01'dcr :a:1,d u mple ti.u 11.ffttt tbc iln'ftlce &b11pc (ot 1.hi-t i1ltc:rpol111or. The top intcrpol~1io1, relics o,,
lhc 12 nurqt J>Qinl.s, uitb an exponent of two, \\•bile 1hc lower intcrpobtion relic, Oii the fO\lr nc:nrC$1
pointt. and au cxpo1lC1ll of three. Lexa.I infloenccs arc stronger H the e.:qx>tieru incrcaws and 1be nwnlxr Qf
$81l.lpk poictt dc<tt3tCS.
522 GIS Fundamentals
withl1eld points can be compared to interpo·
lated points. The 'lDW, and all otl1er in1e,p<>-
la1ors. should be applied only afttr the user
is convinced the method provides estimates
with sufficient accuracy. In the case of IDW.
this may involve testing the interpolntorover
a range of n and i values. and selecting the
combination that most often gives accept·
able results.
The size of the user-defined exponent, n,
affects 1he shape of the inte,pota1ed surface
(figure 12-10). 1Vhei1 a larger n is specified.
the closer points become more influential.
Higher exponents resuh in surfaces with
higher peaks. lower valleys. and steeper gm-
die111s near the sampled points. Contours
become much more concemrated near sam·
pie points when n • 2 (Figure 12- 10. top)
than when n . 3 (Figure 12-10. bottom).
These changing shades reflect steeper gmdi·
ems near the known data points.
The number of points. i. used 10 estimate
an interpolated point.;. also affects the esti·
mated surface, but effecls are often complex
and diflieult to ge,1erali2e. b~au~e they
depend on the dis1ribmion and magnin,des
of the specific sample points. A larger num-
ber of sample points lends 10 resuh in a
smooiber interpolated surface.
Splines
A spline is a llexible niter tbat was com-
monly used by drafting tec.hnicians 10 create
smooth curves tlu:ougb a set of pouus. Math·
ematical spline firnciions. also referred to as
splines. are used ~o interpolate along a
smooth curve. These functions serve the
same pu,posc as tile flexible n,lcr in lbat
they force a smoolll line to pass through a
desired set of points. Spline functions are
more adaptable 1han tlteir physical counter-
parts because 1bey may he used for lines or
surfaces and they may he estimated and
changed rapidly. The san,ple points are
"guides'" through which the spline passes.
S_pline fw1c1ions are conslru:cted from a
set ofjoined polyno,nial fianctions. Line
functions \\~ll be described here.., but the
principles also awty 10 surface splines.
1>olynomial functions are fit to sJ1ort seg-
ments. Ao exact or a least squares method
may be used 10 fit the lines 1hrough 1he
points found in the segment For example, a
third-order polynomial may be fit 10 a line
se~nent (Figure l 2-11). A different 1bird-
order polynomial will be fit 10 tbe next line
segment. These polynomials are by their
namre smooth curves wi1.ltin a gi\'Cll seg-
ment
Splines are typically first. second. or
third order. corresponding to 1be 1n.1xum1111
exponen1 in 1he equation used to fit each seg-
ment (e.g.. second order for x2. third order
for x3 or x2y). Segments meet at knots. or
join points. These join points may fall on a
sampled point, or they may fall between
sampled points.
one polynomial equotion
IS fit 10 po.ill$ Of'lt:
1tro"9h five. v • f(s)
01 1he jOll'l Poir'l1
f(x) • 9(x) smoothed
slope of f{x) • slope of g(x) lln•
c.h0n9t lf'I ~loi,t. of f(x) e~uols
the: c.hOnge in slope of g(x)
•
o S«<lnd potynornlot eouotlon
is fit lo points fNe
lhroogh eleven. y • g(x)
fi&u~ 12- U ; Oi~gram of a two-di1n.emiornd
(line) ,plinc, Segmen1s are fi1 topont-0us ofa line.
Scgu:u:nts att CO!Utraiucd to join smooabJy :u
knots, wl1crc they meet.
 Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 523

Constraints are sel on spline functions lo
ensure the einire line or surface remains
smooth at the join poims. These constraints
are in<:orporaled into the mathematical form
of the futietiC>n for each segment. They
require tbai tbe slope oftbe lines and the
di.1nge in slope oflhe lines be equal across
segments on either side of the join point.
Typically. spl.ine functions give exact inter-
polation (the splines pass through the sample
points) and show a smooth tran.silion (Figure
12·I2). Stricllyenforeingex:act i111erpola1ion
can sometimes lead 10 artifaccs at the knots
or between points. Large loops or deviations
may occur. The spLiue functions are often
modified to allow some etTOr in tbe fit, par-
1icutarly when fitting surfaces rather lhan
lines. This usually removes the artifacts of
spline fits, while maimaining die smooth and
cominuous interpolated lines or surfaces.

'.
•
~;-
•
• . •
•
. •... •
••
• •
•
•
•
.
.
'. .,

~•
•
•• •
•
•
•
• ••• • •
•

Flautt 12.. 12: A splinc..fi1 surf'3cc.

524 GIS Fundamentals
Spatial Prediction
Spatial predictions arc based on mathe-
matical models. often built via a slatlstical
process. These statistically based models
use coordinate l<>eation and measured or
observed independent variables to predict
values for impor1an1 but unknown depen·
dent variables. Spatial pcediction is differ-
ent from interpolation because it uses a
statistical fitting process rather than a pre·
defined algoritlun. and because spatial pre-
diction uses independent variables as well
as coordinate locations to estimate
unknown variabl.es. \Ve admit lhat our dis.
tinction between spatial predic1'ion and
interpolation is artificial. but it is useful in
organizing our discussion. and highlights
an importam distincc.ion between ourdata-
driven models and our fixed interpolation
me«hods.
Spatial predictions a.re a special case of
general predictiv,e modeling. a major focus
of applied statistics. TI1erc is a rich litera-
ture devoted to spatial statistics in general.
and spalial predictive modeling in particu·
tar. We will only scratch the surface of th.is
field: the reader ls referred 10 the introduc-
tory spa1fal sta1is1ics texts Jisted at the end
of tl1is chapter.
Our discussions will be re.stricled to
predicting contin.uous spatial variables.
These variables arc conceptualized as sp11-
linl fields that occur across an area. are
measured on an imervaVratio scale, and
t)'J)ically have values that vary in concert
- that is. they are spatially correlated. This
is in contrast to discrete objec:1s. such as
point. line. or polygon features. While the
occurrence and propertie.s of discrete fea-
lllles may be predicted using spatial mod-
els. this is less common. and most discrete
object predictio1.tS use a different set of
tools tlmt will nol be discussed here.
Spatial prediction may be considered
more general than interpola1ion. Bot11 are
used to estimate ,>alues of a target variable
at unknown locations. l.nterpolation meth-
ods use only the measured target variable
and sample coordinates to estimate the tar-
get variable.s at unknown locati!ons, while
spatial prediction usually inc-orporates
additional variables.
Spatial predictions are often improved
due to spatial autoccrrela1io11. which is is
the tendency of nearby objects 10 vary in
concert. High values occur together. as do
low values. Explanatio,ts of this commoo
condition often refer 10 tbe observation of
Waldo Tobler. that "everything in the tuti-
verse is related to everything else. but closer
1hings are more related." However. the
nature of the correlalion may d1ange from
one variable 10 the next. or it may change in
space. Correlations may l>e strong in one
region bm poor in another, or positive in one
area a.ad negative in another. We 013)'
improve our predictions if we sn,dy the SPQ·
tial autocorrelation and incorporate the cor-
relation stn1c1ure into our models.
In addition 10 spatial autocorrelation.
1here may be. cross..corre.lario11 between dif·
ferent variables: the tendency f<>r 1wo vari-
ables to change in concert. This means two
different variables at the same OT nearby
locations may be lligb or low together (posi-
tive cross-correlation). or highs in one vari-
able correspond to lows in another (negative
cross-correlation). SPQtial prediction metli-
ods may incorporate auto-and cross-<:orrela-
tion in predictions.
Surfaces with tow and high SPQtial auto-
correlation and with strong cro$S-correlation
are shown in Figure 12-13. Figtcre 12-130
shows two surfaces. Loyor l. with a high
autocorrelation, and Loyer 2. wi•h a low
autocorrelation. Scatter diagrams of sample
pairs separated by a unifontl sb<ln tag dis-
1ance are shown to 1he righl of ~ch corre-
sponding layer. mgher autocorrelation, as
shown in Layer l. indicates lbai points near
each other are alike. Asample from • sur-
face with high autocorrelation provides sub·
stamial information abom the vaJues a1
nearby locatioos (Figure 12-1 30. top). Sam-
ples from a surface with low autocorrelation
 Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 525

o) spotiol outocorrelalion
Loyu1
,.
~
g
..... ... ::~.:
..., • •_ · ; , ·

'Jtlf..~t-}." ••
-1 1100 ,.
"'O
~ ""'
-
~ -
.00
S:.-.·~~r·'
~\,··

Loytr 2
N
--
.3
~
~

., ,.· ·"'-:t..<•.' .·.: ..

·' # •• ..... • .. ••

J-
,:.., •.'•''t. • '\ l I •

";"- .....
" "" -~··:.......,.,?;·:
~ . • ..• ~
.... ,.~ ..:,. . . . .
~ ~

... ...v· .· ·:·

.'J~·::.'· '.· • •• •• : •

"'
"'

b) spofiol cross-con-dotion

'""' ~ -----------~
'. ......
••
''"'
.. !100
lJ 1000
·' .. ·: .
• . . .. •• t•
t,.... •• .,.•

... .If,~
.9 '°"

.. ~-----------"'
""'

flaurt- 12- 1.l: PM o lhO\\'!I spati:11J1,, :ntr<>Cotrd111cd (l ~ r I) ruld sp:ui~lly uoeo1nln1cd (Loyer 2) <bt!l
l~yc:r$, Plots of i.1mplc ~in wi1b .t fag distn.:rn;c h • 1 sbow ,imifar , ·~lun for- lbc nutoconcl.3tcd Loyer I,
and unrelated ,·alues for uncorrelated Loyer 2. Panel b show$ two eross-com:latcd layen. Loytr Ahas:
hiJb« ,·aluc5' on a,·mi..3< than toyer 8 , but the two laym \'IU)' io cou«r1. Both fe"acb luab aud low ,·111-
ucs in siruilnr 11re.u.
526 GIS Fundamentals
do not provide much information al values in
the vicinity of the sample point (Figure 12·
130. bonom).
1\vo cross-correlated raster layers are
shown in Figure I l· lJb. Positive cross-.or-
related layers have values 1hat tend to both
be high in some regions and be tow in other
regions. Many feamres are posith•ety cor-
related. such as housing prices and average
income. or donut shop density and number
of security guards. Negative cross-correta-
1ion occurs when varfables change in the
opposile sense - areas with high values for
one variable are low for the other. for exam-
ple. low temperanire-s at higher elevations.
The Moran's l statistic is an established
measure of global. or average level of cor-
relation across a data set:
n n
n L L w0(Z; - Z)( Z1- Z)
l= l j = I
1- ...:........:...,_:.~ ~~~~- (12.3)
n n n
- ,
L (Z,- zr L L WJJ
I= ! l= l j = I
where z, and z, are the variable Vlllues at
points I and J, respectively: z with a bar
above it is the variable mean. The calcula-
tions standardize individual observations
by subtracting the mean so that tl1e Moran's
J range is constrained.. and to ease interpre-
tation.
The wuare weight values that decline
wilh distance, laking a posi1ive value ifz1
and z, are considered neighbors. and Oif the
values are 001. Di.stance declines can be
spec.ified in sever.al ways, with a specific
distance threshold. for direct adjacency such
as reqlliring shared edges for polygons or
raster cells, or using the rook•s orqueen's
case adjacencies described in moving win·
dow analysis in Chapter IO. Weights are typ·
ically zero for all olher, more distant features
or cells relative 10 any cell or polygon.
Figure 12· 14 shows a Moran's I c.alcu.
lotion applied to a raster data set. Here a
"rook's case" nlle is applied in that neigh-
bors are only cells tl1a1 share a full edge.
A rather sparse weiglu table may be
constmcted to organize lhe wu (Figure 12-
14). Each row is derived from the rook' s
adjacencies centered on a given cell, idemi-
fied in 1he firs:1 column of the 1able. There is
a non-zero entry in a row for each rook's
case adjacency. and zeros otherwise. For
example-. the rook's template cemered on
cell d in Figure 12-14 yields o, e, and gas
neighbors to d, so these columns have non-
zero entries i.n row d in the weights 1able.
Each row is nom1alized so that d:te summed
row entries equal I. yielding the sum of all
weights 10 equal the nllmber of fean1Ces. and
since wu • n. they cancel each other by divi.
sion in the Moran's l fonuuta.
Moran's I approaches a value of ·l in
data sets with positive spatial correlation. in
which like values tend 10 occur together. The
numerator in the equa1ion is 1.he cross prod-
Ult of fe.1m1eS ttMt Mtb other. Each time a
large value occurs near another large value.
the numerator calculation will be large. If
small values also co-occur, they will both be
large negati\'e numbers. and mul1iptica1ion
will also result in a la.rge positiv,e number.
The swn of the cross-product will tl1en be
large for spatially correlated data secs. bui
standardized by the denominator to be near
l.
lf lbere is oo sparial soniug i.o a data set.
large values a.re just as likely to be near
small values as elsewhere. with positi\'e vaJ.
ues tending to balance negative ·values. mak·
ing the sum in the Moran's I numerator near
zero. T11e spo1ial layers ha"e low spatial cor-
relation because knowing a value at a loca-
tion does 1101 provide much info:rmation
about values in adjacent locations - 1.bey
are just as likely 10 be different or similar 10
the observed value.
Moran's l approaches -1when values are
anticorrelate<I - a large value is more likely
to be next to smaUvalues than next to other
large ,'llh1es.
 Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 527

Moran's I Calculations
Test aver Formula For our example
• • raster at the far left,
3c 5b 2c n 'L i: Wu(Z,. Z)(Zj. Z)
!·I J•I n,9
9d 11 4 I•" 11t
Z. 3.5.z . ....• a • 6.67
• r L (Z;. 'ZJ' 'L L wij 9
•l ••1 J•I
8. 10h 8k To make lhe
notation simpler
let 6 , • (Z1• Z)
If we adopt the rook's case adjacency, the~ e.g ..
the Wlj weights take the general form of: ~
6 0 -(3-6.667) •·3.667
Wij weights table, normalized ' a
0
'
- 3.667
0 b c d e f Q h k
0 0 0.5 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 b -1.667
b 0.333 0 0.333 0 0.333 0 0 0 0 c -4.667
c 0 0 .5 0 0 0 0.5
0 0 0 d 2.333
d 0.333 0 0 0 0.33 0 0.333 0 0 e 4.333
f -2.667
e 0 0.25 0 0.25 0 0.25 0 0.25 0
f
g
0
0
0 0.333 0 0.333 0
0 0 0.5 0 0
0
0
0 0.333
0.5 0
-
9
h
1.333
3.333
k 1.333
h 0 0 0 0 0.333 0 0.333 0 0.333
k 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 0 0.5 0 and
L• (Z,. Z)'
• • itl
Re-arranging. then n ·L L wu 6; 6 J
1
applyi ng the formula:! =- .-"-' ~J·- -, - . - - becomes
z
~ 6, :84
Li•J t.' ·Ii=J Z: w0
I )=I

9 • 10.5(-3.667 )( ·!.667) · 0.5( ·3 667)(2.333) • 0.333( ·1.667)(-3.667) ·-·

,,0.5(-2.667)(1333)•0.5(3.333)(1333))
I=-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-

25.2 = 0.300
=
84

Fla:u~ I ? 14: Mornn't I is a measure: of the com:L11ion amou11 neatby obse:r\-atioo1. This; example
0

sbows 1bc enl.:ul:nion of Moran·, If«" smnll Nl$terd.1tll f c1. The fomml11 is" ,vci_gbtcd combll1.,1ion of
rnlues in 3 ne:i!Wborhood. repeated aCfOss .ill cells. Positive Monm·s I v.ilues indicate po5itive spatUI
com:l.atioo. aod negative ,,.lucs indicate auti<0rrdatioo.
528 GIS Fundamentals
Note that cakulation using different
software may calculate different values for
Moran's I when using the same data. TI1is
is largely due to how the weight matrix is
cons1nic1ed, and if and how row uonnaliza.
tion is impleme111ed. Different weights will
give a different answer, such that sublle
difference in crea1ion \\1U give slightly 10
largely different numbers. Analysts should
be careful in comparisons across softwares
unless tltey can comrol all aspects of tl1e
calcula1ions. partkularly the weight matrix.
The Moran' ~ I is tem1ed a global statis-
tic because ii idemifies the average or area-
wide spatial correlation. It doesn't identify
how correlation varies across the area of
interest. A local Moran's I. or LISA (local
iodicalor of spatial autocorrelation) is often
used to identify local cluslering. Spatial
correlation is mapped by calculating an
index for each feamre. and then planing the
correla1ion at each feature. Under the typi·
cal standardization, local weights sum 10 1.
and the local Moran's I is calcttlated as:
Z-2
I• = ' · L,
'<"' WIJ · (Z- 2)
l'I J that provides bener temperantre predic-
L (Z, -l:1' j .J•I
We must remember that the Z·bar in
the above equation is t.he rue.an of all fea-
tures. and 21 is sununed overall features in
the data set in Ille de11omina1or of fraction.
Weigh1s w0 are defined as zero over most of
the data set. with nonzero values only
"near" the local feamre. and Stun to one.
Other neigJ1borhoods may be specified,
changing the number of neigl1borsand their
weighlS for each focal feanire. A "quee11 's
case.. neighborhood may be adopted. with
all 8 adjacent cells panicipating and an
eq11al weight or distaoce-<lependen1 weight
set that sums to one. Weights forvector
data sets may be more complicaled, but
usually are specified by shared edges.
nodes. or with centroids within a specified
proximjty.
TI1ere are many olher global and local
indices of spatial au1ocorrela1ion including
Geary's C. or the Gi of Ge1is and Ord
(1992). and 1hey perform jn a manner simi-
lar to Moran's I. The indices vary in bow
they estima1e die correla1ion and in the spe-
cific c.alculations of relatedness and separa-
tion. TI,ese and a number of additional
,opics are quite well covered in the sug·
gested reading at the end of this chapter.
Spatial Regression
Spatial regression and other statisli-
cally based models typically 11se observa-
tions of dependent variables. other
independent variables. and sample coordi-
nates 10 develop prediction equat ions. For
example. we estimate temperomre across a
region using a network of temperature sta-
tions. We may interpolate as described in
the previous section to estimate tempera-
mre. using only the station coordinates and
tbe corresponding temper.uttre measure-
mcms. However. we may note a s1rong
cooling 1rend with elevation. and combine
temperature measurements witli elevation,
la1imde. and longitude in a siatistical model
tions. We would then use this model to esli·
mate raster 1emperamre layers for the
region.
Spatial predictions are often described
mathematically by a general ftcnct ion. such
as:
2 1 = f(x1, y1, a 1, ~J) (12.5)
where Zi is the estimated oulput value. at the
coordinates Xi: Yi at point i: <Xi are variables
measured at point i: and Jlj are variables
measured at other locations.
 Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 529

Trend Suriface and Simple Spa·
tlal Regression
Trend surface prediction is a iype of spa-
tial regression tbat involves fining a statisti-
cal model. or !rend surface. lhrough !he
measured points. The surface is typically a
polynomial iu the x and Y coordinate sys-
tem. For example. a second-order polyno-
mial model woold be:
Z • •o • o,x • o2y • •,>f · o,y2 • o5
where Z is the value at any point X and Y, and
each op is a ooefficient estimated in a regres-
sion model. Least squares methods.
described in most introductory statistical
textbooks. are used to estimate 1he bestset of
oP: values. The oJ) values are chosen to mini-
mize 1he a\'erage difference between the
measured z values and the prediction Slit·
face.
There must be at least one more sample
point than the number of est:imated o coefli·
cients due to statistical constraints. This isn't
a problem for most applications. because the
best polynomial models often have fewer
thrut IO coefficients much fewer than are
typical sample sizes.
Trend surfaces are not exact predictors
in that the surface typically does not pass
through the measured points. There is a dif·
fereuce between the interpolated surface and
lhe measurement at most locations. Trend
surfaces are often among the most accurate
><y U2.6l methods when fitting smoodtly varying Slit·
faces. such as mean daily temperature. Trend
surfaces typically do not have ..bull's-eye..
artifacts due to excessive lo(al influence in
io\•erse distance weigtued imerpolators.
Trend surface methods often perform
poorly when there is a highly convoluted
surface (Figure 12-15). Ozo ne as shown in
the raw obse"'atioos tan change rapidly
over shon distances. as can .Precipitation
from a single summer thunderstonn, or pop-
ulation deoSity lrt a nlixed-use neighbor-
hood: this type of abmpt variation is often

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f'i;1u~ U -15i; A third-orde-r trffld surf:Ke fit to the mup!c poiub,
530 GIS Fundamentals
poorly estimated with a trend surf-ace. Even
high-order polynomials may 1101 be suffi-
ciently flexible t<> fit these complex. convo-
luted surfaces.
Trend :mrfac~& may be exiended 10
include independent variables that provide
some help in predicting the variable of inter-
est:
where x and Yare lbe coordinate locations.
and Q and w are independent variables mea-
sured al the poinl (X. Y). and Z is the depen-
dent variable 10 t,,e predic1ed a1 the poin1
(X.Y). The op values are coefficiems for the
predictive equation. usually estimated
through a least squares sca1is1ical process.
The value Z may li>e predicted at any location
where we have values for x. Y. Q, and W.
Kriging and Co·Kriglng
Kl'igiug is a s~atistically based estimator
of spatial variables. II differs from 1be trend
surface approach in tha1 predictions a.re
based on regional ized variable dteory. which
includes three ma in components. The first
component is the spatial trend. an increase or
decrease in a vari:able that depends on direc-
tion: for example, precipitation may
decrease 1owards the west.
The second component describes the
local spatial auiocorrelation. that is. the ten-
dency for points mear each other to have sim-
ilar values. Kriging is unique and powerful
because we use tine observed cbaoge in SJXI·
tial autocorrela1ion with distance to estimate
values at our unknown locations.
The 1bird componem in 1he prediction is
random, stochastic variation. These three
components are combined iu a rua1be1na1ical
model 10 develop an estimation function.
The fmtction is then applied to the measured
data to estimate values across the study area.
Much like !OW i111erpola1ors, weights in
kriging are used with measured :sample vari-
ables 10 estimate values at unknown loca-
tions. Witll kriging. the weights are chosen
in a sca1is1ically optimal fashion.. given a
specific kriging model and assumptions
about 1he trend, autocorrelation, and stochas-
tic ,.,,riation in the predicted variable.
Kriging methods are. !he ce11terpiece of
geos1a1is1ics, initiaUy de\'eloped in the early
1900s for use in mining. Ore samples may
be expensive to obtain or process. and accu·
rate mineral occurrence and density predic·
dons difficult and valuable. Kriging
estimators were developed to incorporat"e
trends, autocorrelation. and stochastic varia·
tion and also provide some estimate of the
local variance in 1he predicled v.ariable.
Kriging uses 1he concept of a lag dis·
1a11ce. often symbolized by 1he lener h. Con-
sider the sample set shown in Fi,gure 12·16.
Each value for the variable z is shown plot-
ted over a region. Individual points may be
listed as z1. z2. z3. etc., to zk. wben there are
k sample p0ili1s. The lag dirnu;ee for a pair
ofpoims is the distance between them. and
by convention is denoted by h. The lag dis-
tance is calculated from 1be X and Ycoordi-
nate values for the sample poims. based on
tbe PytbagoreaJt formula. In our example in
Figure 12-16, the lag (horizontal) distance
Fiam"ll' 11·16: Lag dl'Stru,c:e, , used in c~lcubt·
Uig scm.i,-ariau«s for kriging.

.;. log tolerance
• spalial covariance calculations. For example.
• we may wish co calculate the semivariance
• of IO units. Any pair of poillls between 102
Flgur't U -17: A lag tolcrnn<:c <kfin<s • mngc
£or "'°'ipi.u3 s:111nplcs:. lltc a,oupins aids csti·
n~t1on of spntilll co,·:1ri::iinec.
between the locations of sample points z1
and 22 is approximately 6 units. The dift'er-
ence in values measured at those points, 2 1-
z2. is equal to 11. Each pair of sample points
is sepanned by a distance. and also has a dif-
ference in the values measured at the points.
For example. 2 1 is 2.4 units from Z4 . and 21
is 5 units from z3. Each pair has a given dif-
ference in the 2 values: for example. 21
minus z4 is 4. Every possible set of pairs Zo·
z b. defines a distance hob· and is differem by
the runo1in1 z... Zb. The distance hob is
known as the lag distance between points o
a,~1b. ru1d in general there is a subset of
poims in a sample se, 1ha1 are a given lag
distance apart.
Lag dislances often are applied with an
associated Ing 1olero11ce. A lag 1olerance
defines a small range 1ha1 is "close enough"
10 a lag distance (Figure 12-1 7). A lag toler-
ance is required because 1he individual lag
distances typically are no1repeated in the
sample data. Most or all distances between
srunple points are wiique. so there is little or
110 replicario11 with which 10 calcula,e the
variability at each lag. Some distances may
Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 531
be quite similar. bul distances usuaJly will
differ in tl1e small<?$! decimal places. A Jag
1olerance circumven1s this problem.
The Jag 10Jerance defines when dis-
tances are similar enough 10 be grouped in
for points 1ha1 are 112 meiers apan. If we are
innexible aud only use poin l pairs that are
exactly 112 meters apart (w,1bi11 the preci-
sion of our mensureruent system). we may
have only a few. or perhaps even no points
that meet 1his strict criterion. By allowing a
1olerance. disiances that are plus or minus
1hat tolerance from the give111 lag distance
can be used to calculate a spatial variability.
For example. we might se, a tolerance for •
and 122 uni1s apan are used! to calculate an
index of spatial covariance for the lag dis-
tance h • ll2.
Geosta1is1ical prediction uses 1be key
concept of a semfrnriance 10 represent spa·
tial covariance. A semivariance is 1he vari·
,u;ce basoo on oeaiby sailljlles, and ir is
defined ma1hem.11ically as:
Y(h) • l/2n " L (Z, - z,,>I (128)
where 20 is the vi,riable measured a1 one
point. z. is the variable measured a1 another
point h rustance away. and n is the number of
pairs that are approxin1a1ely the distance h
apan.
The semivariance at a given lag distance
is a measure of spatial au1ooorrelation a1 dial
distance. Nol'e that when nearby points
(small h) are similar. the difference (20 • Z.,l
is small. and so the semivariauce is small.
High spatial au1ocorrela1io11 means points
near each other have similar z values.
The semivariance may be calculated for
any h. For example, when h•l. the semivari·
ance "t(h) may be equal 10 0.3: when h•2.
1hen ')'(h) may be 0.5: when h,3. !hen )(h)
532 GIS Fundamentals
may be 0.8. We 111.-iy calculate a semivari-
aoce provided the-re are sufficiempoint pairs
that are h distance aJX!n to give a good esti-
mate.
We may plot 1he scmi\'arianc~ O\'er a
range oflag distances (Figure 12-l S). and
this plo1 is known as 3 m,iogram or semi·
,·ariogm111 (note that mere is ongoing debate
over which of these terms is best used). A
variogrnm summarizes the spatial au1ocor·
relation of a variable. Note d1at the semivari-
ance is usually small at small lag distances.
and increases 10 a. plateau as the lag distance
h increases. This is the typical fonn of a ,,a.r-
iogmru. Tbe 1111gger is the initial semivari-
ance when the autocorrelation typically is
highest. The nugget is shown at the left of
the diagram in Figure 12-18.1he semivari-
ance at a lag distance of zero. This is the
intercept of the variognun. The sill is the
point at which lhe variogram levels off.11tis
is the "background'' variance, and may be
thought of as the inherent ,,.,riatiou when
there is l!nle auto,correlatfon. The nmge is
the lag distance al which the sill is reached.
The nugget, sill. and range will differ among
spatial variables.
A set of sample points is used 10 esti-
mate the shape of the variogn,nl First a set
of lag distances h 1. h2. h3, etc.. are de6ned:
each distance signifies a given lag dis1ance.
,,.,..111
............. " :";;"cc', _._--;----
--nugget
n:inge
log distance h
Flgurt 12. 18:AJl idc:~li-tcd \'ll:riogrnm., with
dlC nuggc:1, sill, tllDd range: idcnlific:cL
-- __
..... ..,.._
--'i1,,, _ _
--
--
-------·-- 1..o,O.Jto,,c:c:(,,,)
flgurt U - 1.9": A \'arioa,am, a pl<>< o(calculated
2111d fit tc:mi,::uiance \'t. litg d.itltu)('c:.
plus or minus the lag tolerance. The semi·
variance is tben calculated for each lag dis-
tance. An example is shown in Fig11re 12-19.
Remember. each of these points ~s calculated
from equation 12.7 for a given tag distance.
A line may tbeu be fit through the set of
semivariance points. and the variogrnm esti.
mated. This line is sometimes called the var,
iogram model.
Spatial prediction is among the most
important applications of the variogram
~ux lel (Figure 12·20). There are many varia-
l(OOS and types ofkriging models, but the
sun piest and most couunouty applied rely ou
the variogram to estimate "optimal" we.ights
for prediction. These weights are used to
estimate \lalues a1 unknown localions by:
n
(12.9)
where Q is the estimated value al an unmea-
sured point. w; are weight.s for each sa,npleJ.
and vis the J.. 11own value at sample pointJ.
Weights are op1.imal in lhe s.ense that
chey minimize die error in a prediction. and
they are unbiased, given a specific data set
and model. The calculation of optimal
weights requires some rather involved math-
ematics, beyond our present scope. but is
described in great detail in references listed
a1 the end oftrus chapter.
 Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 533

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Flc:u1~ 12. 20: Sample points and indicted value:, from au application ofkriaing to die ozone data.
Th<"rc: :ire lllilll)' altc:nutti\•c: fomu of finint ~ krigi.i1, n,odd . <:h0$ct\ biscd on goOdnc:ss of fit of 11 ,·11rio·
gnun nK'Cld. and cm ll 5:llllplc de1cm1incd mtcipoln.11011 di31:,.1m:.

Estimatlng each wJ involves a con· Co-krigi11g is an ex1ension or kriging

strained minimization process. A set of
e.qualions may be written that expresses lhe
errors as the differences between our mea-
sured values and the predicted values by a
function of a set of unknown weights. This
set of equations is solved under the con-
straints tha1 the weights sum to zero and the
error variance is minimized. The solution
involves calculating the expected values of
covariances be1weeo poin1s according to a
variog.ram model. for example. by fitting a
smooth relaliousbip between the observed
sem.ivariogran1poims. as shown in Figure
12-19. The covariances are a function of the
specific Jag d is1ances obsen ed in the sam-
1 weights for both the prin1ary and secondary
ple. and are used 10 solve for the op1imal set
of weights in equation 12.8.
As s1ated earlier. kriging is similar 10
ID\V interpolation in 11la1 a weighted aver-
age is calculated. However. kriging uses the
minimum ,,.·ariance method 10 calculate I.be
weights. ratlier than applying some arbitrary
and perhaps more. imprec.ise weighting
scheme as with IDW.
1bat includes die measurement of a separate.
correlated variable at the sample locations in
addil'iou to 1he variable ofimerest. There
may be an easily measured secondary vari-
able that is to some extent related to the pri-
mary variable, bui that is easier or less
expensive 10 measure. I.n many analyses.
temperature mighl be a primary variable and
elevation a secondary variable. Co-kriging
exploits lhe covariance ben-..1een tlte primary
and secondal)' variables to i mprove our esti-
mate of the primary variable. Co·kriging is
similar 10 kriging in that a set of optimal
weiglns is estimated. but co-kriging has
variables.
Spatial prediction with kriging. co-krig-
ing. and other goostatis1ical methods can be
a comple~ and nuanced process, There is a
,,~de range.of possible models that in part
depend on the cbarac1eristics of tbe data.
Different data charac1eristie:s indkate 1>3rtic-
ular modeling methods or model fom1s, for
example, if there are trends in 11te data. or
534 GIS Fundamentals
directional di.fferenc.es in the variance. These
considerations are beyond the scope of our
present discussioo. and tbe interested reader
is referred to more complete treatmenss.
such as lsaaks and Srivastava (1989) or
McKillup and Dyar (2010). listed under sug-
gested reading at the end of this chapter.
There are more advanced spatial predic-
tion methods. and spatial estimation is an
active area of research. with more complex
techniques such as spatial Bayesian estima-
tion and space.time models. These topics are
more appropriately treated in more advanced
courses and texts-
Prediction Accuracy
We often need to characterize the accu-
racy of our spa1ial estimations. This helps us
choose the best model and place limits on
model applicatio11. Model assessment is a
well-developed field. and will not be thor-
oughly reviewed here, but a few main COIJ·
cepts are introduced.
Accuracy is measured at asses.smem
poims. locationswhere we know both the
rme value and the estimated values for a
variable.We oflen describe a sample set with
n points. with estimated or interpolated val-
ues at any itb point denoted by Pt, and the
true or observed vaJue at tJ1e poiut denoted
by o1• Each assessment point provides an
eJTOr estimate:
(12.10)
There are several metrics tliat are com-
mon.ly used to characterize aggregate error.
perhaps chief among them the root mean
squm't!d e,ro,·:
(12.11)
Error values are squared to remove the sign
effect. and then the square roo1 raken on the
sum to re1um 10 the measured uni1 scale.
instead of a squared unil sc.ale. Predictions
either above or below the observed values
are generally considered to be equally bad.
and rhe error is averaged ove.r all samples.
However. squaring the errors magnifies the
influence of outliers. extremely large posi-
tive or negative errors. so some .argue thal
1his is an overly pes.simis1ic estimate of
error. or at least when there are large outU·
er>.
The meou absolute en-or is an alterna-
tive error metric. less often used but less sen-
sitive to outliers than the RMSE. The MAE is
defined as:
( 12.12)
II ~ubstimtes theabsolute vah1e operation for
the squaring/square root operations and so is
less sensitive to outliers. but othel1\~se is
quite similar to the RMSE.
Another accuracy metric is the mem,
bias error.
MBE measures the average bias in the pre-
dictions. the amomH by which, on average.
an es1imated surface o,1er· or underpredic1s
the tme values. MSE conveys useful infor-
mation overall, but provides Littte informa.
tion on 1he magnjrude of individual eJTOrs
and should be used in ronj1mc1ion with
RMSE. or preferably. MAE.

Overall measures of agreement between
an estimated and tn1e surface have been pro·
posed. includ ing Willmott's index of agree-
ment:
A mg, As you nugbt reta.11. Thiessen polygons.
d= I - s •c,
- CL.._ __ (12.14)
' lated to exactly ren1m the observed values at
I <IP.I +loJ>'
o- I mus, hold a se, of poims in restr\'e in order
with
P,' = P1 -0 (1215)
and
(1216)
Prim!'IY cita1io~ of dlese and o!her accuracy
memcs are provided at the end of this chap-
ter, and in the considerable literature on
interpolation and spa1ial estimation.
Assessing the accuracy of an interpo-
la!ed surface requires we collect bo!h
observed and predi<1ed values a1 a se.1of
points. In an ide.a1 asse.ssment, these would
be independent of the samples we use to esti·
mate the surface, bm this is rarely possible.
Samples are often e.xpensive, difficuJt to col-
lect. and spar,se. and most interpola1ed sur·
faces would benefit from additional
sampling. If each new sample can materially
improve our interpola1ion. we are hard.
pressed 10 ho.Id them in rt'Serve for an accu-
racy assessment. We are tempted 10 use most
Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 535
or all ofour samples while interpolating, and
leave few or none for an accuracy assess-
ment.
. Exac, ime_rpolators are particularly vex-
!nverse distance weighted. and some spline
mterpolators have zero error a, au sample
poims by definition. because !hey are fonnu-
!he fined points. One might !hi11k Iha! we
to gel a 1rue estimate of the imerpolator
accuracy.
l11ere are related techniques. known
variously as Jea,,e..one·out, bootstrapping. or
cross-validation. which address botl> the
t~ndersan~plfog and robust accuracy es1ima-
uon requirements. Bootstrapping fits the Sur·
face as many times as there are sample
points. eacl11ime withholding one of 1he
pomts. We fit the surface the first time, with-
holding !he firs, poin1. We C1lll !hen sublr8C!
the witl!held measured value (01) 10 the
mrerpola!e<I value (P1), and obtain one esli-
mate oftlie error. We tlien repeat tliis protess
for the res, of !he sample points. For n san1-
ples. we fit the surface n times. We can then
compare !he withheld poi111's true value. o
to the fi1 value P1. giving us o error values. ~.
We can !hen apply equations 12.10 through
12. 16 10 charac1erize the accuracy of each
surface.
Bootstrapping or similar accuracy esti~
mates should be used because the RMSE
estin>ated from the fit points ofleo gives an
optimistic eslimate of accuracy, particularly
when sample size is small U not provided
by the G!S software used in finu1g. 1heo
sample data should be exponed 10 a s1atis1i-
cally oriented surface fining system. for
example, 1he op,,n source statistical package
R.
536 GIS Fundamentals
Core Area Mapping
Core area mapping is anou,er common
and usefi1l spatial analysis tool. A core area
is a primary area ofinflueuce or activity for
an organism. object, or resource of interest.
Detectives may wisJ1 to map a series of bur-
glaries to 1mcover clustering or patterns in
occurrence. Wildlife managers may wish to
map the home range of an endangered
organism, or a busines.s owner the home
locations of her ctistomers.
Core area mapping typically involves
identifying area features (polygons, raster
areas. or volumes) from a set of point or
line observations. Individual burglaries... for
example, are recorded as point locations.
perhaps ragged to the address or building
where they occurred. These points may be
used to define a polygon by one ofseveral
core area mapping techniques. In this way.
the core area is a higher dimensional spatial
object (area) that is defined from a set of
lower din1ensional objects (points or lines).
This core area represents some central or
imponant region where features occur fre-
quently. in this example. burglaries. Addi·
tional resources 01ay be focused 011 this
core area, such as increased patrols or sur·
veillance.
Core area mapping is commonly used.
Perhaps the most: frequent applications 10
dare have involved analysis of pane ms of
human activity such as crime occurrence.
disease surveiUaoce. or business activity. In
addition. plant and animal species densities
are often analyzed aod smnmarii:ed using
these methods, particularly when the
organism is highly valued or endangered.
Resource managers record organism occur-
rences in the field, perhaps using GPS or
other spatial posi rioning technologies.
These observations may be combined and
abundance panerns are analyzed after a
sufficient number of observations bas been
gathered. Core areas may be idemified. and
key habitat conditions or requirements
inferred. These may guide managemem
actions such as the protection of areas wit11
a high concentration of endangered species
and the enhancement of other areas by add-
ing key habitat requirements.
Mean Center and Mean Circle
The mean ceme,· and associated mean
circle are perhaps the simplest and most
obvious measure of a central location and a
core area. The mean cemer is simply the
average X and Ycoordinates of the sample
points. Each santple poim has an associated
pair of coordinates. These may be summed
and 1he average calculated, and I his mean
point iden1ified as the center of the core area.
Mean circles may be associ211ed wi1h 1he
mean cen1·er to define a core area {Figure 12·
21). The mean circles are defined by a radius
measured from 1he mean center. The mean
circle radius is commonly the distance 10 the
far01es1 sample point. the average distance
from the mean cemer to the set of sample
points, or some other stalistic.al measures
based ou the variance of the disrnoce to sam-
ple poims. These distances may be caku·
lated easily from 1he sample XaJJd Y
coordinates, first by calculating the mean.
and then by applying the generaU fom,ulas 10
20
..•
• • mean
t.ffl''1'
o L-.::::::=::::::....~
0 10 15
_ 20_1
X Coordinate
Flgutt 12. 21 : An e.umplc of~ mcll.n ccllttT tllld
con-c,ponding mclln clfcles for :i sci of s..i mplc
poiutt:.

c.alculate distance from sample points 10 the
mean center. The largest distance. average
distance. or tbe standard deviation of tbe dis-
tance from points to the center then may be
detennu,ed.
Mean cirdes have the advanlages of
simplicity and ease of constn,ction, but they
assume a uniformly circular shape for the
core area. Some measures of me.an center
may be biased by extreme poims; for exam-
ple. tile maximum distance circle in Figure
12-21. Note that the outlier near X '"' J5 and
Y • 17.5 results in a large ma~imum distance
circle. This circle contains substantial area
with no points nearby.audit is probably an
overestimation of the core area. It is not
cleartha1 the inean distance or standard error
dis1ance circles are bener at defining a core
area. The core areas defined by these me.a-
sures may be appropriate for some applica·
tions. but they are often too small in others.
Some multiple of the. mean distance or stan.
dard error ,ua.y be chosen based on statistical
assumptions. or past experience. For exam·
pie, if we asswne lhe samples follow a ran-
dom normal distribution. then a core area
defined by a circle appro:<imately 1.8 times
a)
~ .. . • ..
·. . ..·,.
•' ..•.
. .
- .. . •.
•
•• ••
c)
~ ..
.• ·'
- ..
•I
•
Chapler 12: Spatial Eslimation 537
the standard error dislance should c,olllain
68% of the data. Previous e><perieuce may
help: for example.•one migbt know 1hat in a
particular region.. 90% or more of a wolf
pack core area is within L0.8 km of a mean
ceme-r.
In many c.ases. circular core areas are
sul>optimal because 110,ny variables are
known 10 exhibit nonregular shapes. and a
circular core area is identified when using
the mean cemer I mean circle methods.
While me.an circle methods .are often used in
exploratory da1a analyses. other methods
have been developed 10 more effectively
identify irregularly shaped core areas.
Convex Hulls
Convex hulls. also known as minimum
convex polygons. are perhaps the simplest
way to identify core areas with irregular
shapes. A co,"'e." hull is 1.he smallest poly-
gon created by edges (Lines) that 00111·
pletely enclose a set of poiuts. and for
which all eitterior aogles be1ween edges are
greaterthan or equalto 180 degrees (Figure
12-22). An exterior angle is measured from
b)
•
..
-
·J
. ...., ~
f'i&ut'f 12-22: A iet of t'(>illl9 (a) Ul-3)'
be cucloscd by coon«.bng the ..outct·
most'' points i.u the «-t. 'flus "'hu.11"
ddinct 11; poln~on. Hulls m:.y be cb:u-·
a-ctcrized as coi,c:iwc (b). when some
cxtcrioraug1« arc leu than ISO
degrees, Ol'COO\'<'.:< (c}, when :t.U c.'<tt'•
rior angles 1trc gi-ca1cr tbn.u Oii' cqulll lo
JSO deg:r«s.
"•
538 GIS Fundamentals

one edge or side 'lo another through the
region "outside" of a polygon. Squares. tri-
angles. and regular pentagons are all exam-
ples of convex hulls. while stars and
crosses ate examples of aoncouvex bulls.
While these geometric figures have regular
shapes. most convex hulls derived from
sampled points \Vill not.
Convex hulls are often considered a
natural bounding atea for a set of points.
This assertion is accepted by most analysts
when there are no outlying da1a points. far
removed from the rest. \Vhen outliers are
present the convex hull will often be
unreasonably large.
Convex bulls are widely us.eel because
they are simple 10 develop and interpret.
and there is little or no subjectivity in their
application. The shape of the convex poly-
gon is de!ellllined solely by the arrange-
ment of the sample points. and not by
c,ontrolling parameters 1hat must be speci.
fied by the human applying the· method.
They represent the irregular shapes com-
mon to most sampling.
A convex bull may be easiUy created
with a "sweep.. algorithm appli;ed to a set
of sample points (Figure 12-230). These
are the locatioos oft11e evems of interest.
for example. observations of a rnre animal
or crime locations. An extreme point is
identified from !be set, usually the sample
wi1h !be largest or smalles1 X or Y coordi-

a} b}

• ••• ,,, .
. . .. . . ..
.. .• ., .,... •.
..., ...
..,

• : .. , :
'
•

....·. .. .. ..
• • ···L ,
'
c} d}

.... ' •
~-.
. . .. . ...
•
•.
..., .....
. " v
.-., •.,.
••

• : ... I •
•
•
... .
':. .• ....
~

•
Fia:m•,r U-2.J: 11:ie conve;<. bull for a sec of poiuts (0) may be calculated from a 5\\'C<'P 3lgoritbm. Start·
ina: \\ith a.u c:'<tttmc point such as S (b). successive minimum dcO«tioo aua.J« ar¢ selected (C) until
die: srnrtin_g poinr it rc::.chcd (d).
 Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 539

nale (point s in Figure 12-23b). The angles Characteristic Hull Polygons

of deflection from the current point to all
other poims are calculated. aod the smallest
positive clocl·wise or counter clockwise
angle and corresponding point are identi·
fied(pointt in Figure 12-23b). This point is
the next in the convex hull. and becomes
the starting point for the next calc1ila1ion.
This process is repeated until the starting
point is reached (Figure 12-23c and d).
Convex bulls are often considered a
naniral bounding area for a set of points.
However, couvex bulls often ignore clus·
tering in llte data. A dense cluster of points
in an interior region does ao1 inJluence the
shape of the core area. \Ve Jose much of the
information on density or frequency of
()(Ct11rence io the interior region of the
bounding polygon. Algorithms defining
optimum concave polygons have boon
developed. generally fining convex hulls 10
successive subsets of bounding points, and
discarding outlier points. or areas defined
by the outlying poims. One such method is
described ne:-;1.
An altemative 10 convex hulls has been
developed. known as clrnrac.teris1ic hull
polygons (CHP). A Oelaunay triangulation
is created among the sampred points. the
same method described in Chapter 2 when
developing a triangulated irregular net-
wo!lc A set of minimum spamling triangles
is created, and this set of tria11gles win-
nowed to remove a largest .a.rea or longest
perimeter subset. Figure 12-24o shows a
set of sample points and the resulring con-
vex hull. while Figure 12-24b shows the
Oelaunay triangulation for the same set of
points. In this e.xample. the top 5% of poly-
gons with the longest perimeter have been
discarded. and the remaining shaded lo rep-
resent a core area. This red'1ces the influ-
ence of distant points and allows for
.. holes" embedded within ai core area~two
advamages over convex hulls. One must
choose whether to use area. perimeter. or
some other metric of size. so the resultant
CHP size and shape depend on the thresh-
old value cJ1osen. for example. 5 vs. 10

c) convtx hlAI b) chOl'oc1enS'rlc hull polygons

.. .,.: . . ·. .... ··'!

•• !
,. ..... . .
.. . ~_.1.
•• :"\ • • \

. ' ..... .. . .
• • ..
•• • ••
• ": ..
•
... .
. .
. .-: . ..'..
~

•
-
. 'i· -..._.,· "-'·
,. ... . "I •Y
~

. :..
fia:n~ 12~24; An Q.amplc ofa core: 11ru dcfiucd by n conn~ bull (o). aud cbanM:tcristic bulJ polygons
(CHP. iu b). Th< Wdcd area is oJf<~ as a core a.rca. wid1 a smaller. higher sample dcruity. aud argu-
ably mote t1e<:t1tn1c ta'C'n ide1uiticd by the CHP.
540 GIS Fundamentals

large.st polygons:. however. the method is
easy to apply and arguably provides a bet·
ter estimate of core areas when compared
to a convex hull. particularly when outliers
are frequent.
Kernel Map pl ng
Kemel mopping uses a set of sample
locations to estimate a continuous density
surface. Kernel mapping is widely applied
be<:ause it is mathematically flexible, rela-
tively easy to implement. may be robust to
oulliers.. readily incorporates clustered
samples_ can represent irregular shaped
core areas. and is often statistically based.
Kernel mapping is based on a density
distribution that is assumed for each sam-
ple point. These density distributions are
placed over the s,imple plane, one for each
observation poin,. and vertically added to
detem1ioe the compos.ite density from the
sample. This composite deusity may be
used 10 identify a core area. selecting the
densest areas fi~1.
An example will help illustrate these
ideas and the process of kernel mapping.
Consider samples to detect the density of
defects in a tile floor. Each tile is 0.5 in
across. We tOlltlt the number of defeclS per
tile. l>cginning at one edge of the tile
mosaic. We will s.how the samples coJ.
lected along a line. but the process and
principles are similar in two dimensions.
Figure I2-25 shows the resul1s of a
sampling along a line segmen1. One defe<:1.
or faull. is found on a 1ile located 2 in from
1he Sia.rt. and it is represemed by a rectan·
gte 1wo units tall. Each fault represents a
density of nvo units. because each tile is
0.5 in across - hence l/0.5 • 2 faults/in.
We observe two fai~ts a1 2.5 in (four faults/
in). one at 3.5 in. and addi1iona I observa-
tions until our las1 fault observed at 12.5 in.
Note that the densi1y is in 1he form of rect·
angles 1hat are "stacked" two u11its high for
e.ach fault observed fo r a tile.
Note two things about the density esti-
mates.. First. we assume a characteristic
shape for the density derived ft6il! Meli
obser\laiion. In Figure 12-25. we assume
the shape of a rectangle for each observa-
tion, with a uniform density across the tile.

-;., 12 Eoch bot" represents Otl ovtl"09e denSlty. the l'lelgt,t of the bor t 2 for each
~ fouU observed w, o tlle. where eoch hie Is 0.5 inches 'Aldi? Th:s gf'/es a loco1
£ 10 eslimote of fhe density of faults per .nch of tile For example. 1he hie 01
.~ )( d,stonce • 5 5 hos fov foults. y1eld1ng on averoge <ltt1S1ty there of .4 I 0.5. Ot'
";::: 8 foull'S pe.r 11eh \
is _
§
S6
,:;- - -
·.;;
.," 4 - .... -
"'
,:

a!" 2 -
I 2
-I
'' 2 t
-~
2 3
-
I

0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5

x • Distance from starting point (inches)
F la urt< 12-25: Kcntc11n2ppinJ is basc-d on the concept of11 dis1ribuliou o(ol>Kr.•t1.1ion~ ii, i-p.,c-c.
Eacb ob5ervn1ion conlnlmtc$ mfonnation al>o\1t our c\unulath-c di.s.trib1.1tion ,md the ob&et'\.·o.tions
arc- comb1tled ro approximate our cwnu.l.ati.n: di.stributiou.

This may not be rme, but in our ~a~e we a!e
using a discre1e sample. and so 11 1s a valid
approximation. In general. this ~hape is
c.alled a density distribution. This charac·
teris1ic shape (densi1y distribmion) is !hen
placed for ea.ch observed sample: (or exam-
ple, note 1hat there is a rectangle placed for
each defect we observe at a distance from
the s1artingpoilll in Figure 12-25.
Second, 1101e 1ha1 tl1e shapes (densiry
distribu1ions) are added venically in areas
where they c-0incide. as sh0\'-'11 in Figure
12-25. In our example, rec1angles are
s1acked. Wi1b more complex. ma1hema1i-
cally-<lefined deusil)' distributions. the val-
ues are added over each point. The
cumulative d!ensity dis1ribu1ion is the sum
of the distrib111ions associated with e.ach
sample.
Oensil)' dislribmions typically are no1
squares or other geometric figure.s. but
ra1ber syll\liletric shapes such as parabolas.
Gaussian curves. or otherwise smoothly
varying surfaces about a center point.
These sha~ cru1 be a!lltl!tillatically
defmed and specified for each sample
point. For ex:ample, a general Gaussian
curve for one variable has the fom1:
I C!USIOtl or ·normar <1et1$1ty f1.«110n
f(x) = --='= e (1217)
./2,«l
where Xo is the sam~le. location and. o is a
scaling COnsram. 11US IS a symmelrJC func-
tion about x0 • meaning the functton ~s a
mirror in,age reOec1ed across bolh sides of
the point x0 (Figure 12-26). Note 1ha11he
density distribution in the figure reach~ a
peak al "o, a11d tl1e area llOder !be c~rve 1s
typically equal to one. 11,e formula 1s often
written with ,a2 = I. or may be sc.aled by
dividing by a value h, so 1ha1 ii appears as:
Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 541
-(x -x )?
0
t 2h:
f(x) - - - •
h h,/iir.
e (1218)
The value h is also known as a b11udwid1/,
paramete,., and is described in 1he next few
paragraphs.
Many func1ionaJ forms can be used to
represen11be kernel densilies. Typically.
1hese shapes are "bumps" in Iha, 1bey
smoothly rise to a peak and then descend to
near zero. Oilfereu1fom,s of the kernel den-
siry function may have char.acteristic
shapes - how fasl 1bey reach 1he peak, how
pointed 1he peak booomes. and ho,~ quickly
they renim to values near zero ar pomts more
diSlanl from lhe peak.
The composi1e density dimibu1ion is.
created by "stacking" our individual density
distribu1ions from the se1 of observa1ions
(Figure L2-270 and b). Oensily dimibmions
may be plo"ed for each observa11on: for
example, two of many obsen a1ions are 1
shown in Figure 12-270. Each point yields a
smooth "bump'· centered oo the observauon.
.,., 010 c.cnfet'td «1
0
::, en clneniotion
at x .J
> 0!5
i
~ O!O
000 1-,~~~.-..~~__;;,.._i_
~ ·2 G 1 ' , ! ~
X value
Flgutt 12-26: A <knsit)' distribution is HSlullcd.
t111d pfoncd forc:1.ch obscr\"nlion. H('l"(' an obkr.·n·
tion n1 X • 3 (plou~ dot) gcric.~tc$ a bcll·shnpcd
cut\"c ceuttt«I on the obs.cn·aucu.
542 GIS Fundamentals

0 .12 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
o) two sample points. at x • 22 and
.a 010 x • 85, plotted individual
density distributions.
tc:: 008

-
withh·22
:,
0 .06

004

0 .02

0 ·00 +-
o_ .e:,.._2~0-...:,,_4To---6~0-.e:...._s~--'~100
sample location
012
co b) many sample points.
0.10 plotted individual
:;::: and composite density
g 008 distributions. with h=2.2
.2
>-, 006
~
(/)
c o.o•
(>)
-0
002

000
40 60
sample location

c) many sample points.

plotted ind1v1dual
and composit e density
distribut ions. with h=l

Fl11.11•t 12~27: lndi\'idual dc:utity di,tributions may be plotted for c:,ch sample obscn·ation. as. sl1owu for
IWO poir11i ia ll onc-dimcnl"ionnl samplini: (0, llbo\'c). OU.lnl>ution# for the nnirc &:1tl1plc set «re ploucd,
and ackkd to crc.;itc .i combined mimntc of lbc ckns.ity di.s.tributiou (b). We us.,i..,11y d100,c .i bandwidtJ,
parameter. b.1ba1 c:ontro~ the s.bap: of the iudh·idu.,1aod bcncccompos-i1c dc:osity distributions. Narrower
bandwid1.b1 ttsult i.n highc:1' aod n:irrowcr pcnb {G).

When all observed points are plotted, there
is a collllllensurately large number of small.
overlapping bumps. as shown by the thin
lines in Figure 12-27b. These may then be
summed venically 10 create the cumulative
density distribution. shown by die thick line
in Figure I 2-27b.
We often choose oondwidtlt parameters.
symbolized i>y h. that define the "spread" or
width oftlte individual density distributions
(Figure 12-27c and Figure 12-28). Pcrt,aps
the simplest way to unders1and the band-
widlh is to thlll.k of the bi1ming inter\lal in
our example in Figure 12-25. There. we
counted tile defects for each 0.5 in tile. and
plotted a rectangle corresponding to the
resultant faul1 density. Our bandwidth was
se.t at 0.5 in. \Ve just as weU could use a
bandwidth of l in.. counting the number of
defects per two tiles ( I in). along our sam-
pling line. This would give a related. but
slightly different estimate or the density dis-
tribution of defects along our sampling line.
As sliown int.he right panel of Figure 12-28.
the estimated density distribution for the first
7 in or our sampled line is less "peaked" or
"spikey." Although tile same sample set is
bandwidth h • 0.5
.s5-;:: 10
.2: 8 -
E
:,
.5 6
l:'
·;;
-
~ ( - -
-
'5 2
~ -
I 2 3 4 2
111
0 25 5.0
x • Distance from starting point (Inches)
Fltn,.. t2..28: We choose bclh 1bc ~c:imnJ f<nnl of l11c denslcy disuibutiou, rutd a bao.dwidtb
p:tr;unclcr ihat :iiffeclS the $hn1>c of tbc di.itribu1-i~n. Here. die f'C'CtanguJnr1,l~pc ofthe fauh dcuri1y
b«oruC5 broad.er and shorter as the bru,d";<bb cbang« from 0. 5 lo 1,
Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 543
used to estimate both density distributions,
each observation is spread •cross a brooder
in1erval when we choose a larger bandwid!lt.
We observe the same change in the
peakedness when we change the bandwidth
for continuous density distributions. such as
I.be Gaussian distribution sbowa in Figure
12-27 and equation 12. 16. A sample is plot-
ted using a Gaussian density function for
each observation and a bandwidth of h • 2.2
in Figure 12-27b. Reducing ·u,e bandwidth to
h = I narrows the shape for each individual
sample and resulls in higher~narrower. more
peaked shapes in the cumulative distribmion
shown in Figure 12-27c.
Kernel mapping is generally a three-step
process. as may be surmised from the pre-
ceding discussion. First, we collect samples
and the co11comi1an1 coordinate locations.
Second. we choose a kernel density function.
f inally. we choose a bandwidtl~ h. apply tl1e
kernel density distribution. and sum across
eac1t sample area to achieve our composite
estimate of density.
12
bandwidth h • J
10
8
6
4
2
2 7 2
0 25 5.0
544 GIS Fundamentals
Mathematically. this process is summa-
rized by the equation:
n
1c(x. y) - I L K(x~, Y1l (1, 19)
2 closely approximates your perception of the
nh
I= l
where >. (x,y) is the composite density distri·
bution. n is the m,mbcr of samples.his Ute
band\\idth. and K(l<;.Y;) is the individual den·
sity distribution applied at each sample point
;,
An example of kernel density estimation
is shown in Figure 12-29. An individual
sample point is sbown in Figure 12-290.
with a single peak corresponding to the
Gaussian density distribmion chosen. A
more comple., shape with multiple peaks
occurs when all sample points are plotte.d, as
shown in Figure 12-29b. h1di,1dual distribu-
tions are summed venically. resulting in an
undulating, complex surface. This surface
represents the density or probdlbility of
occurrence of the underlying variable. for
example. the density of defects in a tile floor.
the crime density mapped across a city, or
the utilization deosiiy for a wolfpack in their
home range.
,......
'"
\·"'...~
While Ute choice of bandwidth affects
our results. there is no uniformly bes1
method to select the approprL11e value for h.
One commonly applied meU,od is to plot
se"eral density Sltrfaces. on;, for each of a
given h value. and select the h tbat most
best density. Insights in the distribution and
behavior of the data set are ofteo gained by
analyzing densities across a range of band-
width values.
Formulas exist for optimum band\\~dths
under various conditions. One method for
calculating optimum bandwidth bas been
proposed by Fotheringham et al (2000) for a
Gaussian kernel:
(12-20)
where hoet is the optimum bandwidth. n is
the nuillller of samples. Md c is the staiidatd
deviation parameter. wdmown. bm cs1imated
from the sample.
Numerous formulas e.,ist defining opti·
nnun bandwidths. and one is faced with a
rather differenl choice of selecting the cor-
OOtO
1::\
.i '...."'\
......
,..,
'""
b)
 Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 545

reel optimum. The motivations behjnd vari- bandwidth (b) relative to the largest band-
ous OJ)limum bandwidtlis are described in widtlt (c). These different bandwidths result
the books by Silverman (1986) and by Foth- in different core area polygons (d through O.
eringham et al. (2000). listed at the end of Empirical tests and experie11ce guide the
this chapter. choice of best bandwidth.
Core area delineation is a primary use
for esrima1ed density distributions. As
expected. the identified core areas arc
dependent on the selected bandwidth. Figure
12-30 shows vertical views of two-dimen-
sional densiry distribmious for optimum (a).
below-optimum (b). and above-optimum (c)
bandwidth. O.rker shades of gray show
higher densities. and note cbe narrower.
more concentrated distributions at the lowest

• • • • •
•
•
• •
• • •
• •

•• •
·~.. ..• .•..•
• • •

a) b)
t· .o
c)
• • • • •
• •
•
• •
• •
......, . . . . • ......' • •
• . •.
··~. . •
• • • • • •
•
• •
• • ..
• • •
• •
,-:,· ...
,..t ...
:-v; .(\
.,
,....-•
•
,.~-..
••
d) e) f)
Flautt 12.JO,: Kc1nd mappiu; may be used 10 idclllify core areas. ahhougb die areas th3it wilJ be dc(11icd
dqxttd on the mcl1.od t$cd. P2nds O 11tmt~b C sl1ow Gtluu iitu dcflfl1y dislnotltio1a for:. snmp le sci under
\'nrying baudwid1hs.. while d thrwgh f sbowcorresponding core (lfC..15 encompan i.ng 90t<+ of the de11$"ily
dlslributious.
546 GIS Fundamentals
Time-Geograp hic Density Estl·
matlon
D~sity estimators have been devel-
oped for space util.ization by moving objects.
typically animals for home range analysis,
al!bougll sometio,es olher objects. An object
may be observed periodically through SJ)ace,
for example, whe.n a GNSS is attached to a
migrating penguin, nod the position relayed
10 a bases1a1ion. These positions are often
called control poilHs. because they establish
the location of the tracked object a, a fixed
point in time. This sequence of control
points defines a path (Figure 12-31 ).
t,
t _ _ _ __.t
8 7
Fizun u ..31: A &eqt)CU4:C' ofobscrva1ions on a
mo,·u,, object. &oll!I an i.nitial ttlnc (to) to a iisul
li me (ts).
While locations b<etween observations c.an ..
no, be precisely de1em1ined. the control
points constrain where the penguin lllight
have been. because there is an upper limit on
how fast the bird cuo travel. We may es1ab-
lisll a ma.'<-innun velocity. v. either from pre-
vious observations. from the current tracking
effort. or from theoretical limits. Time-geo-
graphic density estimation (TGDEJ com-
bines a sequential set of control points wilh
knowledge about 01..1.ximum velocity 10 esti·
mate spatial occurrence probabilities.
TGDE depends on !he concept of a geo·
ellipse between 1wo J)Oints. lf P; is the con-
trol point at time i and PJ the control point a1
timej, !hen the ge,oellipse 9umay be defmed
as:
9,1 • ( PjlOf P, P,) + O((P, P1) S M L) I} (12,21)
where D(P. P1) is a distance between any
poim P and the control point P1• and ML is
dte maximum distance the object could pos-
sibly travel between the successjve conLrOl
points P1and P;, ML may be estimated by:
112 22)
where 1J is the time of observation of control
poimj. and vis the maximum velocity for
the object.
Figure 12-32 illustrates a geoellipse for
two control points. P1and PJ Note that the
dis.lance function need nol be Euclidean dis-
tnoce. but it usually is. The tracked object is
restricted 10 have been within 1he drawn
ellipse. provided our esiimaie ofvis valid.
t, The size and shape of the ellipse depend on
the distance benveen the successive control
points, the time interval between the obser·
vations. and the max.immn velocity possible.
Successive points near each 01her relative to
the maximum d istance, given the time differ-
ence and maximum velocity. wiU be
enclosed in a nearly circular eUi,pse. wb.ile
successive points very near the L11aximum
possible distuoce will be joined 'by a long,
very narrow ellipse.
P1 PJ
- ~~~~~~~~~ ·
or 1m,t • r, or lime • t,
Fliz:ua·t 12-32: An obj"t is «timatcd to ha\•c bcc:n
contained widllll. :u'1 cllipk, $1\'C'1i 1wo subse(\tttt'lt
con1rol points. The ellipse de.s<ribn the hmlmt an
object could h.wc rca.cbcd in any path tnm:li.ng
from Pi and Pj o,·cr the ti.me intcr\'al t110 tJ.

Much as when using kernel deosi1y
fuuctfons for es1imatiug a core area. a time·
geographic estimate of space use is a com-
posite of many obseniations. Here, e.ach pair
of observations ruay be considered a density
volurue. proportional to the probabiUty 1ha1
lhe object occupied a location during 1he
time illlef\'lll (Figure 12-33). A uniform den·
sity function .is the siruples110 understand.
implying the objec.1 was moving at maxi-
mum velocity between the 1,vo controlling
observations. but aloog an unkn0\\11 path
within the ellipse. A unifonn density func-
tion should have a vohune equal to the like Ii·
hood of occus>ancy. as with a standard kernel
density estim:ator. For simple shapes such as
a three-dimensional u11ifom1 probability dis.
1ribution. tbe volume is equal to the area
times height.
Figure 12-33 shows two points. P1
observed a1 ti.me t 1• and P2 obsef\1ed at time
P1 tit (x 1• y 1). and P2 al (x2• Y2)
d,. ·a,·
ML · ( It· 11) ·v
O• MU Z
cl • (.Xi - X1)2 • (v., • Y1) 2
bl • oz • ,z
Area • 1tob
'" ···~ .••..• ,.,,,,dn"• ••·····
.......
Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 547
t 2. Our task is to caJcuJate Lhe area of tbe
elliptic volume that represeot.s the occu-
pancy probability. given our observat.ions.
Two paths are shown betwoon the points,
one traveling diSlauce dm and auother d.,.
These two paths have the same length. by
the definition of the boundiag ellipsoid. and
Ibey are also each equal 10 the long axis
length of the ellipsoid. 2o. Geometric rela·
tionships between the interpoint distances
and the dimensions of an ellipse allow us 10
calculate a and b. rwo characteris1ic dim en·
sions. which in tum allow us 10 calculate the
area. nob. This may then be scaled by height
10 assign an occupation probability (Figure
12-33. lower halO.
The process is repeated for overlapping
point pairs across the set of observed co01rol
poinrs. TI1e next two points in the se.quence.
Pz and P3. are paired. and 1be density ellipse
calculated. S\1m1ning the deasities where
Fl2nre 12..33: The proccu of cakulat·
ini :a gcodlip" dens ity bc1wttl'.I two
5eq\Kntial poioti.1 rq)ire&cuting tbc lil.c-
lilKK>d of occupation. Her¢. a uuifonn
probability is assumed 11crou the
ob$m1t1:ion, .
l
1 • Two points. P1 and Pz, are rMasured
at time 1J and 12, for an ,object w;th
a, maximum \IOlocity v The point
locations, time inle,vaf. and v define
an ellipse.
• The ellipse area can be calculated,
with lhe ellipse heighl SC8ted 10
a density volume proportion.al 10
1he likelihood of OCCUPc'OOn
· The subsequent pair of poinlS
(Pz and PJ. not shown) are processed,
and a new vol~ added to !he oocur-
ence surface. simitor to l;temel
mapping
548 GIS Fundamentals
'\ ... ...
··-...
\ ..
Time Interval
1
2
...
• 5
• 10
Flam~ 12-.H: Au cltruuplc oftbc o,•tt111ppi.i13 sc-1 or$,COcllipscs used to c-rc3te a c:<nnpotitc dcoiity function
from a tirnc~gcogl'.lpb.ic d,,1a Set. The &cqucncc bcgi.us \\ith P1 i,1thc lower left, through P9 in the upper left.
Note that tJ.e eontrol point ~,ubol size: ckno1es the time i.utcr,al sioi.c the last ~otrol point ob,c:T\·ati011
(adapted &om Do"'llS ct al.. 2011).
geoelLipses overlap. The process is repeated
for points Pi, Pi.J until lhe last poiut is
reached. Figure 12-34 illust:ra1cs the overlap-
ping se.1of geoell;pses from a sample set.
EUipses may vary in shape. depending
on time interval. distance between fe.atures.
and the 111.1xim11111 velocity (Figure 12-34).
Longer 1ime in1ervats be1w~n observations
result in larger ellipses. irrespec1ive ofihe
distance between subsequent points. As the
inierpoilll distance approaches the maximwn
se1 by the maximmn velociiy. v. 1be ellipses
become longer and narrower. and reduce Lo a
line wheu the poin1s are sp.1ced al 1be ma.xi·
mum possible distauce. Conversely.11te
ellipses approach circles when the time
interval belween points is long but the
observed dis1ance be1ween poillls is smaU.
This occurs when the object has not moved
f( ) _ I
x - (n-l)[(te - t 5}·vJ2 ~H
' I
-·
....~-·'..
./··
/ ............ P,i'
- ·,..}
j
!
much. relative to how far it miglu have
moved in the time interval between obsen.ia·
1ions.
The composite time.geographic density
func1ion is shown in equation ( 12.23). where
f(x) is 1he densiiy a1 any poi111 across a sur-
face; n is t11e number of obsen.1ed control
poillls: Is and '• are stan and end times.
respcc1jvely: 11 and tj are consecu1ive point
pairs: vis the m.aximwn velocity and D(P. Pi)
is the dis1ance func1ion. as described in
equa1ioo 12.20. This equa1ion is used for a
set of point.s to estimate the density across
space. The numerator sums the weighted
distance ellipse functions for each pair of
sampling poiuts. and the denominator sc~1les
this by the Jllaximum dis1ance that may have
b~n iraveted during 1ba1 lime imerval.
[ D(P.P,} , D(P.PJ)
(ti - tjl.v
J (1223)
 Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 549

The composite of iudividual ellipses func1ion, be.cause the occup.ation likeLi.hood

may resuh in complex aggregate density vol-
umes. Densities will be highest where points
are clustered or ne.ar where paths intersect
frequently. Sbarp edges and sampling arti·
rac1s may occur when using a uniform den-
sity f-unc.tion. at least until sample size
be<:omes large.
Although Figure 12-33 illustrates a
TGDE using a uniform dis1ribution func.tion.
other fm1c1iollS may be used. One form
assmnes 1he likelihood of occupa1ion
decreases linearly with the dis1ance from the
line connec1i11g two subsequent control
points. This is often called a linear decay
is assumed 10 de<:rease linearly with dis-
tance. A more rapid or Jess rapid decrease
,,~1h distance may be repres:ented by other
func1ions.
The composite time-geographic density
es1in1a1e in Figure 12-35 illustrates a space-
time pa1l1 and a linear de<:ay function applied
to associate a probable occupancy are.a for
the path. Panel o shows the control points for
a path. witl1 the time between successive
observa1ions shown by poio.t size. Panels b
1hrough d show TGDE c~lculated using dif-
ferent maximum veloci1ies. Noce lba1 1he
highest deusities (darkest shades) show

o) b)
Hours

s
10

Ot -- -< 10
""'

c) d)

Fi&OJ't U..JS: An e.umplc ti.mc-~ogrophic den.sit)' function for a sc,quc:111ial kt of contl'Ol points. TilC
path (a) s.bO\VS both the: 1r.1.jccl01)' and Ultm·al bctwcc:11 obsa<rati00$. S11<:«ssi\·c fii,'lfcS (b tbtou;b d)
l11owdiffc:ttn11tU!timum \'cloci1y, •ialuc~ wi1b velocities of 2 (b), 2.S (C), ruw! 3 (d) f.:ml110Ut(courtel)•J.
Downs) .
550 GIS Fundamentals
where the control. poinls are cluslered and
where the distanoe between observations is
short relative 10 ti.me period benveen obser-
vations, which in tum is dependent on maxi-
mum velocities. This implies the net object
movement was small between control
points, although there is a denser area of
likelihood there.
\Vhile a maximum velocity may be
established from observations or theoretical
values. the shape of the distance f1utc1ion
often is 001. and must be carefully devel-
oped. A unifortn !function may be more
defensible if the object is moving at near the
ma.><imwn speed for most of tbe duration.
However. a linear dec.ay function may make
more sense when the sampling interval var-
ies in frequency. and the object is often mov-
ing much more slowly than the ma.'<imum
velocity. TGDE is a developing field. and
the interested reader should refer 10 the
papers by Downs and colle~gues listed at the
end of this chapter.
Summary
lmerpola1ion and spatial prediction
allow us to esrim.ate values at loca1ions
where they have not been measured. These
methods are commonly used because our
budgets are limited. samples may be lost or
found wanting, or because time has passed
since data collec1io1t We may also interp<>·
late when coovening between data models.
for example, whe:n calculating a raster grid
from a se1 of contour Lines. or when resam-
pling a raster grid 10 a finer resolution.
Spatial prediction involves collecting
samples at known locations and using rules
and equations to assign values a1 unsampled
locations. There are many ways to distribute
a san1ple. including a random selection of
sample locations. a systematic panem. clus-
tering samples, adaptive sampling_. or a com-
binatioo of these. TI,e sampling regime
should consider tile cost of travel and col-
lecting samples. as well as the nature of the
spatial variability oflhe target fe.ature and
the intended use of the interpola.,ed surface.
Sample values are combined with sam-
ple locations 10 estimate or pred ic,t values at
unsampled locations. TI1ere are many spatial
prediction methods, but the mos.I common
are Thies~en (nearest neighbor) polygon,
local averaging (fixed radius). [o\'erse dis-
tance weighted. trend surface, and kriging
interpolation. Each of these me1l1ods has
advantages and disadvantages relative to
each other, and there is no methc:xt that is
uniformly best. Each method should be
tested for the variables of interest. under
conditions in the study area of interest The
best tests involve comparisons of interpola·
tor es1ima1es against wi1llheld sample poims.
Measures of c.are area are commonly
identified from spatially dis1ribu1ed observa-
tions. This fonn of prediction identifies
regions of high probability for a.n object or
event Mean center or mean circle are simple
measures. A convex bull. defined as the min-
imum area polygon encompassing all points
and with tonvex exterior angle!.. is toil\,
mouly applied. More sophisticated measures
include kernel mapping. based on centering
scaled distribution functions aver e~1c.h
observation. and vertically summing the dis-
tribution functions.
 Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 551

Suggested Reading

Andersoni, 0.J. {19$2). The bome range: a new nonparametric e.stimation technique.
Ecol<>&)•. 6: I 03- ll 2.
Angulo-Martinez, M., Lopez-Vicente. M., Vicente.Serrano, S.M., Begueria. S.
(200!>). Mapping rainfall erosivi,y at a regional scale: a compariso11 of intell)Ola-
tion methods in the Ebro Basin (NE Spain). Hydrology a,;d Earrl, Sysmms Sci-
e11ce. 13: 1910-1920.
Anselin, L. ( 1995). Local indicators of spatial association - LISA. Gecgmpltical
Aunlysis. 27:93-l l 5.

Anselin. L. (2002). Under the hood: issues in 1be specification and interpre,ation of
spatial regression models. Agricultural £conowics, 17:247- 267.
Anselin. L.. Rey. SJ. (20 14)..41ode111 Spatial Econometrics in Pmc1ice, a G1dde to
Geod'a, Geodaspace a11d Pysal. Chicago: GeoOa Press.
Anselin. L.. Syabri. I., Kho, Y. (2006). GeoOa: An introduction to spatial data analy-
sis. GeograpMcal Analysis. 38:~22.
Ayeni. 0 . 0. ( 1982). Optimum sampling for digital terrain models. Pltorogrammetric
Engineer;ug and Remote Se11si11g. 48: I687- L694.

Baclunaier. M.. Backes. M. (2011). Variogramor sentivariogram? v\lriance or senu-

variance? Allan variance or introducing a new 1enn? ,\.fn1J,em(1{ical Geoscfences.
43(6). 735-740.
Banerjee, S., Carlin. B.P., Gelfand, A.E. (20 14). Hierarcltica/ Modeli11g a11d Analysis
for Spatial Data (2nd Ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Besag, J. (1974). Spatial interaction and the statistical analysis oflattice systems.
Jour11nl of rite Royal Srnrisrical Society. 438: 192- 225.
Besag. J.. Koopcrberg. C.L. (1995). On conditional and intrinsic autoregressious. Bio·
merrika. S2:733- '746.
Bowman. A.W.. Azzalioi. A. (1997). Applied S111()Qthi11g Teclt11iq11es for Dara A11nly-
sis: The Kernel Approach ,rith s.Pfus lllus1r01io11s. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Brunsdoo. C.. Comber. L. (2015). An lntroduction to R for Spatial Analysis and Map-
ping. New York: Sage P1.1blica1ions.

Bmgess. T.M.. Webster. R. (1984). OJ)limal smnpling strategies for mapping soil
,ypes. l. Distribution of boundary spacing. Jo11r11al ofSoil Science. 35:641-654.
Cressie. N. (199 1). Statistics for Spmfal Data. New York: Wiley.
552 GIS Fundamentals

Dale. MR.T.. ifor1in. M.J. (2014). Spatial ,lualysis, a G11ide for Ecologists. Cam·
bridge: Cambridge University Press.
DeGruijter. J.J.. Tcr Braak. C.J.F. ( 1990). Model-free estin,ation from spatial samples:
a reappraisal of classic.al sampling theol)'. Matliemarical Gealog)', 22:407-415.
Downs. J.A .. Homer. M.W. (2009). A characteristic-hull based method for h-ome
range estimation. Transactions i11 GIS, 13:527-537.
Downs. J.A, Homer, M.W., Tucker, A.O. (2011 ). Time·geographic density estimation
for home-range analysis. A1111als of GJS, 17: 163-L71 .
Du brute. 0. ( 1994). Comparing splines and kriging. Co111p111ers a11d Geoscie11ces.
I0:327-338.
Fotheringham. A,, Bnmsdon. C.. Charlton. M. (2000). Q11a111i1a1il'e Geogmph)•: Per·
specrives 011 Sp(l{ia/ Dara Analysis. London: Sage Publications.
Gelfand. A.E .. Diggle. PJ .. Fueates. M.. Guttorp. P. (201 0). Handbook ofSpatial Sta-
tistics. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Getis. A., Ord. J.K. (1992). The analysis of spatial association by use of dist,u1ce sta-
tistics. Geographical ,l11alysis. 24: 189-206.
Goovaerts. P. (1997). Geostatis1ics for Nn111ra/ Resource E,·aluntion. New York:
Oxford U11iversity Press.
Griffith. D.A.. Layne. A. ( 1999). Casebookfor Spatial Statistical Data ,l11alysis.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hutchinson. M.F. (1995). Interpolating mean rainfall with thin plate smoothing
splines. lmemnrioual Journal o[Geograpl,;cnl Jnfonumiou Systems, 9:385-404.
lsaaks, .E.H.. S:rivastava, R.M. (1989). ,l11 /111rcd11c1ic1110 Applied Geosratlsrlcs. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Lam. N.S. ( t 983). Spatial interpolation methods: a review. ,lmerietm Canograpl,er,
I0:129-l<fl9.
Lege11dre, P. (1993). Spatial autocorrelation: Trouble or new paradigm? Ecology.
74: 1659- 1673.
Mark. D.M. (1 987). Recursive algorithm for determinatio11 of proximal (Thiessen)
polygons in any metric space. Geogrnpl,;cal A11nlysis. 19:264-272.
McKillup. S.. Dyar. M.O. (20l0) Geos1n1l.s1lcs £xplni11ed, nn /1111'()(/uct01}' Guidefor
Eanh Scientists. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Mitasova. R., Hofierka. J. ( t 993). Interpolation by regularized spline with tension:

application to terrain modeling and surface geometry analysis. ,\1athemntical
Geology. 25:657- 669.
Mitchell. A ( l 999). The ESRJ G11ide 10 GIS ,l11alysis. Redlands: ESRJ Press.
 Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 553

o· SuUivan. D.. Unwin. O.J. (20 IO). Goog,.aphic h,fonnalion Analysis (2nd Ed.). New
York: John Wiley and Sons.
Silvem1an. B.W. (1986}. Density Esti111ntion. London: Chapman and Hall.

Varekamp. C.. Skidmore. A.K.. Burrough. PA. (1996). Using public domain geosta-
tis.tical and GIS software for spatiafinterpolation. Phorogrnmmetrlc E11ginee1iug
and Remote Sens ing, 62:845- 854.
Wi llmott, C.J. (1981}. On the validation of models. Physical Geography, 2: 184- 191.

\\Cillmon. C.J .. Matsuura. K. (2005). Advantages of the mean absolute error (MAE)
over the root mean square error (RMSE) in assessing average model performance.
Cllmate Resen~h. 30:79- 82.
Wonon. B.J. (1987). A review of models of home range for animal movement. Eco·
logical Modelling. 38:277- 298.
554 GIS Fundamentals

Study Questfons

12.1 - Why perfonn a spatial interpolation?

12.2 - Describe four different sampling patterns. and provide the relative advamages
or disadvantages of each. Which do you think is used most in practice. and why?

12.3 - Draw a :systematic sampling pattern on the area below. left, and an adaptive
sampling paneru on the area below, right. Use the same number of sample p<>ints.
e.g.. approxim:ately 50. on both. Which do you think will give a bener estimate ofter-
rain localions a1 unknown points? \Vhy? \Vould increasing the sample number
change wltlch :sampling design you would think is best?

12.4 - Draw a duster sampling pattern on the area below. left. and an adaptive sam-
pling pattern on 1he are.a befow, right. Use the same numbe.r of sample poin1s. e.g.,
approximately 50. on both. Which do you think wiU give a better estimate of ten-ain
locations at uu:knowu points? Why? \Vould increasing the sample n\lmber change
which sampling design you would think is best?
 Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 555

12.5 - Draw tl1e TI1iesse11 polygons (nearest neighbor interpolation) for tl1e set of
poims below.

12.6 - Draw the TI1iesse11 polygons (nearest neighbor interpolation) for the set of
points below.

• •

• •
•

•
•
• •
•
•

•
556 GIS Fundamentals

12. 7 - Calculate the cell values indicated at the crosses below. using fixed radius sam-
pling size with the shown circle.

6
•
18
•
18
•
• 29
c+ •+
10 22
8 • ,5
• •
5• . 31
•
• 13
•
. 11

+d 3 +t
•
56 14
• • 12
•
•0
9
•

12.8. Calculate the cell values indicated at the crosses below. using fi.~ed radius sa,n.
piing size \\ath tbe shown circle.

c 6
b+ + •
18
•
18
, 29 •
o,
10
8 • ,5 22
• •
d+
5•
4 . 11 3
• 13
• 31 •
•

•+ •
56
f+
14 12
• •
0
•
• 9
 Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 557

12.9 - Calculate the Z values for the unknown points listed below, using au inverse
distance weighted approach. Use the three nearest known points (use i - 3. o ~ I).
Known points are sbown in map as filled circles aud corresponding coordinate and Z
values in the table at right.
x y z
...
10
0 153,95! 9 .t,478,7J,t 6 20406

• .• •,I • I l!>l.280,9 4,479,6,17 3 18630

2 l48.Z28 5 4.4'72.143 4 19921
.,. 0
,'i .t>
/
3 148,9068 4,•16'1.978 6 2540J
152,3832 4,466,928 8
·' )I ..' )!> ,9
'
5 158.827 3 4,4 ,S.746 9
2106 3
2283 2

., ••.• 6 l60.607q 4,475.874 2 19335

,12 7 163.024 4 4,4n,JS7Q 18364
·" 8 164,465 8 4,1.81,173 5 18383
9 166.41160 4,468.285- 4 25239
Unknown po,1'113 10 16'1.1691 4,468,3704 2138 8
IO X y z II 160.692.7 4.468.709 3 18542
0 155.S:59 ti 4 ,47',i.16 0 I? 156.537.9 4,464.n<t 2 1866.9
b l47.5926 4,478.884 2 13 167,306 3 .c.462,816 5 io153.8
< 162,S!57 4,"169.981 2 14 143,946 6 4,487..4-45.-4 1837.9
0 151.704 9 'l.'163.71.9 2 IS l44.7097 4.475.3230 1912 8

11.10 - Calculate the Z value, for ihe unknown points lisied below, using an inverse
distance weighted approach. Use the three nearest known points (use i • 3. n • I).
Known points are shown in map as filled circles and corresponding coordinate and Z
values in the table at right.

JO x y z
0 153,9519 4,478,714 6 2040.6
·"• .t .o
.• l 151.280.9 4,479,647.3 1863.0
2 148.228 5 4.472.1~34 1992.I

·" .~
3 1•8.906 8
152,3832
4,46•,978.6
4,466.9288
2540 I
21063
'5 158.8273 4,475.746.9 2283.2
.a
.' c.10 .9
6 !60.607.9 4,475.874.2 1933.5
·' d ,12
,13
7
8
!63.02• '
164.<165 8
4.477.3579
4,-481,1735
1836•
1838.3
9 166,416.0 4,468,285 4 2523.9
Unktlown points'. !O 164.!69.I 4,468.370 4 2!388
ID X y z !I !60.6927 4,468.709 3 1854 2
0 155,8596 4,477.159.0 12 !56,537.9 4,464,724 2 18669
b !47,580.6 4.478.884 2 13 167,306 3 ,,, 62.8!6.5 24538
< 162.5357 4,469,960.2 !4 !<3,946.6 4.482.445 4 !8379
d 151,7149 4,463.755.2 15 144.7097 4 475.3230 19128
558 GIS Fundamentals

12.11 - What is a primacy difference be1,vee11 a spline interpolation method and a

trend surface interpolation?

12.12 - \Vhat i:s 1.he primary difference between a treod surfac.e interpolation and a
kriged interpolation?
12.13 - Describe die variogram. What does it represe111 on the X and Y axes. and what
are the important regions/points of the plot?

12.14 - Draw the approximate mean cemer. standard deviation circle. and m:aximum
circle for the following data:

•
•
•• • ••• • • •
•
• • • ••' ..
• :• • •
• •• •• •
• • • • • ••
•
• •
•

12.15 . What is the convex bull? How is it calculated/detenuined?

12.16 - Draw the convex hull for the points depicted below:

..
..

•
 Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation 559

12.17 - D:raw the convex hull for tJ1e points depicted below.

•
•

•
•
•
•
•
•
• ••
• •
•
•
•
• • •
•

•
•

12. 18 - O.escribe/define a kernel deusiiy map. Include bow tl1e values are based on
the samples.

12.19 - \\1ri1e down and de.scribe at least one equation used to generate a density sur-
face.
560 GIS Fundamentals

12.20 - Which image below illustrates a wider bandwidtl1? If you used the same data
for both plots. give two reasons for your answer. assuming the color scale ha.s ct,e
same upper and lower bounds for both surfaces.

A) Bl

..

12.21 - Wltich image below illustrates a larger bandwidtlt? If you used the sacne data
to generate both plots. give two reasons for your answer. assuming the color scale has
the same upper and lower bounds for both surfaces.

A} B)

••
•

•
-
••

. ..

'

13 Spatial Models and Modeling
Introduction
A model is a description of reality.
Some model;; are analog. as in how a phys-
ical globe isa model of the Eanh. Here. our
inleres1 is restric1ed to digital models, com-
puter-based represeuunions of spatial phe-
nomena. These models desc.ribe the basic.
properties or processes for a se1 of spatial
feat11res. and. help us understand their fonn
and beJ1avior.
Many compUter-based modeis use spa·
tial data. and are developed and nm using
some combination of GIS. general and spe-
cialized computer programing languages.
and spinial and non-spatial analytical tools.
Spatially explicit models are a primary
benefit of GIS technologies. and many spa-
tial models a.re based on data in a GIS.
These models may be run in the GIS. or the
spatial data may be prepared in a GIS and
then exported 10 a model that is developed
and nm outside a GIS.
While there may be as many classes of
models as there are modelers. here we split
spatial models into three broad and over-
lapping categories: cartographic models.
simple spatial models. and spario-remporr,I
models. Joseph Betry. an early and well-
known developer and proponem of spatial
modeling, deicribed canogrophic models
as automating manual map anaJysis and
processing. while spatial models focus on
applying mathematical relationships. Car-
tographic mode.ls are most often applied to
identify areas in suppon of decision mak-
561
ing, while simple spatial models often
apply sets of equations to predict a specific
continuous variable across space. Carto-
graphic model outputs are often nominal
(suitable or unsuitable) or ordinal (low.
medi1101. or high s11itability). Figure 13-1 .
for example, shows the ordinal suitability
of locations for septic systems as a function
of soils. elevation. we1Jands, and water-
course proxunity. In contrast. the outputs
from simple spatial models are often imer-
val/ratio measures sud1 as population den·
sity, accident frequency. or soil erosion
rates.
Corrographic models combine spatial
layers via overlay. b111Ters. reclassification,
and other spatial operations. These models
often employ the concepts of map algebra.
describe<! in Chapter 10. b11t:may include a
broader range of operations. Sflitability
tmalyse.r. defined here as lhe classification
of land according to its utility for specific
uses. are among the most common carte,.
graphic models but there are many others.
Most cartographic mode Is are tempo-
rally static because they re1>resent spatial
features at a fixed point in time. Data in
oose layers are mappoo for given periods.
These data are the b11$ii for spatial opera-
tions that may create new da1a layers. For
example. we may be interest<?<! in identify·
ing the land that is most suitable for siting
septic systems. Costs of installing the sys-
tem may depend on the slope (steeper is
562 GIS Fundamentals

costlier), soil type (some soils are harder to
move or Jess useful for filtration). current
land cover (covered by concrete is unsuit-
able. forests are expensive to clear). or dis-
tance 10 roads (heavy macllinery is
expensive 10 move). Spatial data on eleva-
tion. soil propenies. currenl land use. and
road proximity may be combined to catego-
rize sites by their suitability for installing
seplic systems. \Ve may use a mathema1ic.al
relationship for specific calculatfons of aver-
age costs: for example. we can characterize
the relationships between soil types and cost
to excavate din, and we may use a cost-per-
mile for trauspon based on local rates. These
spatial data are combined in a canographic
model to assign a land value to each location
in a study region. The model is 1emporally
static in 1l1a1 the values for the spatial vari-

s
•

- /
':5~ ·
'

f'iao1·t 13+1: An ex3.mplc of a w il~bility ni.ap. produced by combining soill. clc\11tion. wctl;ind. ~nd
w11tCfCOW'Sc data. lucse anal)'$¢$ arc often automated vi.a a canogrnpbie mode:! to produce suitability
or otbct uoi.niu.11 ot ordiull.l milkii1gs O\'Cl' l.tflC :ll'CM (roun:csy state of DclawlU'C').
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 563
ables. such as soiJ type or distance to roads.
do not change during the analyses.
Cartographic models may be used to
analyze change e,·en if they are genera Uy not
temporally dynamic. For example, we may
wish to analyze vegetation change over a 10·
year period, based on vegetation maps pro-
duced at the stan and end of the period. Each
data layer represents the vegetation boundar-
ies at a fixed point in time. Tite model is
static in the sense tltat the polygon boundar-
ies for a giveJl layer do not change because
the vegetation boundaries are mapped as
found at each poim in time. Our cartographic
model is 'temporal' in how it compares veg-
etation change through time, but lhe model
does not generate new boundaries at new
locations. lt does crea1e a composite of exiSl-
ing li.nes thal exist in the input d.11a layers
and notes. as attributes. the kind of cbMge
that occurred. Most GIS-based spotial mod-
els are cartographic models tbat are tempo..
raJJy static.
Simple sparia/ model, typic~lly apply a
set of equations to spatially rtsolved vari-
ables (Figure 13-2). They often rest on equa-
1ions that are estimated from data at a set of
observations :at poin1s or sub areas, and then
applied across broader geogniphic areas.
For example, William Cooke and col-
leagues reported on a model of West Nile
vims infecticr11among birds and the related
risk of 1ransmission to humans. West Nile
f{A,B.C.D.E) \
fil{u1·~ 13· 2: An c.umplc of a .-implc $patial model. wbctc a function is "pplicd to spatial inputs lo
cstuna1c an unpoltant spatial output.
virus is a sometimes fatal disease that varies
in prevalence through space and time. in part
because mosqt1itoes transmit 1he vims
among birds and people.
Cooke and his associates developed rel·
evant input variables. They compiled data on
the frequency of bird and hmnan infections
within each zip code in Mississippi over sev-
eral years. Human and bird ,cases were clus-
1ered. with outbreaks concentrated in ru.ml
areas. and so road density ,vas used as a Slit·
rogate for ruraVurban laoduse. They also
compiled spatial ,~riables related to mos-
quito habitat quality. including stream den-
sity. vegetation type. remperanire. and
precipitation surplus. These were combined
with vims infection frequency at specific
locations 10 fit a predictive statistical model.
Mapped spatial variables were then applied
in the model to predict outbreak risk across
the state.
Simple spatial models are co1nmo1l with
hundreds of examples found across a range
of disciplines. They typically 01clude a
model derived tlllougb sampling ruid a s1A1is-
1ical fining pro<:ess. a model that is subse-
quently applied across space to estima1e
important events. densities, or othtr chnrnc·
teristics.
Spalio-rempoml models are dynamic in
both space and time. They differ from cano-
graphic or predictive spatiaU models in that
time passes explicitly within the running of
564 GIS Fundamentals
the model, and changes in linte·driven pro·
cesses within the model cause changes in
spatial variables. :Spatio-temporal models
often anempt to explicitly represenl pro-
cesses within the model.
The dispersion of oil after a spill is an
example of a process that may be analyzed
via a spa1io-1emporal model. Currents.
winds. wa,•e ac.tion. and 1he physics of oil
separation and ev.aporation on exposure to
air migb1 be combined in a model 10 predict
the changing location of an oil slick. The
actions of objects as 1hey move across an
environmem may also be represeuied in a
spatio-temporal model.
Spatio-temporal models include time-
driven processes within 1he framework of
the model. These processes are typically
quite detailed and include substantial com-
puter code to represent importam subpro·
cesses. Our oil evaporation example
demonstrates 1he subprocesses represen1ed
in a dynamic spacial model. Oil evaporation
rates depend on many factors. including oil
visc~i1y. COil!j)Omettr oil ft.lcrioos. wii1d
speed. 1emperature. wave height and ac1ion.
and sunlight intensity. These processes may
be modeled by su i1able functions applied 10
spatially defined pa1ches of oil. The sub-
mode I !llay estimate evaporation of various
componenls of rhe oil in the palch. and
upda1e Ille characteristics of oil in 1ba1 pa1ch.
Oil c-hemisrry and viscosi1y may change due
to more rapid evaporation of lighter compo--
nents. in nim affe<:1ing fun,re evapora1iou
calcula1ions. SpatiaJ feanires may cbirnge
through time due ·10 the represented dynamic
process: for example. the bouudary defining
an oil spill may vary as the mod.el pro-
gresses.
Spa1io-1e111pornl models are typically
more Jimi1ed 1ban other modeling
approaches in the range and number of spa·
1ial !hemes analyzed. bul 1bey pro,;de a
more mechanistic represen1a1i01l of dynamic
processes. S11bs1an1ial effon goes in10 devel·
oping submodels of important processes.
Model components and structures focus on
one or a few key ou1pm spatial variables.
and input data themes are included ooly as
Ibey are needed by 1bese subprocess models.
These 1empornlly dynamic models explicilly
calculate the changes in the outpu1 spatial
variables through time. Feature boundaries.
point feamre Joca1ions. and anribme vari·
ables 1ba1 reflect 1he spacial and aspa1ial
characteristics of key output variables may
change wi1hin 1be model run. 1ypically mul-
tiple 1imes. and with an explicit temporal
frequency.
Simple spacial models a.ud spacial s1alis-
1ical analyses are often used as precursors to
spario-reiil))(>ral n\odell. By Uttcovei'ing key
processes or races. 1hey can guide further
analysis. For example. in our oiU spill exam.
pie. the specific relationship bet, .reen wave
1
beigb1 or frequency and oil separa1ion may
be represen1ed by an equa1iou. but 1be spe-
cific parame1ers 1ba1 defme 1be shape oflhe
rel31iousbip may be es1ima1ed via a s1a1isti·
cal proce.ss. Experiments or observations on
separation rales at various wave heiglus may
be collecied. and 1be specific model parnme-
1ers es1inia1ed. These may 1ben be included
as a component ofthe larger spatio·te.mporal
model.
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 565
Cartographic Modeling
A cartographic model provides infor-
mation through a combination of spa rial data
sets. functions. and operations. These func-
tions and opc1ations often include reclassifi·
cation. overlay. interpolation. terrain
analyses. buffering, and oilier functions.
Mnhiple da1a. layers are combined via these
01>erations. and !he infomiation is lypically
in !he form of a spatial data layer. Map alge·
bra. described in Cbap1er 10. is often used to
specify canographic models for raster data
se.ts.
Suitability analyses are perllaps 1be most
common examples of cartographic models.
These analyses rank laud according 10 its
utilily for various purposes. Suitability anal-
yses often involve the overlay, weighting.
and rating of mulliple data layers 10 catego-
rize lands imo various classes. Relevant data
layers are combined an<l the resultant poly-
gons are classified based on the combination
of attribu1cs. :Figure 13·3 illustrates a sim-
plistic canog_raphic model for the identific.a-
tion of potential park sites. Suitable sites are
those that are near lakes. near roads. and not
.I ____
Fl;u,. 13..J: An cn,.npk of l'I c-ttrtopphic model. llic inodd idcmific~ mi1J1blc p:i.:tk tit·« b11scd on the
proxU11i1y to :ro:MU ;md Likes. 11,1~ 1ltc :ibsencc of wcll~ods.
in wc1lands. The model uses three input data
layers, containing lakes. roads. and bydric
status for a common s1udy area. Spatial
operations arc appLied 10 the spatial da1a lay-
ers. including reclassification. buffering. and
overlay. These result in a sui1ability layer.
This s11itabiLi1y layer can then be used to nar-
row sites for further evaluation. identify
owners, or otherwise aid in park site selec·
rion.
Cartographic models have been used for
a variety of applications. These include
landuse planning. transponation ro111e and
corridorstucties, lhedesign and developmeru
of water distribution systems. modeling the
spread of hwuru, disease or introduced plam
and animal spec.ie.s. building and business
site selection. pollution response plalllling.
and endangered species preservation. Cano-
graphic models are so extensively used
because they provide infom,atioo useful to
managers. the public. and policy makers.
and help guide decisions requiring the con-
sideration of spatial locatio11 across multiple
themes.
~
566 GIS Fundamentals
Cartographic models are often suc-
cinc1ly represen1ed by jl<1u·c/1orrs. A flow-
chart is a grapilic representa1ion oftbe
spa1ial data, operations., and their sequence
of use in a cartographic mO<lel. figure 13-4
illustrates a Oowcbart 0(1be cartographic
model illustrated in Figure 13-3. Suitable
si1es are sought tbat are near roads. near
lakes. and not in wetlands. Da1a layers are
represented by rectangles. operations by
ellipses. and 1be sequence of opera1ions by
arrows. Operations are listed in each ellipse.
Flowchans are often required by an agency
or organization 10 document a completed
spa1ial analysis. Because a consis1e,n set of
symbols aids in lbe effective communkarion
of the cartographic model. a stmdard set of
symbols and Oowcharting nw11tO<ls may help
in understa!Kiing 1he data and operations in
an analysis.
Flowcbans are useful during die devel-
opment and application of a cartographic
model. Flowcharts aid in lhe concepruali2a-
tion and comparison of various competing
approaches and may aid in !he selection of
the final model. A flowchart is of1eo au effi-
cien1 framework for doc,uneniing a carto-
graphic model. File locations. work elites.
and intermediate ,observations can be noted
wi1b reference to 11te Oowchan. or directly
onlo a copy of the flowchart.
Combined
['w;;:-1 burters
...~_••_~~-'~....-@>~~ i Most cartographic models are based on
l__. ~
SVrtobsllty ~ Buffet's
ranking -~ - & wetlands
Fii urr 13-4: A llO\\.'cli..,rt ofth< c;J.r1ogupbic modd
in Figure 13-J.. Tue .Oow~bart is a shortbaud method
of l'<'pr<11ciUinJ; a S¢quco« o( spatial opcn.tiowi.
Cartographic modeling often produces a
large number of intermediate or temporary
data layers ihat are not required in the foml
oulpul. Our example in Figure 13-4 illus-
1ra1es !his. The needed information is coo-
1ained en1irely within the suitability ranking
data layer. Five other data layers were pro-
duced within lhe illus1rated cartographic
model. Buffered. recoded. and O\/Crlay layers
were necessary httennediate steps, but in
ibis analysis lheirmili1y was 1emporary. This
proliferation of data layers is collm1on in
cartographic modeling, and it can cause
problems as the new layers and 01her files
accumulate in the compmer workspace. fre-
quent removal or archiving of unneeded files
is helpful.
Much of the power of cartographic mO<l-
eling comes from the flexibilily of spatial
analysis func1ious. Spatial functions and
operations are a set of tools that may be
mixed and matched in cartographic models.
Overlay. proximity. reclassification, and
most 01her spatial analysis tools are quite
general. These tools may be combined in an
as1oundingly large number of ways, in selec-
1ion and order of application. Tllese varia-
tions will result in different ompm data
layers. even when using the same inpu1 data
layers. With a small set of1ools :and da1a lay-
ers. we can create a huge number of carto-
graphic models. Designing the best
ca no graphic model 10 solve a problem -
the selection of tbe appropriate spatial tools
and the specification of their sequence - is
perhaps the most importam and often 1he
most difficult process in cartographic model-
ing and spatial analysis more ge.nerally.
Designing a Cartographilc Model
a set of criteria. Unfommately. tllese criteria
are often initially specified in qualitative
lerms, such as "tl1e slopes must 1101be
steep." Asubs1amial amount of rimerpreta·
1ion may be required in translati.ng the crite-
ria in a suitability analysis into a spedfic
sequence of spatial operations. [n our pres-
ent example. we must quantify what is
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 567
meant by "too sleep.·· General or qualitative
cri1eria may be provided and these mus, be
converted to spedfic. quantitative measures.
The conversion from a qualilative to quanti·
tative specification is often an iterative pro·
cess. wi1h repealed in1eractio11 be1w<en 1he
analyst developing and applying the carto-
graphic model and the manager or decision·
maker who will act on 1lle resultant informa-
tion.
We will use a home-site selection exer-
cise to demoos1ra1e this process. The prob-
lem consists of ranking sites by suitability
for home con.s1ruc1ion. The area 10 be ana·
lyzed has steep terrain and is in a seasonally
cold climate. There are four criteria:
a) Slopes should no1 be too steep. S1eep slopes
may substintially increase costs or may
preclude consLruc1iou.
b) Southern asJ)('cls are preforr«t. to enhance
solar warming..
c) Soils suit:tb le for on-site septic sys1ans nr.e
rtquircd. There is a range of soil types in
the sn1dy area. with a range of suirn.bilities
for i:tp1ie SJ'Sltm insta1Ja1io11.
d) Sites should be far enough from a main road
to offer some pr~'.lcy. but not so far as to
be isolated.
These criteria must be converted to
more specific rules prior to the development
and application in a canographic model. Tbe
decision.maker must specify what sort of
classification is required. Is a simple binary
classification needed. with suitable and
uosuitable classes. or is a broader range of
classes needed? lf a range of classes is sped·
fied. is an ordinal ranking acceptable. or is
an intervaVmrio scale preferred? These ques·
tious are 1ypica1ly answered via discussions
between 1he analyst and the decision-mak·
ers. Each criterion can tben be defined ouce
the l)pe and measurement scaJe of the
results are specified. II may be fairly simple
10 establish the local slope limit 1ha1 prohib·
its construction. For example, conversalions
with local building expens may ide111ify 30
degrees as a threshold beyond which con·
stmction is infeasible. Further work is
required 10 quantify how Jess-steep slopes
affect constmction costs. Similar refine·
men ts must be made for each criterion. We
mus, quantify o,e range and any relative
preferences for southern aspects. relative
soil suitabilities. whal defines a main road,
and wba1 consiin11es short a.ud long dis·
tances.
A second key consideration involves the
availability and qualiry of data. Do 1he
required data layers exist for the study area?
Are the spatial accuracies. spatial resolution.
and attributes appropria1e for 1he imended
analysis? How will map ge1Jeralizations
affecl the analysis: for example. will inclu-
sions of diffcreu1 soil iypes in a soil polygon
lead 10 inappropriate results·? Is the mini·
mum mapping unil appropriate? If not 1ben
u,e requisite darn mus, be obtained or devel·
oped. or 1he goals and cartographic model
modified.
Weightings and Rankings
While some canogmpbic models are
simple and restricti\'C. many more a1110-
grapbic mooels require the combination of
criteria that vary across a range of vaJues,
and require an explicit ranki11g of the relative
importance of different classes or iypes of
criteria. Asimple, restric.tiveexampJe might
require us 10 idemify parcels greater than a
certain size and wi1hin acenaio dis1ance of
water. We may clearly identify areas that
mee1 Uiese desired condi1ioas.
A much more common ,class of prob-
lems requires us 10 integrate multiple criteria
that are qualitatively differe.m. For example.
site suitability for haumkms waste storage.
depends ou a number of fac,ors. iocludin~
distance 10 population centers. 1ranspona:
tion, geology. and aquifer depth and type.
We must rate si1es across a range of values
for all of these ,•ariables. Ooce criteria are
precisely defined. we must obtain appropri·
ate data. develop a flowchart or plan for our
analysis. and address the more difficuli prob-
lem of assigning rankings \\fithin each crite-
ria, and assigning the relative weigh1ings
among criteria. Note 1ba1 in 1he following
discussions we use 1be word "rankings''
when describing the assignment of relative
568 GIS Fundamentals

values within the same layer, such as how
we rank a sandy soil vs. a si11y soil in a soils
layer. We use 1be word ·~veiglnings" wben
assigning the relative values or different lay-
ers. for example. l1ow we weight the values
in an elevation layer vs. 1he values in a
landuse layer. Keep in mind that weightings
for "•'Y differen1 cri1eria are made compara·
ble by considering how well they satisfy the
goal of the analysis.
Rankings Within Criteria
Each criterion in our cartographic model
is usually express.ed by a data layer. or "cri-
terion layer." Each criterion layer is a spatial
representation of :some constraint or selec-
1ion condition: for example. the criterion we
build outside a aoodplain may consist of a
set of numbers in a layer identifying nood-
plain loca1ions. Floodplain sites may be
assigned a value ofO. and upland sites a
value of l. Before we can assig11 a value to
any site. we must first oblau1 (or make)
floodplain nmps and intelJ)ret the codes in
the maps to deline.ate the most flood-prone
areas. This process allows us 10 rank areas
based on the likeHbood of flooding.
We mus1 explici1ly fonnali.ze our rank·
ing for each layer used to represent a crite-
rion. One early decision is whether ranks
should be discrete or continuous (Figure l 3·
S). Rankings are discrete when inpm data are
interpreted such that the criterion data layer
is a map of discrete values. Soils are either
good or bad for cons1ruc1io1t slopes either
100 steep or acceptable. and the final map
defines two or more discrete cla·sses: for
example. sites are categorized as either sui1·
able or unsuitable. Ranks are continuous
when they vary along a scale: for example.,
soils may be rated from I 10 l00 for con-
struction suitability.

.,.
r production < 66 Own
rank vol~ • O

ror,k vo!uc • 1
Discrete Ronk Loyer

Continuous Ronk Loyer

2'4t.810
ro~k voli>C
¢()nfir'IU()U$ rank r'nOy be
oss.1nea bo,tQ on progucrton.
votues ore scol-ed linearly
be-:ween ,~ lowest end
1ii9~.ut to os:s1igl"I o roiik (r()(l'I o ,o JO

Fiau"" 13.5: luokiilp within n layer an: of1e11 discrete (IQJ> right) or c01uinuous (bou.om).
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 569
Figure 13-5, lop riglll, shows die assign-
ment of discrete ranking ofland productivity
based on values in a soil layer. The source
layer in the lop lefl of dte figure is analyzed.
If the expected production for a given soil
polygon is less than 66. then the outp\11 rank-
ing is sel to 0. If lhe production is gre.ater
than or equal 10 66, lheu tbe ou1pu1 rank is
set 10 I. A range of inp\11 values bas been
placed into two discrete classes. illustrmed
as dte discrete rank layer in die top-right part
of Figure 13·5.
Discrete :rankings a.re most often used
when there are clear. discrete classes to be
represented in criteria. A disease may be
present or absent. forest stands coniferous or
deciduous. or a block invemoried or not The
v.alues 10 be represented are discrete catego-
nes.
I.n contras1. we may apply criteria as
continuous rankings within a cartographic
model. These continuous rankings provide a
range ofvalu,es 10 characterize a suitability
or restric.tion.. and they result in a set of
incrtrt!tftlally va;ying ranks. Ranks (ot
scores) typically range o,•er a real or large
integer interval. for example. from Oto I or
0 10 1.000. Highest suitability is usually
assigned 10 the highest rank. and lowest 10
the bouom.
The bonom right of Figure 13-5 shows
a continuous ranking over a range ofO to 10.
A high value of 10 is spec.ified for the most
productive soils. and a low value of Ofor the
least producth'e. We may use production
data gathered, over a set of soil types, and a
map of soil types 10 assign the relative value
of each soil. We could scale produc1ion from
the lowest to the highest observed over the
range of O10 10. and in so doing create a
layer that represents a soil productivity cri1e-
na.
We are not cons1rained 10 linear or
always increasing or decreasing relalion-
ships between our inpul layers and our crite·
ria layers. 11,~re may be complex
relationships between an input value and our
ou1pu1 ranking scores or values. Any curve
or relationship we can create with a combi·
nation of mathematical and logical fu.oc1ions
may be represented. 10 refloc1 increasing.
decreasing. or complex relationships.
We should have some jus1ifica1ioo for
allop1ing a s~ific curve when cs1ablisbing
relative ranks within a layer. Forexample,
we may wish co represent the mercury baz.
ard base<! on me1nyl mercury concen11'8tions
in water supplies across a state for detemtin·
ing locations to drill wells for drinking
water. Tilere may be a broad range of low
mercury concentrations for which there are
no or few negative health impacts. However,
as a 1hresbold concentration is reache<I. there
n1ay be a rapid upturn into a very steep
curve. where the risk of severe damage is
great (Figure 13-6). The shapes oflhese
curves should be established through sers of
epidemiologicaJ studies. in which mercury
concentration in human blood or tissue was
related 10 drinking water. an.d health impacts
were recorded for thousands of people at
various levels of mercury exposure.
•'
•
'
•'
'
'
' ''
'
' ''
,,,,''
__... _-~- ......-- -- /
mercury concentration
Fl,urt U ,6: ·me ranking \\ithio a criterion b1yer
11heuld bl bsatd on ll dtfenriblt rtllltierW!ip.
wl.osc $WIJ)C" bas bc¢1) cmblished tbrougb n1ffi.
cicm study or expcrin.ce. Here, ri.sk for mercury
cxpos:utc: \'ii\ concentr:uion in dirinl'-inj water bns
~ rcL,tc-410 ncpti\'c h.cnhh ilnp.tcl$, Suit.., bilit\'
or bllZW mnlcings i.u canographic, models should
be wcU supported by mcasutc1lKnts.
570 GIS Fundamentals
Figure 13-7 illustrates two examples of
continuous criteria scores. Figure t3 -7o
shows 1he represe!lla1ion of a complex road
cntenon for a cartographic. model. This cri-
terion specifies that desirable si1es are
greater than 300 b111 less than 2.000 m from
a road. The top le fi graphic of Figure 13-7o
shows the origina.l roads layer. Followiug the
a1TOws counter clockwise. you find 1he dis-
tance layer. a raster with the distance from
the nearest road recorded in each cell value.
In this example. tile dis1ances range from o
t~ 6.000 m. The graphic in the lower right of
Figure 13-70 shows a suitability assig.muenl
fnnctiO)t Oistanc_e ,,aJues are recorded along
th~ ho.n.zootal a-<_1s•.and are used to assign
smtab1hty for bm!dmg. shown on the verti-
cal axis. This func1ion assigns suitability
scores of O for distances less than 300 m.
Suitabilities increase and distance increases.
in a linear fashiom. 10 a score of I at a dis-
1aoce of 1.150 m .half \\'llY be1ween 300 and
2,000. Scores then decline linearly 10 a value
of Oat 2.000 m. and remain Ofor all dis-
1ances greater than 2.000 m.
Figure 13-7b illustrates a continuous
ranking of suitabili1y scores. in this instance
for slope. Slopes are cnlculnted from 1he ele-
va1ion layer (Figure 13-7b. left), ranging
from O10 49.6 degrees for this data se1.
Slope values are transfonued to continuous
slope sui1abili1)1 values using a smoothly
decaying func1io11 (lower right. Figure 13·
7b). These values are assigned to eacb cell
location in an oulput slope sui1ability data
layer (1op right Figure J3-7b).
Nol~ that these continuous rankings may
be comb med, often through a weighted addi-
tion process. to generate a combined suit-
ability score. The various suitability layers
smn venically 10 _give a 101al composite
score for each cell. This score may be used
to rank are.as on relative sujtability. Discrete
and co111i11uo~s sui1a_bili1y layers may be
cornbmed usmg a. mL~ of Boolean and addi-
tio~ operat~o~ to provide a final ranking.
This combmauon often requires that \\le
defUle the rela1ive imponance of each crite-
ria layer, a process known as weighting
among criteria.
Weighting Among Criteria
Di.stincc criteria must be co111bine<I in
many spatial analyses. usually in some over-
lay or addi1ion process (Figure 13-S). We
mus1 choose bow 10 weight one layer rela·
c~ve to another. How importam is slope re1a·
11ve to aspec.1? \Viii an optimwn aspect offset
a modera1ely steep si1e? How i,nponau1 is
isolation relative to 01her factors? Because
the criteria will be combined in a suitability
da.ta l~yer. ~e.relative weightings given each
crnenon Mii 111fluence the resu1·1s. Oiffere01
relative weights are like.ly to result in differ-
ent s.uitability rankings. It is often difficuJt to
assi~n lhese rela1ive weights in an objec1ive
fashion. panicularly when suit.ability
depends on nonquantifiable measures.
. The assignmetll of rela1ive weightings is
easiest when the 1mporta11ce of the various
criteria may be expressed on a oommon
scale. ln our example. we may be able to
assign monetary costs 10 increas.ing slope.
Septic costs could be estimated from soil
l)'pe because differe!l1 septic systems may be
required for different soil 1)'Jles. either
through larger drain fields or needing plllDpS
and equiemeUl for more sophis1ica1e<1 sys-
tems. Nmsanc.e cost for noise and distance
c_os1 in lost time or trave( might a lso be quan-
1ified monetatLly. Reducmg all criteria 10 a
common scale, like money. removes differ-
ential weighting among criteria.
There are many instances where a com·
mon measuremenl scale is not possible.
Many rankings are based on variables tlla1
are di(ficult _10 quantify. Personal values may
define the distances from a road lhal consti-
nite ''isolated'' versus ''Private." or what is
the relative imponance of slope vs. construc-
tion cost Expert opinion, group intervie,vs.
or stakeholder meetings may be used 10 rank
when 1here are multiple or competing par-
ties. The scales for these \'ariabl,es are inl1er-
ently ditrereu1. a11d 1here is 110 clear way 10
translate them ro a common scaCe.
Note that in this example, ,,re assume
that the ,iatues in each layer associated with
each criterion have appropriate ranges. or a1
-
le.a.st are on similar scales. In Fiaure 13-8'
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 571

a)
Roods layer Rood suitability layer

(
Distance to roods layer
10

?; ••

I::
--
02
soo 1.000 1 500 zoob
distance to rood

b) Eleva1,on layer
slope suitability layer

( • SUl10blt!Y

''"'''
0

~
=
.5
0
..••
10

)
i ••
••
..
- to 30
slope

Flautt tJ.7: Enntplcs o( two contiu\1oos score laym to rcprcsau criteria i.n a cartopaphic model.
•• ,0

'°
Pand 0, top. sJ1ows the dunl dit1t:1ncc road cri1nui n1,p1icd 11Sint n -.u i1abili1y func11011MTllis re,uh.t in
;i cootluoou,5. nu1gc of 5liitnbility i.corcs between O and I, ln ~ncl b. a. diffcrcnl r,uitabili1y function is
applied to the: $lope la>·cr. ~uhioi in a continuous $ti.itabi.licy score for lhe slope criterion.
572 GIS Fundamentals
Criterion A layer
2 l
2 2 3
l l 3
Crif er100 8 foyer WA 2·
5 l 3
the values for criterion layer A and criterion
layer B vary over an approximately equal
range. Ifone layer had a range from l .000 to
5.000 and the olher had values of I to 5. lhen
this would affect -ihe combination and final
suitability ranking unless the ranges are stan-
dardized 10 a common range.
In addition. many combinations implic-
itly assume tliat tbe scales are approximately
linear in our mill11g wilhin and across the
criteria. We often combine tbe values within
a criterion layer using an arithmetic ope.ca·
tion. for example. by summing values with
weights . The relarive weig.h1s among and
wi1hin each layer are mixed. which is often a
logical course of action under an assumption
of linearity. Strongly nonlinear relationships
in the ratings and weightings scale.soften
lead 10 counterinruitive and unwanted suit·
abilities.
One method of assigning weights is
based on their "importance ranking:· The
fac,tors (criteria) used to decide the quality of
a site may be ranked in their importance.
Fleun 13.8: Larets "91ttScnti.n3 ( ll'Utf'10 A 11.nd
8 :ire cornbiocd in ll t.uitability nn:dvsis. This
combination requires 1bat we dcfi.uc'ihc rclath·c:
in1port1U1cc: o(the two criteria. thro-.a,h tl,c
s.,>ccifica1io1, oftltc wcir;h1s WA n.n-d'WS.
Thnf w,igh111m;y lx JJiign«t YfiaJ ~ U\11-11~
of methods, and they wi.ll mbstanlially affcc1
dtc values in 1he final ,uitability b.ycr.
Su1tcbllrty toyer
stiff·
\'19 · 4 = Obility
layer
value
from most important 10 least. We may !hen
calculate 1he relative weights according 10:
n - r1 • 1
w, = - - -'----- -
n
(IJ.1)
where wi is the weighting for c.riterion I, n is
the number of criteria, and k is • counter for
summing across aucri1eria.
Suppose we wish to rank sites for store
placemem based on four factors: distance 10
nearest competitor, distance to Rearest major
road. parking density. and p<1reel.cos1. Figure
13-9 shows an example calculatfon of crite-
ria weigb!$ ~~ieg 9ll imp9rt@c~ rn1tking.
Each criterion is listed in the lelimost col-
umn. Ranks are assigned 10 criteria by the
planner. client. declsion-1u..1ker, or interested
group. The numerator of equation 13.1 is
calculated foreacb criterion. giv:ing the most
imponant criterion the highest v·alue and the
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 573

Weight
Numerator
(n·r, · l)
(n·r
•·y) l:<n
'
Critmon Rank •••
dtstance ro 2 3/10 • 0.3
nearest competitor

d1stance to 3 4-3·1 , 2 2110 • 0.2

moJOr rood

parking d<nSlty 1/10 • 0 l

parcel cost I 4-1·1 , 4 4110 • 04

•••
Fl.a:'Urt- 13.9 : Al\ c:<:intplt of one method for cMculati11~ rcl:ui\'e weights for e:ieh offo,11 cri1erill
.iiccording t oQ cqootiou (13. J).

least important the lowest value. The
denominator .is calculated by swnmation.
an<! then the individual weights calculated,
as shown in the right most column. These
weights may tlien be used 10 combine the
data from the various criteria.
There are many other metl,ods for defm-
ing the values for each criterion layer and the
relative weightings among layers. These
include methods that auempt to ensure con~
sistency among weights. but lhey are beyond
the scope of this imroductory text You may
find more detailed descriptions in the excel·
lem book by Malczewski (1999) listed in the
suggested readings section 21'1 the end of this
chapter.
Cartographic Models,: A Detailed
Example
Here we provide a detailed description
of the steps involved in specifying and
applying a cartographic model. We use a
refinement of the general criteria for home-
si1e selection desc-ribed in 11Je previous sec-
1ion. These general criteria are listed on tl1e
left side au<I the refined criteria are shown on
the right side of Table 13-1. The refinedcri-

Table 13-1 Original aud ~fined criteria for ear1ograpbjc model example.

General Criteria Refined Criteria

Slopes not too sleep Slopes < 30 degrees

Southern aspect preferred 90 < Aspect < 270

Soils suitab61ty Specified list of septic-suitable soil units

Far enough from road to pro- 300 meter< distance to road < 2,000 meters
vide privacy. but no! isolated
574 GIS Fundamentals
teria may have been defined afrer further dis·
cussion \\~th the decision-makers. local area
expens. aJ.ld a review of available data and
methods.
NOie 1ba1we adop1 the simple.11 weigllt-
ing and ranking scheme in applying the cri-
teria in Table 13-il. All criteria are equally
weighted. and au criteria are binary- land
is categorized as unsuitable or suitable based
on each criterion. A location must pass all
criteria 10 be suitable. and the final rating is
suitable or unsuitable.
In our examp le. we will apply the cano-
grapbic model described by the Oowchart in
Figure 13-4 to a s..mall watershed in a moun·
tainous smdy area. Application of the
refined criteria requires 1lU'ee base data lay-
ers - elevation. soils. and roads. For this
example we assume rhe three data layers are
available a, the required positional and a11ri-
bu1e accuracy, and clipped to the study area.
The need for ne,v data layers often becomes
apparen1 during tbe process of tra11sla1ing the
initial, general criteria to specific, refined
criteria. or during lhe developiilolll ofllie
flowcban describing the cartographic model.
Once data availability and quality have been
assured. we can c,omplete the final flow.
chart.
Figure 13·10 contains a flowchart of a
canographic model lluu may identify suit-
able sites. Spa1ial data layers are shown as
rectangles. and a descriptive data layer name
is included within the rectangle. Spatial
operations or flmctions are contained in
ellipses. and arrows define the sequence of
da1a layers and spatial operations. The three
base data layers (elevation. soils. and roads)
are shown at the top of the flowchart.
Tiiere are three main branches in the
flowcban in Figure 13 -10. The leftmost
branch addresses the 1em1in-rela1ed criteria.
the cemer branch addresses the soils criteria.
and the right branch applies dte road dis-
tance criteria. All lhree branches join in the
canographic model. producing a final suit-
ability classification.
The spatial processing steps for the left
branch of the cancgmphic model is shown in
detail in Figure 13-1 l. This and subsequen1
detailed figures show a thumbn•il of the s~-
tial data layers at each step in the process.
Data layer names are adjarenl to the spatial
data layer. The first two criteria involve ter-
min-related constraints. Suitable sites are
re.stric!ed to a sel of slopes and aspects.
These cri1eria require slope and aspect data
layers. 10 be calculated and 1hen. classified
into areas that do and do no! meet the respec-
tive crit·eria. The elevation data layer is
shown at the 1op of Figure 13- l 1: low eleva-
1ions in black through hjgher elevations in
lighter sl1ades. There are 1wo maiin river sys.
,ems in lhe srndy area. one rnnning from
west to eas1 in the northern ponion of the
study area. and one running from south to
nonh. Highland areas are found along 11te
nonh. west. and easi margins of the snidy
area.
Slope and aspect are derive(! from the
elevation dam Jayer(Figure 13-11). Lower
slope values are shown in light shades.
higher slope values are sbowu in dark
shades, and aspe(ts are shown in a range of
light 10 dark shades from O10 360 degrees.
Slope and aspect layers are reclassified
based on the threshold values specified in
the criteria listed in Table 13· l. A reclassifi·
cation table is used 10 assign vatues 10 the
slcpe:_.suiT variable based on the slope layer.
Cells with a stope_"'l less than 30 are
assigned a slope_sult of l. while cells with a
slope.."'! of30 or higher are giv,eo a value
slope_sui1 of 0. Aspect values are also reclas·
sified using a table.
Slope and aspect layers are combined in
an overlay. convened from raste-r to vector.
and reclassified 10 produce a suitable terrain
layer (Figure 13-12). Raster to vector con-
version is chosen because rwo oi the three
base data layers are in a vector fom1a1. and
bec-.ause future complex seleclio.ns might be
bener supponed by the attribute data struc·
rure used for vector data sets. This convtr-
sion ere.ates polygons that have the attributes
of lite input ras1erda1a layer. Note this con-
version takes place after 1be rasrer layers
have be-en reclassified into a small number
of classes. and after the data have been com-
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 575

E leva-
tion Roods

I
( t xtr<let ")

'
Slope Aspect Majo r
layer layer roods
Suitable

~
'
( te(IOSS ) soils <.._ buffer .J t buffer .)

Slof,e
'
Aspect
'
2 km 300 m
'
rec ass reclass buffer buffer
layer layer layer layer

~
- j_ ....

Terrain Prelim St udy

overlay
lover Suitable buffers boundor
t errain ;
' '
~
roste~ to
vec or f
~~~ Terrain Rood
& soils buffers

All All ~
sites criteria ~ - Suitable
access

Suit able
sites

Fta:u.1•t- 13· 10: FloweInn for di.c home site lui1ability canopapbic model. Three basic data layCfS arc
cmcrcd. A a,equcnce of spntilll opcrt11ioru is used 10 :lf)f)ly cri1cri11 and produce a map of suitable:
sire,.
576 GIS Fundamentals

.,,............ slope
rec loss
< 30°. via
Cl>.11 ID
I
-·,.
128'
0""' "111
I
tabI z 1'19 0
CdtO ~-"" .... I
...3 •••
... ...0
I 437 0 5?.COA 18A 3 I
2
3
...
'"
0.3
...
,,,,
I
I
... recloss
...... .·
..
B2.00.i 0 90<0Spect<270
via toble

Aspect recloss
layer

Fla:urt 13·11: Adccaikd dcpfo1ion of Ulc- leftmost branches of the (artopaDhic model sbo"11 in Fi1,un
13-·10. Slope ,iml iuipcct nn: dcri,•cd from :in clevn1i011 d.i.ta l:lvcr for tile miJ>, res:ion. Bo11, 1:1.ycn nn: tbc11
rccl11$$ificd using a table anignmeal. Slope ,·aJue, < J.O 2.re l°eel~is.ified as suitable (gray). all other slope$
as unsuitable (blaek). Aspect values bc-twccn 90 and 270 arc r«lusi.ficdas , uitablc (sra)'), fill ~hers a,
,i.nmi111blc (bfad:).
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 577

bined to a single layer in an overlay. Raster-
to-ve<:tor conve~ion proceeds more quickly
after tbe munber of raster classes has been
reduced and the data combined in a single
terrain-suitab iLity layer.
The terrain overlay must then be reclas-
sified 10 identify those areas that meet both
the slope and the aspect criteria (see the ter-
rain suitability coding in Figure 13-12).
Those polygons witlt a I for both slope..sun
and osp..,suit are assigned a ,•alue of I for
terroin_suil. All Olhers are given a value of
0, indica1ing they are unsuitable home sites
based on the slope and/or aspect criteria.
Because we wish to re<h1ce the number
of redu11da111 polygons where possible. a dis-
solve is applied after the reclassification.
This substantially reduces lbe size of the out-
put data set. and speeds funire processing,
Reclassified. dissolved terra.in data are saved
in a layer labeled Suffoble Terroin (Figure
13-12. center-right).
The central branch of the cartographic
model in Figure 13-1 0 is shown in Figure

Slope reclass Aspect reclass

layer . layer
,:
....
·- ...
P. 'i:f· .,
·M;,,0. ..
•,;<fl;I,;,~.
:.,,~
·-,;;
.....

overlay

Terrain overlay
layer

roster to reclass
vector (bytoble) dissolve

,............ i
.............,/
SIOD<LS\Jil oso_su11 terrom_sult
0 0 0 The terrain suitability code 1s
l 0
assigned based on this recloss
0 table. Only thog~/olygons with
l 0 0 suitable slope aspect ore
l l l oss,gned a terroin..suit value of I.
Flgu rf' l ,.l..12: 11ic recoded slope :md :Uf>O:t d11.1.1 faycrs 11rc combined in 11.11<>Ycrlt1y opcm1ion.
ll[ld the result rec:lau ified. Suit!ltblc lemnn is shown io gray. uusui111blc in bl~ck.
578 GIS Fundamentals

13-13. Digital soil surveys are available that
depict bomogeneoos soil units as polygons.
Attribute data are anacbed 10 each polygon.
including soil type.and soil suitability for
septic systems. Soils data for the study area
may be reclassified based ou these septic
suitability attribunes. A reclassification table
assigns a value of I to tbe variable soiLsuit if
1he soil type is suitable for septic systems, 0
iftlte soil type is not (Figure 13-13).
After reclassification. there may be
many adjacent soil polygons with the same
soiU11it value. TI1ese are grooped using a
dissolve operation (data between reel ass and
dissolve are aot shown in tl1e figure: see
Chapter 9 for an eXllmple). The dissolve
removes boundaries between like polygons.

Soils polygons are recoded based on

the soil type. The variable soiLsuit
is assigned o value O for li'lsuitable
soil types and I for suitable soil types.
soa type sollsu,t
Buncont>e 0
Cowee I
Culoso.io
recloss)
I _._.. (by !Obie
Evord I
11:o.vosee 0
Sontee
dissolve
0
..
0 S.moble
Vt.Mon rolls

Suitable terrain
& suitable soils

Flautt 13.-13: A detailed prediction of the cn1tcr brand, ofthe carto-

gnpbic model shown in figure 13,10. Soils <btll lkf'C rccbuified iu10 those suiL'lblc for septic 1yS1enu
and tbose not, aoc! then combined witb the 5ltitnblc terrain dn1a layer to identify sites acccpQb)e bMCd
on bo1h criteria.
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 579

thereby subst.antially reducing the numberof
polygons and hence the number of entries in
the anribme table. This may be particularly
imponant with complex data se.1s such as
soils da1a. or with converted raster data. as
these often have thousands oi emries. many
of which will be combined after lhedissolve.
The right branch of the cartographic
model in Figare 13- 10 is presented in Figure
13-14. The Roods da1a layer is ob1ained and
MOJOI" roods extracted. This has the effect of
removing all minor roads from consideration
in further analyses. What co:nstinues a major
road has been defined prior to this step. In
this case. all divide<I and multi-lane roads in
1he study area were selected. l\vo buffers are
applied, one at a 300 m disraoce and one al a
2 km dis1ance from major roods. These buf·
fers are 1hen overlaid. Beca11Se 1he buffer
regions extend outside the study area. the

Roods

buffer

Prellm
buffers

Rood
buffers

Fi&Ul't' lJ..14: A detail«! reprcuntation of the riJU1t bnu1<h of the canop,ipbic model sbo,m io Figure
13-10. Road& a.re buffttcd at 300 meter, aiKi 2 lo1orueters. and llmc buffers O\'nllliu. Titc buffen arc
clipped 101hc $nidy rcgion, tuld il1iL,ble nl'cai more th2n 300 mclttS and leu duul 21.::ilomclcri fru.n
iwd$ identified.
580 GIS Fundamentals

buffers muSI be clipped 10 the bom1d.1ry of
the smdy area. These data are then reclassi-
fied into suitable :and unsuitable areas.
resulting in the Ro<1d buffel"S layer (lower
left, Figure 13-14 ).
All data layers are combined in a final
set of overlays and reclassifications (Figure
13-15). The Suitoble access layer. derived
from the roads data and criteria, is combined
wi1h the Terrain & soils layer. The All criteria
layercontains the required spati:al data to
ide111ify suitable vs. misuitable sites. This
overlay layer must be reclassified bosed on
the road, soil, and terrain suitabUlity vari·
ables. classifying all potential sites into a
suitable or unsuitable class. A final dissolve
yields the fos1I digital data layer, Suitoble
sites.
This example analysis. while simple and
limited in scope. illustrates both the flexibil·

Rood
Terrain & soils buffers

overlay

u u
I u
0 l
I I 0
l 0 0
• unsuttoble
I I 0 Suitable
l u u O suitoble
sites
! ' I I

Flam·t 13. t S: The o,•a fay ru)d tccbuific:uio110(1bc combined <lllL'l la)'m.
Tcinin. &Oils, n.ud r,o:id t).1ffcr-d.11~ :u-c c:ornbfocd iu n.u o,·crl:l)'. These <Ui.., lkl'C rcc:laued bas.cd <n1 1bt suit·
ability criteria. A fuw dissolve is applied to reduce the numlxr ofpolygous. resulting io a final Ulyer of
suitabk sites..
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 581

ity an<I complexity of spatial data analysis
using cartographic models. The cartographic
model is simple because only three input
spatial data layers were required, and a snmll
set of spatial data operations were used.
Most real analyses use many more data
inputs. but the basics are similar. Reclass.
overlay. and other operations were used
repeatedly. The modeLing is flexible because
spatial operations may be tailored to the
problem. Finally. this example illustrates the
complexity that can be included in cano·
graphic models. as over 20 different
instances of a, spatial operation were applied,
in a defined sequence. resulting in at least 15
imenuediate data layers as well as 1he final
result layer.
Scripting and Models
Many softwares pro,1de scripting or
programing ~nviromnents to specify a
sequence of spatial operations (Figure 13·
16). Examples include ArcGIS Model
Builder. the QGIS Batch Modeler and
Graphical Modeler, and the GRASS wxGUJ.
These modeling tools can create a chain of
operations that may be saved. re·mo. shared.
or applied \\~th differe nl inpul data or
parameters. The models may be viewed as a
recipe (or a set o( spatial tools. applied 10
data, with outpul from operations used as
inpul in subsequent operations.
The programin_g enviroruneots often
allow complex flows. including looping
through varioos iterations of data or para me·
ters.. and branc.hing based or tem1ination
based on conditions. Sc.ripts are ofl:en quite
helpful in both saving a cartographic model
so that it may be repeated with new da1a. and
for documenting the steps applied in an anal·
ysis. Scripts are particularly· helpful when
processing must be applied 1epetitively to
different inslances of the same type of data,
e.g.. 10 re·project then re.code hundreds of
raster data tiles. This would be tedious 10
complete with a s1andard gr.aphical use.r
interface. but m.,y take only minutes of user
time when incorporated into a script

flg:u1·f' t3..t6: Ane:utnplc VolJ>bic model dc,:c:lopcd wi1b the. wxGUI (ot GRASS. R«tlllljl<s tq>tc·
3c:nt modules or opcr.uions., ellipses. tqn<Sc:l\t cb1.i1, aod 11,1T()\\'$ sltow ,.,.X'lrf,:- flow (c01tt1:csy OSGEO).
582 GIS Fundamentals
Simple Spatial Models
Predictive spatial models are commonly
applied to a range of problems. particularly
when there is a well-established model based
on poim or small-scale obsef\'lltious and
analysis. and whe:n the output is a continu-
ous variable. for e..xample. temperature..
housing value, soil erosion ra1es. or cancer
frequency.
As no1ed earlier. our simple spa1ial mod-
els typically are based 011 one or a few equa-
tions, described a.s:
0 = f(A, B, c, D, P,, Pi· ...) (132)
where o is the spatially-reference 0111p111: f()
is a mathematical operation: A. S. C. Oare
a
variables: and i'"s are equation parameters.
For example. NASA bas sponsored the
development of global models of gross pri-
mary productivity (GPP). the total bionmss
produced globall)I by plants in any given
year. One conunon model takes the fonn:
GPP = E • NDVI · PAR (t3.3)
where NDVI is a satellite-l~lsed measure of
plam abU11daoce. PAR is the ao1oun1 of s,m.
light available for pbotosymhesis. and t is a
conversion efficiency. which may be fixed,
or may depend on additional factors, such as
vegeta1ion or soil type. lo this example. our
equation is simple multiplication of the com-
ponems. and£ is 1be tuiique parameter in the
simplest case of a fixed t. In more compli·
cated forms, there is a different c for each
vegetation type. applied accordingly.
Simple. spatial models require spatial
fields of all variables. and appropriate
parameters for all conditions in the modeled
area. We must have estimates of NDVI and
PAR over our prediction reg.ion. In tltis spe-
cific case. robust :rutasurcmen1s of NOVI
have been developed based on repeat satel-
lite measurements, as have methods 10 esti·
mate PAR from tile available meteorology
networks and measurement systems. Values
oft h..-ive beeJt estimated for do111inan1 vege-
lation types, and how these parameters vary
wi1h 01ller environmental fac1ors like 1em·
perantre and available moisture. Model es1i.
mates have been compared to measurements
across a broad range of conditions.
While we call these simple spatial mod-
els. as the previous and subsequent examples
will show. it is often time consuming and
difficult to develop the spa1ial data and esti·
mate the parameters to apply these models
across space. The models are often based on
observed relationships and measurements at
poin1s or small plots. for example. crop
growtll on stuiny vs. cloudy days. or the
change in GPP across ne-arby forest stands
with different NDVl values. These may suf.
fice to estimate & for the specific types. but
differences among vegetation types may
require repeat measurements over a broad
range of conditions. A network of field sta-
tions. perhaps in combination whh remotely
sensed data. may be required to es1imate the
inpm variables. for example. PI\R a, the
required inteivals across the landscape.
Another example of a spatial model is
the Revised Univer.;al Soil Loss Equation
(RUSLE) and its precursor. the Uni\'ersal
Soil Loss Equa1ion (USLE). which are
among the most widely used simple spatial
models:
E=R·K·C·P·L·S (13.4)
where Eis average annual erosion. Ris a
rainfall factor. Kreflects soil erodibility. C
integrates crop effects, P accounts for man·
agemeot practices. Lreflects slope length.
and S represents steepness.
The USLEIRUSLE predict soil erosion
on farm fields. and have been under devel-
opment since the 1930s. Rainfal l intensity.
soil properties. crop type. slope steepness.
and slope length factors have been measured
in tens of thousands of plots. Supponin~
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 583

infommlion has been developed for the
entire country by the U.S. Natural Resources
Conservation. Service. including soil and cli-
mate factors for the United States., and the
impacts or common crop types and manage-
ment regimes. The USLE and RUSLE have
been widely applied in other countries.
The RUSLE has l>een widely applied
within a GIS framework for erosion esti-
mates on a catchment or larger st.ales. The
model is relatively simple. much of the input
data have been developed and are publicly
available. and the ou1pu1s are or broad inter-
est Methods for applying the model have
varied. in pan because the model was devel-
oped for individual fie.Ids, but spatial data
are often 001 :available on a per-field basis.
While 1be rainfall factor, R. is generally sim-
OEM
ilar across county-sized areas spanning tens
ofkilome1ers. other factors <1fte11 change on
a field or subfield basis. Applica1ions often
differ in the melhods for estimating the man-
ageruem and crop factors. and in panicular a
combination of slope lengdt and steepness
factors.
Estimating driving variables across
space often presems cboice.s:., as illustrated in
the calculation of llie RUSLE slope factors,
Land S (Figure 13-17). Simple spatial mod-
els are often based on small area studies for
which all variables may be easily measured.
This is often 001 true when applying the
models 10 larger areas. Slope steepness (S
fac,tor) is easily estimaled within a raster
framework. bm slope lengll1 (L) is consid-
ered uniforu1 at a fixed Ieng.Iii or22.1 m
Slope

LS
I
One of various meosure-
ment..derived functions is
opplied. lncorporoting
b<lth slope ongte ond
slope length. to
colculote the LS foctor.

f'iaur~ U · l 7: Su.ling from plot, lo l.aodscnpc, req,a.ire, e,tiu..,1io_g all i.npol d.,111 IK'r'O$S space, For tbe
USLE/RUSLE. se,·.:ral methods Jui,·e been dc,·clopcd for «tiruanng tbe LS factor. gro«alJy based ou a
combio:u:ion o:f , lope: nnd dope k11gtJ1 dtriYed from DEM <Mita..
584 GIS Fundamentals

(72.6 ft) in the srandard RUSLE. Applirntion
of lhe RUSLE 10 co1weigen1 or divergent
slopes or to lengtllS or cell sizes different
than the standard may result in prediction
errors. Tllis challenge bas been the focus of
many smdies, anc! the book chapter by Wil-
son and Lorang, listed in the references,
describes some of the methods used to effec-
tively estimate a combination ofL and S.
Remaining K. C, and P factors may be
derived from standard spatial data sets. for
example. NASS or NLCD data for land-
cover/crop type and treatment, and K factors
from SSURGO data (Figure 13-18). Appli·
cation of the model to the spalial data. here
in a celJ.by..cell multiplication. yields estj.
mates of erosion across a regio«L

Erosion = R K C P L S
I) R IS COtlSfOl'IT for fhe ST!Ay ateO, 'MTIM F,!more Counry, and set (It 15-5. rrom NRCS llt~ tute

2) P ,s assumed cons1am ocross oM 1~-s. ...,,tho votut of O 5

J.) IC Is ck-riwd from SSURCO soils doto, comolned., 1he horizon table:. K voful?-s ore cxtrocttd
tor lht surtoct h0r1::ior,.

roblc Join.

~=·
then -

--
4) C \/Oiues ore ossl9ned 'm o n:dos11Reo1lon. boscd on ~CS robles ptr crop tyi,e
NASS

recJoss
- bosedon
~S10b4e -
5) LS VOlues ore ~o:c:d 109efher. occord1ng to Mc;Cool e1 ct. l987. J989

DEM ,' t.S )Oyo

'><:i."'4,: \

-LS• [f ](o ·~· ·<) - ~"

""'

6) RUSLE model op;>lled on o cell by ceii basis

P R -------
-
flJurt 13...18: USLE/RUSLE cimion cstim111cs m11y be cakufatcd froin appropriately developed Nsc
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 585
Spatio-Temporal Models
Spatio-te.mporal models bave been . .
developed a!Xl applied in a number of d1sct-
plines. This is an active area of both research
and application. as tbere arc man_y fields of
study and manageOlent that requ!re anal~is
and predictions of spatially and tune varymg
phenomena. \Ve will briefly discuss some
basic cbaracterisrics of spatio-temporal mod-
els. \Ve will then describe their differences
from other models. discuss some basic anal-
ysis approaches. and describe two examples
of spatio-temporal models.
Spatio-temporal models 11se s~atially
explicit inpurs to calculate orpredict spa-
tially explicit outputs (Figure 13-19). Rules.
functions. or some other processes are
applied using spatial and often nonspatial
data. Input ,,ariables such a.s elevau_on, vege-
tation type. human populauon densuy. or
rainfall may be used as inputs 10 one or more
mathematical <'<luations. These equations are
then used to calculate a value for one or
temporally dependent
Fia,urt JJ.J.9; Spalio-t,:ruponil models toml>iuo: s.patiaJ .1llld HpatWdala \\ilh time-,wiant fuurtious to
prodUCC$pUiaJ OUtp:11.
more spatial locations. The , alucs are often
1
saved in a spatial dat.a fom1at. such as a layer
in a GIS.
Spatio-temporal models involve at least
a three.dimensional representation of one or
more key attributes - variation in planar (X·
Y) space and through rime. A fourth dimen-
sion may be added if the vertical (Z) direc-
tioo is also modeled. We typically treat
spatially variable oerwork aualyses ~pa·
rately, because networks are constramed lo a
subset of two-<limensional space.
Spatio-temporal models may also be
classified by a number of other criteria:
wl1ether they treat continuous fields or dis·
con1inuous objects, if 1hey are process based
or rely on purely fit models. and if they are
stochastic ordetemlinisrk. Combinations of
these model characterisiics lead 10 a broad
array of spatio-temporal model types.
Spatial and
functions
Spatial output
586 GIS Fundamentals
Models of continuous phenomena pre-
dict values tha1 ,,ary smoo1hly across ti,ne or
space. Air temperature. precipiration. soil
moisture, and atmospheric pollutants are
examples of continuous variables lllat are
predicted using spatio-temporal models. Soil
moisture this month may depend on soil
moisrure last month aud the te,nperature.
precipitation. and suosrune d\lration in the
intervening period. All these factors may be
entered in spatial da1a layers. and the soil
moisrure predicte<I for a set of poin1s.
Models of discrete phenomena predic1
spatial or attribute characteristics for discon-
tinuous feanares. Boundaries for vege1a1ion
types are an example of features that are
often considered discrete. We use a line to
idemify 1hesepara1ion between "vo types.
for example. between a grassland and a for-
est. A spatial model ,nay consider the cur-
rent posi1ion of the fores, and grassland as
well as soil type. ·fire prevention, and cli-
matic da1a to predict the encroachlllem of
forest on grassland si1es. The boundaries
~elween new foresls and grasslands are
always discre1e. although their positions
sruft 1htough time.
Models can l>e process based or cali-
brated via model fit. Models are process
based if their workings in some way repre-
sent a theoretical or mechanistic understand-
ing of the processes underlying Ille observed
changes. lo contrast. models are purely fit
models when they are calibrated against data
wi1hou1 trying to capture underlying mecha-
nisms. We may predict lhe amot1ot of water
flowing in a s.tream by a delailed spatial rep-
rese01ation of the hydrologic cycle. Many
processes may be explicitly represented by
equations or subroutines in a spatial model.
For example. rainfaU location and imenshy
may be modeled through time for each raster
cell in a study are-..a. We can then follow the
rainwater as it infiltrates into the soils and
joins 1he meam system through overland
flow. subsurface flow. and routing through
stream channels. Calculations for these pro-
cesses may be based on slope. topography.
and channel characteristics. These processes
are tied 1ogetbe.r in space. Calcula1ions are
performed al each point on the landscape;
these caJculations increase or decrease water
flow or other conditions at adjacent.
downslope Joc.ations.
Rainfall might be modele<I diffrn:mly
using a purely fi1. s1a1is1kal approach. A
purely fil model might simply OJeasure pre·
cipitation iu 1he previous hour a11d average
the precipitation for the previous week and
previous montl1. and predict stream flow at a
poim. Processes such as evaporation or sub-
surface Oow are not explicitly represeoted.
and the outpul may be a statistic:aJ function
of the inpms. The model moy be more accu-
rate than a process-based approach. in that
the predicted ou10ow at any point in the
siream may be closer to measured values
than those derived from a process-based
model. Conversely. the output may be
poorer. in that 1he measurements may be far-
ther from predictions. especially undernovel
conditions. Process modelers argue that by
incolJ)Oratiug 1he structure and function of
the system imo a process model we may bet-
ler predict under new condi1ions, for exam-
ple. for exireme drought or rainfaU events
never experienced before. They also argue
that process models aid in our u1Jderstanding
a system and in generating new hypotheses
about system function.
Besides being continuous or discrete
and process or fit. ,nodels may be stochastic
or de1em1io.istic. A detem1inistic: model pro-
vides the same oulputs every time it is given
exactly 1he same inputs. If we enter Ille same
set of variables into a model. it wiU always
produce exactly the same resulls. A slochas-
tic model will not. Stochastic models often
have random ge11era1ion or some other vari-
ability generation procedures that change
model results from nm to nut ewn when
using exactly the same inputs.
A disease spread process is a good
example of a phenomenon 1hat might be
modeled with a stochastic process. Disease
may occur at a set oflocations. and may be
spread through the atmosphere. ·spread
through water, or carried by anim,1ls or
humans to initia1e new disease cen1ers. A
doc1or ntlgh1 model disease infection and
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 587

growth stochastically. A random number location of a wildfire based on current fire

might be generated. and the new cemer
started at a Jo,cation based on this number.
The doctor m.ighl use another totally or par-
tiaUy random process to control how the new
infection center grows or disappears in the
spatial model. Thus, the map of disease loca-
tions after different model runs may differ.
even though uhe runs were initiated with
idenlical inpm conditions.
With most spatial models. the target
loca1ion of tb.e model outpm is usual.ly. bm
not aJways, tbe loca1ion of the input's. for
example. a demographics model may use a
combio.1tion <>f current population in a cen-
sus tract. holtSing availability and cost. job
opportUnities and location. general migra-
tion statistics. and age and maritaJ s1atus of
those currently in the census tract to predict
foture popula.tioo for the census tract. This
model has a target location. the census tract.
that is the same as the location for most of
the input data.
In contrast, the target loc.ation of the
model output~ may be different lllan Ille
location of the inputs. Consider a fire behav-
ior model. This model might predict the
location. wind speed. topography (fires bum
faster upslope than dowu). and vegetation
type and condition. Fire models often incor-
porate mechanisms 10 predict fire spread
beyond the currelll bum fro111 o( a fire.
Embers often are lifted above a fire by the
upwelling heated air. These embers may be
blown well in advance of a fire front. start·
ingspot fi,res at some distance away from the
main fire. In this case, tlte target location for
a calculation in the spatial nnodel is nOI the
same as the input locations.
Cell-Based Models
Spalial-temporal models often are
implememed as cell-based models. A cell-
based model invokes a set of functions and
logjc. driven by cell values. to update tbe-se
or other cell ,•alues through time. Input val-
ues at a staning time. 1., may be derived
from multiple layers. These input values are
entered into ftwetions that calculate the new
values for the target layer or layers at the
next time s1ep. r1. The process is 1.ben
repealed, and the values in 1l1e target layer(s)
evolve through time (Figure 13-20).

Spatially applied. temporal func tion ~~----...----._

L4t1 = rt_<LI. L2, L3. L4)

I t I I I
,_
--
,_ -
/

LI
---
-
I

6.3
I.I

L2-
L3-
L4 L4
time zero. t 0 time one. t 1
Fit:1u-t 13..20: T'mlc \'lll)-inJ «11-bascd models use one 10 multiple iuptll cell ntlucs from II s1aniu; time. t0.
and update cc~I ,11luc.t {or some la~r(s) at 1:inlc t 1• T11c proceu is rq>ctuc:d (01 tl specified lcugtli oftime <w-
uu1il some specific outpu• condition is rca~hed.
588 GIS Fundamentals
The previous example of erosion due to
smface runoff shows how cell-based model-
ing can be extended beyond 1be sta1ic analy-
sis of 1he USLE. Ahhough there are many
erosive forces, water is 1be primary cause of
erosion over most of the globe. The amo1u1t
of soil erosion depends on many factors,
including 1be rainfall ra1e. bow fas1 1he rain-
water is absorbed by Ille soil (pem1eabiliry).
lhe rype of soil, 1he slope al lhe sile. and how
much water is flowing from uphilJ cells.
Some oflbese propenies do 001 usually
change over a rainstom1. for example. slope
or soil type., while other features do, such as
rainfall ra1e and d.ownflo\\;ng waier. All of
these factors may· be provided as cell-based
layers, some that change with time. and
some 1hat are static. These layers are tllen
included in an equation 10 cakulaie erosion
al each cell localion for a grid. Rainfall and
flow ra1es may be updated at each step. and
the resuham erosion calcuLited and placed in
an output layer, as shown in Figure 13--20.
Example 1: Process-Based
Hydrologlc Models
Water Oows downhill This simple
knowledge was perhaps sufficient until
hurnans began 10 build houses and roads,
and populations grew to dominate most of
1be Earth's land stirface. Land scarciry has
led humans 10 build in low-lying areas. and
fanni ng, wetland drainage. and upstream
development have all con1ribu1ed 10 more
frequen1 and se,>t>re flooding.
Wa1er models are needed because
demand for wa1er resources exceed the nani-
ral supply u, many pans of lhe world. Popu-
lation pressures h.ave drh1en fanns. citie-s.
and other human <1evelopmen1s u110 flood.
prone areas: these same developments have
increased 1be speed and amounl of rainfall
runoff. thereby increasu1g flood frequency
and severity. These fac1ors are spurring the
developmen1 of spatio-temporal bydrologic
models. The models are often used 10 es1i-
mate stream wate.r levels. such that we may
better manage wa.ter resources. and avoid
loss of property or life due 10 flooding.
Many spalio-temporal hydrologic mod-
els predic1 the temporal flucmations in soil
moisnire. lake or stream water levels. and
disc,harge in hydrologic nelworks. The net-
work typically consists of a set of connected
rivers and streams. including impoundments
such as lakes. ponds. and reservoirs (Figure
13-21 ). This network 1ypically has a branch-
ing pauem. As you move upsu,.'3m from 1be
main discharge poinl for the network.
streams are smaller and carry less water.
Water level or discharge may be impor1am a1
fixed points in 1he hydrologic network. at
fixed poinis on land near the network, or at
all points in 1be landscape. The h)'drologic
network is often embedded in a watershed,
defined as the area that contributes dO\Vn·
slope flow to the network.
Spo1ially explicil hydrologic models are
almost universally dependent on digi1al ele-
vation data. DEMs define watershed bound-
aries. water flow paths. the speed of
downslope movement, and stream location
.,
;',
•• •
;.I.
Fl:ul'(' 13-11: An o:runple of a hydn:,;raphic
oetwork. Lakes aud1or n\'cn fomt an uttcroon-
o«ted network. W11.tcr mt1y be routoc<l front
upl11nd WC-M to t.od through 1hi, oc-twork.,
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 589
(Chapter 12). Slope. aspect, and other fac-
tors that affect hydrologic systems may be
derived from DEMs. For example. evapora-
tion ofsurface water and transpiration ofsoil
water depend on the ruuo,wt of solar rndia·
tion. Site solar radia,ion depends on the
slope and aspect at each point. and in moun.
1ainous terrain it may also depend on Sur·
rounding eleva1ions. due to_ shading. Site-
speciftc varia.bles repr~ntm_g slope and .
aspect are used when esumatmg evaporauon
or plam use of waier.
Slope and aspect rue often used to define
an imponam spatial data layer in hydrologic
modeling - now direction. This layer
defines the direction of water Oow at import·
am poi ms on lhe s,,rface. If a raster da1a
stmcn1re is used. flow direction is cakulated
for every celL If a vector data structure is
\ y
I'\ II
J
I
I\
\ /
I\ \ wo er.shed
I I b undory
\
1.---,~sler
cell
used. flow direclion is defin.ed between adja-
ce111 or connected vec1or elements.
Many hydrologic models represent
water Dow through raster grid cells (Figure
Il -22), Wa1er falls on each cell via pr~ipita·
lion. Precipitation eilher infiltra1es into the
soil or Oows aeross lhe surface. depending
on the surface pcnneability at the cell. For
example. tinle water infihrates for most
human-made surfaces, such as parking lots
or buildings. These sites have low pem1ea-
biliry. so most precipitation becomes surface
flow. Conversely. neruly all precipitation
infiltrates imo most fores, soils.
Downslope water flow is also calcu·
la1ed in the model, depending on a number
of factors at each cell. Slope and flow direc-
tion determine the rate at which water flows
downhill. Downslope Oow evennially
Cell woter iontent ond transport )
= f {time. pre:c,p. slope, covet. .
/
/
/ I
Stream discharge
• g (ter,o,r,, SOtl. prec P..)
590 GIS Fundamentals
reaches the hydro logic network and is routed
via the ne1wotk 10 the outlet Mathematical
functions describiJJg cell-specific precipita-
tion. flows. and discharge may be.combined
10 predict the Dow quan1i1y and water level
at points in die watershed and dirough 1be
nelwork.
Spa1io-1emporal hydrologic models
often requfre substantial data development
Elevation. surface and subsurface permea-
bility. vegetation. and stream neiwork loca-
tion must be developed prior to the
application of many hydrologic models.
DEM data may require substamial extra edit-
ing because terrai.o largely drives water
movement. For example. local sinks occur
much more frequemly in DEMs than in real
surfaces. occuring during data collection or
during processing. Sinks are particuJarly
troublesome wben 1bey occur at the bonom
of a larger accum11la1ion area. Modeled
water may flow into the sink bul may not
flow out depending on bow water accumu·
lation is modeled. while on the real eanh
st~face !he waler may flow fr«ly downhill.
Local spikes ill the model may push water
incorrectly 10 surrounding cells. allhough
they typically cause fewer problems tl1an
sinks. Both sinks and spikes must be
removed prior to application of S-Ome hydro-
logic models.
Example 2: LANDIS, a Stochastic
Model of Forest Change
Many human and natural phenomena
are analyzed through spatially explicit sto-
chastic models. Disease spread. the develop-
ment of past societies, animal mo,.:ement,
fire spread. and a host of other imponant
spatial phenomena have been modeled. All
these phenomena have a random element
that substantially affects their behavior.
Events too obscu<e or complex 10 predict
may canse large changes ut the system
action or function. For example, wind speed
or dryness on a given day dramatically
affects fire spread, ye1 these phenomena are
notoriously difficuh to predict. Spatially
explicit. s1ochas1ic models allow us to ana·
lyze lhe relative importance of component
inputs and processes. and the nwmre and
variability of system response. ls it stochas-
tic variation in wind. fuel amou1Jt, or fuel
type that is most responsible for the variable
namre of fire spread? We will discuss one
spatial stochastic model - LANDIS
(LANdscape D!Sturbance) - ibat utCOIJlO-
ratcs techniques used in a wide range of
models (Figure 13-23).
Forest vegetation changes through time.
Chruige may be caused by the oamral aging
and death of a group of trees. replacemenl by
other species. or due 10 periodic disturbances
such as ftre. windstomis. logging. insects. or
disease outbreaks. Because trees are long·
Jived organisms. the compositio11 and struc-
ture of foresrs often change on temporal
scales exceeding a oom1al human life spa.IL
Actions 1oday may subs1a01iaJ1y· aher the tra-
jectory of funire change. aod S-O we need to
analyze how past actions have led 10 current
forest conditions. and bow present actions
will aher future coodjtions.
F0res1 dis!UfbMlte and thM,ge are
imponant s~tial phenomena for many rea-
sons. Humans are intere.sted in producing
wood and fiber, preserving rare species, pro-
tectillg clean water suppLies and fish spawn-
ing areas, protecting lives and property from
wildfires. and enjoying forest-based recre-
a1ion.
forest change is inherently a spatial
phenomenon. Fires. diseases. and other dis-
mrbances travel across space. The distribu-
tion of a.men! forests largely affec-ts 1he
location and species compositio11 of future
forests. Seeds disperse through space. aided
by wind and water or carried by organisms.
Physical and biotic characteristics that
largely determine seed and seedling suf\i,•al.
and subsequent forest growth, vary in space.
Some plants are bener adap1ed t<> grow
under existing forests. while others are aided
by disturbances thal open the canopy. Some
species change soil or unders10,y conditions
in ways that prevent other species fonn
growing beneath them. Plant succession. the
replacement of one group of pla.nts or spe-
cies by another tlu'ougb 1in1e. is substantially

ESTASllSHMEN'T
SPROUTING mOOA.81LJT'Y
ABILITY (SITE) UNKAGES
+ ~
SPECIES
ESTABLISHMENT
t t
SEEO
DISPERSAi.
PROSABIUTY
HARVESTING
FIRE
PR08ASllllY
+ +
FIRE
+--
MORTALITY ACCUMULATION
i t
SPECIES ANO AGE Cl.ASS
SUSCEPTIBllJTY (BOTTOM UP)
Fi&urf' 13-U : The uu.jor procc.$k it rcprucu1cd in L.\NDIS, ll sp:uio-1ci:nport1l forest ~utceuion model
(cou11csy O. Mladenofl).
affected by the current forest dislribution
and sllUcrure. 11 is 001 surprising 1ha1 many
process-based models of forest change
incorporate spatial data.
While forests often look like a cohesive
whole. they a.re extremely heterogeneous in
space. and th.is complicates our understand·
ing and predictions of forest change. Tree
species, size. age. soils. water availability.
and other factors change subsiantially over
very short dis.taoces. Each forest s1and is dif.
ferenl. and we stmggle to represent these
differences. Given the long time scales.
broad spatial scales. aod inherent spatial
variability of forests, many organizations
have developed spatial Ulodels integrated 10
some extent with GIS.
LANDIS. is an example or a spatially
explicit. process·based forest dynamics
model. LANOIS has been developed by Or.
David Mlade11otr and colleagues. and bas
Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 591
SHADE Tot.ERANCE
~
COMPETITIVE
SUCCESSION -
LONGEVITY
Vl1NOTHROW
!lrr.T'<PE PROBASll.lTY
+ •
FUEL . WINDTHROW
MORTALITY
S'TANt>AGE
t
SP£QES Sile Cl.ASS
SUSCEPTIBll.lTY (TOP DOWN)
been applied 10 forest biomes across the
globe. LANOIS incorporates namral and
hwnan disturbances with models of seed dis-
persal, plant es1ablislunen1 . .and succession
through 1ime 10 predict forest composition
over broad spatial scales and for its long
temporal scales. LANDIS is notable for the
broad areas ii may treat at relatively high
resolulion.. and long lemporal scales.
LAi'J'OIS has been used 10 model forest
dynamics at a 30 m resolution. over tens of
thousands of hectares. and across five centu-
ries.
LANDIS integrates information about
forest disturbance and succession 10 predict
changes in forest colllposi1ion (Figure 13·
23). As noted above. succession is the
replacement of species through time. Sue·
cession is colllnton u, forests. for e.<ample.
when fast·growing. light·demanding tree
species colonize a disturbed! site, and are in
tum replaced by more shade-1oleram. slower
592 GIS Fundamentals
growing species. These shade-tolerant spe-
cies may be self-replacing in 1ha1 dieir seeds
germinate and seedlings survive and grow in
lhe dense shade. Small gaps from canopy
damage or uee de<11bs allow small pa,ches of
light to reach d,ese shade-tolerant seedlings.
enabling them to :reach the upper canopy.
This self replacemen, can res uh in a siable,
same-species stand over long time periods.
This cycle may be broken due to fire, wi:nd-
throw, logging. or other disturbance evtnrs
that open 11p a stand to a broader range of
species. LANDIS simulates large. he1eroge-
neous landscapes. incorporates the interac·
lions ofdominant ,ree species. and includes
spatially explicit representalions of ecologi-
cal interactions.
LANDIS Design Elements
The design of LANDIS is driven by the
overall objectives for tile model. simulating
forest disturbance and succession through
lime. LANDIS also satisfies a number of
other requiremenus. LANDIS readily inte-
grates s.1tellite data sets and other appropri-
ate spatial data. and it simulates the basic
processes of disroroance. s1and develop-
ment. seed dispersal. and succession in a
spatially explicil manner.
LANDIS is an object-orienled model.
Specific fean1res or processes are encapsu·
la1ed in objects, and object-iniemal pro-
cesses are isolated as much as possible from
other portions of the model. As an example,
1here is a SPECIE objec, 1ha1 encapsulates
most of 1he imJ)0'1aot infonnation and pro-
cesses for each tree species included in the
model. E.1eh ins1ance of a SPECIE bas a
name. for e.xample. "Aspen." and 01her cbar-
ac.teristics such as longevity. shade toter.
ance, or age 10 moturity, as well as melhods
for birth. death. aald other ac1ions or charac-
teristics. Because these characteristics and
processes are encapsula1ed in a SPECIE
object. 1hey may be easily changed as new
knowledge become m•ailable. Many models
are incorporating 'Ibis object-oriented design,
because ii simplifies mainienaoce and modi·
fications.
LANDIS uses a raster data model 1ha1
eases 1he entry of classified sa1ellite imag-
ery. eleva1ion. and other data sets reflecting
short.range.environmental and forest species
variation. l111erac1ions such as S<!<!d dispersal.
competitions. and fire spread are explicitly
modeled for each species occupying each
grid cell.
LANDIS tracks the presence of age
classes (termed cohorts) for a nu.mber of spe-
cies in each cell and through 1ime. The
model begins with an initial condition: the
distribution of species by age class across
the Ja,ldscape. Ten-year age classes arc cur-
remly represen1ed. n ,e longevity. age of ini-
1.ial seed production. seed dispersal distance.
shade 1olerance. tire tolerance. and abiUty 10
sprout from damaged stumps or roots is
recorded for each spec.ies. On undisturbed
sites. cohorts age umil they reach 11teir lon-
gevity. at which poim diese older cohorts
"die·• and disappear from the cell. Younger
cohorts may 1hen appear. depending on the
avai~1bility of seed.
The sparially e.xplitir represeurarion of
seed sources and dispersal is an improve-
ment of LANDIS over many earlier forest
succession models. Previous models 1ypi·
cally assumed constant or random seed
avaifability. LANDIS is representative of
spatially explicit models in that ·tl,e specific
locations of a process affect 1bat process.
Disnut>ed siies may be occupied by seed-
lings from a disiurbed cell or nearby cells. or
by sprou1ing from 1rees in a cell prior 10 dis-
nirbance. Cells cycle through 1be species
establis.hment, succession. disturbance, and
mortality processes (Figure 13-24).
Theeffeclsof such site characteristics as
soil and topography on species es,ablish-
mem and interactions are also represented in
LANDIS. For example. establishment coef.
ficients are used 10 represtnt the interaction
between site characteristics and species
establishment. These coefficients vary by
land type. Fire severi1y also varies by land
type. as may seedling survival. Eleva1ion.
aspect, soils. and 01her spatial da1a are used
as inpul to 1he spatial model.

model inpul
DEM
output tp«I~
cbssiJicar.on
••
• •
FLre and wmd d1srurt>ances are sunu-
lated based on historical records of distur-
bance sizes. freque ncies, and severities.
Dis11~bances va,y in 1hese properiies across
the landscape. For example. wind distur·
bances may be more frequeni and severe ou
exposed ridges. and fires less frequent. less
intense. and sm.aller in wetlands. Distur.
bances are s1ocbaS1.ically generated. but a,eir
variability depends on landscape variables.
For example, fires are generated more fre-
quently on dry upland sites.
LANDIS has beeu applied 10 a omuber
of forest science and management problems.
including the effects of climate change on
forest composition mid producrio11 1he
impacts of c.hanging hanresting regimes on
landscape )Xlctems. and regional forest
assessments ( Figure 13-25).
Rundreds of olher spatially explicit.
temporally d)'llamic models have been
Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 593
model simuln1ion
plt)Ml,d1ty, Jitt. iglllbOII,
$prud, ~,-fflt)
prol:!,;lbiluy. sat!. 1g,:ulion.
sptt.Mt, k\ ctdy
fm: n1llffl 1n1.tn-.ib: i.p«1t,,
c,.uli,li~n.:ftl ('()<ffitienb:
fuel a«um11lill0Cl
c~II oij«t • ,itt sp«1ell irl(o,
Ji\t:ulb&noc h••>·, ~uOC"t$Sioa.
-tinr aQC! dr:-1 urb.ina: tlltcrxtioa
""'I"'
.i;-
1/ / L7'-""----1/ /
....
developed. and many more are currently
under development. As spatial dala collec.
tion teclrnologies improve and GIS systems
become more powerful. spa·tio-temporal
models are becoming standard tools in geo-
graphic science, planning, and it, resource
management.
Summary
Spatial analysis often involves the
development and use of spatial models.
These models can help us understand bow
phenomena or systems change dtrough space
and time. and they may be used to solve
problems. lo tl1is chapter we described carto-
graphic models. simple sparial models. and
spatio-temporal models.
Cariograpltic models often combine sev-
eral data layers that represeot criteria and
constraints related 10 estabnsrung the suit-
594 GIS Fundamentals
v... o
i" ....
It
1.
,. .: ',
!
j
j
Voar 360
" ~
fia:urr 13-25: Cb.ang" in the spatial clisuibu1ion of while pine. a forest tree s-pc<"ies, through timc u pre-
dicted by LANDIS. This ~plue e:1:ccnplifics the prcdietioo of a (e11nare ofinterest both spatia.lJy aud tem-
porally, and is rq>rekll.laith•c of !UIIU)' tulll1ytical tools fo uie or midcr de\•elopntei:u.
ability oflocations for a given use. Da1a lay-
ers are combined through the application of
a sequence of spatial operations, including
overlay. reclassification. and buffering. The
cartographic model may be specified with a
flowchart. a diagra,n representing the data
layers and sequence of spatial operations.
Canographic models are static in time rela-
tive to the other model types.
Simple spatial models typically apply a
set of equations 10 variables expressed as
simple scalars and spatial layers. These
models are often expressed as a set equa-
tions. These equa1ions estimated from data
at a set of obseivations at single points or
across sub areas, and then usually applied
across brooder geographic (or different)
areas.
Spatio-temporal models explicitly repre-
sent the changes ln imponam phenomena
~¥,}.~w,1.0IJ , •• i'J.YG!'4'J/J "i'?:VNt'JIJO Pro,.~r15C),.._
• !" , .. ~.. ' ..
-
--
Y!Ntepin&
Oltlcr forests
--25
A 50KM
through lime within the model. The.se mod-
els are typically more detailed. and less flex-
ible than canographic models. io part
because spatio-temporal models often
include some representation of process. For
example. many spatio-temporal models have
been developed to model the. flow of water
through a region, and these models incorpo·
rate equations regarding the physics of water
traospon movement.
AS more people use GIS. they gain
ac.ce-ss to spatial models run with some com-
bination of GIS, programing languages, and
other arialytical tools. Many spa·tial models
ot~y use spatial data developed by GIS or
use GIS for \rjsualization, bu! a gro\\rjng
number are either integrated wi(h GJS or
being done emirely in GIS as the techuology
improves.
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 595

Suggested Reading

Anselin. L., Syabri, I., Kho, Y. (2006). GeoOA: an introduction 10 spatial dala analy-
sis. GeograpMcal A11alysis. 38:S-22.
Brady, M., Irwin. E.(20 11 ). Accounling for spacial effects in economic models ofland
use: rece01 developments and dlalleages ahead. Em•i1"011meutol and Resource
Eco110111ics. 48:487-509.
Brown. 0 .. Riolog. R.. Robinson. O.G.. North, M .. Rand. w. (2005). Spacial processes
and da1a models: Towards in1egn11ion of agen1-based models and GIS. Journal of
Geogn1phica/ Systems. 7:25-47.
Burrough. P.A.. McDom,ell. R.A. {1998). P,·i11ciples ofGeographical J,ifon11atio11
S),iems. Oxford: Oxford Universicy Press.
Carlson. S . (2000). The ama1eur scien1is1: Boids of a fea1her Hock 1ogether. Scie111ijlc
A111erica11, 283: 112- 114.

Clarke. K.C., Hoppen. $ .. Gaydos, L. ( 1997). A self-modifying cellular automalon

mode:l of bisrorical urbanization in 1he San Francisco Bay area. Em,iro11me11t and
Plauufug. 24:247- 261 .

Cliff. A.O.. Ord. J.K. (1981). Spatial Processes: ,\fodels a11d Applicario11s. London:
Pion.
Cooke, \V.H .K., Kalarzyna. G.. Wallis, R.C. {2006).Avian GIS models signal human
risk for \Vest Nile vims in Mississippi. Jmer1101io11ol Journal ofHealth Geogm·
pi,y, 5:36. doi: IO.l 186/1476-072X- 5-36.
Dixon. B•• Uddameri. V. (2016). GIS a11d Geoco111p111atio11 for Water Resource Sci-
ence '11td E11giuee1i1tg. Hoboken: \Viley.

Fo1heringham. S.. Wegener, M. (2000). Spatial Models n11d GIS: Ne..- Pou,minl n11d
New Models. London: Taylor and Francis.

Goodchild. M.F., Steyaert, L.T., Parks, B.0 . (1996). GJS nnd Em'iron111e111a/ Model-
ing: Progress a11d Resem·c/1 Issues. Fort Collins: GIS World Books.
Griffith. 0.A.. uyoe, L.J. (1999). A Casebook for Spntinl Statistical Data Analysis.
oxford: oxford Universicy Press.
He. H.S.. Mladenoff. DJ.. Boeder. J. (1999). An object-oriented forest landscape
model and its representation of tree species. £cologicnl Modeling. JI 9: 1- 19.

Hom. M.E.T. (2004). Modelling and assessmem of demand-responsive passenger

1mnspor1 services. Stillwell. J. and Clarke, G. {Ed.), Applied GIS and Spatial
Analysis. Wiley: New York.
596 GIS Fundamentals

Huevelink, G.B.M.. Burrouglt P.A. (1993). Error propaga1io11 in canogmpbic model-

ling using Boolean logic and continuous class1ficarion. /11temn1ioun/ Joumnl of
Geograpltical lnformatfou Systems. 7:231-246.

Je11en. V.. Govers, G., Hessel, R. (2003). Erosion models: qualily of spatial predic-
rions. Hytf,vlogic !'r'OCesses. 17:887-900.
Johnston. C. (1 998). GIS in Ecology. Bos1on: Blackwell Scien1ific.
Kaufmann, A. {1975). burod11c1io1110 the Theory1 ofFu::v Subsets. New York: Aca·
demic Press. ·
Klir, G.J .. Folger. T.A. (1988). F,c:y Sets. Uncertainty, and /11fonnatio11. Eitglewood
Cliffs: Pre.mice Hall.
Krzanowski. R.. Raper. J. (2001). Sparial £vo/111ionary Modelling. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Malczewski. J.C. ( 1999). GIS and M11/1ic,·irerin Decisio11 A11nlysls. New York: Wiley.
McCool. D.J<.. Brown, L.C.. Fosier. G.R.. Mu1cbler. C.K.. Meyer. L.D. (1987).
Revised slope steepness factor for the Universal Soil Loss Equation. Tnmsactious
oftire American Society ofAgric1tl111ral Engineers. 30: 1387-1396.
McCool, D.K.. Fos1er. G.R.. Mu1cbler. C.K.. Meyer. L.D. (1989). Revised snope
length equation for the Universal Soil Loss Equation. Trausocaous <>/the Ameri-
ca11 Sociery ofAg1·icu/111ral £11gi11eers, 32: 1571- 1576.
Mlade11off, D.J .. He. H.S. (1999). Design, bebaviorand application of LANOIS. an
objec1-orien1ed model of fores1 landscape disrurbance and succession. In Mlade-
noff. D.J.. Baker. W.L. (Eds.). Admuces 111 Spnria/ Modeling ofForest Lo11dscnpe
Cltauge: Approaches a11d Applirorions. Cambridge: Cambridge Uuiversi1y Press.
Monmonnier. M. ( 1993). How To Lie lf'rrlt Maps. Chicago: Universily of Chicago
Press.
Moore. LD., Gessler. P.E.. Nielsen. G.A .. Pe1ersou, GA. (1993). Soil anribuie predic-
1.ion using retrain analysis. Soil Scie11ce. 57:443-452.
O'Su!Livau. D•. Perry. G.L. (2013). Sparial Si11111/atio11: Exploring Pa11em and Pro-
cess. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
Paren1. 0 .. LeSage, J.P. (201 0). Aspa1ial dynamic panel model \\Olb random etfec1s
appJied to commtlling times. Trauspor1a1fo11 Research Pan B: J\1ethodologica/,
44:633-6<115.
Piuske, J .. Slade. M.E. (2010). The furure of spa1ial econome1rics. Joumal of
Regfo1111/ Scieuce. 50: I03- 117.

Reynolds. C.\V. ( 1987). Flocks. herds. and schools: A distribuled behavioral model.
Compwer Graphics. 2 1:2S-34.
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 597

Rossicer. !D.G. (1996). A cheoretical fnunework for land evaluation. Geode1111n.

72: 165- 190.

Running, S.W.. Nemani. R.R.• Heinsch. F.A.. Zhao. M., Reeves. M.. Hashimoto. H.
(2004). A continuous sa1elli1~derived measure of globaJ terrestrial ,primary pro~
duction. Bioscience. 54:547-560.
Stillwell, JA.. Clarke. G. (2004). Applied GJS m,d Spatial Annl)'sis. New Yorlc
Wiley.
Tom)in. C.D. (1983). Digitnl Cnrtog,.npl,;c tlfodeli11g Tec/m;ques in Eml'iro11meutaf
P/auuiug. New Haven: Yale University.

Turner. M.G .. Gardener. R.H. (Eds.) ( 1991). Qun111i1n1fre Methods in La11dscnpe Ecol-
ogy. New York: Springer Verlag.
Wagner. D.F. ( 1997). Cellular Automata and Geographic lnfomiation Systems. £111'i-
1v11mem aud Plam,iug. 24:219-234.

Wilson. J.. Gallant, J. (Eds.) (2000). Ten·ain A11alysis: Principles and Applicnrions.
New York: Wiley.
Wilson. J.P.. Lorang. M.S. (2000). Spacial models of soil erosion and GIS. in Spatial
Models a11d GIS, Fotheringham, A.S., Wegener. M. (Eds.). London: Taylor &
Francis.
Wolfram. S. (2002). A New Kind o/Science. Champaign. IL: Wolfram media.
598 GIS Fundamentals

Study Questfons

13. 1 - Provide an exalllple of a cartographic model, including the criteria and a now-
chan oftbe steps used to apply tl1e model.

13.2 . Why must the criteria be refined in many canograpltic modeling proc.esses?

13.3 . What do we mean when we say tliat most canograpbic models are temporally
static?

13.4 - \Vhat is a discrete vs. continuous weighting in an input layer when combining
layers in a cartographic overlay? How do you develop a reasonable continuous rank-
ing f\mction. that is. justify the shape of the cu,ve vs. the level of lhe input variable?

13.S . Match the output layers B, C, and D. lo tl1e appropriate reclassification graphs
Q • W when applied 10 lhe original DEM. A. Note that a billshade surface is superim-
posed to aid in visualizarfon.

Q)i,or T) :o
t j
~05•

8 I•e ,
j·'j
" I
B .if ,f
"' k.p.i• Lq'ff" lf'lo.Jf Loyer

R) 10' U) :o
• •
! i
c ~··
3
~

1··
~
0
~ ,f
l f'()U' LO)'tt
I 4
ltll)IJJ levtr
I

S) 10 W) :o
I;
t
~
t
~

~0)

8 }"'
# #
trw· Lq,'1'"
f # 4
lnout L.oytr
I
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 599

13.6 - Match the output layers 8 , C, and D, to the appropriate reclassification graphs
Q - IV wben applied to the original DEM. A. Note that a billsbade surfa~e is superim-
posed to aid in visualization.

0) 10 T) 10'

'
! !
~OS

<> 8
ii•> f
0
'
# $
'
lfl!),lt Loy~
f # #
1 ~1 1.Cyl!t'
f

R) 10 U) 10

!ios !io,
a 0

•,e j
0

I
I~
I tr,ye:r #
l'l)IJ I Loygr
.f

S) 10 W) 10
' '
!aos !
ii••
a s
~ .f I •# $ i
tnp,u t t.Qy~r ' l.Clytl'" '
l ~l

0
600 GIS Fundamentals

13. 7 - The figure below depicts four flowcharts of canogrnphic models to find areas
most suitable for a new park. Sites are preferred that meet all of the followillg crite-
ria:
\Vithin 0.5 miles of Census polygons with a density of more tJ1an 120 persons per
square mile:
Greater 1.han 0~5 miles from an existing park:
Current land 1tse of grass or vac-ant.

Select the flow1:han wlticb best approximates the proper analysis. given the described
data. For each other flowchan. list at least one primary way it is inferior to the chosen
method. Note that some minor intennediate steps are omined/subswned into opera.
tions for all flowd1ans. so do 1101 cite a step omiued in both tlie best and alternate
flowcharts.

A vtc,or JXl(YQM doto laytr

with <w1 omi!::utt tor
'®"'
popt*lTIOf'I
A w:ctor po,YQOtl do'o laytr
With gn C ~f C$ fgr
currtnt lend \I.JC IY')C
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 601

13.8 - The figure below depicts four flowcbans of canographic models 10 find areas
,nos1 suitable for new parks. Sites are preferred that meet all of the following criteria:
\\1thin O.S miles of Census polygons with a density of more than 120 persons per
square mile:
Greater than 0.5 miles from au exisiing park:
Within O.S miles of a school.

Select the Oowcban tliat bes1 approxima1es the proper analysis, gi"en the described
data. For each other Oowchan. lisr at least one primary way it is inferior to the chosen
method. Note that some intermediate steps are omitted for all flowcharts.. so do not
die a step omined in both the best and altemate flowcharts.

C)

0)
602 GIS Fundamentals

13.9 - The figure below depicts four flowcharts of canogrnphic models to find areas
most suitable for wild sheep habitat. Sites are preferred that meet all of the following
criteria:
Non-foresl: Slope greater than 200/o: Ele\lalion above 2,500 m: All areas witliin 5 km
of grassland or meadow: Each con1iguous polygon larger lhan IOOO acres.
Select the flowchart that be.sl approximate.s the proper analysis, given the described
data. For each otl,er flowchart. list a, least one primary way it is inferior 10 the chosen
method. Note 1ha1 some intennedia1e steps are omitted for all nowcbans. so do not
cite a step omitted in both the best and alternate flowcharts.
 Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling 603

13.10 - The figure below depicts four flowcharts of canographic models to find areas
most suitable for a desalinization plant. Sites are preferred for which au parts meet all
of the following criteria:
Ar an elevation of 5 m or grealer:
\\'ithin 0.25 km of the coas11i11e:
All areas within O.S km of 1muk water pipe:
Witl1in a single parcel:
Areas larger than IOO ha.
Select the flowcha.n that best approximates the proper analysis. given the described
data. For each other flowchan. list at least one priniary way ii is more likely 10 lead 10
au error. Note 1ha1 some small intermediate steps are omined for all flo1Vcbans. so do
not cil'e a step omitted in both the best and alteroale flowcharts.

A)

8)

0)
E3
604 GIS Fundamentals

14 Data Standards and Data
Quality
Introduction
A sta11dmd is an establishe<I or sanc-
tioned measure, form. or method. It is an
agre,,d-upon way of doing something. Spa-
tial data and analysis standards are import-
am because of the range of organizations
producing and using spatial data, and
because these data are often U'3osfcrred
among organizations. Data sraodards facili-
tate a common understanding of the compo-
nents of a spa1ial data set how data were
develope<I. a,nd 1l1e utility and limitations of
these cL1ta.
GIS practitioners use several types of
standards. Dmn sumdm-ds are used 10 for-
mat. assess, docwneo1, and deliver spatial
dara. lnteroperobility stoudordJ· identify
how spatial data are served between hetero-
geneous networksof software and hardware
systems. for example. betWl'tn wireless
mobile devices and shared databases. Analy-
sis standards ensure tliat 1he mos1 appropri-
ate methods are used and 1ha11he spatial
analyses provide the best infonu,ition possi-
ble. Professional or cerlificariou sroudmds
establish the educatioo. knowledge. or expe-
rience of the GIS analyst, thereby improving
the likelihood tl1a1 the technology will be
used appropriately.
The Federal Geographic Data Commit-
tee (FGDC) is !he leading government orga-
nization in 1l>e United States in defining data
standards. The FGDC focuses on the
National Spa-iial Data lnfrastrucnire (NSDO
605
in the United States. a set of resources 10 aid
1he crea1ion and sharing of digita.l geo-
graphic data. Standards are develope<i
through a set of processes. from proposals
through drafts 10 a FGDC adopte<I standard.
Standards may be modified through an
update process. Curremly. there are stan-
dards on methods (e.g.. wetlands classifica-
tion), content (U1ili1ies Pata Contenl
Standard), iueiadata (data about data). and
data transfer. The most recent NSDI plan at
Ibis writing covers the 2021- 2024 period.
Details are a, www.fgdc.gov.
There are parallel initia1ives in many
countries. infomtation on which can be
found through the International Spatial Data
Standards Commissiort The Commission
currently serves as a clearinghouse and gate-
way 10 national standards across the world.
The lntemational Standards Organiza-
tion (ISO) organizes international standards.
and sponsors the ISOfTC2 ll standards
(hnp:l/w"w.isotc211.org). These specify
ways 10 st0re ru.td represent spatial and
related infom1arion. services and data man·
agement. processing. transferring. and pre·
senting information. The standards are
oiganized as various project's. for example.
standards for represenling coordinates, test·
ing standards. or for measuring data quality.
Many standards are in acti\lC development.
and inasmuch as these standards become
stable. it will ease da1a and infonuation
606 GIS Fundamentals
transfer among di.ffere nt GIS software.
organizations. and lhrougb tune.
The Open Geospatial Consortium
(OGC) is an ad hoc. self-selected group of
over 500 companies. research insti111tioos.
government bodies, and individuals dedi-
cated to developi,ig interoperabili1y stan·
dards. Interoperation problems are
identified. sue.It as general difficulties in
accessing lime-varying spatial location dam
through a distributed wireless network. and
standards for access proposed. These are
reviewed, discussed, amended. and adopted.
Web mapping setvices (WMS) stan-
dards are an example ofOGC initiatives.
Web mapping services aUow GIS software
to access data acr,oss the imemet as if they
were stored 011 lhe local hard disk. A GIS
program or utility "maps .. the WMS to the
local computer, meanin.g it may access the
data with the same protocols as if ii were
stored locally. wi1hout downloading a per-
manent copy to store on the local hard disk.
Web setvices such as WMS are in1port·
ant for 1he fon1re ,of cloud-based computing.
where cL11a, programs. and processing are
seamlessly distributed on computers con·
nected across the web. Cloud-based geospa·
tial compuiing is inherently dependent on
robust, well.defined interoperability s.tan·
dards such as those being developed by the
OGC. Standards identify data fomiats and
content parts and naming, metadata, how
connections are made and data are passed
between program$ across distributed net-
works. and error checking in transfer. Stan-
dards allow data robe combined across
different organizations. with local storage
and access fonn and protocols. and a stan.
dard way of setvi.ng up data to others
through a service.
The /11door GML is an example of a
newer OGC standard. under development 10
define daia forma.1s for interior building spa·
tial data. Three-dimensional data for build·
ing interiors are useful to real estate. law
enforcemenl. design. and constmction appli-
cations, among others. Various software ven·
dors and research organizations have
developed 30 fom1ats, bul data ·sharing is
inhibited without standards. The OGC bas
developed such a data standard. with the par-
ticipation of software, research, business.
and government representatives.
It has proven more difficult to develop
professional and analysis standards that are
inclusive across all disciplines. Standard
methods for one discipline may be inappro-
priate for another. For example. acceptable
data collection methods for cadamal survey-
ors may be different than those for foresters.
due to differences in accuracy and attribute
requirements.
The GIS Certification Institute (GISCO
has developed a GIS Professional (GISP)
cenificateihat is gaining popularity. It seeks
to certify qualifying levels for education.
professional experience. knowledge. and
ethics. and help guide i11divid101! profes-
sional development and continuing educa-
tion. It offers exani-based qualification.
There are parallel efforts to develop a
set of standards in U.S. GIS professional
practice. Known as competency 111ode/.s. they
define a set of skills considered essential for
effec1ive work in a field. and have been
developed for a growing onmber of indus-
tries. All have a common fou ndation of basic
personal and workplace competencies., with
industry· and then occtipancy-specific ski Us
built on top.
The Geospatlal Technology Com-
petency Model
The Geospatial Technology Compe-
tency Model (Figure 14-1) identifies a set of
core and industry sector geosparial abilities.
The Competency Model identifies examples
of over 40 "Critical Work Func6ons•· tl1at
geographic teclmology professionals are
commooJy expected to master and use in
their careers, and tl1e backgrow1d knowledge
on whicb these Critical Work Functions are
based. This competency model ,s based in
pan on 1he Geographic lnfornmtion Science
and Technology Body of Knowledge. first
created by the University Consonitun for
 Chapter 14: Data Standards and Data Quality 607

Geographic tnfomiation Science (UCGIS)
and published by the Association ofAmeri-
can Geograpbers in 2006. Critical work
f1u1ctions include operations in basic geod-
esy. data cotll!<:tion systems. data structures.
GIS operarion and programing. anali1ical
methods. cartography. the place of geo-
grnphic infoanation science and technology
in socicly, and organization and instinuions.
A set of higher-level requirements are noted
for specific occupa1ions.
Spatial Data Standards
Spa,;af dara staudmrls can be defined
as metltods for sttttcruring. describing. and
delivering spatially referenced data Spatial
data standards may be categorized i1110 four
areas: media standards. forma1 standards.
accuracy standards, and doc.umentation stan-
dards. All are important. although the lasi
two are substantially more complex than tJ1e
first !WO,
Media S1a11dmds refer to the physical
fomi in which data are iransferred. They
define specific fomiats for CD·ROM. mag·
netic lape, optical or solid state storage, or
some proprietary drive or otber media type.
Standardized fom1ats arc specified by the
lntemational Standards Organization OSO).
Fonnat sta11dmrfs speci.fy daia file com-
ponents and structures. A fom1at standard
establishes lite number of files used to store
a spotial da1a set. as well as 'the basic compo-
nents contained in each file. The order, size.
and range of values for the data element con·
1ained in each file are defined. Jnfonnation
such as spacing. variable type. and file
encoding may be included.
Format standards aid in the practical
task of transferring data between computer
systems. either within or between organ.iza-

Manogemenl o«upo11on-Sp,e:c1t1c
Requirements
lnckis-fry·Se:ctor T«hnlcol Competenciu
PoSfliOrW'lg On.d Anolys1s Softwore and
Ooto Ac.qu..s1tion and Applicotio,i
MOCl-tlil"lej Ot\'Clopmeru
lnduslry·\Vide Te:ehr.col Compettl'l(.itS
Croucutllf'l9 CtospOtiC' A~ hU one! K.~<19c
Ceod~sy ClS Atlelytlcol Methods
0010 Oticltty Proorormw~ Ccrtogropt,y, V!S!Jalotion
GNSS/Mcmu!"fflltl'II P'f'of~ssionohrn GIS&t end Sc>eitfy
Re,not1;.S~ 0010 M()delr!g/TolX>&Ogy ~OflOn Ond lnihhltlOf'l!i
Cor1CJ9f"Whv ~(1)tvn1 ~/Oe3ign Others

Workptoce:
l(on,wo.'k CrtGfM: PIOf"U'I~ 5 Problem fool& g Chcc..1111"19. ~
Thril,ng OrQon Zll'l9 Solv,n; T«.IYIOIC>gy Recorthng /:'undarnet1IOOI
AGOdtmtc
Rt:odrlg. \Vrmn9
SGiettGel
Moth Cc01TOohv E,v.iint'.ennq
Comporer
a.,,..
Ptt'sot\01Effeetweness
JMliQ11','f:

figu~ 1..._1: TI1e Oeo5po.li~l Technology Competency Model adopted by tbe U.S. Ocpm"?ent of ~bor.
Please'": bnp:J/www.car«rou«1op,org/Compe1cncyM.odcVcom.pe1cncy-rnodclalgcospanal-t«bnol-
()j)'.aspx for II complete description of die model and compoucnt.t.
608 GIS Fundamentals
lions. Producers and users may not use the
same hardware or GIS software. The inter-
change between diff.,enr software systems
is aided by general. standard fom1S in which
data may be delivered.
Many govenunenl or vendor fom1ats
have become widely supported because data
are commonly delivered using these fonnats.
For example, the U.S. government supports
the Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SOTS).
This fon11a1 specifies the logic . formal. and
encoding for raster, vector. and topological
data transfer of spatial data. ESRI shapefiles
(a cluster of files including .shp, .sh.,. and
.dbf) are a conunonly supported vector for-
mat. and many organizations transfer data
using them. These proprietary form31s are
001 truly standard$ because the fom1a1s may
be changed by the vendors that created tl1em.
Until data fonnats are agreed 10 by a stan-
dardizing body. ambiguity in form will hin-
der interpretation and hence use.
Spatial dota a ccuracy srnuda,ds docu·
ment the quality of the positional and attri-
bute values. Kn6wledge of data 411ality i~
cmcial 10 the effective use of GIS. but we
are often remiss in documenting spatial data
quality. This is dt1e in pan 10 the cost of ade-
quately estimating the errors in our spatial
data sets. Field sa.mpling is expensive. Data
production is ofte.n pushed to available
resources, and the documentation of dala
accuracy uicomple1e. Adherence 10 spatial
data accuracy standards ensures we assess
and communicate spatial data quality in a
well-defined. established mamier.
Doc1011e11rmio11 standanls define how
we describe spatial data. Data ace derived
from a se1 oforigiluil measurements 1ake11 by
specific individuals or organizat ions at a
specified time. Data documentation stan.
dards are an agreed-upon way of describing
the source. development, and fonn of spatial
data. When documentation standards are
used. they ensure a complete descrip1iou of
the data origin. methods of development.
accuracy. and delivery fonnats. Standards
allow any po1emial user 10 assess the appro·
pri:neness of these data for an in1eoded task.
Data quality standards add value 10 our
data. There are many ways to describe data
positional and attribute error. An incomplete
description of spatial data quality may not
allow a user 10 judge if the data .are accept-
able for an intended applicalion. A data
4uality s1andard becomes faJlliliar tlii'ougli
use. We may know what levels of average
error are likely to resuh in w1accep1able.
data. The standard allows us 10 compare two
data selS in light of this past exp.,ience.
 Chapter 14: Data Standards and Data Quality 609
Data Accuracy
An accurate observation reflects the true
shape. localion. or characteristics of the phe-
nomena represen1ed in a GIS. When tl1e con-
cept of accuracy is applied 10 spatial
variables. it is a measure of how often or by
how much our data values are in error. Accu-
racy may be reponcd as a frequency. for
example. wh.en we repon 1ha1 20% of tbe
land cover class labeled as cropland is actu-
ally pereuuial grasses. Al<enrntively. accu-
racy may be expressed as an average error
magni<ude: for example. light poles may be
displaced on :average by 12.4 m from their
tme locations.
lnadequa.cies in our spa1ial daia model
may cause spatial data error. W11en we use a
raster data sel with a fixed cell size. ,ve have
set a limit on our positional accuracy. The
raster model ass,uues a homogeneous pLxel.
If more than one category or value for a vari-
able is found in the pixel. then the attribute
value may be in error. This generalization
error may also occur iJl vec.tor da1.a sets. Any
feature smaller than the minimum mapping
unit may not be represented. vec,or data sets
may poorly represent gradual changes. so
there can be i.ncreased attribute error near
vector boundaries. Digital soils data are
often provide·d in a vector data model. yet
the boundaries between soil types are often
not discre1e. but change over a zone of a few
to several me;ers.
Errors are often introduced during spa-
tial data collection. Many positional data are
currently coll.ected using GNSS technolo-
gies. The spatial uncertainty in GNSS posi-
tions described in Chapter S is incorporated
into !he positiional data. Fe.ature localions
derived from digili?ed maps or aerial pbOlO·
graphs also contain positional errors due to
optical, mechanical. and human deficiencies.
Lenses, cameras. or scanners may distort
images. positional errors may be introduced
during registraiion. or errors may be pan of
the digitization process. Blunders, fatigue. or
differences among operators in abilities or
at1in1des may result in posi1iooal uncertainty.
Spatial data accuracy Olay be degraded
during laboratory processing or data reduc-
tion. Mis-copies during the transcription of
field no,es. errors during keyboard entry. or
mistakes during data manipulation may alter
coordinate values used to represent a spatial
data feature. Improper representation in the
compu1er may cause problems. such as
rounding errors when mulliplying large
numbers.
Data may aJso be in error due to changes
through tin1e (Figure 14-2). The wotld is
dynamic. while our representation in a spa-
tial data set caplures a snapsl101 at the time of
data collection. Vegerntion boundaries may
be al<ered by fire. logging. coos<ruction.
conversjon to agricullure, or a host of other
bwnan or natural disturbances. Even in
instances where positions are static. anri-
bu1es may change through time. A two-lane
gravel road may be paved o~ widened, caus..
ing attributes to be in error. :Layers should
have a recommended update interval that
may vary by type. Elevation. geology. and
soils may be updated rarely.. and still main-
tain their accuracy. VegetatiQn. population.
land use, or other factors cltange at faster
rates. and should be updated more frequently
if they are to remain accurate.
Documenting Spatial! Data Accu-
racy
We must unambiguously identify tme
conditions if we are to document spatial data
accuracy. For example. a road segment may
be completely paved. or not. The data record
for that road segment is accurate if it
describes the surface correc1ly. and inaccu-
rate if it does 1101. However. in many cases,
the tmtb is not completely known. TI1e loca~
tions for the above roads may be precisely
surveyed using the latest car:rier phase GNSS
methods. Road centerlines and inte.rseelions
may be known 10 the neares.t 0.5 cm. While
this is a very sn~,ll error. this represents
some.ambiguity in what we deem to be the
truth. Establishing the accuracy of a data set
610 GIS Fundamentals
Flaurt I~-2: Sp:ui:111d.t111 m11.y be i.11 c:ITOr b«:ltilc of tbc p:w.,igc of1ii11e. R<>11.d nUtps b.ucd on :2003 phote>
graplis (left) from !he town of Hugo. Minncs~~. 11.tc in c:m,r in ?OISI (rigi.) due to new nnd re·o.ligncd roads
atld' new building~ asso,;ia1cd with wlmrban de\·clopmct1.1. Changes with the: pauagc: of time: uuy add errors
to datll (coun«y ~·lNGEO).
requires we know·the accuracy of our mea~
sure oftnub.
In most cases. the truth is defined based
OD some independent. higher order measure-
ments. In our roads example, we may desire
that our data layer be accurate to 15 m or
bener. Gaged OD chis scale. the 0.5 cm accu-
racy from our carrier phase GNSS measure-
ment may be considered 1n,e.
Accuracy is 11.1os1 reliably derennined by
a comparison of tn1e vah1es to the values
represented in a SJ"'tial data set. Tllis
requires wecoUect data a1 an adequate set of
sample Jocatfon.s. True values are collec1ed
at these sample locaiioas. Corresponding
values are collect<d for tbe digital spatial
data. The tme and data values are compared.
errors calculated. and summ:uy statistics
generated.
The source for 011r truth. the sampling
method. 011r method for calculating error.
and the sununary statistics we choose ,,~II
depend on tl1e type of spatial data that are to
be evaluated. Positional data will be
assessed using different methods than anri-
bute data. Nominal anribute data (e.g,. d!e
type of land cover). will be assessed differ-
ently than a measurement recorded on a con-
tinuous range (e.g.. purchase price of a
parcel).
There are four primary ways we
describe spatial data accuracy: posftiounl
occ,n·ac,~amibute accumc)~logiro/ co11sfs·
te,1cy. and completeness (Figure 14-3).
These fourcomponents may be comple-
mented with infomullion on the lineage of a
data set 10 dcfrnc the accuracy a11d quality of
a data set These components are described
in turn below.
Posfrfounl occumcydescribes bow close
the loca1ions of objects represented in a digi·
tal data set correspond 10 the true locations
forthe real-world emi1ies. In practice. 1rutl1
is detennined from some higher.order posi-
tioning 1ech11ology.
Amibme occuracv swnmar~zes how dif-
ferent the anributes are from ~le 1n,e values.
Anribute accuracies are us1•1lly reported as a
 Chapter 14: Data Standards and Data Quality 611

o) Positional occurocy
-b) Attribute accuracy

_c) Logical consistency

r:

Fi,&UJ~ 14-J: E:xomelcs of errors of ,-ariom types. This fig\1tc sl~ws: digitlzed fca~, (lines or_potllts) over·
Jamon a soUNc amal pboto~gh. Errors arc lab¢lcd \,i tb uumbd's.. lu o tbc bouscs labdcd J. 2. aud 3 suffer
&o,u pofitiot~I ~lllccumcy, wiu1c b dcmo1d1n11c.s :mrlbtuc :l.CC'l.lr.W:Y in iiuit pra;e.s ai I :\1'C' fabdcd aa bowcs.
3.ud 2 t111d 3 sbow 11~1111,ciits and h011R$ mi, ..l.;ibclcd. Panel Cshows tbn.1dn.111 m :1y not be logie11U>· co!lsis1c111,
,\;th Ligl11_poles at locallons 1. 2. acd 3 in a street. and d shows d~t data may lack co1nplc~cncu. "ith bou§es
I. 2. ,ind 3 not dia,itiz.cd. as shown by the missius; oudll'lc.

mean error or quantile above a threshold
error for attributes measured on interval/
ratio S<:ales. and as percentages or propor-
tions accurate forordinal or categoric.al attri-
butes.
Loglcal cousisreucy reflects the pres-
ence, absence. or frequency of inconsistenl
data. Tests for logical consistency often
require comp:arisous among 1hemes. for
example. all roads occur on dry land. This is
different than positional accuracy in that
both the road and the lake locations may
contain positional error. Howeve.r. these
errors do not cause impossible or illogical
juxtapositions. Logical consistency may also
be applied to attributes. for example. wet-
land soils erroneously listed as suitable for
constniction. or lakes with zero depth.
Comple1e11ess describes bow weJJ the
data set capoires all the features. A buildings
data layer may omit cer1ain stmctures, and
the frequency of these omissions reflects an
incomplete data set.
Data sets may be incomplete because of
generalizations during map production or
digitizi.ng. For example. a minimwn map-
ping unit may be sel at 2 ha when compiling
a "egetation map. Isolated s.maUpastures
scattered through the forest may not be rep-
resented because they are only slightly larger
than this minimum mapping unit. and erro-
neously tbey are not represented in the data
layer.
li11ell$e deS<:ribes the sources. methods.
timing, and persons respons..ible for the
development of a data set. Lineage helps
establish bounds on the other measures of
accuracy described abo\'e, because knowl-
edge about cenain primary data sources
helps defme the accuracy of a data set.
612 GIS Fundamentals

Positional Accu racy
Posirioual aocuracy measures how close
a databose representation of an object is 10
the trne value. Accurate positions have small
errors. Small is defined subjecti\'ely. bm
may at least be quamified.
Precision refers to the consistency of a
measurement method. Pn..~ision is ust1ally
defuted in 1enns of how dispersed a set of
repeat measuremems are from the average
measurement. A precise measurement sys·
tern provides rightly packed results. Precise
digitizing means we may repeatedly place a
point in the same location.
Accuracy and precision are often con·
fused. bm they are 1wo differem cbaracteris·
tics. both desirable. that may change
independently. A :set of measurements may
be precise but ina.ccurate. Repeat measure-
mems may be well clustered. meaning they
are precise. but they may no! be 11e.ar the true
value. meaning they are inaccuN!te. Abia_s
may exist. defined as a syste~at,c offset m
coordinate values. A Jess precise process
will result in a set of points that are more
widely spread. However. their average error
may be substantially less, therefore., lhe set 1s
more accurate.
Figure 14-4 illustrates the difference .
between accuracy and precision. Four dig, ..
1izing sessions are shown. Tl>e goal is to
place several poinrs at rbe center of rhe c.lo-
verleaf intersection in Figure I4-4. The
upper left panel shows a digit_izlng p_rocess
that is bo1b accurate and precise. Points.
shown as light-colored circles, are clustered
1igb1ly and accurately over the i11tended
location.
The upper right panel of Figure 14-4
shows points that are precisely placed
(tightly clustered), but not accurately

Fta:urt 14-1:AC('Un'IC)' and precision. Poinl$ (circles) arc digitized in rcpci:al attc111p1s t4!.r)qn«eot.lhcbenter
of tbc clon:r1caf' i.ntcl'!l«tion. Diiitizcd data ma)' be ac-cur.uc ti.11 001pr«1sc {lower !en , or prccu:c. l!t 001
i1ccun1tc (upper rigbt), or wort:t of 211. i.iuc--cumtc. al'!d iruprcc-isc (l<>\\'cr lcfi). We prefer ll proccu lh:u y:iclds
bod1 accuracy ;md prccislo11 (upper left).
 Chapter 14: Data Standards and Data Quality 613

located. This might be due to an equipmenl
failure or some problem in registr.uion: the
operator may· have made some bhmder in
photo registration and introduced a bias.
The lower left panel of Figure 14-4
shows points that are. accurately but i_mpre-
cisely digiti.led. The average location for
these poinis is quite oear the desired posi-
tion. the center of the cloverleaf intersec.tion.
even though individual points are widely
scattered. These poims are not very close to
the mean value and so precision is Jow. even
though accuracy is high.
The panel at the lower right of Figure
l4-4 shows points with positions thal are
both imprecise and inaccurate. TI1e mean
value is not near the true location. nor are 1be
values tightly ch1stered.
The thresholds tbat constinue high accu-
racy or precision are often subjectively
defined. A du !fer may consider as accurate
any golf shot that lands on the green. This
definition of acc.uracy may be based on thou-
sands of previous attempts. For a profes-
sional golfer. anything farther than 2 m from
the hole may be an inaccurate shOI. In a sim-
ilar fashion. tl1e spatial accuracy sought by a
land surveyor may be different than those of
a federal land maoager. Cadastral surveys
require the utmost in accuracy because peo.
pie teod 10 get upset wheu there is material
permanent trespass. as when a neighbor
builds a garage on their land. LO\ver accu·
racy is accepcable in other applications: for
example•., statewide map definiug vege1a-
1ion type may be acceptable even though
bowtdaries are off by tens of meters.
The mean error and an error frequency
threshold are the st3listics most often used 10
document positional data accuracy. Consider
a set of wells represented as point features in
a spatial data layer. Suppose that after we
have digitized our well locations. we gain
access to a G:NSS system that effectively
gives us 1he lrue coordinate locations for
each well. We may then compare tliese well
locations to 1J1e coordinate locations in our
database. We begin by calculating the dis·
tance between our 1n1e and database coordi-
nates for each well. This leaves us with a list
of errors. one associated with each wen loca-
tion (Figure 14-5). Distance is measured
using the Pythagorean fornrula \\~th 1he true
aod database coordinates. Distances are
always positive because of the form ofdte
fommla.
We may compute the in.can error by
summing 1he errors and dividing the slun by
I.be number of observations. This gives us
our average error. a useful statistic some-
where near the midpoint of our errors. We
are often interested in the distribution of our
errors. and so we also commonly use a fre-
quency hisl'og.mm 10 stmun.irize our spa1ial
error. The histogram is a graph of the nwu·
ber of error observations by a range of error
values. for example. the uumber of error val-
ues between Oand I , between I and 2.
between 2 and 3. and so on for au our obser-
vations. The graph will indkate the largest
and smalle.st errors. and also give some indi·
cation of the mean and mosl commonerrors.
true point
coOfdlnote <x,. Y,)
locotlon dotobose po,nt
coord,note
locohon
error distance • V(>, - >a! •(Y, - Y~l
f'ia;un U -5: PositioiW fflOl"5 arc meMured by the
Pvthai,O!C3ll diitau« bctw«o a 'IJUC and database
cOO'rdmatc for a location.
614 GIS Fundamentals
Examples of ,error frequency distribu.
1ions for ~vo differe111 dalll sets are shown in
Figure 14-6. Eacl, plo1 shows 1he frequency
of errors across a range of error dislances.
For example. 1he 1op graph shows tl1a1
approxima1ely I percem of e11ors have a
value of near 4.S :m. and lhe mean error is
near 13 m.
The mean error value does 001 indicate
the distribution, or spread of the errors. 1\vo
data se1s may have the same mean error but
one may be inferior: the data se1 may have
more large errors. The bonom graph in Fig-
ure 14-6 has 1be same mean error. 13 m. as
the top graph. Note that tile errors bave a
narrower distribution. meaning the errors are
chu11ped closer 10 11\e mean than in 1he 1op
graph. and 1here are fewer large errors.
Although the mean error is the same. many
would consider the data represented in 1he
bonom graph of Figure 14-610 be more
accurate.
' The calculation of point accuracies and
3 summary s1a1is1ics are 1be next steps in accu-
5%
• 12 1 16
"'frequency
I"
mean
threshold
I',
5%
•• 8 111 16 ' 20 1,
meQn frequer\Cy
rhreshold
positional error
fii:u~ 14-6: Mean ,error aOO freciuency thre5bo1ds
are often used to rcp,or1 positiouarerror,The ligbd)'
s.baded gray trea rcprcseu1s 9S%o( the dn.1:1.
Because the mean s1atistic alone does
nOI provide infonnation ou I.he distribution
of positional errors. an error frequency
threshold can be reported. An error fre-
quency threshold is a value above or below
which a proponion of the error observa1ions
occurs. Figure 14-6 shows 1he 9:.5% fre-
quency 1hreshold for 1wo error dis1ribu1ions.
The 1breshold is placed such ma-i 95% of die
errors are smaller than the threshold and 5%
are larger than the threshold. Tb-e lop graph
shows a 95% frequency 1bresbold of approx-
imately 21.S m. This indicates tbat approxi-
mately 95% of 1he positions 1es1:ed from a
sample of a spatial dalllbase are less 11\an or
equal lo 21.S m from lhe 1me loca1ions. The
bottom panel in Figure 14-6 has a 95% fre-
quency threshold a1 17.6 m. This means 5%
of1he errors in 1he second iested database
are larger than 17.6 m from their 1rne loca-
tion. Jfwe are concerned wi1h llte frequency
oflarge errors. this may be a bener sununary
statistic than the mean error.
Accuracy Calculations
racy assessment. First. 1he coordinates of
both the true and data layer posi-iions for a
feamre are recorded. These coordinates are
used to calculate a positiooal difference.
known as a positional error. based on the dis-
tance between 1he m,e coordina1es and the
data layer coordinates (Figure 14-5). The
true coordinates faH in a differeul location
1ban 1he coordinates derived from lhe da1a
layer. Eacb test poim yields an error distance
e. shown in Figure l4-5 and defined by the
equation:
(14J)
where x,. Yr are true coordinates and ~ · y4
are the da1a layer coordinates fo:r a point.
The squan.'<i e11or differences are then
calc.ulated, and the sum.. average. and root
mean square error (RMSE) sta1i~1ics deter-
 Chapter 14: Data Standards and Data Quality 615

mined for the data set. As previously defined
in this book. the RMSE is:
e.j' + e.i' + ... e '~
(142)
RMSE=
n
where e: is defined as in equation 14. l. and n
is the number of test points used.
The RMSE is no11he same as the aver-
age distance error, nora "typical'' distance
error. The Rl"ISE is a su11is1ic that is 11seful
in detennini11.g probability thresholds for
error. The RMSE is reJated to the siatistical
variance of the positionaJ error. lf we assume
the x and y e-.rrors follow a bell-shaped
Gaussian curve conunonly observed when
san1plu1g. then the RMSE tells us something
about the distribution of distance errors. We
can use knowledge about the RMSE thal we
get from our sample to detennine whal is tJie
likelihood of a large or small error. A large
RMSE means 1he errors are widely spread,
and a small RMSE means lhe errors are
packed tightly around the mean value.
Figure 14-7 shows an example set of test
points for road data layer. aud au image
backdrop. Prior knowledge leads us 10
expect average errors in excess of 6 m. Jn
this example, we have selected high resolu-
tion GNSS as our tnie data source. We kJ1ow
these photographs have a positional error of
less than J5 cm. on average. from metadata.
These images were selected because they
111eet our accuracy requirem.ents and are
available for the enlire work area.
The display of road locations on top of
the images shows there are substanlial dif-
ferences in tnie positions of feanires and

FlJU1't 14-7: A ~ch data fa)'Cf displayed OYt-r a g:corcfco:nccd i.uui3c. Tcs-t point locations art- 4bown
l\$filled citt lu. T11c tci 1 p0i111 1ruc c001din:1.lc ,,,iluct sJ1ould be from n. lii3!111.cctm1,cy ""'1J'('c , e .g.., c cn•
time Ier lc,-cl ONSS ~utYcv;. TI1c dall\ coordimtc \·n.lucs l\~ ~lmc:tcd &om the road$ l.1ycr, OiffCl'C'occ$
in dle&c locations would be used to cstllootc the posi1iooal a.:cur.1cy ofthe toadj dat11 Layer.
616 GIS Fundamentals
their representations in the roads data layer.
Any right-angle iJuersection is a pros~ctive
1es1 point.
The inset in the lower right of Figure 14·
7 shows tile m1e point location.1 relative to
the road intersections. Road centerlines were
digitized. These true loca1ions would be
idemified on the images. perhaps by point-
ing a cursor at a georeferenced image dis-
played on a computer monitor. The data
coordinates would then be extracted for the
corresponding rood intersection. and these
two coordinate pairs. the true X. Yand data
x. Y. would be one 1es1 point used in acct1-
racy calculations.
Test points must be clearly identifiable
in both the test data set and in the 1ruth data
set Points that are precisely, unambiguously
defined are best. For example. we may wish
to document 1he accuracy of roads dam com-
piled from medium-scale sources and repre-
sented by a single line in a digital layer.
Right-angle rood intersections are preferred
over other features bec.ause the positions
represented in the database may be precisely
detennined. The coordinates for the precise
center of the road intersections may also be
detennined from a higher-accuracy data set.
for example. from digital onhopho1ograpbs
or field surveys. Other road features are le.S,S
appropriate for lest p-0in1s, including road
intersections a1 obluse aogles or acute
curves. because there may be subs1an1ial
uncenainty when matching the data layer 10
true coordinates.
The source of the true coordinate posi·
1ion should match our minimum accuracy
specification. or at least an order of magni·
tude more accurate than the errors. GNSS
are a common source oftmth. as lhe accu·
racy may be set by collection equipment and
me.thods, but any source of tnllh that
matches our requiremems is acceptable.
Positional Accuracy Sta·n dards
There are three commonly used Sllln·
<lards for map and rela1ed digital data posi-
tional accuracy in North Americ:a, and
adopted in much of the World. The first is
known as the National Map Accuracy Stan-
dard (NMAS), and was develop<d by the
U.S. Geological Survey 10 specify positional
accuracy on hardcopy maps (ASPRS 1990).
11 specified a I/30th of an inch or larger error
on no more than IO%of1es1 poims for maps
a1 a scale of 1:20.000 or larger. wltlch trans-
lates 10 a 4.2 111 ( 13.9 fl) threshold on a
I :5.000 scale map. Given current dominance
of digital cartography. the standard might be
best interpreted as applying 10 spa1,,1 errors
at the scale of di2.ital aerial imaaes used in a
data collection effort. b111 even ~,en. the
errors are quite large relative to ,current tech-
nological c,,pabilities, so this standard bas
linle relevance except when prooucing hard·
copy materials.
The American Society of Pbo1ogran11ne-
1ry and Remote Sensing bas deV'eloped a
standard for digital orthounagery and eleva-
tions derived therefrom (ASPRS. 2015). The
standard specifies methods for reporting
accuracy lhresbolds, all based on the mea-
sured RMSE. An x or y error threshold may
be established. e.g.. the RMSE ni11s1 be less
than 5 cm for agive11 orthopboto mosaic,
and assuming aonnal errordistrjbution. this
threshold multiplied by 1.414 as a radial
error(e. g., 7.1 cm. or 1.414'5). or multiplied
by 2.448 for specificalioa at a 95% hori2on~
ta! acc,,racy confidence interval (e.g. 12.2
cm. from 2.448'5). It also establishes report-
ing requirements for vertical accuracy. with
differem standards for vegetated and noo-
vegemted areas. reflecting the greater diffi-
culty in venical measurement for images or
lidar where vegetation obseures tl1e ground.
The standard specifies accuracy testing
and reporting guidelines, most ootably on
the number and distribution of c beck (test)
points to acceptably quantify errors. Check-
point numbers increase with project area.
with 20 check points required for projects
encompassing less than 500 km2. growing to
 Chapter 14: Data Standards and Data Quality 617
60 check poimts for projects up 10 2,500 km2.
Various numbers of vertical accuraey check
points are req\lired depending on ,•ege1aiion
pre.sence. Checkpoint positional accuracy is
required 10 be at least three limes bener titan
the accuracy ,o( the data set being tested.
The Federal Geographic Daill Commit,
tee of the United States (FGDC) bas
described a third standard for measuring and
reporting positional error. appropriate for
vector or rast,er fean1re data sels as well as
for image data. It is known as the Natiooal
Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy
(NSSDA), Tbe NSSDA is also based on
~ISE. II specifies the number and distribu-
tion of sample points when performing an
accuracy assessment. and prescribes the sta-
tistical methods used to Slunnmrize and
report positional error. Separate methods are
described for borizonllll (x and y) accuracy
assessmem and vertical (z) accuracy assess-
ment, although the methods differ primarily
in the cakufatiou of suuunat}' accuracy sca-
1istics. There are five Sleps in applying the
horilontal NSSDA:
•Jde111ify a set oftest poio1s from the
digital data set under scmtiny:
•ldeUlify a <lata sci or method from
wbkb "tme•· values wilJ be determined:
·Collect po;sitioual measurements from
the 1es1 poims as 1bey are recorded in
the test ancE "true" data sets:
•Calcuta1e the posi1ional error for each
1es1 point and summarize 1he positional
accuracy foribe 1est data sct in a stan-
dard accuracy statistic:
·Record the accuracy statistic in a s,an-
dardized form. Also incl\lde a descrip-
tion of the sample number. 1rue da1a set.
the accuracy of the true data set, and the
methods us.ed 10 develop and assess the
accuracy or the uue daia set.
NSSDA horizonlllt calculations are
summarized i.n a standard table (Table 14-1).
This shows a _posi1ional accuracy asses.s,nen,
based on a se'.t of 22 poims. Oa1a for each
point are organized in rows. The true and
>20% >20%
>20% >20%
fltun 14,8: R«ommcuckd snmplin3 for spa·
111'1 <b.12 :.ecumcy. S..,rnplc.s , bonld be well dig.
tribu:l'cd ;u,d well a:~ccd (.icbptcd from LMJC.
1999).
data layer coordinates are lis1ed. as well as
the differe~e and difference squared for
bo1b the x and y coordina1e d~ections. The
sq\lared differences are sum,ned. averaged.
and the RMSE calcula1ed, as shown in the
summary boxes in the lower right ponion of
Table 14-1. The RMSE is multiplied by
1.7308 to estimate the 95% accuracy level.
listed as the NSSDA. Ninety-five percent of
1he 1ime. the true horizontal errors for this
data set are expected to be less than the esti·
ma1ed accuracy level of 12.9 m lis1ed in
Table 14-1.
The 1.7308 factor comes from assump·
1ioos abom lhe S1a1is1ical propenies of x and
Y errors. lf our two variables. x and y. are
uncorrelated and follow a Gaussian distribu·
tio11. s1a,is1ical theory tells us 1ba1 95% of
our errors are expected 10 be Jess than or
equal 10 the threshold. A thorough 1rea1me111
of 1he s1a1is1ical foundation may be fowtd in
the reforences listed at tile ~nd of11tis chap-
ter.
The NSSDA specifies l>e1ween 20 and
30 well-dis1Tibu1ed 1es1 poinlS (Figure t4-S).
Test poinls should bedis1ribu1ed as evenly as
possible 1broughot111he data layer 10 be
618 GIS Fundamentals

Tablr 14-1: Ao accuracy assessment summary table.

x x x (X y y y (y sum
ID (IIUO) (date) ditlor- d11fe,. ~,ue) (date) ddlor- (Wfo,. X diff2 •

'
2
,2
18
,o
22
ooce
2
...
IJJKe'f

16
4 TaiF ~
234 228
..
ence

6
eoce)~
10
36
y diffl
20
52
3 7 12 .5 25 265 266 .1 1 26
4 34 34 0 0 243 240 3 9 9
5 15 19 ... 16 291 287 4 16 32
6 33 24 9 81 211 215 ... 16 97
7 28 29 -1 1 267 271 ... 16 17
8 7 12 .5 25 273 266 5 25 50
9 45 44 1 1 245 244 1 1 2
10 110 99 11 121 221 225 ... 16 137
11 54 65 . 11 121 212 206 4 16 137
12 87 93 -6 36 284 276 6 36 72
13 23 22 1 I 261 259 2 4 5
14 19 24 -5 25 230 235 .s 25 50
15
16
76
97
80
108
••
. 11
16
121
256
201
260
20.1
.s
-3
25
9
41
130
17 38 43 .s 25 290 288 2 4 29
18 65 n .7 49 2n 282 .s 25 74
19 85 78 7 49 205 201 4 16 65
20 39 44 .5 25 282 278 4 16 41
21 94 90 4 16 246 251 .s 25 41
22 64 56 8 64 233 227 6 36 100
Sum 1227
Average 55.8
RMSE 7:,
NSSDA 12.9

tested. Each quadxant of the tested data layer

should contain at least 20% of the test
points. aud test points should be spaced no
closer than one-temh the longest spanning
distance for the tested data layer (d, in Fig-
ure 14-S).
 Chapter 14: Data Standards and Data Quality 619
Errors In Linear or Area Features
The NSSDA as described above treats
only the accuracies of point loca1ions. lt is
based on a probabilistic view of point loca-
liOns. We are 1101 sure where each poim is:
however. we can specify anerror distance r
for a set of foatures. A circle of radius r cen-
1ered on a poin1 feanue in our spatial daia
layer wil.l inc lude the m,e poin1 location
95%of the time. Unfortunately. there are no
es1ablished standards for describing the
accuracy or e1TOr of linear or an..v.i fearures.
la some ins1ances, we may assmue the
well-defined poim fearures described in our
accuracy 1es1 above may also represent cbe
accuracy for ·vertices of lines in a data layer.
Venices may be used as test points, provided
1bey are well defined and 1be true coordi-
nates are known. However. the errors al
imcrveniug locations are not known. for
example. midway along a line segment
between two vertices. The error along a
straight Line segmen1 may be at most equal 10
1he largest error observed a1 the ends of 1he
line segments (Figure i4-9). If 1he data line
segmeu1is parallel to the true line segmen1,
1heu 1he errors are unifonn along the full
lenglh of the :segme-nt. Vertices that result in
converging or crossing lines will lead 10
midpoint errors less 1han 1he larger of1he
\ and layerca1egoiy values ru:e different Error
Ffsun 14-9: £:ITO'l'J for strnil,lll lioc ,c:gum111 ~re
either the wu.e (top) or less than (bottom) the
ma.><imum d'l'()l"c,bu,r,·c:d a1 the end points. Vcr1i-
c:c.1 m.11t pro\'ick :ln :ipproximnt.ion of lhc line
posilion.,1 cuon.
two errors at the endpoints {Figure l4-9).
These observaiions are not crue if a straight
line segment is tJsed to approximate a sub-
stantially curved line. However. if the line
segments are suflicie111ly shon (e.g., me
in1erval along 1he line is small rela1ive 10 the
radius of a curve in the line). and I.he posi-
tional errors ru:e distribu1ed .evenly on both
sides of1he Line segmems. lllen the NSSDA
methods described above wm provide an
approximate upper limit on the 1.inear error.
Attribute Accuracy
Unlike posi1ionaJ accuracy. there is no
national standard for measuring and repon-
ing attribute accuracy. Accuracy for continu-
ous variables may be calculated in an
analogous maru1er to positional accuracy.
Accuracy foreach observation is defined as
the difference between the true and da1abase
values. A se1 of tes1 da1a points may be iden·
tified, the true attribule valu e detem1ined for
each oflhose tes1 daia poi11ts. the difference
calculated for each tes1 point. and 1he accu·
racy summarized.
The accuracy of ca1egorical anrib111e
data may be summarized using an e,TO,·
mble and asso<:iated accuracy slatistics.
Points can be classified as correc1. tha1 is. the
categorical variable matches the true cate-
gory for a feature. or they may be incorrect.
lncorrec1 observa1ions occur when 1be true
1ables. also known as error matrices, confu-
sion matrices. and accuracy rnbles. are a
s1andard method of reponin,g error in classi·
fied remolely sensed imagery. They have
more rarely been used for categorical attri·
bme accuracy assessmen1.
An error 1able summarizes a two.way
classification for a se1 of 1es1points (Figure
14-1 O). A categorical variable will have a
fixed number of ca1egories. These categories
are listed across the columns and along the
rows of Ille error 1able. Each 1es1 feature is
tallied in the error table. The true category
and 1he value in the da1a la~r are known for
each 1-es1 feature. The tes1 feanire is 1a11ied iu
the error table based 0 11 these values. The
620 GIS Fundamentals

true values are entered via the appropriate
column and the data layer values are emered
via the appropriate row. The 1able is square.
because there is t1te same number of catego-
ries in both tlte rows and cohuuns. Correctly
classified (eanires are tallied on the diagonal
- the tme value and data layer value are
identical. so they are noted at the intersec-
tion oftl,e categories. Incorrectly assigned
categoiy values fall off the diagonal.
Error tables Sllllllllarize the main charac-
teristics of confusion among categories. The
diagonal elements contain the test fean1res
that are correctly categorized. The diagonal
stun is the total num1ber correct The propor-
tion correct is the total number correct
di,•ided by the toral munber tested. The per·
cent correct can be obtained by mulliplying
the proportion correct by I00.
Per category accuracy may be e.xtrncted
from tl>e error table. l\"o types of accuracy
may be calculated. a use,-'s nca 1racy and a
producer 's ncc1o·ncy. The user r•elies on the
da1a layer to detenniue 1he categoiy for a
feature. The user is most often interested in
how often a feature is mislabeled for each
categoiy. In effect, die user wan•s to know
bow many feamres that are classified as a
categoiy (the row tOlal) are tmly from that
categoiy (1be diagonal element for that row).
n,us. the user's acct1tacy is def,ned as the
number of correctly assigned features (the
diagonal element) divided by the row total
for the category. The producer. on the other
band. koows the true identi1y of each feanrre
and is often interested in how often these
feamres are assigned to the correct categoiy.
The producer's accuracy is defined as the
diagonal element divided by the column
total.

true value

wheat corn soy alfalfa gross follow

wheat 14 4 4 22
corn 2 12 I 3 18

soy I 18 2 21

olfo1f< 3 2 16 I 22
gross 3 1 1 12 17

follow 20 20
20 20 20 20 20 20 ! =92

overall occuroc = sum of diogonol = 92/120 = 76.7%

Y total number of samples

Figul"f' J.-1,.IO! An aror tAbJc n1ccinctl>· s:uminn.rizcs: the attribute 11ecttr11ey (or t\11tcaori~ I
\'nri.,bk ti.
 Chapter 14: Data Standards and Data Quality 621
Error Propagation In Spatial Anal·
ysls
While we have discussed melbods for
assessing pos.itional and anribute accuracy.
we have not described how we de1em1ine tl1e
effecis of input errors ou 1he accuracy of
sP31ial operations. Cle.irly. input erTor
affects oulpul values in most calculations. A
large eleva1io,n error in DEM cells will likely
cause errors ill slope values. If slope is then
combined ,,~th other features from other
data layers. these errors may in tum proJl3·
gate 1hrough_1be anal}~is. How d? we assess
the propagation of errors and their 1mpac1s
on spatial an•l~1is?
There are currently no \\~dely applied,
general methods for assessing the effect of
positional errors on spatial models. Research
is currently directed at several promising
avenues: however. the range of variables and
conditions involved has confom1ded !be
developmem of general methods for assess-
ing the.impacts of purely positional errors on
spatial models.
Several approaches have been deveJ.
oped 10 es1ima1e 1be impacts of a11ribu1e
errors on spatial models. One approach
involves assessing errors in the final resul.t
irrespective of errors ui the original data. For
example. we may develop a canographic
model to estimate deer density in a suburban
environment. The model may depend on the
density of housing. forest loca1ioo.1ype. and
extent. the loc.ation of wetlands. and road
location and traffic vo!W11es. Each of these
data sources may contain positional and
attribute errors.
Ques1ioos may arise regarding how
these errors in our input data affect the
model predictions for deer density. Rather
1hau 1rying 10 identify how errors in 1be input
propoga1e through to affect the final model
re.suits, we m:ay opt to perfonn an error
assessmem or our final ou1pu1. We would
perform a field survey of deer deosiry and
compare the ,,alues predicted by the model
with the values observed in 1be field. For
example. we might subdivide 1he sn>dy area
into mutually exclusive census areas. Deer
might be counted in each census a.rea and tJie
density calculated. We have replicated val-
ues from each census area. so we may calcu-
late a mean and a variance, and the
difference between modeled and observed
values might be compared relative 10 1he ,,.,_
ural variation we observe among differe.nl
ceosus areas. We could also survey an area
through time. for example. on successive
days. monlhs. or years, and compare the dif-
ference between tlie model and obsen>ed
values for each sample 1ime.
11 may not be possible or desirable 10
wait 10 assess accuracy until after complet-
ing a spatial analysis. Input da1a for a spe-
cific spatial analysis may be expensive to
collect. We may not wish 10 develop !be data
and a spatial model if errors. in the input pre-
clude a useful output After model applica-
1ioIL we may wish 10 identify the source of
errors in our final predic1ion.s. Improvements
in one or two data layers may substantially
improve the quality of our predictions: for
example. bener data on forest cover may
increase t.he accuracy of our deer density
predic1ioos.
Error propagation in spatial models is
often investigated with repeated model runs.
We may employ some son of repeat simula-
tion model 1hat adds error 10 data layers and
records the impacts on model accuracy.
These simulation models onen employ a
staodard fom1 known as a lvfo11re Carlo sim-
ula,iou. The Monie Carlo method assumes
each inpm spo1ial value is derh·ed from a
population of values. For example. ~,nd-
cover nmy range over a set ofvalues foreac.h
cell. Funher. model coefficients may also be
altered over a range. In a cartograplllc
model. the weights are allowed to range over
a specified in1en•al when layers are com-
bined.
A Moote Carlo simulation c.ontrols bow
these input data or model p<trame1ers are
allowed to vaty. Typically. a random nom1al
distribution is assumed for continuous input
values. If au,1ariables sa\1e one are beld con-
stant. and several model runs performed on
different. random selections of the variable,
we may ge1 an indication of bow a variable
622 GIS Fundamentals
affects the model output. We may find that
the spatial model is insensitive 10 large
changes in most of our input da1a values, bu1
sensi1ive 10 small changes in a few. For
example. predicted deer density may not
change much even when landc.over varies
over a wide range of values. but may depend
heavily on housing density. However, we
may also find a set of input data. or a range
of input data or coefficients, that substan-
tially control model output.
A Monte Carlo or similar simulation is a
computationally intensive technique. Thou.
sands of model nuis are often required over
each of the component units of the spatial
domain. Thecompulational burden increases
as the models beoome more involved. and as
the number of spatial units increases. How-
ever. it is often the onJy practic.al way with
which to assess the impacts of uncenainties
on spatial analyses. uncenainties both in the
input data and the parameters and methods
in combining theut
Summary
Data standards. data accuracy assess-
mem. and data documentation are among the
most important ac,tivities in GIS. We cannot
effectively use spatial data if we do not
know its quality. and the efficiem distribu·
lion of spatial dala depends on a common
understanding of <lalll content.
Data may be inaccurate due to several
causes. Data may be out ofdate. collected
using improper ntetbods or equipment, or
collected by unskalled or inattentive persons.
Accuracy is a measure of cITor. a differ·
ence between a tm e aod represented value.
Inaccuracies may be reported us:ing many
methods. including a mean valu,e. a fre.
quency distribution. or a threshold value. An
accuracy assessment or me.asurement applies
only 10 a specific data set and time.
Accurac.y should be recogn~zed as dis·
1inc1 from precision. Precision is a measure
of the repealllbility of a process. Imprecise
data collection often leads to poor accuracy.
Standards ba,-e been developed for
assessing position..11 accuracy. A-ccuracy
assessment and reponing depend on sam·
piing. A set of fearnres is visited in the field.
and the 1:rue values collected. These i:rue val·
ues are then compared to corresponding val·
ues stored in a data layer. and the differences
between trne and database values quantified.
An adequate number of well-di,;tributed
samples should be collected. Standard wOlk·
sheets and statistics have been developed.
Data documentation standards have
been developed in the United States. These
standards. developed by the Fed:eral Geo-
graphic Data Conuniuee: are known as ,he
Content Standard for Digital Goospatial
Meladata. Tilis standard identifies specific
iofomrntioo that is required to fuUy describe
a spatial data set.
 Chapter 14: Data Standards and Data Quality 623

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 Chapter 14: Data Standards and Data Quality 625

Study Questions

14.l - Wby are standards so important in spatial data'?

14.2 - Can you describe processes or activities that are greatly helped by ct,e exis-
tence of standards?
14.3 - \Vhal are the differences between accuracy and precision?

14.4 - How do mean and frequency thresholds differ in the way they re!)on positional
error?

14.S - What arc some of the primary causes of positional error in spa1ia I data?

14.6 - Describe each of the following concepts with reference 10 documenting spatial
data accuracy: positional accuracy. auribure accuracy. logical consistency. and com-
ple,cness.

14.7 - Whal is the NSSDA. and how does ii help us measure positional accuracy?

14.8 . Wbat are the basic steps in applying the NSSDA?

14.9 - \Vbat are the constraints 011 lhe distribution of sample points under the
NSSDA. mtd why are these constraillts specified?
14.10 - \Vhat are good candidate sources for test points in asse.ssing the accuracy of a
spatial da"la layer?
14.11 - How are errors in nomillal anrib111e data often reported?

14.12 - What are metadata, and why are they imponant?

626 GIS Fundamentals

15 New Developments in G IS
Introduction
As every economis1. weather forecaster.
or politician knows. predicting the future is
fraughl with peril Near.term predictions
may be safe: if times are goO<I now. they will
probably be good nexi momb. However. 1.he
fanher one reaches into the future, the more
likely t~y will be wrong. This chapter
describes technologies tb.11 may become
11idespread. 11discusses future trends. with
the expectation that many of these specula·
tions will not wholly come tnie.
Many changes in GIS are based on
advances in compu1ers and other electronic
hardware. Computers are becoming smaller
and Jess expe1isive. This is true for boll, gen·
end-purpose machines and for specialized
computers.. such as mggedized. portable tab-
let computers.. The wizards of semiconduc·
tors continue to dream up and then produce
impossibly clever devices. Given currenl
trends, we should not be suiprised in the
furure if a pea-sized device holds all the pub-
lished works of humankind. Computers may
gain personalities, recognize us as individu-
als. respond entirely to voice commands.
aod rou1inely conjure 1hree-dimensional
images that floal in space before our eyes.
These and other developmen1s will alter bow
we manipulate spatial data.
Changes in GIS will also be due 10 tlte
growing ubiquity of hig)l speed. wireless
627
connections. If our data are always avail-
able, we wilJ internet with tbem ditferently.
We can more easily see bow things should
be in the field. and compare them 10 bow
1hey are, forexample, a wiring diagram for a
roadside telephone interchange panel, or a
building site plan vs. s1akeorn. Records may
be available at any rime. everywhere, offer-
ing ins1am access 10 an agricuhural field's
feniliza1io11 history. a water main's flange
size. or bridge's inspection records. improv-
ing decisions in the field and streamlining
data mana.gernen1.
Change is also due to increased sophisti-
cation in GIS software and users. and
increased familiarity and standardization.
Change will be driven by new algorithms or
methods. for example. improved data com·
pressiou techniques 1b.11 spe,ed the re1rie\'al
and improve 1he quality of digital images.
Specialized software packages may be
crafted that mm a multi-day. technically
complicated operation into a few mouse
clicks. These new tools will be introduced as
GIS technologies continue 10 evolve and
will change the way we gather and an.,Jyze
spatial data.
628 GIS Fundamentals
GNSS
Three irends wiU dominate GNSS im,o-
vation over the next decade: muhi-coostella-
lion and mulli-signal GNSS receivers,
miniamrization. and system integration.
Multi-GNSS recf'ivers wiU continue to t.ake.
advantage of distinct satellite constellations.
GNSS has been unable 10 pro,;de 10 cm
(subfoot) position accuracies in th.ick forests.
deep valleys, or city centers. Multi-GNSS
tracking systems exist now. supporting GPS.
GLONASS. Galileo. and the Compass sys-
tem have been developed. further increasing
accuracy, availability. and reliability. Future.
low-cost GNSS receh ers will conunonly
1
have hundreds of channels. and track tens of
satellites even when under heavy forest can·
opies. in canyons. and among iall buildings.
bringing real-time precise positioning to
everyone.
Dual channel GNSS chips at costs less
than S250 now pro,~de cemirue1er accura·
cies. and prices will continue 10 drop (Figure
15-1). Earlier inexpensive GNSS receivers
tracked a single frequency. e.g .. LI in the
U.S. GPS system. and provided acctiracies
in the few 10 JOs of meters range. Measure-
me111s in a second freqmmcy allows reduc·
tion of ionospheric and atmospheric iransi1
errors. leaving smaller system and clock
errors 1hat are in cbe lens of centimeters to
figul"t' I S.. I ; lncpen,in· dm1 frequency chips pro·
,·idc cm-lc,·cl ae1:urac:i« to a broad array of
devices (cout1cS)' Sp11rkfoo).
Flgurf' IS.2:A miuiarurizcd GNSS unit tbt11
n1.i.v be embedded in 11 rnngc of d«tronic:
dc,:ices.
cen1ime1er range. New systems !integrate
boih in1proved hardware with suitable pro-
cessing. Systems still require substantial
modiflc~tion 10 become turn-key. easy,to-
use. and robust. but within the 11.ext decade.
cemimeter-level accuracies will be available
in real time., for tens of dollars in hardware
cost.
GNSS receivers wilJ cost less, shrink in
size and weight and increase aocuracy for
some rime to come-. and these improvements
will spur even more widespread adoption of
this technology (Figure 15-2). Microelec-
trouic miniamri:wtion is helping_ shape the
GNSS nmrket. As GNSS use grows and
manufacturing methods improve, single chip
GNSS systems have emerged. and these
chips are. decreasing in size. GN'SS chips
smaller tl1an a postage stamp are available.
including some that may be inte.grated into
common electronic devices. Many vendors
are well on a path to system integra1ion. and
it will become more common to embed I.he
antenna. receiver. supporting electronics.
power supply. and di!foren1ial corre1;1ion
radio receivers in a single chip or small cir-
cuit board. Some of these integrated sy>tems
are smaller than most GNSS ant:ennas of a
decade ago. and systems wiU continue 10
shrink. A bunoo-sized GNSS is !lOt far off.
 Chapter 15: New Developments in GIS 629

As receivers shrink in size and cost, it
becomes proe1ical 10 collect positional infor-
mation on smaller individual objec1s. While
GNSS is unlikely 10 help you find your keys.
small GNSS receivers will collec1spatial
data (or smaller objects. For example. a (ew
years ago i1 was uneconomical.to track
objects smaller than a cargo ship. Now
tn1cks or con1ainers are rou1inely followed.
In the near future. it may be common to
track individual packages.
GNSS miniaturization means we will
directly collect much more daia in the field
than in times pas1. City engineers may smdy
traffic panems by placing special-pwpose
GNSS receivers into autos. How long does
1he aver-age c-0nunute take? How much of
the time is spent sining a, stop signs or
lights, and where is the congestion most
prevalent? How is 1roflic affected by
weather condj1ions? Analyses of 1rnffic ne1-
works will become substantially e.asier with
small-unit GNSS. Disposable GNSS receiv-
ftgurr t s..3: GNSS r«ci\'cn with buih~iu cnmcns c.:u,1
l,.c used to cccord di.e loc'-tion (A), im,gcs (B).11.nd 111tn-
butcs (C) of objects (COW1«)' TOPCON).
ers may be pasted. decal-lik~. on w.ind· .
shields by 1be lbousands, 10 1ransnu1 !heir
data bac-k 10 a traffic manag-emeat center.
Ubiquitous. inexpensive. or Ire~ differ-
ential correttion signals are substanually
improving the accuracy commonly ac~1eved
""'b GNSS. Many U.S. states and nauonal
governments abroad will eS1ablish more
complete coverage. Virtual Reference Sta-
tion (VRS) networks promise 10 allow sub-
metcr and even near-ccmime1er level
positioning in real time. Conunercfal solu-
tions will be funher developed and made
less expensive.
GNSS systems will add functions.
including the abiLity 10 take photos or videos
and anach them 10 geograpllic feamres in a
database (Figure 15-3). The old adage "a
picture is wonh a thousand words" may be
modified 10 "a picmre saves a thousand
hours.·, T11ese systems will greatly aid plan-
ning. managemen1. and analysis by more

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630 GIS Fundamentals
easily providing images in GIS. For exam-
ple. the type. reloiive location. and condition
of public utilities such as fire bydran1s may
be described witlt both photos and alphanu-
meric data collecced in a daiabase. Ifa work
order is required ,o re~ir a hydran1. a photo-
graph may be 1aken in the field and tagged to
the work order. This photograph may be
inspec1ed to verify lhe l)'J)e ofhydram.10
perhaps identify the tools needed for repair.
or to recognize which specific pans are
required for mallnenance.
Fi xed and Mobile Three-Dimen-
sional Mappi ng
GNSS is also being combined with new
advances in ground-based laser scarming to
increase lhe scope. accuracy. and efficiency
of spatial data collection. Three-dimensional
scam1ing devices have been developed that
measure the borizomal and vertical location
Fi&n"' I S-1: Mllppin_,g $)"lieus coinbiocd \\ilb ON$$, 1hrce•di111c1~sio11, 11l im11gjnJ ~sen, op1ic:)I i.m:.ging
')'Stems. aod other ntC3.M'Cllll¢1ll $)"Siems to pro\·idc iutcgntcd
tuue (courtesy Apple).
of fea1ures (figure 15-4). This scanning is
necessary because many fea1ures are modi-
fied over time. for example. roads are
changed, buildings are extendecll, exlra sup-
pons may be added 10 1owers. or oil refiner-
ies may be re-plumbed. lnven1ories mus1 be
updated to record the features as built. ralher
1ban as designed or observed dusing lhe pre-
vious inventory. A three-dimens:ional scan-
ning laser may be combined with a precise
GNSS receiver to measure the X. Y, and Z
coordinates of importan1 fearur~. The
GNSS is used to detem1iue the l,ocation of
1he scanning laser. The horizomal and verti·
cal offsets from the scan poim are measured
by IJ1e laser. These measurements are com-
bined with coordinate geome.try to c.alculate
1be precise posi1ions for all features scanned
in the field.
The 1tend of nmlti-tecbnology integra-
1ion wiH accelerate for rapid. cemime1er-
level mobile mapping. Multichannel GNSS
thr«-dimcmiowal wc.uUfflneots in real
 Chapter 15: New Developments in GIS 631
combined with other positioning systems
will provide higl~y accurate locations. and
three-dimensional laser scanners and 360
degree image-data collection will allow
faster collection of X. Y. and Z coordinates.
Combined with GNSS systems and
mounted on mobile platfonns, three-dimen·
sional laser mapping systems will collect
highly accurate data accessible by anyooe
with a traffic-enabled GNSS. Approaching
drivers may be forewarned. 1ravel limes cal·
culated and new suggested routes identified.
One can imagine self.driving automobiles
that na,igatc via a combined GNSS/LiDAR/
GlS. using systems co avoid collisions via
real·time distance measurements and wire·
less conuim1llcations with ·'nearby" automo-
biles.
Such mobile systems will help improve
the currency and accuracy of digitized trans-
portation net\·vorks. and anything visible
from them. Every road can be digitized
while driving;. as well as every building.
light pole, sign, bench. tree, or any other
11iree-dimeus;0o,I sli\lcrure visible ftom
them. Effons will move from a focus on the
development of integrated, tum.key daia
collection systems to sofavare and methods
that automate workflow. so that data may
Fi;u." ' JS.5: C:iDAR Ill~ oth~ cL,t.11my be ,;em;cd and displ~ycd in nul0$. impro\iog dri,-c:r &11.fe1y ruid trip
eflic1cucy 31 lllgh.1 and under u1dcm(UI we11th-et (counesy NVIDIA),
travel from the device to the database with as
liuJe human inter\lention as possible.
Automobile systems would rely on muJ.
tipie technologies. A GNSS would locate o,e
vehicle to within a few tens of centimeters in
real time. Three.dimensional dala on road
centerline, edges. curbs. adj.aceot poles. and
other imponam features would be identified
for the trajectory ahead. When combined
\\~th an on-vehicle laser sca:nuer, the system
may identify moving automobiles and distin-
guish them from unexpected s1ation.1ry
objec1s within the roadway, or other changes
in conditions. A combinatioll of LiDAR.
RADAR. and cameras may help identify
objects. and compare their location 10
e.xpected features in on-board spatial data.
Automobiles may be reliably identified.
Aids. such as virtual illumination on the
windshield. may be used to highlight other
vehicles or road edge wben visibility is poor
(Figure 15-5), flag upcoming hazards or
rums. or warn of unexpected conditions. The
autos could use mapped information on
shoulder widtl~ ne~rby off-ramps, the road
ahead, or other strucrurnl infonnation to exe-
cute 1he appropriate driving maneuvers and
avoid accidents.
632 GIS Fundamentals

Ground Based Positioning
Ground-based positioning sysrems may
find increased adoption. Although GNSS
systems provide remarkable positionjng
information. they :ire limited. GNSS signals
can't pass directly through most solid
objects. Buildings, mountains. and dense
forest canopies entirely or panially block
GNSS signals. yielding a reth,ced set of
obseniations and :reduced spatial accuracy.
or at wors1, loss of position. GNSS doesn't
work in many indoor loca1ions.
Signal strength is one limitation of
GNSS systems. Satellite launch coos1raints
force the use of relatively low-power trans-
mitters. and transmission distances are quite
large. funher diss ipating energy. Signals at
the receiver are often weak. and difficult to
distinguish from 111ulti-path transmis-sions.
Gro1u1d-based positioning services are
under development that solve many of these
problems. These rely on a set of distributed
transminers and precisely surveyed loca-
tions., and are similar 10 GNSS iu using the
same basic principle of range measurements
and 1riangulation (Figure IS-6). Each
ground-based station transmits a coded sig-
nal. wbkb is decoded in a receiver 10 calcu-
late a range. and then precise location.
Centimeter level positioning is possible. and
these gro1u1d-based systems may be used
iudepeudemly or in conjunction with GNSS
positioning. Ground-based an1ennas transmit
signals !hat are orders of magnirude stronger
than GNSS (Figure 15·7). l11is greaily
enhances reception in sub-canopy enviroo-
men1s. Since transm.iuers may b.e small,
dettse tleploymems across high buildings
may effectively remove the urban canyon
limitations.
Separate systems have been proposed
for indoor positioning. These fuse a number
of technologies. including Bluet-001h and
WiFi beacon measurements. and '·dead reck-
oning,., using a physical orelectronic gyro-
scope to measure distance and direction
traveled from the last know11 loC11tion. and

Fi&utt t S.6: A ctiagr,1m 11lwtr.1ting g,o1.1ncl-.b:uC'd posi1ioning 5\'$le11u., J11C:re uM:d i.n conjuuction wilh ONSS
satellite&, Si.mult.anc:ous ntC-11$\lttmcnta to tcrT«trial traosruittef'S aUow precise positiooing. with strongtt sig-
nals. pol«i.tially wore robus1r«cptiou. ai,d th(' ability ,o reduce siinal obstmctiou iu utban ot mouutaiuous
C'll\•irOIU1t('Clti.
 Chapter 15: New Developments in GIS 633

coordinate geometry as described in Chapter

5 to update current position.. Married with
3D interior GIS data. they may suppon
many convenience., energy. ,efficiency. and
safety of Life applications.
These systems are expe,cled to be more
costly on a per..u.nit area coverage basis than
sa1ellite GNSS signals. wb.ich are essentially
free to the end user. However, ground-based
systems may still find application, particu·
larly if rob11st. cemimeier-level positioning
is required for self-driviQg vehicles or auton-
omous robo1ic n.nviga1ion on stree1s or
1bro11gh bnildings.

Fltu•'<' JS.7: Aptnd-bascd tt:l.tlsmincr a..nd

tutlcm!JI for pree1se po,ilimiirtg, These GNSS·lik<:
,y1tcu" offtt ~00$1.m1ti..1l 1u:lvant~g" qvcr tuM!
comptemeot ONSS ,yue1tu io some applicatiow:
(courtesy Loctuo).
634 GIS Fundamentals

Datum Modernization
New darum 1'1'aiizatious will be released
in the ne:\.1 few years for U.S. territories,
based on improved measuremen1s and a
change in the basic model and methods for
danm,s. Dan11ns i;n the U.S. have been based
on a no11-Eanl1 ceutered ellipsoid to maintain
compatibility with previous systems and
measurements. Tbe disadvantages of this
system now outweigh the advantages. and so
a new official darum system. originally pro-
posed for Nonh America in 2022. bu1 now
likely for 2024 or later.
As described in Chapter 3. the conti-
nents are moving about the Earth on plates,
sometimes at rotes exccedh1g 2.5 cm (one
inch) a year. Ovea several decades. ~,is drift
leads to changes i.n the rel.alive positions
among points on different plates (Figure 15-
8). In addition. geodesists must factor the
tot.al amount of movement into their devel-
opment of datums. because measuremenls
have been made over severa I decades. so the
relative position of any 11:x:atioo depends on
bOlb the time and location of the respecti\'e
measurements. Further. lhe calculations
require we establisha s1a1ionary reference
frame against which 10 measure points.
Because of differences in our starting point,
and in how we account for c:ms.t..al move.
mem. diere are large differences between the
NAD83 family of dan,,ns used primarily in
North America. and the ITRF datums used
by most oftbe rest of the World .
The [TRF is an Eanh-centered system
based on measurement< of the X. Y. and Z
locations and velocities of points. It places
tl1e origin of !he adopted ellipsoid al the best
estimate of the cemer of mass of the Earth at
the time of each adjustment. The post-1986
NADS3 datums are similar in that they are
centered on an Earth model. In contrast 10
the ITRF system. 1he NAD83 danims have
nOI adopted the best measureme.ats of the
Earth's center. but rather a position compali·
ble with older NAD83 danmts. This center
assigned a value relative to aver.age. cmstal

Continuous crustal deformation model from ITRF2014 run

Fig11rt' tS.8: \'doci1y ,-cciors of 1Jte Enrib's surface, me21ourcd :u ITRF sm1101a 11crou tltc globe. Nole tbe
rclati,·ely high \'cl,oc1ties of the c:Mlcrn P~ci.fic: Pl~te Md \'ariousdi.ffercnl directions ofO\'eraH plole tra,-cl.
These: mow:rucn1s most be factored into future datum ~Jiz.atious (with pcnuissiou Ji. Dr<wcs.
w,\'\\s$irgas.orgl61eamtiufdoc:sll3olcciucst.?Ol 7_Orcwu_AC KIM_based_e1,_ l'1Rf20l 4_lAO_K.obe.pdf).
 Chapter 15: New Developments in GIS 635

velocit'ies on the North American tectonic mation between lhese two systems will be
plate. raiber than a globol network. There produced. and time dependent. It will likely
were many good reasons for maintaining 1he be in the fonn of an inirial X, Y, and Z traJls-
old origin, primarily because it maintained formation. and then a time-dependent piece
coordinate compatibility witl, older NADS3 in which the time difference between input
danuus. could be deployed rapidly. and was and output damms is accounted ior. 10 incor-
integrated with a relalh-ely dense network of porate relative co111inental ct:rift.
continuously opera.ting stations ·.vithin Nonh The tcn·year plan also describes the
America. process for improving the ven-ical datum for
With the development of the ITRF, tlte Nonh America. lmprovemeuts will be based
active participmion of the NGS. and tlte inte- on gravi1y measurements accross the hemi-
gration of CO RS stations into the ITRF nel- sphere. accouming for changes in gravity
work, there is strong impe.tus to luim1onize fields over time. and also for the rises in
datums in Nonb Ainerk:a with imcmational mean sea level. Much as with the horizontal
efforts. Improved global measurements will datum. it wiUbe based at least in pan on an
suppon more accurate horizontal and \'erti· integrated, global set of satellite-based mea-
cal danun development. and help suppon suremems. and tied 10 ITRF measurements.
precise. rapid, centimeier·level positioning The new venical danim wil.l allow the calcu·
worldwide. lation of heights tied to a measurement
As noted in Chapter 3. there is a plan to epoch.
update 1he cL-itwns used in Nonh America.
with the in1rOOuc1ion of the Noni, Americau
Te,reshinl Refere11ce Frame of2022
(NATRF2022). This will initally remove
much of the positional differtnce between
ITRFiWGS84 and U.S. datums. It will entail
a shift. often 11p to two melers (six feet) in
NAD83(20 1L) coordinates to NATRF2022
coordinates.
Current plans fix the NATRF2022 to
the Noni\ American and related tectonic
plates. This will make position shifts small
due to continental drift, and so generally
result in stable locations across time over
most ofNortb America. This is different
than the ITRF system, which generally holds
the average shift across all tectonic plates to
be zero. tltere1ly distributing shifts across the
globe. The ITRF and NATRF2022 positions
wiU diverge over time. The darum trn.nsfor-
636 GIS Fundamentals

Improved Remote Sensing

Spatial data collec1ion will be substan-
tially improved with the continuing
advances in remote sensing. More satellile<J,
higher spatial and temporal resolution.
improved digitaJ cameras. and new sensor
platfonns will all increase the array of avail-
able data. We will be able to sense new pbe-
nomen.1. and Jocate previously measured
features with increased precision and accu-
racy. Satelll1e-bas,ed sys1ems will cominue 10
increase in resoh11ion and coverage. in par-
ticular the freque,icy of data collection. The
Worklview system is a saliem example of
this 1rend (Figure 15-9). Three satellites
have been launched, the latest with a 0.25 m
spatial resolution. This is better than most
midscale aerial pl10<0graphs ofa decade ago.
Similar improvements in resolution and cov-
erage are in progress for other satellite image
providers. increasing the frequency and
types of images available for medium- 10
high-resohttioo mapping.
Parallel improvtmen1s con1uiue in aerial
image acquisition. Aerial cameras increase
in spatial resolution. meaning in.c:reasing
availability of detailed images. with higher
radiometric sensitivity. yielding a broader
range of applica1ions. Many systems have
higher radiometric breadth, leading to rou-
1i11e collection of more than the visible
wavelength spectrums. Nation.11 aerial
acquisilion programs are in1egr~1ing these
improveme01s. with NASS images com-
monly provided at a one-meter resolution

Flautt IS..9: An iJnaac from the Wortd,icw-.3 s:udlitc. Ulkco over Washi.iia.1on, O.C. This s:a1.dli1c pro-
duces up 10 25 e.1• rcs:Olutioll inugcs. tu.d it soon to be joi,~cd by otbus of tbc umc bi$:b ttto11.11ion. We
mayaoo11 ban: daily. global. higb·tt$oluiion im~gcs (court")' Oig.italG!obc),

image. up from the common 1wo meter reso· 4
lmion a rew years pas1. The USGS and other
organizations are providing subfoot resolu-
1ion images, perhaps nationwide. J.ndividual
light poles. cwtbs. and even porkii\g lot
cracks may b,e observed in these images.
rendering them a rich source of spatial data.
LiDAR data are another example of
improved remote sensing. l iOAR systems
are increasing in accuracy and resolution and
declining in cost with coordiu.ate data com
monly paired with digital aerial images.
Commercial LiDAR S)''Stems in the recent
past collected a data point every few square
meters. while current systems routinely col·
Jee.ts several samples per square meter. Soon.
tens or buodr«ls orsamples per square meter
will be comn,on. allowing unprecedented
spatial definition.
LiDAR data are dropping in cosL and
county to statewide LiDAR mapping will
likely become commoa Fusion of LiDAR
data with other image and spatial data will
conl'inue, and surely create new opportuni-
li~s ai!d appliea1ious.
Fla:.-tt t S..10: A pbotogrnpb (upper Id\) and tbttc-dimcmio1ial LiDAR &ta sci. rccordutg pr-cci.s.c cootdi
n:l.lc& n.12 \'ct)~bigb ~sotu1ion. Titcic a>ordi1utc d:tL<t ,ire uicful for i1up<c1ion.. cugi.1~cain.t;, aud 11Ui.it1c•
llllnl:C, 11ncl wc:rc u,ually 1,103vail11blc. or ql!itc c:<pctUh·c, prior lo LiOAR. (co~irl«)' Land~inl).
Chapter 15: New Developments in GIS 637
Three-Oime.nsional GIS ,,~II be more
widely developed and practiced due 10 data
provided by three-dimensional. ground or
near-ground level liOAR (Figure 15-10).
LiDAR systems carried on foot. ou autos or
drones. or in high-flying aircraft will pro,,ide
feature x. Y. and Z coordinates from various
venical. oblique. and horizontal perspee-
1ives. When combined these allow truer
lhree-dimensiona1 characterizations of
4
space. Data development~111anagemem.
analysis. and \!isualizatiou is curremly tak 4
ing place across architecture. CAD. survey 4
ing. and GIS sof~vares and disciplines, and
substantial development and fusing across
these discipliues is in the of.ling.
Advances in fuU-sized and mi,riamre
aircraft (Figure 15-11) are leading to
inc.reased availability of a broader range of
aerial imagery. Pioneered primarily by
NASA decades ago. this teC:hoology is mak-
ing the Je.ap to broad conunercial applica.
tion. Some experimental UAVs may Oy
raster and turn tighter than many planes car-
rying human pilols. Specialized payloads
may be carried cheaply on 1l1ese crafts, for
4
638 GIS Fundamentals
.· ..
,•
fi&1U't lS..11: UAV's lilted with camcm, ru.d adYan«d ONSS may collect s1.1b,.cen1itueter ai.cunq· spatW
data froru LiDAR 3:00 aerial i.Jn113ery (courteS) ' Gcodctic.t and Vclodyite).
long periods of time. and in more dangerous
conditions than in hum1n-piloted
.. aircraft
Small craft may be deployed quickly. and
have delllonstrated ultra-precise three·
dimensional measurements at very high res-
olu1ions and for site or small, area-specific
applications.
There is currently intense development
of smaU helicopters or airplanes outfiued
with cameras. Lif>AR. and GNSS position.
control, and telemetry electronics. This
allows preprogrammed Oight paths and on·
board "intelligence" to lllodify steering h1
response to wind. rain. or other in flight con-
ditioos. UAVs ha,•e comple1ed transoceanic
flights with guidance only at takeoff and
landing. and UAVs are routinely collecting
weather. water quality. and olher environ-
mental data.
There have been parallel effons to
reduce the size. weight. and improve the
ac.curacy ofLiDAR systems. as most current
sensor systems are too large and heavy for
most small tiAVs. LiOAR systeon weight
increases UAV size. Limits collection time,
and increases 1be hazards of collection. but
there bas been great progress in sys1em min·
iaturization, which should continue.
 Chapter 15: New Developments in GIS 639

Three-Dimensional GIS, Exterior rately me.asure all three dimensions. Drones.

and Interior
Software is expanding 10 c0Uec1. man-
age, and analyze data 11l.1t provide rich.
three-dimensional representations. For moot
of i1s his1ory. GJS bas mos1 COllllllOnly
1reated a rhird dimension as an anribute. a
value stored for a location, bul did not sup-
pOrl an imegra1ed lhree dimensional model.
Topology. overlay. and mos1 analyses. par-
ticularly in a vector model. require a planar
geome1ry. Three-dimensional analysis was
often done via specialized. engineering or
design tools $UC-h as CAO or visualization
software.
Data developmeo1 bottleoecks slowed
1he developmenl oftluee-<iimensional GJS.
ii has been impossible 10 quickly and accu-
LiDAR. and high resolu1io1b cameras have
filled 1his gap. combining bo1h x-y-z coordi-
nate measurements with centimeter or beuer
resolu1ion images. SySlems are now avail-
able which allow bod, sopbis1ica1ed mea-
surement and rendering of 1hree-dimensional
s1mc1ures (Figure 15-12).
Remote sensing is also , 1enruring
indoors. enabling tllree·dimensionaJ data
collection of building interiors. These da1a
are useful for 1naintenance. ·security, plan.
ning, emergency evacuation, and damage
assessment. Backpack mouo1ed data ocquisi·
tion systems collect positio1Js via LiDAR
and color and texture from multiple cameras
(figure 15-13). These da1a ruay be s1i1cbed
1oge1her 10 provide full 1hree-dimensional

Fl&m't' 15· 12: An c:x.amplc of c.,;tre:mcly hiab-rc'°huion LiDAR and iiutt,c coordinate dtt1a. This: is a combi·
rl3tion of multiple iinll~ , icwi 10 Cr<tne 11 l1U'C"c-dii1muio11al d.'IUI sc-1 of Mi lll'e'.ll on 1J1c U.C. Bc-d:clC)' cam·
pus. Thc1,c arc- rc11l d,ua., ;md not gc1.1cr.1.1cd nninution,. cn:ntcd &om subceutimcter,rcsolutio11 X. Y, Z <Utn..
bna~c data pro\ide color iufomiatiou aod Li.DAR data localiou au tC:\:t\tre for CY«)' poin1. allowing lifelike
rcoditioos fun any location. Rcs~b seeks to o,·crcoruc da1a coUC'Ccion. stotajc, and ~ cuiui; li.millll·
tions, .1odllt:t such JUI d1csc 11rc routi:nc:lr used iu the l'IOMOO·dist:mt future (courtesy A,·1ddi Zakhor, U .C.
8crkdcy Video "nd lmngc Ptoccn iog lnb).
640 GIS Fundamentals

I Flgutt I S.13: Ali c.xn~lc ofinci<>or, three·

dimcns-ioil.'1 da,1;11 acq11L$"11ion :md 01",i:ull<?\tioo.
Image and Li.OAR data coll«tcd ,,.·nh a bru;k-
paek S)'Stc-i~ (lop) J?FO\·idc d1t!c-din1c1Uio~l
r«O'l1t1n1ct1ons of1ndoorco\'2!'0!11uc111s (1n1d·
die). TI1ci;c may be combiocd. mni11tai.uing
acrumtc absolute po,ition. to r«<>nstrn~ con-
l'lrttcd bui.ldini imcriors (bottom). While ('WI·
m1tl)• :tn 11cti \'C: l'C'Knrcb :1rc:1, pro~.n is
nPJ>llrcnt in appti~tionJ, i,.ud will a.c:«lctUtc a$
data coU«tion. t-tongc-. pr1Xc::»ing, and analr-
sis hurdles ate o,·c«:Ollli:. :1ud as ,~andatds ate
~itblidtcd ford.11a $fOl'\'li'C i nd llOCcH (c<>ur•
tcsy ,\,·idcb Zal.:])Or, U,C. Bcrl.clcy V'id1:o wd
Image Processing Lab).

representations, and combined with exteriors
to create a fulJ coordinate and color record of
building interiors and exteriors.
Software vendors are developing da1a
models and wOlkOows 10 use 1bci;c da1a. For
example. ESRI has inlroduced an indoor
mapping produc1 lhal supports development.
analysis. planning. and ou1p1n in a 30 build-
Chapter 15: New Developments in GIS 641
ing model. These provide more than virtual
walk-lhroughs. as usefol as lhese are, 10
allow distance. area, and volume measure·
ment, fixed and movable asset management.
and engineering, en\rironme-mal conditfon·
ing. and remodeling calcnlalions.
642 GIS Fundamentals
Cloud-Based GIS
Cloud-bast<J GIS provides data storage.
analysis. and display capabilities over the
internet wi1h services usually provided from
one or multiple remote locations via the
internet. Cloud-based computing includes
broadly accessible internet mapping applica-
tions. but also includes darn storage and a
full suite of software-supponed analytical
capabilities. something that has generally
followed a local or private network architec-
nire. During the recent past. GIS software
primarily re.sided on a local orclosely net·
worked bard disk. and ran on the cemral pro·
cessing unit of a local compmer. You
downloaded data to a local hard drive. and
purchased software to physically install ou
the local computer. although the software
may have referenced licenses or other
resources on a (us ually) proprietary server
on another compmer. Cloud-based comput-
ing envisions maoy of these resource.s pro-
vided from distant sources. with the local
compuiers pertiaps serving only as adisplay
and command entry ponal - da1.a, software.
and processing may all be elsewhere.
Cloud computing has many potential
advantages. There may be a lower to1al cost
of ownership. because you may only need 10
use a set of software occasionaUy. and cru.1
pay as you need it, rather than a fixed price
irrespective of total use. Economies of scale
in data storage and maintenance or in com-
pu1ing power may be favorable, as well as
the centralization of specialized technical
suppon. Additional capacity lllay be added
as needed, as marl.el share grows, orspec.ific
project demands increase. Resources may be
scaled up or back as needed. New capabili·
ties may be rented or 1ested OJore easily. and
soflware functions may bener adopt a rental
model and pricing stntcnire.
Cloud rnmpuling may also provide
faster. broader. safer. and more continuous
data access. Internet connections are increas-
ing in speed. and solid-state memory in large
installations prov;des faster access yet.
LaJge se"1er faciLiries may be on continu-
ously. always accessible. Large server arrays
may be outfitted with proper backup and
protec1ion. including da1a mirroring at dis-
tinct locations. Mirroring pro"ides data
rechmdancy. because lhe same data are
stored concurrently at different physical
facilities. often miles or even countries apan.
!fa fire. flood. orotherdisaster'befalls one
data server. the mirror image is likely to
remain intact.
Internet mapping is perhaps the simplest
and most common fonn of cloud-bast<J com-
puting. Many internet applications allow
users to compose maps on a Web page. Tl1e
individual user has some control over the
data layers shown. tile extent of the mapped
area. and the symbols used 10 re,nder the
map. The internet is different from other
technologies because it allows a wide range
of people to cus1om·produce. maps. Each
user may choose her own data and cano,.
graphic elements 10 display. The user is
largely free from any dara de\lelopment
chores and thus needs to know \-~el)' liule
abom d.ita entiy. editing. or the paniculars of
map projec1ions. coordinates. or other details
required for the produc1ion of accurate spa-
tial data. TypicaUy. the map itselfis tlte end
product. and may be used for illustration. or
to suppon analyses that will be performed
emirely within the user·s bead.
These internet mapping applications are
panicularly appropriate when a large num·
ber of users need 10 access a limited number
of data layers to compose maps. The iutemel
users may select tl,e themes. variables, and
symbolization. in contrast 10 a static map
graphic. in which a website canogmpher
defines the propenies of each map.
Because most internet mapping applica-
tions are built for users who have little
knowledge of spatial data. maps.. and analy-
sis. ,be suite of spatial operation1s allowed is
usually very sparse. Most intemet mapping
is currently limited 10 creating simple dis-
plays. This is changing. as query. distance

flU1ctions. and basic tools are provided.
albei1 in veiy simple fonns.
As noted in Chapter 7. web mapping
services are another step toward a cloud·
ba.1ed GIS model. Data arc sto~ wme·
where "on the cloud:· and a specific link to
1hem provided. Oa1a are accessible after
forging a connection. as if1hey were from
any other disk source, at least as far as the
accessing software view. The GIS program
doesn•, dis1inguish betwttn local and cloud
data once the connection is made.
This brings up one major linu,aiion of
1he cloud model. i1s dependeoce on a fast
connection to the cloud of resources. Slow
internet spttds become a hindrance. panicu·
larly widi large data or image se1s 1ha1char·
acterize many spatial analyses. Each zoom.
pan. or layer addition may require a scene to
be repain1ed. involving the movement ofbil·
lions of pixel:s through the web connection.
Open GIS
Open Standards for GIS
Open standards in computing seek to
reduce barriers to sharing programs. data.
and information. Spatial data structures may
be veiy complex. perhaps more than many
other kinds of data. Data may be raster or
veclor. real or binary. or represent point, line.
or area features. In addition, different soli·
ware vendors. may elect to store their raster
imagery using differeJll fonnats. and data
may be delivered oo different physical
media. or fonnaned differem ways. If a per·
son orders an image in one fom1at, bu1 ber
computing sys1em does not suppon the
physical media on which the data are writ·
ten. or does n.,ot tu)derstand the file structures
used 10 s1ore the image, then she may not be
able io use ibese data. Incompaiible systems
are generally described as non-interoperable.
and open standards seek to remove this non.
interoperability.
The development of open srandards in
computing is driven by the notion diat the
Chapter 15: New Developments in GIS 643
While this may be overcome to some extent
wilb local caching. a111icipa1oiy download·
ing. for exan1ple. pulling data ui a wider area
than lhat immediately viewed, and other
software techniques, but within limi1s. In
mru.,y instances there is oo s.ubsti11ne for
extremely fast in1emet speeds. Widespread.
fast internet should be forthcoming. but
access may depend on intemet demand as
well as supply.
To date. analytical tools delivered o,•er
lhe internet are still quite mdimentary. and
may likely remain so for some time. Robust.
correct opera1ion of an analytical 1001 is dif·
fic ult to provide in many instances. and
requires a sizeable investment Systems fo r
delivery. payment. and protection for a
broad. interacting suite of geospatial tools
will take development. both technically and
culrurally.
larger user com1mu1ity ben"fits when there
are no technical barriers tha·t inhibit the free
exchange of data and methods. Open stan·
dards seek to establish acoDlJlloo framework
for representing. manipulating. and sharing
data. Open standards also seek 10 pro,ide
methods for \'endors and users 10 certify
compliance with the stan<lacd. Standards
have been developed in a number of endeav.
ors: for example. tlte ISO 9600 specifica·
tions for physical storage fonnats allow any
manufacturer. data developer, or user 10
build. read. write. or share data on hard
drives. optical disks. tapes. or other storage
devices.
Businesses and many ocher orgaaiza-
1ions by their nature have a proprietary inter-
\'St in the spatial data euuy. ·storage, and
methods they produce. Many vendors star·
vive by the revenue their GIS products gen-
erate. and so have a strong tnterest in
protecting tlteir iuvesunent~ and intellecrual
property. However. the developers also may
644 GIS Fundamentals
spur adoption of their GlS packages and
speed up the development ofcomplementary
software by making the internal workings of
some portions oftheir GIS packages public
knowledge. for example. by publishing the
data stmctures and rom,ats used to store
their spalial data. Thus. these vendors also
have a strong interest in making pans of
their system open. to tile public.
Open <tandnr<ls for spatial data are the
responsibility of tll<, Open Geospatial Con·
sortium. T11e Open Geospatial Consortium
has developed a framework to ensure
interoperability. They do tliis by defining a
general. conuuon set of base data models.
types. domains. and structures, a set of ser-
vices needed 10 sbnre spatial data. and speci-
fications to ease t.ra11sla1ion among different
represenlations that are compatible with the
Open Geospatial standards. Data developed
by a civil engineer and stored in a raster for-
mat on a Unix version of Arc/Info should be
readily accessible 10 a soil sciemist using
GRASS on an OS-X Apple system.
O~n standar~s ill GIS art relatively
new. Whlle most ,of the large software ven-
dors. data develo~rs. and government and
educational organizations are members of
the Open Geospatial Consonium. some
components of the standard are still under
development. In the future, there will be
increased emphasis on c-0mpliance to the
Open Geospatial standards.
Open Source GIS
Open source :software is differe.nt from
mos1 other software in that it is distributed
free. along with tile source code. TI1e open
source organization (www.opeosource.org)
requires that the software is not by design
restricted 10 a specific operating system or
other technology, that there can be no royal-
ties, and that there be no explicit discrimina4
lion against fields of endeavor, persoos. or
groups. But the main. defining characteristic
of open source software is an open, grass-
roots network of collaborators developing.
documenting. aod freely sharing source
code.
There are open source soflware of many
types. from operating systems to word pro-
cessors. and induduig GlS. Open source
GIS software projects are directed al a range
of applications. and notable examples
or
include the development general-purpose
GIS (e.g .. GRASS, FMaps) to specific utili-
ties (e.g.. MapServer for Web-based spatial
data display. query. and analysi~l or toolkits
to support GIS software development (e.g..
GOAL, sbapelib).
Open source use is a large and growing
phenomenon for many reasons. High soft.
ware costs are driving many org.auiza1ions
toward open source software. Ucenses for
some commercial products are tens to hun 4
dreds of thousands of dollars ancually for
some large organizations. If these organiza-
tions employ staff programmers.. open
sour<:e GlS may meet geoprocessing needs
at a reduced cost.
Combiued GIS and analysi$ has grown
partic.ularly in the open source S'tatistic.al
package R. Abroad range of spatial data for-
illalS m supported. iileludlng slia~filts.
geopackages. geodatabases. common raster
fonnats. government and ISO standard inter·
change formats. and standard iniage types.
so that there are low barriers 10 data transfer.
Packages for direct access to general and
specific spatial databases are freely avail-
able. Given the tl1ousands of R dc,•elopers
and open code fonnat. abnost e\'ery analysis
method available in proprietary packages are
also replicated in R packages. pl us thou-
sands more. WIJile R exhibits many disad-
vantages relative to commercial GIS
software in production or lnrge-org,,nization
senings. due 10 its lack of integtation. steep
le.aming curve. often relatively slow execu.
tion times. and complexity. it of1en provides
many advantages in a broad range of specific
analyses.
Many organizations use open source
GIS because commercial produc1s may not
provide the required functions o.r capabili·
ties. Tbree-<limensional s1n1c111ral analysis
tools may exist tha1 meet the requirements of
a mining company, and so they may develop
specific applicatious. This develop,nent may
 Chapter 15: New Developments in GIS 645

be more efficient and less expensive in ru1 on a standard sel of map projections, and we
open source environment. will combine the spatial data of various
Open somc.e use is expanding in many classes of entities to sol\•e spatial problems.
countries bec-.ause of specific governmental This book is an attempl 10 provide a founda.
iniriatives. China. India, and Brazil ltave all tio11 to effectively use spatial aualysis tools. I
supponed open source software in general, hope it has provided enougb infonnation to
and operating systems in particular. to main· get you started, and has sparG,.ed your interesl
tain independence from foreign fimis. in learning more.
reduce costs to government and local busi.
ness. and develop local infonnatiou technol·
ogy expenise. Because tltese nations are
home. to more than a 1.hird of die world's
population. their ac1ions alone. are substan·
tiaUy increasing the use of open source G!S.

A Hybrid Model
Proprieta,ry software ven<lors may adopt
a hybrid software approach, where they
interact with open software and systems.
This has take11 many guises. Some may sitn·
ply suppon s1andards. and ensure their sys-
tems may access aud generate industry
standard data forms. But a fuller approach
provides the code in a mi~ of open and pro-
prietary pans. Base code may be provided
free. with a charge for extensions or some
set of additional capabilities.
Alleroately. there may be charges for tl>e
base code. but enough source code or adher-
ence to open :standards that open source
extensions can be easily added later. This
aJJows for the development of an "ecosys-
tem'· of extension around a base application.
both proprietary and open source.

Summary
GIS are a dynamic collection of concep-
nial models. iools- aod methods that use spa-
1ial dala. As such, they \\~II continue to
evolve. What becomes srandard practice in
the funire may be quite differem from the
melhods we apply 1oday. However, the ftm.
damental set ,of knowledge will remain
unchanged. We will still gather spatial aod
amibute data,. adopt a spatial data model to
conceptualize re11;Jworld entities. and use
map coordinates to define positions io space.
The coordina·1es are likely m remain based
646 GIS Fundamentals

Suggested Reading

The \Vorld Wide Web is the best source for information about new developments and
trends in spaiial da1a acquisilion. analysis. aud ou1pt11. !11 oomras1 10 previous chap·
1ers. nearly all 1he suggested readings are websites. We apologize 1bat many links may
be short-Lived. but ~ie reader is directed to search for similar and additional sites for
the most current infonnation.
www. gislounge.coru
www.nasa.gov. general NASA entry point
www.gis.com. an ESRI . .sponsored website, general informalion

W\\~v.usgs.gov. public domain data from die USGS

""~v.usgs.gov/cemers/eros. another common USGS entry poin1 for image a,1d GIS
data
www.epa.govl,geospatiaV
"'"~v.opengeospatial.org. open GIS consonium
bttps:/fcatalog.data.gov
www.gpsworld.coml

www.digitalglobe.com. high.resolution satellite data

www.gisuser.com
www.direclioosmag.com

""~v.u-blox.com/en/blogs/insights/live-key-trends-gps
 Chapter 15: New Developments in GIS 647

Study Questions

Wltich of the described new lechnologies is likely to have the largest impact in
1s..1 -
GIS over the next five years? Why?

15.2 - Wltat are areas of spatial data emry. analysis. output. or storage lb.at are in dire
need of innovation or new and better methods? What is a major bottleneck to for-
ther advancement of spatial infonnation science and technology?

15.3 - What is Open Source GIS? How will this change spatial computing?
648 GIS Fundamentals
 649

Appendi x A : Glossary
Terms used In GIS and Spatial Data Development and Ana lysis
A<'cm'flcy: The 1leatness of an obsetv;uion or eni.mtne to the ,rue vah1e.
Active t'1'mote, Sfflsingsystem: A system that both e mits energy and records the energy returned by
t.1J1e1 objec1s.
Adapth·e samp ling : A method to increase sampling efficiency by increasing the spatial sample fre.
quency iin areas with higher spati.'ll variability.
Adjac,tncy: Two are.a objects that sha.re a bounding lint are topologically adjacent.
Affln<' roo1•dffila1t- rnu1srormAdo11: A se1of linear equations used 10 ttMS{otm froa~ one Cattesian
coordinate system to another. The tr.ausform.1.tion applies a scaling. translation. and rotation.
Alm1rnac: lmpcmant $}'$fem infom1atio,1 serit by each GPS s1uellite. :i.od recorded by a GPS
receiver to ob1ain current satellite health. constdlation status. aud other iufonnation helpfuJ
for GPS positioniog.
ApplkAtion se.,·, •er : a middle tier iu a common databas:e architecture. that p..1SSes requests fordnta
from higher 1icr. user interfaces, to die database storage and se.rve.r tier at lo,ver levels.
Arc: A li.ne. usually defmed by a sequetlce of coordinate points.
.ArcGIS: A GIS software package produced by Environmental Re:se~ch Sys1ems. nnc., of Red·
lands. Califorui;,,
Area fe::i1111'f': A polygon. collection of coniiguous ras1er cells, orothcr representation of a bounded
lltCtl, The fe:m1te is charac1erizt<I by a set of :mribu1es Md b..,s an in.side Md an outSide.

ASCU: American Standard Code for Jnfomtation interchange. A set of numbtrs associated with a
symbol 11.1sed i.n infonn:uion storage and processing. Nombers are bet\veen 0, and 255 and
way be Iq>rcsentcd by a single byte of data.
Aspl'ct: Tiie direction of sceepest descent on a terrain smface.
Almo5Pberic d elay: A change in the speed of light. and more specifically GNSS signal sp«-d.
,vben p:1ssing through the atmosphere. ·
Alruospberic distortion: lm;,gc displacemcul due lo the bending of ligh1 as it passes through the
atmosphere.
A11ribu1e: Non-spatial data associated with a spa1iaJ feature. Crop 1-ypc, value. add.ri.'Ss, or other
infonnuion describing the characteristics of a spatial feature are recorded by the anributtt.
Autornd G-e-o.o.--pi.tild: A suite of GIS software. systems produced by Autodesk. (uc .• of Sau R.3.foel.
Califom.ia.
AVBRR: Ad1-•Mct'd Very High Resoluton Radionieter. A disieontinued sateUitc system nui by the
Nationa l Oceanographic and Almosphrric Administration to collecl visible, tJ1ennal. and
i.nfmrM satellite im,1.ge-s oftbe globe eaeb day. The systt111 had up to a I. I Ion resolution.
and was: the earliest S3lcllite with daily global coverage, useful for lauduse mapping.
8::indwldtb: A parameter used in kernel mapping 10 affect the it10uence. orspre3d, of each poini
observation.
8:i.se- stallon: GNSS recording sm1ion over a prec-iscly smveyed location. used in differeotiaJ cor·
rectiou.
650 GIS Fundamentals

B{'AtOn rtctlvt1·: A GNSS receiverc3p.'1ble of decoding beacon base s t~tio11 signals 1~nsmitte-d by
the U.S. Coast Guard btacon stations.
BNuing: A. direction. usunl spe,cified as a geographic angle measured from sorne b:ue I inc. e.g.. true
north.
B•ID011, AChin•s GNSS sys1•ms
Bench mark: A m-onumcnted. precisely surveyed location for which coo.rdinates m known 10 a
h.ig.b degree of accuracy.
Bi.linen.. iuterpollltiou: A method for cakuh'llin_g values for a grid location based on a linear combi·
oation of nearby grid values.
Bi.oar)' dassiDcatlou: A classification of sp.itial objects into 1wo cl.Asses.. typically denoted by a O
class and a l class.
Bina.I")' numbe1·: a oumber presented in numberiug sysiem with two possible digits. 0 ~ud I. with
succcssivccolunms in po,,.crs of two , e.g.• I represents I, JO represents 2. I l represents 3.,
100 represents 4. etc.
Bi.n~ry 01,erafiou: A spatial op1:ration with two inputs.
BLOB: a Bitlary Large Object. generally a non-SJ>:ttial digi1t1l obje<:t or filed stoted in or linke<l 10 in
a spatial database. e.g., and image or video.
Bir: A binary digittt A bit has one of'rwo values. on or off. zero or one. Thi$ is cbe smt\ll esr mti1 of
digital info1;mation s1orage and the basic building block from which all other comput~r data
and prog,n.ms are represented.
BooleRu :dgebra: Conditions used to selee1 features wjth set algebraiccoudit:ious. iuch,dingaud. or.
n.nd not conditions.
Bouudnry gener111lizM.lou: Simplific:uion of the ..tr'Ue" boundary lines that defwe foatures d·ue 10
the inability lo record every point along a boundary. Some sampling must occur in any non·
mathelll31ic-_.,11y defwed boundary. and a strffi.ght line segmem often does no1 fully represem
cun•es betwttn the endpoints.
or
Buffer: A bt1ffer atta is a polygon orcollec,ion cells th31111e wilhin specified proxJmities of a set
of foatures. A buffer operation is one that creates buffer areas.
Bundle adjustmeur: The simultaneous removal of geometric distor1io11 and produc1io1:i of onhopho·
tographs from a nmnber of nerial images.
8~1P: A unjt of compu1ers1omge consisting ofS binary digits. Each binary digit may hold a zero or
a one. A by~e may store up 10 256 diffe.rtnt Vlllues.
CIA c:ode CPS: Coarse acquisi1ion code, n GPS signal used for rapid. relatively low~accuracy posi,
1io1uil estiin:ttts. Accuracies \vithom fo.nher corrections are 1ypically from a fe,.v 10 tens of
meters.
CAD/CAM: Compmet Aided Design/Computer Aided Mapping. Software used ptimilrily by
design engineers and utilities managers to produce two and three dimensional drawings.
Related to G LS in that coordina1e infom1anon is input. manipuL,ted. and output. These sys·
tems often do uo1 store ma~pro)t"etcd ooordinates. aud do no1 have sophisticated attribute
entry and manipulation capabil.iti.es.
C•d•srr•I: Wilh refereuce 10 property lines or ownership. for example. a cadaslllll laytr un,nUy
contains property Jines, and a e-adastml survey is the stuwy of property lines.
CAndidRte kty: A cohuun orcolunuis in a ~ lalioual t.'lblc 1ha1 meets We requiteuiems for., key. pri-
marily tbat it uniquely identifies every row in the table.
CA...-ltr--phAst GPS: Relatively slow bu1 accur,ue signal used to esti.ruine position. Position mny be
determined to within a few ccutimetcrs or better.
 Appendix A.: Glossary 651

CRrtC'$hrn coo1·dlo11t~ systC'm: A rigbt·:Mlgle two or 1bree-dimensional eoordin:ue system. A.-<es

intersect at 90 degrees. and the interval along each a.'\is is linear.

CArrographle modt'lfng: The comblnntion of spa1ial da1:, layers dU'ough the npplic.uion of' spnthll
operati-ons.
C•rrog...phle obj..1! A digi tal ,epreseut,iion of a real.wortd entity.
Carlometric map: A map produced such that the ft'lativc posj1ions of objects dep:icted me spatially
sccumte, within the l imits of the technology and 1be map projection used.
Cell dimension: The edge length of squaie cells used io rasttr data sets.

Ct>nfroid: A «ntral point loauioo for an area feature, often defined ns the poin1 with the lowest
average distance to a ll points th.ii define the area boundary.

C h::ira('ttl'istk hull: A polygon boundiuy thnt attempts to inchlde the densest concentration or a set
of observed points. Ofieu used iu home range a.ualysis. i1 sta.r1s w ith a Tri.nugulined Irregular
Network. or TIN. or points, a nd winnows large triangles to some s pecified reduction thresh·
old.
C boroplelb map: A map of polygons with colors assigned in a gradient thal depictsdassified levels
of a vuiable. These are oommooly used for PQJ>ulatiou density. avemge income. be~ltb risk.
or othe.r var-iables mapped by administr.11ive boundaries in which high to low caiegories arc
of inten?sL
Cl:lssil1c:ulo11: A eatcgorization of spatial objec1s b.'lsed on their properties.

C lients: Programs that rcqmist data from n server.

Clip (o,•erllly): The vertical combin:uion of 1wo data foyers. with a <:lip layer typi(·.ally de-sig.u..1ted
t hat defines the extem aud location of output areas, and 111211 preserves only t he data from 1.he
uou-cll.p layer for the clip area.

Cloud r.ompu1tiug: Utilizing computer processing 1.ha1 is remotely located, typically on a ne tworked
array of disuuu compute I'$. accessed 1brougb the World Wide Web.
C lust e-r sampling: A technique of grouping samples. to rech1c.e tra,•d time. among samplc-s while
nu1im,.;Jling sample l1umber.
Code-phase C PS: see CIA code.

COGO: Coordinate Geon.1euy. the entry of spa1ial da1a via coordina1e pairs. US\1atly ob1ail'led from
fie ld Slirvc.ying instruments.

COMPASS: Olinese sa1ellite-b.'l.sed positioning systems.

Conrateu.ated key: The use of two or more table columns as a key in a relational da1abase manage-
ment sysrem..
Confonual coordin:ue u·aus:fonuntiou: A registr.uion that requires scale changes to be «1.uaJ in
t he x and y directions.
Confonu:d p troj e-r1ion: A map projection is confomial when it ptC$crvcs $h.ape for some portions of
tb e map.
Coui<" p rojec11lon: A map projec tion that uses a cone as lhe developable surface.

C onnectivity: A record or represa,.tation of d)e coru)tttedness of li.n.ear features. Two linear fea,
nu-es ot necworks ate conuec1ed if they Ul3Y be tmvcrsed w i1.hout leaving the nctwotk.
Continuous s•n•raee: A vnriable or phenomenon that changes gradually throt1gh two-dimensional
sp.1cc. .e.g .. e levruiou or 1empen,;1u.re.
Contour line: A line of constant value for a mapped variable.
652 GIS Fundamentals

Control polnts: Polin locations for which map ptojec1ion tll\d dat3.b3:Se coordinate pairs 3re ktto,vn
to a high d~gree of accuracy. Conlfol points are most ofte-n used to convert digi•ized coordi·
oatt$ to standard map projection coordinntes.
Com·erge11t cfrde: A circle usod in defining a facet for a triauguLatC'd irregular ne1wotk. that passc-s
1hrougb thrtt points, and does not contain any other poin1s.

Com·u hull: The !l)Olygon duu completely cont3ius a set of p0in1.$ and lhat bas no acu,e (< IS<>°)
exterior angles.
Coordiul\tt$: A p~r or triplec of numbers used to define 3 pOSitiou in space.

Coordinate, tnnsformation: TI1e conversion or assignment of coordinates from a no11-projec1ed

~ootdi.n:'lte system to a coordinate system. typically vi:i a sys1eru of linear rua.theru:uical equa.
tions.
Cor(' A.rtS\: The ce-Jlu.,,1or ptim:uy coucentnltion for :i set of poi..ntS.
Coii't s urface: A s patial depic.tiou of the cost of traveling among locations iu an area.
Cubic t:011,·oludon: A Il.\etbod of cak:ulating grid values based on a weighted combin:nion of 16
nearby grid oells.
CyHndrk:d p1·0Jtc-tlon: A innp projec:cio11 that uses a cylillderns the dc\'elopable surface.

Dangle: An unimc:nded o,·crshoot in a line segm ent w hen crossing another Linc scgmcm .
Ds\t11 lodt J>tndtnct: The ability 10 make changes in da1a suucmre in a d.1t.1~.se m.1a..1.gen1tut sys.
lcJ.n that arc transparent to users or applications that use dala.
DAISl mod('l: A method of representing sp.,tial and asp31in.l components of real.,vo,kl emities on a
oomputer.

DA111bQst nrnnnge-mtnl s~trn (DBl\tS): A collection of $l0t'twa.re tools fo, the entry. <>rganization.
SIOrage. .ind o utput of d;ua.

Data Pane: Area of a map that contains graphic depictions of an area, nsu:illy t he largest porti<,n of
a map.

Datum: A se1 of coordioate locations specifying horizontal positions (for a horizontal datum) or ver~
1ical positions (for .1 venical datum) on the Earth S\U'face.
Datmu adjus tme1,t: A re~calculation of a danun based on additional measurements.
Daturu re1'.ll?a11tioo: The outcome of a datum re.adjustment. :a specific. defined datum ·surfuc.e and
set of datum points.
Datum $W.ft: Tile change in horizon1al or venieal point loca1ion th.it tcsnlls &om a datwu adjus1.
ment.
DAtuw tr:rn..stornuulon: A method or set of equations that allows the calculation ofa pollu loca1io11
in a one dattun based on coordinates expressed in a different datum.
DtdimHion: The ru1.g.le betwee111he bearing towatds True North and the bearing towards Magnetic
North.
Dtbluotiy 11·ltingle-s: The-set of 1riru.1gles fom1ed in a triangul.ued irregular net,vork. co1lll.eaing
points to Lhl! ntartst points to c..rtale triauglc-s. while ensuring that the triangle edges don·1
cross. and are fonned by convergent circles.
DEM: Digital Elevation Model. a raster set of elevations. usually spaced in a unifonn horit.onta l
grid.
 Appendix A.: Glossary 653

De,•eloJ>flblt s m1lltt: A geonu:rric sbnpe omo wh.idi die E;mb. sphere is east duriug a map projec-
tion. Tl!ie devdopablc surface is typicalJy a cone, cylinder. plane. or other surface th.at may be
mathematically Oatte.oed.
Dig.it11l tern:1.iu model; A digital represeniation of elCVillion, including DEMs. TINs. and otbt'r dig.i-
tal represe.nta1ions.

Dll\1>h.rngm: A c:uuera component I.bat functions like the iris oftbe human eye. 10, cou1rol the
amount of light available 10 fall on tJJc film or CCD recording surface, and ,o improve focus.
Difttrentl:'d GNSS: GNSS positioning bast<! on two rcctivers. one at a know lo(.niou 3od one at a
roving,. unknown location. Data from roving receivers arc corrected by the. difference error
compu.e<t at the known location.
Oig.it:d map: an clectroujc, graphic depiction of an area.
Dlg.lclz.e. dlgtc:Wug.: To eouver, p:iptror oilier brudcopy maps to comp11(er.compatible 3.Ud SfOred
data.
Digitizing trible: A device with .'I O,u surft\ce and inp,n pointer used to digitize budcopy maps.
Dilution of pncisio n (DOP): See position dilution of precision ( POOP).
Dbsolw: An c:iperation th:11 reinoves li1les separo.ti.og adj;)cen1 polygons tl\,'lt are c<>nsidered equal,
baSt.-d o u some characteristic or meas,1re. A dissolve operation is typically applied based on
equill Vl'llues of vttrittbles that are contained i.o B tllble a:ssocia1ed with 1be d:ita layer.
Dom:.i11; The range of "alues a \fariable way take.
DORJS: Dopplerorl>itog13pby by mdiopositioning in1egrated 01) satelUte. precise ,neasurffllent of a
set of poi.ius on the Earth via Doppler shifts in sa1ellite !iguaJs.
Ool dC'nd ty maps: Maps with dots pl:,ced lo.side of polygons i.n proportion to numeric value of a
\'3tiabl>e. These are ustd 10 represent population for coun1ies or siates. or other nu.llltric data
corre-sponding to defmed areas, with more dots for higher levels of the variable, for example,
one do• per t .000 inb:iibit.<uns.
ORC: Digital Raster Graphics, a digital version of USGS fine- to medimn-s.c.afe maps.
DusiJ.rrtqutn.ty GPS 1·ttth•t1·: A teceivet c3pable of mea.suri.ng the Ll 3nd L2 broadcaSI sign.,ls.
and using these 10 tsiimate bighJy accurate and pr« isc positions. typically to centimeter lev·
els.
Dyn:.mk heig ht: A point"s gtop~cnlial number. di\'ided by a nommlizing conslant. It is used pri~
m.<trily \Vhen measuring wttter levels or hydraulic beads.
Easting: The .ixis approxima1ely par.tileI 10 lines of equ3J latitude in UTM and a n umber ofother
standard map projee-tions.
Elec1rowag11• lk Sp C'c trum: A range of energy \V.1'l.\'Cleugtbs. from X·rays through ~dar wave.
lengths. ihe electromagnetic spectrum is iypically observed at wavelengths emitted by the
Sun or by objects on Earth. covering w,weleugths from the visible to the 1he1mal i.nfrnted
rtgion.
Ellit>sold: A n131hema1ic-al model oft be shape of d1e Earth tb.nt is approximntely the sbl'tpe of 3 tl:u-
tened sphere. formed by rotating an ellipse.
EDl1>soldal bdgbt: Height m,asurcd fromao ellipsoidal surface 10, point oo the .s11rfuce of1be
Eanb.
Endl~p: Tbe eod,to,end overlap io. aerial photographs taken in the same Oigln li.oe.
Eutity: A rt.a.I \vorld item or phenomenon tha1 is rcprese.nt<.-d in a GIS systfm or database.
654 GIS Fundamentals

Ephtm('rls: lnfornn.·uioo on GNSS s..1.tellite orbitS, required by GNSS receivers to computer sateUi1e
position. range distan~. and r«.ei,·er position.
Epoch: A specific date to which GNSS d:ita are nom~lized. 3ccoundng for drift ln coordin:.nes
through tUne due to tectonic movement.

Epsilon b•nd! Abond surrounduig o lioeor fenn,re 1ba1 describes lbe positiooal error relative to 1be
foaturc loca tion.
Equal-llrtll c.las~tncation: A da$$itication me thod that assigos c lasses such that each (:)a,s corre·
spouds to an equal art3.
Equal-inte1'Y:ll dasslftradon: A class:ific-ation method that assigns an equally spaced sec o f classes
across 1he ronge of-' variable.
Equipoteutfal surface: As surface along whfoh the gravitational pote ntial is equa l. perhnps best
t1uders1ood as where the pull of grnvity is equal :,cross the S\ltfuce.
Eri:1se, function: A vtttor spatial operation. typically lhal ··dips ouf· and discards the. area ill one
!eyer corresponding to lbe polygon botindaries in another d:na layer.
EROAS: A G(S and r~molc st•nsing image processing software package owned and d c"elopcd by
Leica Geosys1ems. St. G.1Uca. Swi1zerland.
ETM+: Enhanc ed Thematic Mappl"!", a scanner carried on board L..t udsat 7, providing image data
with resolutions of 30 meters for visible through m id infrared. I.S O)eter paochn:unn(ic, nod
60 me1er for !berm.al wavdengd1s.
F~t"ft: A trinngular' face in a TIN.
F11.lse northiug: A number added 10 coonHn.ues in a map proj~ion. usua lly to avoid ueg:tti"e C()()r-
diruuc locations w ithin 1.he area of a map projection.
Feature; An obje,c::t or phenomenon in the landscape. Adig;i1al rtpreseu1a1ion ofthe fe:iture is often
called a canogrnpbic fea ture.
Featurt gtut nlllutlon; The incomple1e represeutalioJJ of shape defining coordinates for entities
represented in a G IS.
Flduch1l ffi :\l'ks: Also known as Ciducinls. precisely scribed m..,rks d)31 .ve reoorded near 1he edges
of aerial images. and used 10 remove systematic camera distortion and to registe r imagts.
FIPS: Federal l.nfonnntion Processing StBud.-irds: code. a se1 or-numbets for defined pclitical or
physical entities in the United States. There arc FIPS codes for caeh siate. coun'ty. and olh{'r
feature$.
Finl Noruud Foru1: A se1 of requirements for a rel.uion..,J databas.c cable. prllutuily tha1 there be no
repeal column, defined as columns that reprei;t'nt the same kind ofinformation. For e.~ample,
a dam base table intended 10 represent fumilies.. repeat columns forc h.ildrtn wo\lld violate the
requirements for first nomial form.
Fl'i(tlon sm·fA«'! A rnS11et surface used in ca.lcufating \'.lri.lble tmvel costs through an acea. Tiie fric-
tion surface represents the cosl per unit di~ance to travel through a cell
Fb1bed srAn11ei·: An electronic dcvioe us.eel 10 record a digital image of a hardcopy map or image.
flow direction: Tine dfrcction water w ill flow from a point. usua lly an azimuth or bearing angle
assigned to• r.,stcr '"II,
Fort-igu key: A coSwnn in a relational database table tb..,i is a candidate key. and used to join lbe
table 10 a different relational table .
Friction surf;1ce: See cost surface.
FTP: File Tnrnsfer. P rotocol. a stao.dard method to tl'Msf'e.r fi les across a computer aerwork.
 Appendix A.: Glossary 655

Fun(do11nl d cpl'nd('n()': Propeny of-, set of items in a d-llt3bttse uible. If one item is fi.ulc1i<iually
depcod cnl ou another, I.hat means knowing the value of we item guaro.nlees we know the
corresponding value of the s.econd item.
Ga lileo: A Europe:w-based GNSS system.

G(lne1•tttlia1ton! The simpliJienion of shape or position d1a.1 inevimbly occurs when feanm.~·s nre
mapped.
GtocC'nl1'k: A measurement system that us,e,s tbe center of the Earth a.s the origU.1.
Geocodiug: The prooess ofassignjug a geographic or projection coordi.oa1e to a data item th11t is
based on a strttt 3Cldress, town, and state or country.
Geodedc dl\tmu: A reference system aga.insl which borizou1aJ andlor vertical positions are defwed.
It typically consists of a sphere or ellipsoid a nd a set of point locatious precisely defmed with
referenice to lhat surf3ce.
Geod e-sy: The science of measuring the shape of the E.arth and locations on or i.n the Earth.
Gtold: A 1neMtu'elllent·b.lsed model of 1he sh..-,pe of1he Earth. The geoid is a gtavi1a1ioi1al equipo.
tmtilll surface, meaning a standard surface ofequaJ gravitational puU. The gcoid is used pri-.
matily as :i basis for specifying teCTain or other heights.
Geoid:d height The dislauce measured normal to the ellipsoid surface from and ellipsoid to a
geoid.
Geognipbk N orth: The northern axis of rolation of the Earth. Also kno,m as Tru.c North. and by
definition ljes at 9'1" nonb larinide.
GeoMedlll: A GIS softwact package produced by Intergraph, luc .. of Huntsville. Al.tlbama.

Gfopot('ntinl: 11ie gm,~bttlOnal potential geoemt~ by ~1e- mass of the E:irtb. defined M tbe work fo
move a \1.u.it mass objtct from infut.ity to lhllt point. It is by convention a negative number th.it
decrease-s (becomes more negative) as on grows c loser to the mass center of the Earth.
GIS: A geogr.1phic infonnation system. A GIS is a cornpu1er.b.,sed system to aid i.o the collec1jo1i.
maintmance. storage. a na lysis, output,. and distribution of spatial data and rinfomiation.
GL!\I: Geogrnphie ~fatkup Lauguage. a standard method for docuineming and 1:mnsferring spatial
data.
GLONASS: G lob.II Navigation SateJljte Sys1ern. A Russiau developed and m.,imained sys1em for
coordinate mcasurcrmnl and positioning.
G lob1d op<'nitlon: A spatial operation where the om1>u1 location. a.nea, or exrem comes from opera.
tions on the entire i.npul area or exteu.1.
GNSS: Global Navigation Sa1eUi1e System. A coo$te1latio1l of satellites ph.1$ a gro.und control s:eg·
ment lh..11 a.I.low$ preeisc location ou or above lhe Earth. This inchldcs GPS~ GLONASS. and
other satellite navigation sys1em.
Gnoruouk proJ<'<'liou: A m:tp projection w ith die projection center plnced a1 1be center of 1he
spheroid.
GR.ASS: An open.source GIS software system.
GrntkulP: Lines of latirude and longirude draw n on o. b.ardcopy map or rcprescnt«l in a digital dam..
base.
Gra,imett"r : An instrument for measuring the strength of tl1c gravitational field.
Grt:it drtlt: A cirtle on the st1tface of the gJobe tMt splits the globe into 1wo equ.al parts, Md is on
a plane that passes through the center of the globe.
656 GIS Fundamentals

G1'('M dl'dt dhtaoC'C': Tbe sborces1 dis1:1nce bet·ween two points on dle surf3ce of1he Earth. Tiiis
distance follows a great c ircle rou1e. defined as the route on I.be surface defined, by a plane
rhat intersects t.be starcing nod eoding J)Oi nt and tbe center of the Earth.
G rid, lllflJ>: Anet,~ork of constant X- and Y-coordi.nates on a map.
Grid No11Ji: Tite direc,ion parrulel 10 the northing a,is inn projecrnd. Cnnesian c-00rdi11a1e sys1em.
G rt>enwkh ruerid:hm: The liue ofequal longitude passing through the Royal Observatory io Green-
wich. England. This li1Je was tllken as zero, by convention. for the sy,tem of longitude mea-
sure01eutS for the wotld.
GRS80: Geodetic :Reference Surface of 1980, an ellipwid used for map proj«tions in nmch of
North AJmric:i.
HllrdC'opy nrn.1>: A map printed on physical media, usuaUy paper.
Height abo"f' el.llpsold. DAE: See ellipsoidal beigb1.
HE>lmE>rl 11·:msfol'nt:ttion: A method to mmsfonu among horizontal danuus.
Hien11rcbk111I dnu, model: A method of org.auizing anribute dat:a th.it stn1cntres values in :a 1.rte. lyp·
ic.ally from general to more specific.
HlghActu1·ftC')' R~f('t·('nte N('lwcn·k (IIARt'"): A set of stlte-specifie horizontal d:mum realized in
the early ye-ars of GPS measurements.
Hlgh-p~ss nlt('r: A raster operation that identifies large or high-frtq\leney differences betwe-en
cells.
Hyd1·og.rnphy: Geogrnphic tepreseniation ofw:ner features.
Bypsogl'Rpby: Geographic rrprcsc,ntation of hc,ight fc,11tures.
Idrlsl: A GIS fron:i Clruk University widely adopted wi1h panic\llat strenglhs in analysis for clevel·
opment. land use assessment and planujug. :wd sustainability.
lkonos: A high resolution imaging satellite system. llconos provides l·meter panchro11331ic and 3.
meter multi spcetml image d.ala.

Ion('I' Join: A combination of r.\'O data r.,bles in a database mMUtgement $)1$1em based on a key c:ol·
wnn. The o'ulpul lable combines rows by matching v;dues in the key column. and saves only
row'S that have matching key \'Slues in both tables.
Interua1ion:d Tei·1..stl'ial Retea·ence Frame (ITRF): A geoce111ric cootdiu.,1e rcferen<:.e frame that
foUows an international standard for SJ)C'cifylllg Earth coordinates. Defines an origin. ellip·
soid3.l shape. and X. Y. and Z coordinate directions.
lnte,rm1tional Ten?stl·ial Re£E>l'enc·E' Sen'ire (l'TR.S): A system of ptople, institutions. protocols.
bardw~re. n.nd software for orgru.tiz.ing and taking the measuremems ueeded for c.oJculating
the ITRF rc-alizations.
Iouospherk d('l::1y: The c.haoge in tn.wel tllne of an el~tromognetic $1gnal when passing lhrougb
the ionosphere. Mos-t applicable in GIS to uncer1n.iuty in GNSS positioning due to unctttain
signal travel times.
Ius 1an1aueour Oeld of ,·iew (IFOV): The area or augle sensed by 3Jl imaging system. or sensing
component such as the. pixd or Jeus., of the systcnt.
Interpoll\tioo: The escim.,1ion of vrui:tbJes ,u ullStullpled IOC4tiollS from measuremen1s at sampled
loc.ations. interpolation methods arc usually understood to use a fommla with all parrunefers
that are pre·wdetennined. meaning thnt parameter vahies used in the formuL1. do oot depend on
the data val.ues.
 Appendix A.: Glossary 657

lntt1'S('<tlo11 (o,•e.rlny): The venjc-3( combin:u ion of nvo d.at.1 layers. typicaUy restricced to the
extent of one data layer but prestrving the data contained in both data layers for that extt nt.
lot('rw1.lf1·:uto sc-alt: A iuea$uremein scale thnt records bo1h order and absolu1e di:ff'erieoce in v.'thie
for a set of variables.

Isopll"lh mop: Amop depictiog lines or consmm volue for• vafi•ble. olso lo10M1•s • oontour map.
Items: Variables or a nributcs in a data iable. typic.aUy vie wed as the columns o f the table. These are
tbe types of essentialc.bnracteristics used to described each feature in die geographic dat.a set.
e.g .. ane:,, depth. m d water quality for a lakes daf.'I se1.
ldri.d: A GIS system dl"Veloped by the G raduate School of Geography of Clark University, Worces·
1er. M;).iss.--cbusens.
IDW: [nverse Distance Weighted interpolation. a method of estimating values a t unsampled loca·
tioos b;.1sed Ol'l 1be ,·31\le and disuu:ice to sampled Joc.:u iollS.
Infrared imai;l': An image that re-rords rcflcctaJlcc in the nror infrared wavelengths. typically
ll'lcludi.ng0.7 to I. I mjcron,eters.
JP£C: An image comp~sion format.
Ktrntl: Ail amngemem of cells and values used as :1 muhipl.iea1ion teinpkue ir1 roscer analysis.
Kerm•I mnpp:ing: A mclhod of ide ntifying core areas, concentrations, or density of occueation
based on "sl'acking" kernels that repl'esellt occturenc,e frequency at obser\'ed loeat1011S.
Key : An itcm or variable in a relational table used to uniquely identify cac.h row in the table.
Krlglo.g: An i11.terpolation meth<>d b.1.sed on geostatis1ics. the meast1rement of s~1tfal AtnoeorreL,.
l ion.
Lnmbtrt conlormnl conk: A common. cone·based m,,p projection.
L11.nd.sa1: A NASA project s panning more than lh.rcc dtcades and seven satellites chal proved the
capabilities of space,based remote sensing of land resources.
Latiludt>< Spb:e-rieal coordinates of Earth loca1ioo that vary in a uorth-.soul1l dirtel tion.
Law of slnei: A ll'igoc:iometric relruionship that a Hows: the calculation of unknown 1riangle e-dge
lengths fr<>m known angles and edge lengths.
L('V('llng su1'\~eyi : Surveys used to measure the relative heiglu difference benveen sets of poiots.
Lidnr: Las.er detecting and ranging, 1bc use of pulse las.er mcasuremenls to iden1ify t bc heigh1.
depth.. or 0 1her properties o f features.
Line smootbi11g : adding vertices and c h.auging the sb..,pc of a line. usually d uring d igitizing. 10
remove discrete a ng les a nd crea1e a bending a rc.
Line snstpJ>ing: Automatic movement of digitized poin1s to a ne.arby line when the point locaiioo is
within a specified snap distance.
Lint' 1blnn.iog: Removing line vertices 10 reduce file size "1i..ile ma.iutnin.ing most feature shape
i.ufommlion.
Llnt>nr l'tftre:ndng: See geocoding,
LIS: A Land l:nfonuation System, a nam e. origina lly applied for GJS systems spcc~fically devclopc-d
for property ownership and bou1ldary records 01a113gemeiu.
Local operntfon: A s pa tial opcralion whe re the output locati on. area, or e x.lent come s from opc-ra·
tfons on that sai.ne extem.
Logical modt"I: A coooeptua l view of the. objects we portray io a GlS.
658 GIS Fundamentals

Longitude-: Spherical coordll1.t1tes of Eru'di location that vaty ln an eas1-weS1 di.rec1io11.

Magnetic North: The point iu the northern hemisphere thal is the pole of the Earth's magnetic field.
towards wbkb \'ectors of magne1ic direc1ion point.
Manifold: GIS software package produced by CDA lntema1ional. of Carson City. Nevada.

i\1Ap nlgtbrA: The combination of sp:nfal dita l:\yers using si.zuple to complex spatial <>peratious..
Map generalization: The, ap-proxim.,tiou of real foa1t1.res on a m..1p or in a spalial database, wheiT.
the physic~ shape or location does not completely represem all 1be details ofthe Ce::tmres.
i\'laJ> projK'lion: A systematic rendering of features from a spheroid or (']lipsoid rcpre:scoting lhe 3-
dimensiona l EaiiJi 10 ri map sutface.
l\'laJ> , cale: The ratio of a dis'lance on a lU..Bp 10 the. corresponding distance ou the Earth.
Maplnfo: GIS sof1ware package pro<h1ced by Maplnfo. hlc .• of Troy. New York.
Mean center: A measure of the.C<'nlraJ location of a S<'I of obj t'cts or obst'rvations.. based on lhe
meao x and y coordinates for all observations.
Mean cll'cle: An estimate of a core area via a oirc.lc c.cntercd on the mean cenlcr-. with .a radius
de.rived front the observed points, for example. tbe standard devintioll-.
MeridUl.11; A line of eonsian1 longitude.
Magnf'tit' North: The point where the oorthe.rn lin e$ of 1:uagoetic a1traction en1er the Earth. r..iag·
netic Nonh does no1 o«:ur a1 th e same p0iu1 as '"Tnie" orGcog.r3phi<: Nor1b.. ln the absence
of local iutcrforence a compass needle points towards magnetic north. l he magnetic north
p0le is <:usr.ently located in northern C3nada.
Melodoto: Doll! oboul darn, Iha! describes 1hc properties of• spatio! doll!,., including 1he roordi-
si.ate system. extem. m1ribu1e types and \'alues. origin. luleage. accuracy. nnd 01l1er character.
i5'ics oeede-d for effective evaJuation and use.of data.
MNt.s and bounds Slll"\'f'y: A $urvey method based on distaoce and son:ietl111es angle rneasuremenl$
from kuowm or monumented poi11ts.
Minimmn db:tancf' digitizing: digi1izing in s,ream mode in which points less than a minimwn dis·
1ance apttrt are not auo,,..'ed.
M.inimnm mapping uni.I (Mi\lU): The smallest area resolved wben interpreting an aerial or satel·
lite image. c>r when mapping area features from -a souree data se1.
Moving ,dndow: A usually red.angular arraJlgcment of cell$ that shifts in position across a rasttr
d:nn set. At ench posit.ion an operation is 3pplied using the cell values currently encountered
by the moving \\•indo,v.
MSS: Multi.spectrril Scanner. an early S3tellite .irnagin.g scanner carried b)' Landsat satellites.
Modifiable areal unit pl'oblem: The dependence of aggregate area statistic-s on the si2c and shape
ortbe aggreg:uion units.
i\'I ODIS: Moderate Resolution [maging Sensor. A later generation imaging sc.a nutr that is part of
NASA'$ M L$sion to Planet Earth. Provide$ high spectml re$0lutior1.. frequent global coverage.
and moderate spatial resolution of from 250 to 1000 meters.
Molod enski transformation: A me.1bod to trn.o.st'orm among geodetic datum.s.
Monte CA.do ihuulJ1Liou: A me1.bod of estilll31iog the variability in a process or model by adding
small unce.nainties to the input drua or parameters over thousands of model mns, and obsen··
ing bow tbe-s:e slll311 diffe~nees change the ot11corue.
 Appendix A.: Glossary 659

Mul1lp~r1 (Nthu·(': A vector (eanire. us,1:illy of polygons. where- 1nultiple. sep.ltat-e geographic enti·
ties arc- grouped and t:rcaled as one. aud associated with one row iu the associated attribute
1.nble.
Mul1i.spe-c1111.I: Au image. film. or system that records d:i1a coUt<:t((i from multiple w;webands.
Multi-tier i:ireblteenu~! Adatabase 1uanagemem system design where lhere nrn multiple levels of
clients above a strver.

N lldir point: The point direct.l.y below the aircraft. usually near the centtr of an aerial image.
NA027: North American Datum of 1927, thc adjustment of Jong-baseline surveys to esrablish a nee·
work of siandardized horizontal positions. in the early 20th centmy.
NAD83: No1tl1American Datum of 1983. The s,1ccessor to NAD27. using approximately ml order
of mag.nitude more measurements and improvements in anal}1icaJ models and computer
power. The curl'fflt network of suw.d:'lrd borizonrn.l posi1iol).S (or North America..
!NASS-COL: Nationa l Agricultural Statistical St-rvice Crop 0-ata Layer, annually produced raster
data sets of crop cntegorits for United St.\1es f31'lll1.,nd.
NAVD29: North American Vertical Datum of 1929, an adjustment of vertical mtasure111cn1S to
establish 3 nerwodc: ofbeigbts in the early 20th ceonuy.
NA\1088: North American Vertical Datum of 1988, the succt'ssor vertical datum lo NAVD29.

NATRF2022: Not1h A.lntrican Terrestrial Re(ereL1ce Franle of 2022: The sticcessor dn.nun to
NADSJ(2011).

Nt'~db1t: A line containing all e lemen1s ll1at make up a map.

Neig.hborbood OJ)E'n'ltiou: A spatial operation wbc~ the outpul location. area. orC"Xltut comes from
opernlK!ns on an area larger than. and usually adjacent lo the input exlenl
Ne1wor k: A oonnected set of line features. often used to modd rt-source flow or dcmaud through
real.world networks such as ro.,d or ri\,er systems.

Network cen cer : A loc.a.tion on a network lhe provides or requires resources.

NLCD: National Land Cover Data set, a Landsat Thematic Mapper (Tl\.1) based classification of
hludcover for the Uni1ed S1att:$.
!NOAA: National Oce:auic and Atmospheric Administration. the U.S. government agency tha1 over·
sees 1b,e developmeo1 of nation3.I d.'lrums.

!Nod t': An important point along a line fcamre. where two lines meet or inlersect.
Node, s u::1pph11g: au1011.unic tllOvetnent ofdigitized points. to a 11e.a..rby uode when the point loca1ion is
,,..itbin a specifi~ snap distance.

Norulm\l s111r l bu1~: .'I v:u-iable that provides descriptive. often non.quau1iiative i.iiform.,tioii abom 4
s patial object.
N ominal S<'lll(': A measurement scale th:u indicates the difference belweeo v3Jues. but does. not
rcRect rank orabsolu1e differences.
N orrJ1 ~ r row: Graphic, usuiUy in :uTOW, that show the direction to geogr.,.phic. magneiic. or grid
north o.u a map.
NorrbJng: The axis U) the approx.ima1ely oorth·south dirtttion in UTM and 01ber .sto.odard coordi·
narc sy-s-l('mS..
Normal fom1:s: A siandard method o( structuring relational dntab.ases to aid io updates and remove
red undmtcy.
N-tuplf': A group of attribute values in a database management system.
660 GIS Fundamentals

NWI: Nt1tionttl Wetlands ln\'en1ory cf.3.13 com.piled by the U.S. Fish and Wiktlife Service over inosi
of the United Slates. These data provide firsl·pass indic.itious of wetland type and t-xteut.
Obje(t: See c:mogrnJ>hic object.
Objecl-orie uted d n la model: A data model that incorporates encapsulation. inheritance. and other
objee1-orieuted progrsmming principles.
Open sou11:e sofc,.,.·:ue: Computer programs that provide the source c<>de to any user, typically ~as·
ily acoe$$ible through a web portal.
Operflliou, SJ>Rlial: The manipulatioo of coordioatc or attribute data.
Optk;:il n:ds: A ray appro,dmately perpendicuJarto 1be film or imn_ge plane in a camera and pa.mllet
10 lhe ceute.r ofthc Jens barrel. th.al ni:ay be thought of as the priU13.ry di!fftiou of incoming
light.
01·dlmd Slltdbutf: A variable l.b.:n contains n t.inking.
0 1·din:d SC'Ulfl: A S.C-Ble that represents the relntive order of \talues but does not record 1be magnitude
of differences between vaJues.
0 1·thogonat Intcr:secting at a 90 deg.:ru ang le.
01·thogn1.1,W(' ,1rw: Horizonrn.l placement as wouJd be seen from. a veni~l viewpoilll :i1 infinity.
There is no term.in or tilt-perspecli ve distortion in an ot1hographic view.
Or1hogrnphk proje,cdon: A map projection with the projec1io11cen1er an infwiLe distM<:e Crom 1he
m ap surf.ace.
Or1holnrnge: s« <irthopbotogrnph.
Orthomell'ic heigh t: Height measured from the Geoid surface to a point on the surface of the Earth.
Or1hopbotogr11.pll : A ,·ertieal pbo1ogr39h with :in orlhograpltie view, Or1bopbotogt3pbs :i.re ere,ued
by using projection geometry and measu~menlS ton-move tilt. 1errain. and pers-p«tive dis-
toni.on froiu aerial photogrnpbs.
Ou1er join: A combination of two dat'l lables in a da1aba~ mauagcmeu1 system based on a key ool-
mnn. The 01.npu1 table appe.nds those rows in a second table that ma1ch values in the key col·
umn. Null values are pltle«I in joined-table oohuru,s from the second table whe.re there is no
match to the first table.
Owrlay: The ·,·enicaf" combination of two or more sp,nial da1a 1:tyers.
Oversh oot. A digitized line that extends pas! a eoru1ccriug line.
Pauchrow11tk; Ao image. film. or sys1em 1b..11 rtoords i.n only oue waveleng1h baud. a.ud resulting
in gray scale (black and white) images.
P111'11.lhu::: The relative shjft in position of fea1ures due to a shift in viewing loe.'ltion.
Passh 'e- remote se-.nsiug !.yste-m: A system that does not emit the radiation it records from 1ar:gc1
objects.
POOP: Positional .Dilution of Precision., a figure of merit uscd to represent the qualily of the satellite
geometry wben tikin.g GPS mdings. PDOPs berweeo l aoc:f 6 are preferred [or most applka~
lions. and lower is betttr.

P'-'r.sp-N~tl\' (' con,•<-rgeuce-: T11e app.u-ent decreBse io ioter-object distaoce as the object$ a.re farther
away. for example, the appatent cOo\•crgencc of two railroad rails as Ibey recede iuto the dis-
tance.
 Appendix A.: Glossary 661

P trspt(th't dtw; A view oo a loc,uio111ba1 includes some relief or p,erspec1ive di s1ortion. meaning
the location of objects may be distorted if theirttla1ive distance to the c-mn.e ra varies consid -
embly.
Pis.els: Picture elements that make up an image, these are the indlviduaJ grid cells that record or dis-
play a brightness or color in an i.roage.
Plan cu1·,·Ature: Terr.tin curvature along a oontour.
Plllnar topology: The enforcerueot of in1e.rstt1ioo for line and area features in a digital data layer.
Each line crossing requires au explicit node Md intersection.
Pbme J Ul"\'f')ing : Loc.ation surveying methods suitable under the assumption that dte surveyed
l.luds fonn a plan.at surface. i.e .. lb.at disronious d\1e to the Earth's curvature tUay be ignored.
Platten: The f:1at back ponion of a fi lm camNa against which the fi lm rests while an image is col·
lected.
Plumb bob: A weight on a string held freely to determine the local vertical dir«tiou.
Pobu ruodt d:lgldzl11g: Mtu:1ual digi1iziug in which the opcrotor must ptess 4 mouse button or 01ber-
wisc indicate when a point should be sampled.
Poblltr: An :tddress stored i11 a dnta Slruen1.re pointing 10 tbe l'lexc or rehlte<I data ele111en1s. Poimers
are used to organize data and speed access.
Polygon: A cl<>sed. connected se1 or lines dun define an :\tC'3,
Polygon indusio11: An area differen t in some characteristic from the rtcorded a1~jbu1es of the poly-
gon. but 1101 resolved.
Po~lion dilution or precis"ion (POOP): An index of the geometric distribution of a set of satellites
for the purposes of estimating and controlling position accuracy. POOPS typically moge
between l and 20. and lower POOPs on average result in higher po.sitioual accuracies.
Precl~ion: The repeatability of a measure or process.
Pri.ml\1-y key: A row or rows in a relational data.base 1able that is selec1ed as the key. and I.hat
uniqudy identifies all the rows in the table.
Pri.me rueridlaan: See Gt'eenwieh meridian.
Profilf' cun•a•UJ'f": Terrain curvan1re in the direction of steepesa descen1.
Projection. see Map projection.
Proximity functio n: See buffer,
Public L:rnd S w·yey $)'$'.lem (PLSS): A land measuttmcnt sys1cin us.eel in the western United
Stales of America 10 unambiguously define. parcel loca1ion.
Pynuuiding, IRAslel' pyr:uniding : Building rnsters. often images. of successively co.'U'Str SJ)3tial
resolution ,,ithin an image, primarily to allow fasier redrnws when panning and zooming.
QGIS: All open-source GIS.
Q uad- h·e.-s: A raster d.nta stmc.rure bas.ed on succ.essive, adaptive rtductions in cell size within a
data layer to reduce storage requirements for 1hem.11ic area data.
Q uE'ry: Requests or searches for spatial dn1a. typic.ally applied via a database man.agcmcnt sysiem.
R,-d"'l lrus dlstonion: The disphlce:rnen1 of object.sin ttu image due to san.i.U lens iruperfec1ious.
usuaUy radially inward or outward.
Random samplt pantru: A s.'lmpling ~nem where sample location is de1emiined by 3 r.\Udom
process.
662 GIS Fundamentals

R1rng(' dls-r~nct: A measurtment between locations when positionUlg. \1sually referring to s,uellitel
rcc,civer distances in GNSS positioning.
Rnng(' pole: Apol,e used in S1.1rveyi1\g to raise a GNSS anteona. survey prism. or other survey
instru~nt abo\•e the ground. Rauge poles are oftcu used in GNSS data oollcction to raise an
antenna and thereby obtain better POOPs. and improved accuracy.
Rn,ster dAIR wode-1: A regular ··grid cell" approach to defining space. UsuaUy $(tuare cells a.re
arranged in rows and columns.
Real lime dltfe1·eo1iru (on·~(lion: GNSS posi1iou.ing which relies on a radio link Md ~xtemal posi·
tion.in_g me:tsurements to oorrcct major GNSS caors in real time, a ud provide. instant
improvemeaus in accm'3C}',
Real lime kinematic positioning (RTK): A form of real time differential correction of GNSS posi·
1io11s.
ltecord: A colleclioon of a Ltribules slored for a sp«ific i.nslance of an 1.'Ulily.
Rtf<'rtnct {rstmt: A well-defined. us\1:tlly ellipsoidal. surfuce. 1ha1 serves as :, OOsis for our dan1ms.
Regislrntion: The conversion or assignment of coordinatt'S from a non-projected coordinate syslem
10 n coordinate system. TYJ)ical ly via M .tffine n's\nsrorm.ation.
Relsttions: See relational table.
Rtl11tlonlll Algebr11: A ffl ofoperations on dntabase cables spe,cifted by E. F. Codd for lhe consistent
mrullpula1io u of cfa1a in a database.
Rtfatlon:ril lAblt: A dat:t cable in a relational datab.1.se management system.
Relief displacemen t: Apparent horizontal distor1ion of features due 10 height differences relative to
the nadir pai.nl inn vertical aerial image.
Remote Seus-ing: Measuring or recording information about objec1 or phenomena wi1hout cootacc-
ing dtem.
ReSA.mpling: The rt('.akulation and assigruntut of cell values when changing cell size and/or orieu-
talion of a raster grid.
RMSE: Root M«111 Squllre Error. a sia1istic th.at me.-sutts 1be difference between true ruid predicted
data values for coordinate locations.
Rubbersbttciu.g: The use of polynomial or Olhet nonlinear tn1nsform:uions to nt31ch feature geom-
etry.
Run-l('11g1b coding: A compression ine1hod used to reduce sto1-age requirementS for taS1erdarn sets.
The value a.ud nwnbcrof sequentiaJ occurrences are stored.

Stb('mn: A co1\1p.'l,C;t graphicol represenrationof a datab:,se conceprual models. entities.. and the rela-
tionships among them.
Scope: The spaiial e;c:1ent of input for a sp:.nial operntio11.
Seoul lines: Lines of intersection between a dcvelopablc surfac~ and a spheroid in a map projcc-
1ioo.•
Sele-c1ion op N·atio11: The identification of a set of objects based on their propt1tics.
S<'ml·mnjor· n~s: The larger of the two radi.nl axe-s 1hat def't»e an ellipsoid.
Semi-minor axis: The smaller of the two radial axes thnt define an dlipsoid.
Semlnuiitntt>: Th,e vari.111ce between values sampled a1 a given lag distance aprut.
 Appendix A.: Glossary 663

Str,•('r; A co1ttp\lter or a progt:tm co1nponent th:it stores data. and provides S\ibse, s of d3Ul in
response to requesis.
SN nlgOOrn: A me1hod for specifying selection criteria based on comparison oper:uors less than.
equal lo. greater than. aud ~haps ol.berS.
Sb•d•d ~U•r m•p: Adepictio11 of 1he briglnn~ of cem,in ,,Oec1ioo with ngiven sun loc,uioo.
Sidel11p: Edge over-lap of pholographs la.ken iu Oightlinc-s.
Si11gltp11r1 f('ohJ1'('>: A vector d.1ta l3Yer where e,·ery feature is individualJy represented by a point.
line, or poJygon. :wd there is a corresponding row in 1be attribute table for -each featutt~
SbnhtJ': A s.ystem (or controlling the time or amount of light reaching a detecting surface.
Skeletouhing: Reducing the width of linear fearures reprc.sented in rasttrd.tla layers to a sing.le cdJ.
Slh·tr: Sm,111. spurious polygons at the 01arg.ias or boundaries of feature polygons that are au ru1e-
focc of impiecise d igitizing or O\•crlay.
Slop": Tbeeh:ange in elevation o,·era change Ul location. usually measured over $0me fixed i.oter-
val. e.g., the change in height betwten two p0in1s 30 meters .'lp.trt. Slope is ust1ally rep011ed
as a percent slope, or as a degree angle measured from horizontal.
SLR. Sinell.tlQ L::.s<'r RJl.ngiug.: System for 01easurin.g posi1jon. particuJarly tiplifi and subsidence.
from Earth to Satellite laser range find ing measurements.
S1u11> dis1:u1cf': A distance lhreshold defwe<I in dig.itizing or other S'p.'lti:d .t.u..,lysis. Poim features.
nodes. or vertices within the snap are moved lo be coincidenl. to occupy th.c same local ion.
Snn1> 1olel'1,rnct: See snap disrn.nee.
Sanppin~: Automatic line joins durin~ vector digitizing or layer overlay. Nodes or vertices are
joined iftbey ;ue within a specified snap distance.
Spngb"lti d;ita mode-I: Vtcior data model in which lines may cross withoul in1ers,ec1ing.
Spnd1d dt1rn modtl: A way of organizing sp:uial dMa i.n a d:m1base, including cbe concepni:d
description and rela1jonships among spatial objcers.
Spnr:fal obje<"r: A digi1al represema1ion o( a physical objec, or phenomeoon.
Spatial OJ>eration: A logic.al. mathematical. selection. or olhcr spalial proc,ess th..-,,l tnms-fonns spa-
1i.al dat:a.
Spa1fal resffl.11tion: The smn.llcs-t featurt tha1 cau be iden1ified in a da1a set.
Sp<'Ct1•11m : see electromagnetic spectrum.
Spbeairal coordinates: Aeoordiuate syslnn based on a spbcrc. l ocatioo ou the spben, surface is
defined by two angles of rotation Ul orthogonal plane$. Tbe geographic eo<>rdinate system of
latin1de and longitude is the most common exrunple of n sphericttl coordinate system.
Spheroid: A nutbematicBI model of the shape of 1bc Eanh, ba$ed on the equation of a $pbere.
Spirh le"eling: An early leveling survey 1edtniquc in which bori20utal lines werei established
between survey stations, and relative height differences de1em1lned by measund marks on
IC\'Cling rods.
Sp tin": A smC>Othcd line or stuface created by joining multiple constrained polynomial funclions.
SPOT : Syste.oo.e Pour l'Observruion de La Terre. ti sateJlite iotaging system providing JOto 20 meter
resoluti on images.
SQL: Strucrnced Query Lru\guage. a widely .\Clopte<I set ofcoUllllands used 10 maoipul.'tte ret.,1ion3J
data.
664 GIS Fundamentals

SSURGO: Fine rei:sohltion digit31$Oil dma corresponding to coun1)• level soiJ sur\'eys 5n lhe United
States. Produced by the Natural Rcsouree Cons<'tvatjon Service.
St~nds'IJ'd 1>art1ll<'t:s: Lines ofimersection between n developable surf3ce and a spheroid i.n a map
projection.
STATSGO: co.,rs.e resolution digital soil dala distributed on a statewide basis for the United States
Most ofleu derived from :iggreg_.i1iou and generalization ofSSURGO data.
Stlltf" Plan(' Coordinnte$: A sumdardi-zed coordinate system for the United States ofAmerica 1hat LS
b.lsed on th,e Lambetc conformal conic .'Ind tt.\.0$vttSe Mercator projections. St:1te pJaue
zones are defined such that projection distortions aro maintaine-d lo be less th.an. l p..lrt in
10.000.
S tereo pairs: Ovesrlappin~ photos taken from different positions but ofsubstantially the s.1.me arro,
,vith the goal of usUlg parallax t0 interpre1 heigl11 differences witbi.111he overlap area.
Stereographic projtttion: A map projection with the projection ecnler is placed al the ai1tipocle, the
point on the opposite side of the spheroid from the projectjon intersection point with the
spheroid.
Stel'f'OP hotog1•11pbs : A pair or more of overlapping photographs that allow the perception of three.
di.mtnsions..due to a pel'$peeti\'e 5hift.
St1'f'am modf' digitizing: Point data collection via manual digitizing where the distance or time
i.nterval between s.wpled locations is 6xed. This removes the need for a buuo1t press by the
manual operator during digitizing .
Sh·uctu1'td Qutry.• L1'ng11ngt (SQL): A st-a.ud.vd syn1ax for specifying queries 10 d1ua'b.,.ses.
Sm·vey station: A position occupied. and from which measurements are made. during a land survey.
Sys.tttlll1tk saruplit: A $3.mpli.ng pauern wl1b a regul.v s-,1upling framework.
Tenestrild re,fe-t•e n ce frame: The set o f measured points and their calculated coordinates that are
used to deiane a specifte. o r realized. geodetic datum.
Theuu1:1k ht)'er: T11ematicaUy distinct spatial daln organ ized in a single layer. e.g... all roads in a
smdy area pJaced in one them:n ic layer. all rivers in a different them:.uic layer.
TIFF: Tagged lmruge Fi.le formal, a widely-supported image d istribution form.at. The Geo-TIFF
variant comes with image registration i11forma1·io1J e111bedded.
TIGER: Topologically lntcgrnled Geographic Endcoding and Referencing files, a set o f structures
used tO deli;ver digital vector data and anributes as$0Ciated wi1h 1he U.S. Cens:us.
Time.geogn1.pbk df'ns-ity e$limn1iou: A method ofestimating the location of n moving objcet from
a time seqlL'l!'nce ofob$ervation. The method uses time intervals between observations along.
wi1h estima.tes of M·er-,ge. ma.'timum. 3.11dfot min.Unum speed to estimate a prob-,ble occup-,.
tiou region..
TIN: Triangufated Irregular Ne1wotk. a data model 111os1 c-01wnonly used to reptesen1 terr.tit\. Eleva.
tion points are c.onnected to form trianglts in a network.
TM: Thematic Ma.pp.er. a bigh-resolU1ion scanner cnrried on board later L.'\Jlds:i.t s:nellites. Provides
inform.u1oo in the visible, near infrared. mid infrared. Md thermal portious of the eled.fo-
magnetie sp«ui.nn.
1uH\UPS: An im.ag~ proet--ssing and GIS soflware package prod'uced by M.icroimages. lnc.. of Lin-
coln. Nebrn.ska.
To1,ology: Sb.apc-i.nvari.ant sptitial proptrt.ies of line or area features such as adjacency. con1iguity.
and coru1«1«tncss, o ften recorded in a st"t of related tables.
Tr1uis,·e1·S(> Mut1J1tor proje-cdou: A conunon. Dl3p projec1ion b.ued on a trans, <trsc cyliuder.
 Appendix A.: Glossary 665

Tr1tn$A<'tlo11 1:i11u:1Qgtr: A component of a d:uoba.se n13n:agenw1n syS1em th:u processes requests

from c lieocs. and passes them to a server.
TrnVN'S<': A series of survey Stations spanning a survey. Traverses 3re closed when rhe1• retum 10
the s1arting point.. and open when they do ooL
T1•lgo11omNl'[c leveling, Meas111,mem of venical positions o, heigh, difference$ among pouns by
the collec1ion of ,·erticaJ angles and distance measurements.
Tl'ianguJatloa Surny: Horizont11I sUtveys conducted in a set ofimerkxkiog criangle:s. thereby pro·
viding multiple pathw3)1$ to each sur\'Cy point. This method provides inherent internal
c hecks ou survey measurements.
Tru<" Nol'lb: See Geographic Norlb..
Unary OJ>eration: An operation t hat has only one input.
U11d<'rshoot A digitizing en'Or in which a liM cud fa lls short of an intended coun«tion .ti aootber
line e nd or segment.
Unlou: The ve1t ical combination of t\\'O s patia l darn layers. typically over the 001tlbined e:<lents or
the data layers, and pre serving data from both layers.
Unitrd Stfttts S ur\'<')' Foo1: Au official disttu~ce used for SUf\'ey me.\Suremeuts in the United S1.ues
of America that is slightly different in length from the inte rnational definition of a fool
USGS: United States Ge<llogical Survey · the U.S. govenunent agency responsible for most civilian
nationwide mapping and Spatial data development.

UTM: Univer:sal Transverse Mercator coordinate $)'Stem. a St.'lndard sec of mnp projtttions devcl·
oped by I.be U.S. 1'.filitary aud widely adopted for eoottlinate specification over regional
s rudy a reas. A cylindricaJ projtttion is specified with a central meridian for ench six..c!cgrce
wide UT~,t zone.
VarUlble- di~tAll<'E' bufft>r: A buffering variant whcl't' t he buffer distance depends o n some value or
level of a feature ,mribu1e.
Vf'cto1· data model: A repre'St'nlation o f sp:atia l data based on coordinate loc.ation storage for shape-
definiog poi.ius a.ud associated aur1bute information.
Vertirid datum: A reference s mface against w hjch vertical he ights art' measured.
V('rte.i, \'trtk:('! Poims \1swed to specify 1be position aod sh.ape of Jines.
Ve1'y l..ong Baseline lnterferomelry (VLBl): A me3Sl11Cmen1 system collection signals from dis-
t.wt q,i:asar s~rs dlat :,;How millimeter.le\'el meas\lremems of position through time. 11 fonns
the founda1iou of our positional me.asu.rcment system.
Virtual rtff't'e'D<'<' $tarlon (YRS) nC'lwork: A set of ratbercloseJy-spaced GNSS base srntions plus
con_untuiica1ion links that simplify and Staod:utlize real-1imc differential correction within ll
region.
WAAS: W ide Area Augmentation Sys-tem. a satellite-based ir.,ns-.miu ion of cozrection signals to
improve Gf>S positional estim ales, largcly through lhe removaJ o f ionsophc ric and aun o-
spberic effects.
\Viwelenglh: T he distanoe bchvecn peak energy values tll an electromagnetic wave.

\VGS84: W01·ld Geodetic Sys1em. an E:uth-ecn1ered reference ellipsoid used for defining spatial
locations in three dimensions. Very similar to GRSSO e Jljpsoid. Commonly used as a basis
for map projectioo.s.
Zenith angle,: Th¢ angle measured betw~en a \'Mic.al line upward from a poinl on lhe Earth and the
line. from dun poiol to dle Sun.
666 GIS Fundamentals
 Appendix B: Useful Conversions and Information 667

Appendix B: Useful Conversions and Information

Length Horizontal angles in a projected coordi-
1 meter= 100 centimeters nate system -Azimuth on a flat
1 meter= 1000 millimeters map:
1 meter= 3.28083989501 International N
feet
Aunuth
1 meter= 3.. 28083333333 U.S. survey angle
feet
1 kilometer = 1000 meters
1 kilometer = 0.62137 miles
1 mile = 5280 feet

Area
1 hectare = 10,000 square meters 256* \
1 square kilometer = 100 hectares
1 acre = 43.560 square feet
1 square mfle = 640 acres
1 hectare = 2.47 acres
1 square kilometers = 0.3861 square
miles
Scale
1 centimeter distance on
Angles
map equals a distance
1 degree = 60 minutes of arc
Scale value on the ground of:
1 minute = 60 seconds of arc 1:5,000 50 meters
decimal degrees = 1:10,000 100 meters
degrees + minutes/GO+seconds/3600
1:25.000 250 meters
180 degrees= 3.14159 radians 1:50.000 500 meters
1 radian = 57.2956 degrees 1:100.000 1000 meters
Spherical angles on a globe:

c,..,.,"'
m.,.,.., 1 inch distance on a
map equals a distance
Seate value on the ground of:
1:6.000 500 feet
1:15.840 1.320 feet
1:24.000 2.000 feet
1:62,500 5.208 feet
1:1 00.000 8.333 feet
\
South Pole ·9C>
- - lcng, ludC - --
668 GIS Fundamentals

State Plane Zones

UTM Zones - USA

11
12 13 14 15 16 17

•
'
 Appendix B: Useful Conversions and Information 669

Trigonometric Relationships

sin (a)= A/H

cosine (a) = B/H
iangenl (o) = A!B
colangenl (a) = BIA H
secant (a)= H/A A
coseca nl (a) = H/8

0 e
B

Coordlnat:e Geometry

Coordinate x 1 = X 0 • dx
geometry (COGO) ~·Y0 • dy
d, • L-cos (0)
J- d, - dy • L·sln (0)

l
: L
1herefore

; •• x,• x.· L cos (0)

Y. • Y, • L $1~ (0)
•

If we Mow the location of o ~nt. xn, Yn, and have measured rhe
azimuth and dlstoflCe ,o another' po1m xu, Yu \\lhor ore the coor"d1nctes
for th2 unknown point, ><u, Yu?
Suppose Xn • 12. Yn•3. 0•6.8. end oz,murh • 242"

Fromobove.
O' We con calculat e O from the oz1mu1h
dy • D cos(O) 0 .. 242°
dx • D sin(O)
e • 242 - 180 (see fogun,)
~-Xn · dx
Yu =Yn - dy
So
270° •o' dy • 6.8 cos{62) • 3 2
I)
d, • 6.8 sm(62) • 6.0
Xu: 12 · 6 • 6
Yu 3 • 3.2 -0 2
l\i· Yu

180°
670 GIS Fundamentals

Conversion Between Ellipsoidal and 3· D Cartesian Coordinates

o • uirth Kn'I l1'oaJor (Xll;n. b • ~ft, ~ . "*'°'" ein,

h. l'ltlt;hl ~ ~
0
l c'-b' 11 • - - - - -
e • 7"" 0 . e's.n2(Q))}c,
x • ( 1' • t,} • cos (¢,) • cos th
y. ( it. h) . co,(¢ ) ·-Sll'lt.\)
Z • (V • (J, ~} • h) • Sil1 (, )

y
Lo1!1udc. loni;rtudo?: from known J...O Cor1c:slon
p • (x' • y1°) v de r,ned as aboYt:
x
IJt • ten i (t-f) e'' .ti~ bl'
long,:ude • tc,, 1 (y/x)
south pole-
101.llliCh'. ,ori
' ( Pz . o,e_:z,co.,)(',')
b·•'·•ln~¢))
h· p _ ,,
co,(qi)

Conversion Between Spherical and 3-D Cartesian Coordinates

z 3 ·O C<rtUiar'I ftM"1 krl(J',ffl to11h1rle (t/>r,l 1ong11vdt (i.p)
north poft
r • r"1t'I ~;t.r11GGI f'QQW. n 11 hri!jhr GCKwr. ~roid

Xci • (r,h} cos (t/)p) co:s ().p)

Yr, • (r,h) ,os {fPp) .sin (i.p)

?ti • (r,h) S#\ {tj, p)

lotnude. 6ongltude from known 3-0 COr1'eson

Y r,(xl,'f,;c.t)O)
IOlrtudt • Sil"l 1 (Zif')
x longitud~ • ror1· 1 (y/x)

SOUlh polt
 Appendix B: Useful Conversions and Information 671

(...
·-

~$1flYC X-4xll
lnll!:rsttts 01
;..o +·o

Conventions typically adopted for Earth-centered coordinate systems.

672 GIS Fundamentals

Oistonce beiween iwo points. P (xp, Yp) ond W (x,.. Yw)

w
p
·-----
d----·(x,.. Yw)

Useful relationships for oblique triangles:

c
A

y
B

Low of sines Low of cosines

A 8 C A2 = B2 • C2 + 2BC · cosa
sina
::: sin~
= siny
2
8 2 = A2 , C • 2AC · cosfl
2
c2 • A2 • 8 • 2AB · cosy
 Appendix B: Useful Conversions and Information 673

Deflection of Curvature
A B

d • 0.785·AB2

<I. t1enect1on 1fl meter,

length AS In kl.lomere.n

Surface Arc Distance vs. Planar (map) Distance

A AB is horizontal <11s1or,ce, Atos B

~
"'
.c
a.
"'
"'
.c
+-
....
0
(/)
:::,
'6 AB • R · sin(O)
~
er:
. AO= R · 6
0 The angle 9 is
expressed rn rod1ons
674 GIS Fundamentals
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 675

Appendix C: Answers to Selected Study Questions

Chapter 1

1.2: I recently used Google Map (http:f/

maps.google.com/maps?1ai,.,.v1) 10 help
plan a trip to Granada. Spain. Data col-
lec1ion consisted ofa search with the
keywords Granada. Hotel. and Spain.
TI1e analysis consisted of the hotel qual-
ity ranking, loc..ation relative to sites I
wanted to visit. and cost Communication
involved sending an image and map 10
friends.

·-~
~

1.4: GIS software differ from other software primarily in tracking geographic
coordinate location. tieing these locations 10 anribute data. and storing and
pr<Wessing large quantities of dala. While many softwares are designed 10
store and analyze large volumes of data (e.g .•video editing), and some otlier
softwares focus on coordinates (e.g.. computer assisted design programs for
three-dimensional objects). GJS records coordinates that are tied 10 real.
physical locations. Coordinates are defined relative to a physical origin. usu-
ally some point on the Eanh surface. or the ne.aJ tbe center of the Earth. and
stored in the computer. Sets of points are combined to characterize the loca.
tion and shape of geographic features, and non-spatial attributes are associ-
ated with these fearures.

t .6: By our definition in this chapter, paper records and maps are not a GlS,
because they are 001 computer based. However. they do serve in our collec·
tion. storage. analysis. and output of spatial data and information. so some
would argue tllat they are a GIS. just an extremely low 1cclmology , ,ersion.
6 76 GIS Fundamentals

Chapter 2

2.2: Our mulliple levels of abstraction from tl1e physical, "real.. world usually
include a data model. data structures. and machine code. Tue data model
describes the real-world objec1s witl1 a subset of simple objects and relation-
ships. Data models typically encompass our mental iniage of bow 1he real
world entities are connected, shaped, or related. These models may often be
illustrated by box and arrows diagrams. Data structures are how these objects
are organized in a computer, for example. what parts go in wha1 files. or bow
the files are linked on 10 another. Machine code are the O's and I's used 10
swre info:rma1 iou.

2.4: a) imerva Vratio, b) nominal. c) nominal, or ordinal (if read along a brightness
gradient),. d) ordinal. e) nominal. f) in1ervaVra1io.

2.6: a, b, f

2.8: a) 0.82525625. b) 2.717896524, c) - 1.9408&466,

d) 0.24064227, e) -72.192682, 1)128.93670

2.10:

Point OMS Decimal Degrees

I 36°45'12" 36.75333
2 114°58·2· 114,9672
3 85°19'7" 85.31816
4 14°00'33" 14.00917
5 275°30'00" 275.00001
6 0°59'43" 0 .99528
7 182°19·22· 182.32278
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 677

2:12

Arc Angle Arc

Point (dee d•g•} Radians Distance (m)

1 1.0 0.01745293 111.318.8

2 0.01666667 0.0002909 1.855.3
3 0 .00027778 0.00000485 30.9
4 3.21611111 0.056131728 358.013.8
5 0 .5 0.00872665 55,659.4
6 0 .0125 0 .000218167 1,391.5

2.14: a) 558.48 km. 4,753.72 km. 9,523.1 km

2.16; Topology is tile smdy of spatial rela1ionsllips. and it is imponant i.n <HS
b~ausc 1opological vector data strucrurcs have certain positive properties.
Topological relationships such as adjacency. connectivity. proximity. and
overlap are important in structuring and analyzing data and are often helpful
in ensuring da1a quality. Many 1opological characteristics are invariant 10
warping or bending spa1ial fearures. This is imponam because we o lien warp
spatial da1a througlt map proj ecrious.

2:18: a) I. b)2. c) 2. d) I. e) 2
678 GIS Fundamentals

,• ••
?Q·
. JllU , U·patl
·

c:? .)._ I
10
'""' !
Jro1y
....,.
lOl,3'0

' "'---
8 -~ '-

'

single-part

I
2
'
Mohlcnd
SOttt:ttiO
.
251.540
2.4,090
3 Sieil',' 2'.710

222:Mlxed cells: may be a problem under several condi1ions. for example, wbeo
there are veiy differenl values for materials within the cell. or when we are
interested primarily in one factor that is a minority presence in a cell bul not
recorded. ML,ed cells may be addressed by decreasing !he cell size. by care-
fully developing ~,e assigmnem ru.le for cell values when !here are mi.x,ed
cons1imeots. or by recording multiple anribu1es for each cell. including tbe
identity and proportion of values in each cell.

2.24: Waier are E. H, F. and J.

 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 679

2.26:

2 2 1 2
nul1 2
null 1.75
2 2
I null 4 3
null 3.5
3 null 3 4

0 0 b 0
O b
0 b c b
c c c
null
null c
c c c c

2.28:
One-to-one
cell-IDi-fOUnt One-to-many
5 I attribute table
attribute t able 7 I
(rows first.start i cell-lD coun1
upper-lefl corner) 2 I
3_ i- I 2 2
3 I 3 6
9 I 4 5
10 I 5 I
4 I 6 I
6 I 7 5
7 I 8 J
8 I 9 I
8 I 10 I
J I
4 I
J I
7 I
7 I
4 I
I-
4 I
3 I
8 I
7
4
3
I
I
I
l
2 I I
680 GIS Fundamentals

2:30: All object data model defmes "narural" objects. from the point of view of
the model designer. that encompasses spatial and anribnte properties. as well
as functions or operations I bat may be specific to that object Rather !hat
breaking data inlo thematic layers. components from many themes may exist
within an object. Objects may relate 10 other objects through specific or spe-
ciaLized. unique correspondences or collrlections.

2.32: a) I b) 10111 c) 100000000 d) JOO e) JO II 1)1010 g) 11 h) 10100

2.34: a) S b) I c) IS d) 45 e) 13 f) II g) 129 h) 255

2.36: We compress data when data vohllrles are 100 large. particularly for raster
data sets. Cells are recorded for each location in a raster area. and gigabytes
to rerabyws are often stored. Vector data sets typically record shape-defining
locations. and only where features of interesl occur, for example, a road line.
This conttasts with a raster representation which records a sel of cells for a
road. plus cells for the surrollrlding area where there is no road.

2.38: Run length codes. by row are:

2:b, 3:a. l:c, 3:a
2:c, 2:b. 3:d. 2:a
9:b
l :e. l:c. l:f. l :b.l:a l:d.l :f. l:b.1 :a
I :a. I:s. I:a, 3:f. 2:b, I:a
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 681

Chapter 3

3.2 a)6,372,400 b) 6.356,500 c) 6,344,647

3.4: An elJipsoid is a solid shape based on the Ellipse equation:

rotation of an ellipse. An ellipse is a near
circular shape, defined by the equation at
right. where x and y are the cemerof1he
ellipse and r 1and r2 specify how large and
flattened the ellipse is. An ellipse becomes J
.
= (x - ., oi- _v' "-)'o)-'
a circ le when r1 • r2, and a spheroid is r l1 r :2
solid based on the rotation of a circle.

3.6: A geoid is usually defined as gravitational equipotential surface chosen as

our base for measuring heights. It is an approximately spherical surface for
which the force of gravity is a specified constant value. An ellipsoid is a
mathematically de(med surface. while a geoid is measured. and represents a
natural force. The surface of the earth is also a measured surface. but doesn't
correspond to a gravitational surface because geologic forces have. p ushed
surface materials above and eroded them below any gjven equipotential
value near the earth surface. We have measured the geoid both from near-sur,
face U1S1tUme111s called gravimerers that measure the gravitational force. and
by gravity effects on sa1elli1e mo1ion 1brougb space.

3.8: Mag11etic north is at the point where lines of magnetic anraction converge.
and a weightless magnet. if suspended in a frictionless media. woulld point
straigJu down towards the center of the Earth. Magnetic nonh is cunenlly
located near Greenland.
TI1e geographic north pole is tJ1e northern intersection of the Earth' s axis of
rotation with the Earth's surface. It is located in the Arctic Ocean.

3.10: Multiple danuus exjst because we have Unproved datums through time. and
bec.ause we develop different datums for different purposes. Datums are
required for measurements, and so most governments estimared datums
when a sufficient number of points were surveyed. Additional pointS with
improved methods will led 10 subsequent estimations. or versions. of national
datums. in most cases with higl1er accuracies. Satellite and other measure-
ment capabilities developed in the second half of the 20th centmy added
globaJ datums. increasing the number of available datums for most loc.ations.
682 GIS Fundamentals

3.12: Sea level is no longer used as a reference height because sea level is rising.
so rbe mean height would depend on the length ofrhe measurement record
and is nor stable, there are. loc.al variation.~ due to persistent currents. changes
in temperature, or changes in salinity. and sea level varies on a 19 year tidal
c-ycle. Technologies have developed such rhat we can quickly and easily
measure accurate height differences smaller tl10n chese sources of sea level
variability.

3.14:
NAD27 NAD83(8 6) HPGN
''" ....... lol 11.1:le .......... ....... """'""'
'°""'""
~10"11'

-
I G<lf {S) 32 U 15' nt'09"42' 3Z<O"l5t827' 111"09·,s 12or J1'u1s1a10· U7'09451l01'

...to1s9· 101'2()"U" '3'07589806' gq)o·u,2~· •i'orsaos;5· 19"201u102·

'
> ,0"00-00· 1~"16'01' ,o"<:0'00' t05":6'021i!Ml' ,o~OO'OO 0068' 10)...1601.''Ull'
"°""'""
_,DC 38"51'10 4.0!!2'" rl'ozt99165' J8''5l t0.'°64 7t'OZ'l990•t
' 38''5110' 71'0~2<1'

3.16:
NAD63(ZOII) - 1966 NAD63(Z011) - 2015 SurfOGt shifr d1s1~t (cm)
1amudt b\gi,ude
''" I01rtucle ICf\iglrudt &cegl"\Jdt lornudt

I 3~·14'1!>' !!7°09'~C 32°.u1.5 0292· 111"09'42.0298" ·902 ·920

3 4t'OT59" 89"20'11" .n"ors.am,· 8¢20109973" !(2

••
5 40"00'00" i05°16'01" .co0 oo·oooo~· 105°16"0 997T ·15 71

7 .18°S!'Ol' n•o2·2r :a0 ,10992' 77°02'209978" 247 68

3.18:
NAD27 NAD83(2011 )
Srart
""' l!IM\G('
""''""'
·11,.<!0'00"
c1-,1:.i (,,,l lc111t11dr. i0n9tlllX e:ao11on (ml

1 CO• 32 40'00" 200 32' -'0'00Jtl9.:)-' -uT00030990· ~OO<,s.t

3 ~ti4'1CM
"'' )0'00' -s,n'oooo· 200 •s"zn, w,r ·IU"00041J.ll' eou•9
...,.,.
-
..ttoo·co- ·690000" ,co 47'00'00 llSO' -bt~S~'S! uu· Lt;9.8U
'
l)~OOOl '7:).)" ..s1'N~ ll34° 050,
' 25'00'00" &l'l0-00- I
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 683

_
3.20:

.... S !Cl<r 11211•...:ior

""''""
'l(Chfl2A
,)-.ltCfl {ml
~~· (¢1'1)
"e> gcQ«li
.\ht.,., (em)
.......... ~
. 1(cm)

I c.,;r }l 4000" -ut'ocroo· ,.., 0

•• 66

' ·~10l'I '8~30'()0' 122'0000· ..., 32 70 ll6

•
1
,..,,,..

-
..toooo·
2:s•oo·oo·
·69-"oo·oo·

.fl-Woo·
200

l
IJ

"
.", L>

••
3.22: MH'\V - 4.99 above gauge 0. NAVD88 at gauge is 0.43 above gage zero.
So MH\V is 4.99 · 0.43 above NAVD88. which is 4.56. Hospital should be at
30 + 4.56. or 34.56 ft.

3.24: A developable S\ltface is a mathematical. geometric S\lrface onto which a

points are projected from a spheroid or ellipsoid. TI1is developable surface
n11y be mathematically "unrolled" to depict a flat map. Planes. cones. and
cylinders are the most common developable surfaces.

3.26: As of December 2015:

Denver. Colorado: NA083(20J l). NAVDSS
Latitude and longin1des are 39 45 14.295SS(N) !04 53 00.9653 l(W)

Loma East. California: NA083(20 1J). NAVD88

Latitude and longitudes are 32 40 14.00209(N) 117 14 27 .75333(\V)

Austin CE. Texas: NA083(201 I). NAVD88

Latitude and longin1des are 30 16 48.0436 l(N) 097 44 16.30349(\V)

3.28: The great circle distances are:

Denver to Loma East: 1,359 km
Denver to Austin CE: 1,239 Ian
Austin CE to Loma East: 1,868 km

3.30: The UTM coordinate system defines map projections for all portions of tlte
globe,. Areas berweeu so• s latitude aud 84° N latitude are divided .imo 60
wide zones. each zone ru,uling from tlie equator 10 tlte northen1 or soutl1ern
limit. Separate transverse Mercator projections are fit to each zone. Negative
zone values are avoided by spec.ifying false castings and oorthings. coordi·
nate values added to intenuediate projection coordinates.
684 GIS Fundamentals

3.32: Benin. Israel - Transverse Mercator. because both are narrow with the main
territorial axes are nonh-soulh:
Bhutan - Lamben conformal conic. because they are relatively narrow and
have main axes oriented east-west
Slovenia - either Lambert coufomial conic or azimuthal, because although it
is bas a sLigh1 eas1-wes1elongation, the shape is son1ewba1 round. and so
could be well represented by either fom,s.

3.34: The Public Laud Survey System (PLSS) is a systematic subdivision of land
carried om in tl1e U.S. for the purpose of uniquely identifying property
boundaries. Principle meridians and baselines are established. and 1owuship
rutd range lines surveyed parallel 10 these at 6 mi.le imervals. The 1ownsbip/
range grid is further subdivided into I mile squares, in tum subdivided into
smaller units. The PLSS is nol a coordinate system.
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 685

Chapter 4

4.2: a. c, and e.

4.4: a) exaggeration. b) simplification. d) simplification. c) omission

4.6: Acompu1erscrec11 is now tbe most common map media: millions of maps
are rendered each hour through applications like googJe map and o,apquest.
Paper is the second most common media, and is most used when a .hardcopy
fom1 is required.

4.8: A large sc.ale map typically shows more detail. because each fealure is drawn
larger, and tliere is more opponunity to show variation in shape.

4.10: Complete the following table that shows scale measurements and calcuJa.
tions.
Ground distance Corresponding map dis·
Map Scale
and units iance and units
17;120 kilometers 16.85 inches 1 : 40,000,935

23.4 kilometers 11.7 centimeters 1: 200,000

16.4 miles 9.3 Inches 1: 109.869

102.0 meters 1.855 centimeters 1: 5,500

320.08 miles 10.24 inches 1: 2.000,000

4.12: a-under.;1>001: b-undershoot: c-psucdouode: d-over.;booi: e-undersboot: f.

missiug label: g-over.;hoo1.
686 GIS Fundamentals

4.14: Snap disrance 5 (lop) and JO (bonom)

I
5 unll rod1us
·<\
,.':~:\.
O
- - ' ,/
,,
-.:,

10 unit./
tOdiUS

'
•

I
'

------ ··.,
~ u,-1 roebus

a ·:--.·\.
----..
JO urur ..·"'
rodius
)

4J 6; Aspline is a line smoo1bly fil lhrough a sel of poin1s. Splines are used 10
increase venex deusiry wilhou1 substantially slowing the digitizing process,
particularly for smoo11tly-curvh1g features. suclt as river meanders or "' llld·
ing roads. Splines fir piecewise polynomial flloc1ions while in1posiog smoo1b
join points.
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 687

4. 18: Manual digitizi11g involves foting a map or displaying a scanned image. and
manually positioning a pointing device to indicate 1he location of each node,
vertex. or other sl1ape-definin_g coordioate. Digitized data are in vector fom1.
Scan digitizing uses a machine to record differences in colors or brightness
for a map or image documen1, usually into a raster grid. Lines. points, and
areas are defined by some lhresholding teclmique. and lines or points may be
u1inned and converted to a vector fo,m. as needed. Mam..1methods have u1e
advaruage of low costs for small maps. inexpensive equipment requ iremeots.
feature interpretation by humans when using substandard maps. and rela-
tively little training. Scan digi1izing is inexpensive for large nwnbers of very
detailed maps. may be automated. and may be more consistent.

4.20: Map registration fixes a map or image to a ground coordinate system so that
the coordinates of any poinl in the media may be delennined easily.. The pro·
cess consists of identifying control points that are visible in both the image/
map and on the ground. collecting coordinates of u,ese points in both the
image/map system and the projected "ground" coordinate system. fining a
system of 1:raosfom1ation equations to the coordinate data sets. and applying
these transformation equations t'o the image to convert it to the proj;ected
ground coordinate systeaL

4.22: An affine transformation uses a system of linear equa1ions 10 estima1e the

ground easting (E) and northing (N) values from image , and y values. The
equalions are oflhe form:

This is a linear 1ransforma1ion because the x and y variables are 001 multi-
plied together or raised 10 a power largcrtban I. by definition the equation of
a straight line-.

4.24: The average positional error is likely 10 be the. same or larger than the
RMSE. The RMSE is usually minimized, or closely related 10 a minimized
quanrity when statistically fining the coordinate tn111sformation. Ifwe col-
lected a representative sample. we expect u,e Ri'v!SE 10 be approximately
equal 10 the average error. However. if our sampling was inadequate or
biased, often it is in areas where we have difficulty identifying good control
points_ and hence our RMSEs tend 10 be larger in these locations.
688 GIS Fundamentals

4.24: Transformation bis the mos1 Likely to have Lowest average e1TOr al inde-
pendeotl)' measured poims. 11 depends on 1he distribmion and number of con-
trol points. but in most cases higher order polynomials overfit. and wbUe
exhibiling lower R.M:SE values. they have larger errors.

4.28: Me1ada1;a arc 1he data abom da1a. They describe 1be exienl. l)']>e, coordinate
system. lineage. attributes, and other imponant characteristics o f a spatial
data sel. Metadnta are required to evaluate the adequacy of a data set for an
intended use.
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 689

Chapter 5

5.2: GNSS is based on range dislanc.e measurements from multiple satellites to "tri-
angulate.. a location. Orbitlllg satellites transmit radio signals along with precise
positi.oning and timing information. The current distance beiween a satellite and
a receiver is a range measurement. A GNSS receiver combines multiple. simul-
taneo11s range measurements to estimate loc.ation in near-real time.

5.4: Typically 4 satelLites are required for a 3-dimensional fix. although a icx may be
detennined under some assumptions with data collection from 3 satellites over a
short period of time.

5.6: GNSS data range in accuracy. from sub-centimeter for !he highest accuracy
using carrier phase methods. to 1ens of meters usin.g real-time CIA positioning.
Accuracies are highe.st when using high quality receiving systems in fiat terrain,
with 110 buildings. trees.. or ot11er structures 10 block views of the sky. Accuracie.s
also i:mprove when satellites are widely spaced.

5.S: Fig ured depicts the lowest POOP. with tbe widest distribution of satellites.
closely followed by figure b. Figure a has the higl1est POOP, with t!1e tightest
di.stribU1ion.

5.10: Differential positioning is based on the simultaneous measurement of GNSS

signaBs at both a known. base location, and at unknown roving stations. TI1e
small errors in range measurement may be calculated for each position measure·
ment a, the base station. These range errors n1ay be applied in reverse for corre-
sponding rover data. !hereby improving !he accuracy of position measurements.

5.12: DuaJ frequency receivers prin1arily reduce ionospheric delays. and hence
uncenainty in position. They may help somewhat with aimospheric delays. but
typically much less 1ban with ionospheric delays.

5.14: GNSS accuracy typically decreases as terrain becomes more varied. on,i1en
canopy or buildings obslJ1lct a ponion of !he sky. Positional accuracy decreases
beca11se sub-optimal constellatioos of sa,ellites are more likely to be observed.
Satellites are in closer proximity. and measuremeots are less independem, and
hence to not reinforce each other to improve accuracy.

5.16: WAAS is the Wide Arca Augmentation System. a real-time difforen1ial COITl!t·
tion system designed to aid navigation in U.S. civil aviation. Correction factors
are derived from a nationwide network of control stations and broadcast from a
geostationary satellite located over 1he equator. The system is desigc1ed primarily
for at1iation and related uses in North America.
690 GIS Fundamentals

5.18: COGO stands for coordinate geometry. COGO is the calculation of co<>rdinates
based on angle and distance measuremeurs.

5.20:

Xi- Y,
1- d.. - ·
... • •• •,
...
v, d,

I
L Y,

....
0 0 70 100 9•0 342 94 () 3<2
,s

.
15 130 336 1256 1606
L
d, 400 0 200 1<1)4 1'1J4 541 4 1•1 .C
,so 80 20 183 81 1683 88J

I 10 25 88 12 120 o• 22-0 25<

Point l 2 3 4 5 6 7
- -
Azimuth 278° 42° 103° 199° 359° 245° I oa 0 14·22"

Bearing N82"W N42°E S77°E S!9"W Nl"W S65"W s1a•14·22·v

5.24:
Stcrting point PO. X • J,200 Y • 400
p.,.,,, ID Aumrth Distance Oenox Oel1a Y x y
Pl 9, ,o, 10<.6 ·92 1,304 6 3908
P2 192 n ·160 -753 I 2886 3155
Pl 262 204 -2020 ·28 4 1,0866 287 l
P• 6 ,o, 10.9 103.4 1,0975 3906
P5 18 33 10 2 31< 1.107.6 4220
P6 105 88 850 ·228 l.1926 3992
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 691

5.26

Point
r.r.Yts
(0,,0
~s-1
l
?1000.C&n
2
PIO A.66'60
3
,,w
P1D OY21'3
•
PIO P.1(()4,0:
-.vtv
5
Pll)CW,W
0..,1~
"°"""' """ AV$ APQJ TX $1~ (.A

Latitude 45°05' 454• 30° 17 29 7" 33'24' 15.9" 111.'° co· JJ.a· 41' 49' 551"

Longitude 93~00' 179• 91' 41' 34.3• 118°24' 54 2· 109' 30· 20 2· 119'59' 216°

Ellipso,dol 252.7 1415 405.9 3604.5 3821

Height (ml
Geoidal
Height (m) -27 45 ·25.95 ·36.22 .7 49 ·19 27

Orthome1ric
Height (ml 280.15 167,45 442.12 3.61199 401.37
692 GIS Fundamentals

Chapter 6

6.2: The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of elec1romag.11etic euergy fre-

quencies observed. Broadly. this spans from Oro infini1y, however we are
mos, imeres1ed in the subset of primary freq11encies emined by the sun. Spe-
cifically, we are interested in 1he uhraviolet through infrared portions of solar
radiarion. from 0.0 I through I000 µm (1.000,000 )Jill equals I meter). Princi-
pal regions of interest are the visible (0.4 10 0.7fttn, approximately equally
split in the blue, green. and red por1ions of tlte spectrum), the near inlmred
(0.7 10 t. I 1101), and tlte mid infrared ponions (2.5 10 8 µm). Radar wave-
lengths are imponant in remote sensing. most often generated from a device.
ru.td range from O.75 cm to l m.

6.4: Film is a layered sandwich of emulsions on a polyester base ntaterial. The

emulsion is sensi1jve to ligh1. and reac1s to darken in a measure proponionaL
10 tl1e amount of ligh1 (exposure) the layer receives. Differem emulsions are
sensitive 10 different spectral regions. Panchromatic film is typically se~tSi-
tive 10 visible wavelengths, from 0.4 to 0.7 µm. Color films typically contain
three dye layers. sensitive 10 the blue, green, and red wavelengths (nonnal
color). or green. red. and infrared wavelengths (color infrared fibu). Spectral
reflectance curves plot the sensitivity versus wavelength.
Digital cameras are similar. except that ligh1 is typically split by wavele.ngth
and directed to separate receptor electronics, one each foreach portion of the
spectrum observed. Light generates a voltage or current proportional to the
light euer_gy. and in this way au image is formed.

6.6: Tite dimension of a side will be approximately 68.6 meters.

6.8: Yo11 should set a flying heigh• of 170 meters.

6.10: The most common band combination is a blue-green,red set tltat corre-
sponds 10 wha1 the human eye observes. Another connnon combi11a1ion is a
green-red.-near infrared set. which provides bener vegetation discrimination.

6.12: Distortion 111agni1ude varies with mapping cameras. depending on temiin.

1il1. camera cltarac1eris1ics. and scale. For vertical photos. typically deiu1ed as
those with crunera axis tih of less 1han 3 degrees. errors are typically berween
10 and 70 meters over moderate terrain. Errors may be reduced 10 a metter or
less by applying a full photo orlhocorrection. a process that analytically
removes most tilt and terrain distortion through 1.he three-dimensional geo·
meiric analysis rutd transfom1a1iou.

6.14: a) till. b) terrain. c) camera/lens

 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 693

6.16: Stereo photographic coverage is 1he intentional overlap of scqueo1ial pboto-

grapbs in a fligllt line (eod lap) and photos in adjacent flight lines (side lap).
Overlap provides views of the same set of objections from two different loca-
tions. These ·•perspective views.. take advantage of a phenomenon called par·
alla.x to reconslruct three·dimeusioual posi1fo11.s from two..dimensioual
images.

6.1S: Terrain distonion is removed by applying inverse e.quatfons that describe

the magnimde of cerrain .. caused di.stonion. Three dimensional objects tluu
are projec,ed onto a two-<lhnensional plane are shifled horizoniaUy when
u1ey are at different heights. This shift is also dependent on the angle at
which the objects are viewed. We may remove 1be distortion by measuring
the height of each point and knowing the viewing angle from the camera
location to each point

6.20: 2.0 llllll

6.22: Photointerpre1a1io11 is the process of convening images into spatial infomia.

tioo. typically by an experienced human analyst. or photoimerpre1e.r. The
photoioterpreter uses size. shape. color. brighmess. texture. and locaiion to
assign or identify characleristics to features ofinterest.

6.24: The four systems. from Landsa, ETM+ 1hro1,g)J Q11ickbird represem a range
of resolutions (from 30 m through 0.6 m). spectral ranges (full color through
near and mid inf.rared). per scene coverage (from tens of thousands of square
kilometers through a few tens of square kilometers), and more lhe two week
to les.1 lhan two day repeat thnes. Finally, costs rise markedly along Ibis gra-
dient. Allhougl1 near the end of its functional life at the time of this writing.
the ETM+ data were available for h11ndreds of dollars for a full scene. while
the hlgher resolution data were from tens to hundreds of thousands of dollars
for au equivale11t area.

6.26: Image types are selected if they measure the phenomena of interest to the
required level of spatial and attribute accuracy, are wi1bio the 1eclm.ical c.a)Xl-
bilities of the organization. have an acceptable probability of suc,cessJul data
collection. and fil with lhe available budget for acquisition and processing.
694 GIS Fundamentals

Chapter 7

7.2: Do the data provide the required infonnation, for tlte required area. at the
necessary level of categorical and spatial detail. aud at the accuracy needed
for the intended use?

7.4: Edge.matching is t11e process of ensuring consistency in features across the

edges of mapping projects. areas. and physical maps. When adjacent ar,ea.s
are mapp..>d at differem times. by different methods, or by differem people
there may be incongruet11 feanires on either side of the mapping boundary.
Roads may not match in location or type. rivers may end abruptly. or 1he veg-
etation or e.levation change in an impossible manner. Edge.matching
an empts to resolve these differences. and if possible. remove errors across
mapping boundaries.
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 695

Chapter 8

8.2: Database management systems are computer software tools that aid in the
entry.. organizatioJL analysis. distribution. and presematiou of data.

8.4: A one.to-one relationship among table means thal fo r every row in one table
tl1at in some way is matched to a row in another table. there is only one row
in u,e second table that watches. A many-to-one relationship means that one
row in a rable may match many rows in a second table. Note that by match.
,ve do not mean completely march. Usually we are using a colmnn in each
table 10 match the tables: 1he rows are considered to match when th,e match
column has the same value in both tables.

8.6: Osei. NumT

8.8: Tite eight basic operations are illustrated in the section ''Priniary O~rations"
in Cb.apter 8. TI1ey are resiric,. project. product divide. union. imersec1. dif·
ference. and join.

8.10: Sets from OR conditions will have the same number or more members than
the component condirioos.

8.12: a) F.lorida. Georgia, Iowa, Minnesota. Wisconsin.

b) Iowa. Minnesota. Wiseonsin.
c)Alabama.A.taska. Florida.
d) Minnesota. Alaska.
e) Iowa. Oklahoma.
OMillnesota, Wisconsin.

8:14: Nollllal fonns are a way of organizing database tables. Wbeo foUowed. they
optimally structure tables to remove redundancies. efficiently store data. and
orgalllize data in "natural .. groupings that speed analysis and increas:e flexibil-
ity.
696 GIS Fundamentals

8.16:
,..--.....,_
ldl l'Vl
y WO

z ••
td2 rm
x
y
5
I
y
z
..••
ldl pos tm
I
.
A rl A 6 A ,.. 6
y pr Q 4 v pr I

y nn
y nn I

R ,..
N 3
R
,.. -
L 2
Q mn
Q mn 4

S. 18: A functiQnal dependency occurs when knowing the value of one variable
define.s the value of another variable. For example, if I know a person 191a1 a
person was a German citizen in 2014, tl1en I know that tl1eir Chancellor was
Angela Merl<el. or iftha1 a person is a Chicago Cubs fan in 2015, !hen lheir
team has 1he longest ac1ivc period will1ou1 winning 1be baseball World Series.

8.20: ID -> Size. Color;

Size -> Color
Source -> ID. Size. Shape. Color. Age
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 697

Chapter 9

9.2: Selection operations apply criteria to features. and identify features that meet
u1ose criieria. The criieria may apply 10 spatial charac1eris1ics. for example.
u1e si:ze. shape. or location of a polygon: u1ey may apply 10 non-spa1ial attri-
butes of 1be fea111res. for example the value or condition of an anribute.

9.4: a) B orC: b) Aand B: c) [Atllld BJ and no1C: d)[B or CJ auduot [Band CJ

9.6
10 cotg
I A
2 7
re:clas:s 2 A
3 B
5
9 • A
3 5 B
6 6 B
7 A
8 A
9 c
10 c
A

c
B
698 GIS Fundamentals

9.8: Lruge are white. medium ligh1 gray. sinall darker grey.

14
6

9.10: The modifiable area u11i1 problem arises because sta1is1ics for aggrega-ted
areas depend on tile aggregations. We may combine adjacen, areas. and cal-
culare sums. means. medians. and other arrributes of the areal units. If we are
selective about how \Ve aggregate, we may dtange these statistics solely by
changing 1be aggregation unils.This is 1be modifiable areal uni, problem. The
zoning effect is bow aggregate s1a1is1ics change with zone boundaries. The
area effec:1 is how s1alis1ics change when changing 1he size of aggregati.on
areas.
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 699

9.12
700 GIS Fundamentals

9:14:

ID Closs Coont Type Cost

A l ll Form 1,000 I
-
B 2 9 Form 900
c l 3 Ranch 1.100
0 l • Suburb 200
700
E 2 21 Suburb
F 2 14 Form 800
G 1 6 Ranch !.ZOO

I
New!O Closs Count
c a l 17
a
b b 2 44
c_L 1 l 7

9.16: Multi-distance. retain. exterior.

 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 701

9.18:

ID distance
I 250

2 0

3 1500

4 500

5 0
1,000
meters 6 500
7 250

8 250

9.20: The minimum dimension (point. line, or polygon) is chosen bec~use 10 do

otherwise cout1s ambiguiiy. If two lower dimension fearures arc coincidelll
wi1b higher-dimension fearures. ii is unclear how 1he anributes should be
recorded in the resultant features. For example. if two points fall within a
polygon. the polygon attributes may be unambiguously associated with each
point. 11 is unclear or a1 best cumbersome 10 assign bolh se1s of point auri·
bu1es 10 an ompin polygon.
702 GIS Fundamentals

9.22:
layer t - lf'lluttcr- Loyer 2 - 10 ettc1e - Ootput

• • ·' •
A
' ,2 '
' .•
B
c B
c
,J ,$ 3 ,5
• • •
' l
' 0
• ' , • •
CJ
'
10 1C00t] S1tS
A Cl'$, ftt I ""'
I ~JT)T
XC
IO
1 ""'
m
coot · ,11s-
..."" ...""
•c ....
Wl1 t~s~
l
l
..,.__
'""'
2 xc
srn,
'""' • CA,
• •' ~
Wl1
Gn
.~oi,e
! ftt
• au U(t>
'""'
9:24:
Spo!IOI Ool o

c
I
'
I~, ,•
A l
'
• •
10 ... - • -- .,.., ,.,...
10 ••• """
10 ... -...... -..• ,...,.,3.... ......
.....
.
1 E..,,. I 12J!j II

l
2 ""
""
l'H9
u .....
! CH l
A

c
l
-
II
"""'
• """" Zlll
2
3
'5
...,
!Wi

...,
1863
U ""M
V ((IM
II

'
Cumo
..,. ,,.
.,... ..,
l..JJl

•
7
19tt;l
19lt;I
U<OM
LC«
L C,:c .
o lcumo l.JJl
II
.,... ...
....... ,.,
• 1010 r c« o 1G1.1~ ~.Jii
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 703

9:26:

A 0
2

c d
B

IDLndcov count ID lype

A orts wouowo 1 Evern sood "'"
B urt:ion Uncoln 2 Cillerd cl
n

..
XfT
0 urban Un«iln null
b fcrest Wol~ nu11
c ..,
d
•~
urbon
fortsl ,..,
sond

clay_
nuU c
h nUII null .send
i urbOn Unc.oln dqy
fol'tsr+wonowo vun SOM
k ore.st W-0 l<WiO nu! nu
J u,1,an Lincoln null nu I

9:28:
Loyer I IAy<r 2

A B x x x x I I I 2
A
",. A

B B w VI x x 3 3 2 2
A c c B w VI w x 3 5 5 2
A c B B w \'I w w 3 5 • '
10 !yp< .....,, 10
"
,2 GO\~·
10
'"" ,
A
c.ount
I x , • •
2
•• w ,
"
x
'
3
' l 4
2 B 6 2 \'I 9
• •c ww ,
3 c 3 •
704 GIS Fundamentals

9.30: Ncrworl< models are conne<:tcd Linear graphs 1bro11gh wllicb resources flow.
or to which movement may be constrained. TI1ere may be both source and
demand features connected to these networks. Networks are different from
many other spatial models in that movement oroccurrence is limited to the
network. .and they often track time-varying

9:32: Note answer values in c.ase.s large address ranges may be off by one address
unit
Oegilbo Rd Bend<90 SI

,. lnoloo R

!Iii

. ,r,01 Yaffll Rd

S !:]
"
.... Inoloo Ref 0<,91lb0 Rd
"" 8erid1go s,
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 705

9.34:
a)

I 3 Recloss
Tobie

4 b) operation

5
0
0 b
o) in out
b)dissolve
l 0
2 0 c
3 b
4 c d
5 d
0 d
706 GIS Fundamentals

Chapter 10

10.2: Compal~ble cell sizes are ofte n required in raster operations because other·
wise the input is ofien ambiguous. If one input cell is substantially laiger or
mismatcb:ed 10 another. ii may be uncenain which input cell value 10 clloose.

10.4:
on me
) 2 • ~~ on t l'C e.retic
• J • 2•C•l•Do5o7,}l,2
II 10
• YCI.IC' n:,rigc.
• lM
$O\IOl'C

I ©
' " ' . "'
5

. • 2
>
[i]
• "•
• 16

3 • • irlcn:lcrd <k'YiehOf'I en !tie c.irclc

['t.i·• 73)t,(0,.<1 78)'• ,(IC>·' 11n1
' © 5
•
7 13 l

I•
• 1 , - - , - - , , - - , tnlffiiCtl Of'I !he: 'llo<r
5 3 M ·.9.IU2.13.IC>
• & 11
I
•• 10

10.6: C I • l. C2 • null C3 - o. c,2 - o.

10.8: CI • 1. C3 • I. C4 • 0. CJ0 • 4

IO. JO: Any nested operation. something like con(isnull(layerl. layer2. layerl). or
sqn(abs(layer I)).

10.12: C7 • null. CS · null, Cl3 - I. C l6 • null

L0.14: In most systems, a NULL value is returned when it appears as any i.npu1 of
an operation, unless there are explicit instructions to ignore null values.
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 707

l0.16:

I I 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 I 1 0 0 I 0 0 0 1
ond :
I I 0 0 I I I 0 I I 0 0
J 0 0 I I 0 I 1 I 0 0 I

I 1 0 0 0 1 0 I I 1 0 I
0 0 0 I I 0 0 I I 0 0 I
or :
I I 0 0 I I I 0 I 1 I 0
1 0 0 I I 0 I I I 0 I I

lO. J8: A clip function may be implemented in a rasrer environment by ere.a ring a
clip layer which have ce.lls with a value of J wherever data in the targel layer
are to be.kept, and Ocell values corresponding to are.as where the ta:rget layer
data is to be discarded.

10.20: TI1e kernel is a high-pass filter. It would highlight local differences in the
target raster. with values changed liule in areas "1tere cell values are about
u1e same, aud exaggerating values that are higher or lower than u1eir neigh-
bors.

10.22: High spatial covariance means cells near each other tend 10 have similar
value:s: low values tend 10 be clustered near low values. and high values clus-
tered near other higJ1 values.
708 GIS Fundamentals

10.24:

Source/ton,: t cells d1rec.r poth

A 2 4 7 8 COS!• 2'5·3' 10•5'10 •1'5
• 95
3 1 7 9
5 1 4 7 row/coh.nm c.ost
.. 2· 5.. 3·10·5·JO•J· 5
B c I I 4 1 2 • 95

Cost st1rfoce t , _ c. dif'UI polh

2 4 7 8
3 1 7 9
[SJ1 2 4
Ii
7 8 cost a 2•705· l· l'1 l·~·t• 1· 2· 705
• 987

5 1 4 7 tM d1a9ono1 of 5
"•R'7 9
7
row/column
COS!• 2· 5·3' 10•2'1'10·<•10•
a squoreis 1 41
'2 1·10,2· 5
l 4 l 2 x the edge 1 4 ~
• 120
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 709

Chapter 11

11.2: Digital elevation models are created by a variety of methods. Leveling or

other ground surveys are used 10 measure relative height differences across
profiles. using optical and electronic instruments 10 measure distance and
vertical and horizontal angles. Photo-based methods rely on parallaix. the rel-
ative displacement of objects depending oo 1heir distance from an observa-
rion point. Downward looking images 1aken from aircraft or satellites may be
comb ined witlt knowledge of aircraft position and g.row1d sutveys to create
DE Ms. Laser and radar measurements from airborne platfonns are a third
conuuon method for DEM creation. Rerun, times are recorded for e lectro-
magnetic signals sent form the aircraft. and used to calculate 1erraia height
rela1ive to the aircraft. TI1ese are combined with precise pos.itioning informa-
tion for the aircraft and with previous ground surveys to produce accurate
DEMs.

11.4:

4·1'\,tOl'(tf C:Cll 3rd·ordcr f1nl1e d•ff<n:n«

119 - U2 dl/<tx. 118 • 2·11g , 121 •
o) 110 113 118 dt/dx • •035 -no • 2·112. m • 040
20
&O
112 11' 119
Ill ll7 d2/~ • 118 • z·113 • 110 •
dz/dy• · 020 121 2·111 Ill • ·O 15
Ill 117 121 20
• 10• 80

.,
62·2"6<4 ° 66°
b) 67 63 62 6.4 • 05 • 005 dlldic. -67 • 2' 65 • 70 • ·O 14
dz/d'x •
20 80
65 •• l>l • 68
62 • 2'63 • 67 ,
70 68 66 d?/f!y• • ·Ol.5 dzJ<tt • -66 - 2"68 - 70 • -0.21
20
80

17 • 2'19 • 18 •
c) 18 19 • 21 -0 I ·18 • 2' 2t • 20 • ·009
23 17 dl/dX. dztdi<
lO 80
21 2' 19 17 • 2'2) • 18 •
dz/dv• 23 • 22 • 005 dlldy • -18 • 2'22 • 20 • -0.01
20 22 18 20 80
710 GIS Fundamentals

11.6: Slope and aspect. four nearest neighbor method.

o) dz/dx • -0 30. dzl<fy • 0.20.

712 709 707 703 704 &lope• 1943°
OSl)(:G1 • J.2J 699
710
'706 704 700 696
- ,. b) di:/(b( ., -0 30, dZ/dy ., ·0.35.
0
SI•• 24 /~
708 705 705 697 700
- o,p,tC.I • 40 64'
•

71L '709 705 696 694

- <) d:/<l>c • ,O 25 dz/dy • 0 2.
SIO()t • J775t1
714 712 708 703 698 ~c, " 12a 66°

11.8: Slope and aspect, third-order finite difference method.

o) dZ/dx • ·O 25. <hl<ty • 0 18

712 709 707 703 704 Sfopt' • 16 9~.
• OsptCI • 12•.0°

-
710 706 704 700 696
b) dZ/dx • •0,26. d'z/liy • ..02Q.
708 705 705 "697 700 slope · 21 l~-
- o,c)CCI • 4l t'

'709
71L
- 705 696 694 <) 0,1~ • -0.J~. di/Oy • 0 ll.
.iope; • 20 78~
714 712 708 703 698 c»peCI • 107 24°

II . I0: Slope as percent is larger over mos! of the possible range.

1000
900
j I l,
~

.,c
+-
500
.,'-
<J
400
.,"-
~

300
"-
.!a 200
Vl
100
0
0 20 40 60 80
S lope (degrees)
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 711

l 1.12

0
""'
10)8
.01!

..... '!lo,

'""' "'''
U)47•

104t '

..
,, .... """ 1o;o
~
•
.... ...
.... fr!,r()
_... ...
!'>I> •

,,.. 0
1016
[ ~

11 . 14: The fonnula for contour calculations is:

where d2 is the distance from the upper point to the point on the contour. H1
and lib are the upper and lower e!e,,ations at known points. and d1 is the dis-
tance between points H1 and Hi,.
712 GIS Fundamentals

11.16:

A.210
•
d,.. ~.260 ¢Ol'!OJr 3,0 Oo'l 1#\c: rroM
d!llO'IU A ro (QrlfOl,I" VCIA Z~-0 s
o 10 r 11 ;u, "'" trom o F.420
118 ,, • 1 ,a . 12w • 110>
(240 ?JO)

CQfl' °" ~ ~ lt1t trom

A. 10 c ,s .._, 3 1,111,1, rNm
1i, ' D.310
air1our •oo o,,1 i.·c ltOM
~ 10 (; It ,c $ untt 11'Q'l'l 1="

C.180' '°"''
E 1:, °"'
0 ItJOO °"
102.li;,,,c ll'OC'l'I
unitJ tro,11 E

C.Cill'IV' Z!KI on ll'ot fl"Offl

G.3<0
E.220 E ro c; 1, o.z ~' 1,or., E

II . IS

____ ,..,,
...........
- .....,..., - , - - strtom
8cely
IO<Ot!On
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 713

l l .20: A solar zenilb angle is 1be angle measured a1au obseJ"\'lnion point be1ween
the venical line. "straight up:· and the sun's location. The solar azimuth
angle is 1be angle rurned clockwise from geographic north to the sun's loca-
tion. The solar incidenc.e angle is the angle betwe.en an incoming sun 's ray
and !be surface normal line.

l 1.22: A v iewslted for a point is the combination of areas that are visibl•e from a
point. Viewsheds are used in landscape design to maximize scenic vislas or
bide powerlines. roads. or other features. and they are used in teleconmuuti·
ca1ioos 10 calcula1e in<er-visibiliiy and commuoic,uioo oe1works. They are
calcu!a1ed by tracing rays from a view point 10 all viewable locations. using a
DEM: 10 estin11te if the angles 10 all intervening points are lower 1han the
angle to the potentially visible point.
71 4 GIS Fundamentals

Chapter 12

12.2: TI1e four discussed sampling patters are:

I) random. where points are assigned x and y locations randomly draw11 from
those in the area of interest.
2)systematic. where locations are assigned in a f•xed paner, e.g.. spaced every
100 meters in the x and y direction from a staning point,
3) clustered, where points are assigned in a systematic or restricted random man.
ner from each of a set of starting points. and
4) adaptive. where local sampling density is related to variability. with ,nore
samples in more variable areas

12.4: Adaptive sampling will likely give a better estimate of the surface over all
numbers of sampling points.

12.6:
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 715

12.8: a is 18: bis 12: c is 6: dis 10.25: cis O: fis 22.

12.10:
ID x y z
0 153.9519 4,478.714.6 2040.6
·"•• . l
.8 I 151.280.9 4.479.647.3 18630
,o
• .5 .t, .
7 2 148.228 5 4.472.143 4 19921

·" .z " 3
4
148.906 8
152.3832
4.464.9786
4,466.92$ 8
2540 I
2106 3
5 158.827 3 4.475.746 9 22832
·" ' , ,10 ,9
6 160.6079 4,475.874 2 1933 5
.l ' •• .12
)J
7 163.024 4 4.477.357 .9 18364
8 164.465 8 4,481.173.5 1838 3
9 166.416.0 4,468,285.4 2523.9
Unknown points. 10 164.169.1 4,468.370.4 2138.8
ID x y z 11 160.692.7 4,468. 709.3 1854.2
12 156.537.9 4,464.724.2 18669
0 155.859.6 4.477,159.0 2.200.95
b 147.580.6 13 167.306 3 4,462.816 5 2453.8
4.478.884.2 1.872.06
c 162.535 7 14 143.946.6 4,482 44f> 4 1837.9
4.469,9602 2.059 26
d 151.71<.9 15 144.709.7 4,475,323:.0 1912 8
4,463.755.2 2.288.4

12.12: A trend surface interpola1or estima1es coefficients for an equa1io11 globally ·

all data are used to estimate the coefficients for a prediction equation. and apply
across the entire sample re.gion. A kriging interpolator uses estimates of global
and local variation. specifically spatial autocorrelation. to estimate ,coefficients
for pn?dic1ion equations. In this way. samples can influence prediclions depend-
ing on 1he observed spatial amocorrela1ion and disiribmion of samples.
716 GIS Fundamentals

12.14:

mo.xinwm distance
circle
•
• •
• ••
.
• • ,• ••
.....
• •
.. •
-
•
• •
.~ ·
• •
i'.stor'ICe circ.le
•

12.16:
 Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 717

12.18: Kentel mapping assigns a density surface around observation points. The den-
sity surface represents the likelihood or probability that the organism or popula-
tion occupied the area. "Stacking," or adding together tbe density surface.s for a
set ofobservations creates a combined probability map. giving an estimate oflhe
occupancy across combined observations or samples. The density surface is typ-
ically described mathematically by au equation. with the shape cotnrolled by
parameters. TI1ere is often a "bandwidth" parameter that affects the· "peaked-
ness'" of each individual density surface.

12.20: B s hows tlie wider bandwidth. because the disiributions are broader around
eachpoim. and the maximum values are lower. indicated by less san>rated sltad-
ing near the poi.Ju loca1ions.
71 8 GIS Fundamentals

Chapter 13

13.2: Criteria often must be refined bec.ause they are expre.ssed in a way tha1 may
not be directly applied. Distances or groupings lllll)' be ambiguously
described, e.g,. near. far. large. or small. and olle111hese must be quamiiied
before en1ry into a car1ograpl1ic model.

13.4: A discrete weighting bas specific. distinc1 categories. Roads may be pass-
able or impassable for large vehicles. rivers deep or shallow. or fores1s ever-
green or conifer domina1ed. Weightings may be defined which are specific 10
1.hese categories. e.g.. passable roads receive a weight of0.5. while impass-
able roads a weight of zero. ln contrast. weightings may also be continuous,
in 1ba1 each road may have a measured width, e.g., 12.4 meters. and 1he
weight may be some continuous func1iou of 1bis wid1b. e.g.. width • t 32.7.

13.6: A. original
B • reclassed by T, with low and high input values reclassed to high output
values. and intennediate input values reclassed to low ompu1 values:
C · reclassed by W. with low inpm values set 10 zero when below a threshold,
and then a lfoear increase in output with input above the threshold:
0 - Reclassed by R. High values above a thres.hold are set to zero. and low
values befow the threshold are set to 1.

13.8: Flowchon D is the most plausible

8 . Clip of higJ1 density by park buffer incorrectly provides the complement
of the dislance from current park criteria. selectjng the wrong areas: Uuions
school bu.ITer and HDNP buffer. would also need a subsequent selection to
extract appropriate areas:
C · Unions high density and park buffer. Would need a selec1 and delete, or a
clip or some other operation 10 correctly apply the distance from pan criteria.

13.10:Correc1 answer is C
A · applies area test 100 early. later intersections may split candid.ite poly·
gons. rendering smaller area polygons than the size limit specified for I be
ru1alysi.s:
B • commits same error. later in the proces.s:
D • omi1s raster 10 vec1or conversion on elevation. and alJows areas in same
parcel that are satisfactory and adjacen1. bu1 split by od1er criteria 10 be in dif·
feren1 polygons, so may rejec1 acceptable areas.
Appendix C: Answers to selected questions 719
720 GIS Fundamentals

Chapter 14

14.2: Data lrnusfer is perhaps the process most commonly aided by spatial data s1an·
dards. Among otlier things. s1andards require 1ba1 spatial da1a sources. methods,
and characteristics be described in a consisteot manner. Spatial dara s1a11dards
provide a predictable way of organizing data so that it may be transferred among
organi.za1i ons. Standards allow data to be transferred wi1hom loss of information.

14.4: TI1e mean reports the central error. the average error one would expec:a when
sampLing from a population. A freq11e11cy threshold describes the percentage of
errors above or below a value. 111,is give.s some general ootion of 1.he li.kelihood
of large o:r small errors.

14.6: Position.al acc11racy repons how close the represented locations of objects are
oear 1he tn1e locations of the objects. Attribute accuracy reflects how often the
value of a categorical attribute is correct (discrete) or how close and int'eival/
ra1io anribute is 10 the true value (con1inuous). Logical consis1ency does no1
in1ply either spatial or anribute accuracy. but just 1ha1 mul1iple themes or 1ypes of
are consis1en1. e.g.. there are no roads in a lake. fires on salt OalS. or oil deposits
in granitic rocks.

14.8: The steps in applying the NSSDA are I) identify 1es1 points. 2) identify source
for •1n1e.. poinlS. and extract inuh corresponding 101es1 points. 3) Calcula1e 11le
positional error for eacl1 tme/test pair. 4) record the error data in a standardized
table, which includes calculation of e.rror statistics. 5) create 1he documentation/
metadala describing the accuracy assessment.

14.10: Good candida1e poims are ru1y feanires 1ha1 are well-defined and may be visi-
ble on both the data set 10 be leSled and in 1t1e source used for trulh. This oflen
means construcred fea tures. for example road intersections.. curbs, manhole cov.
ers. geode1ic markers. u1ili1y poles. or fire bydrams or other rela1ively immobile
fea1ures.

14.12: Me1ada1a are 1he "data about data." They are imponant because 1he describe
the characteristics about any data we might wish to use. The allow us to evaluate
the data s11itabiliiy for imended uses. maimain the invesune111 over multiple
organiza1ions or changes in personnel. and help 11s in explaining or describing
our data t,o others.
 Index 71 1

Numerics 11ir pollution 9-12

3-D aln1aoac 197
coordi1):1Jc 34 AND
data model 64 alw s« SoolCM algd.mt
fu,zy onrlay 4l I
A tnble query 336
~CUnrll.')' 609-622 8f<
i1SSC$Sing inlerpolaation S3S leng1.b frotn 2ng:te 32
attribute 608.610. 619 linear fcat\irc 40
boucad.·uy 403 nO<k 39
caku)ations 614 \'C'l1C< 39

<Unun 92, 97,99, 10! ArcOIS 16, 497

datum shift 101 ASCD 67, 68
dia:ital da1a 302 upcct 476
digi1i.ti.ng 1$6-IS9, 315 defined 476
GNSS 196-202 fommfa 479
GNSS a\'C't'aging ,"S.. si.n3le fi..'( 214 attribute 36. 40, 327. 330
inugc geometric 239. 249-lSS n~g:u-ion 3S6-3S7
i.ntcrpolation 514. 534-535 domaSl 37
LiDAR 2$2 in DBMS 330
map, scale and digitiziog 1S-6 io1cn,1lln-1io 37
1nc11:n abtohuc m'Ot S34 nominal 36
M011tc Cuto 62 I ordinn1 37
NSSOA 617 rastct' 54
poti1iQtt.'1 60$., 610.612-617 AUTOCAD 17
precision. compared 612 nu1ocon-cl.111ion 52S. 526, S30
pr0<biccr 620 AVHRR 295
,a$-1cr 5 I nx.is
sli,·c n 403 pidnonh II~
•J~ti:11 cbm i t~nd:utb 60S mcasuttnlCil.l with VI.BJ 95
$t:llldard lllC:lSUR"ll)('QtS 616 projection cylinder 120
s12tcl.1ics 614 scmi-ruajoraod ia ni-mioor J.I. 92
table 619 ,1nte plitne eoordin/1.lell 12.S
!Cit poiutS 617 azimuth
u.Rr 620 definition 225
,-s, resoluciou 1-19-150 nzimutb11.l m.ip p-ojcctioo 120
:.dj:.ccuey 370
polygon c:ombinatioa 3$6 B
sltt1roed lioc \'S. sbar<"d node 371 baudwidlh 543- 545
3cri..11 ~meni. op1inn11n 54S
digi.tal 2-17-249 parawcter 54I
1hcclwi.icll.l 249 bcarinp 226
ani.al photographs 239--265. 306 con,·fflion 10 .1zi.mu1:b 226. 2lS
cotU:p3.t'C'd to satellite images 278 definition 226
film ?49 bench m:trk 97. !OS, 11 3
gacomctric con«tioo 258 binary 67
big)t•rellolwion 307 bit 6S
NAJl> 308 by1< 6$
Ortbo3f11phic 2SO lllll'C objcc1 3 7
par:11lnx 256 row.'. 441
photo i.ntffJ)retatioo 263 bit 68
1·elic:( d.itpl:..co 1k1tt 252 BooiC'l.'lll
$0Ul"C($ ?83 olgcbro 368-liO
SICl'CO CO\"C'nl$'C 255 expression 368
S)'l,IClll/1.tic ClTW 249 opac~1ion 336
tilt 253 selection .no. 41S
itffme 1r.msfon1u1ion 17$ booutr.tp ISi, 535
722 Index

burttr 388 D0Q IS2

compound J92 c:oiu-eigcnt circle 61
dcf111i1ion 389 coun·xbull 537
fLud di.uiancc 390 c:oordinailc
nested 392 J -0 34
tu.Id 390 C:uusi.in 27. 28, 34
Y.ari~b1c di.s.11111c:e :$9l cooo ll6
wet.or 390-393 coo,·mion OD to OMS 30
byic 68 d«itoal degree, (00) 30
dcfinitioo 2. 27
c OMS, dcgtcet·inllm1ct--sccoods 30
CAcodc: 196 cnsliog 27
CtunCl'III aco~pb.ic 28
di.apb.rng.111 246 geometry 226
(oca.l pllln< 246 la.tin1dic 103
S)'S'I CIU crr()rS 249 Jc:ugindc J03
C'Mldid.atc key 34 l oorthiug 27
c11rto~pbic model S6S--5SO rnstcrccU 51
cri1cri11 S66 sign 28
defined 561-564 signed spherical 30
Ao\\•ch:1.rt $74 spl,criclll 28
importMKc ranking 5n coordinal'c fY$,1Cm iclcntifim 131
ttuikinp 56S core:irea 510
wClghting SiO m~pping S36-S4S
wC1g.btinJ$ 567 CORS 92. 94. 97. 98, 99. 103, 2:10
cnr1ogQpbic object 2$ shift 1htouiJ1 time. 9.t
~ograpby 168-175 CO$l surface 461)..464
fabds 171 co,-arin:ncc 458
legc:iads 1,l cros11,com:ln1ion .!M
lym1>ols 172 CUAHSI 304
cd) 51 C\tr'\'111\trc 4i9~81
assigi.m1C111 53 cylincrical projection 120
CCIUUS 318
ccntrnl weridiau 122 D
charactcri~tic bull 539 dana,k 48
cLusificatio11 366. 375-3$2 dnt;;
buwy }76 binary 67
equ2l 11ru 380 cfor121c J I 7
cq\~I inten·~I 379 discrete SJ
n.t1nLN1l brcnks 381 dom.\111 161. 327
clip 397. 397-39$. 447 glob<! 299
cooo 226-229 items 327
GNSS n1.nicfoldu 219 logical co,uistnt.¢)' 6 11
complctcoe&S, data 611 mct;,OOla 165
coocatcnated key 345 ll3tioml 299
confonn:11 map tnmsfom~111:io11 ISO N'l'ltiooal H)'Wogrnphy O....~,c-·1 303
cooic map ptoj«tion 120 s.patial cbta tr.i1nsfcr standard 165
cout'\iwucnt 373 d:l.la comprcuion 70
Conlcut S1Mdord for Oigital Oeogrnphic pyramids 7)
~1cttidtlta 166 qll.3d trees 71
conttllet11al drift 90 mn lntgtb code$ 70
coo.tiuuouslyopcnuing refcn:o« station. see data model 26. 39
CORS 3-D 6J
contou.r 66. 300. 302 areas 41
lines 66.J9L-l93.514 node 39
control poi111, 176 ol,j«t 61
 Index 723

cbt., m.odcl (c:0111.) ITR.F 9S, 101

rutc:r 39. 51 ITRF wnion, 96
rcbcion:tl 50 lTR.S 9S
TIN 40 legacy 99. 109
1opo.lo_a:kal rcc1or ~ uuxkni 9.H>S
tri.:angubtcd irrcgul11r l'.lClworl: 61 ~1olodmd::i tnt1lffonm1ion J()2
,·cct.or 39 NAD27 100
cbt11 qt.12li1y 609-622 NADS.3 I 00, l OI
data shcc1 NAOS3(20ll) 96
&nun 104 NAOSJ(CSRS) 97
cbt.,~'1C 32S. 327 NAPOD20ll 110
attribute 327 NATRF2022 97-98
attribute.& 330 NAVDSS 110
Boolean queries 336 North Amcri~n Tcnc&tri.-1 Rc:fc,-~c
ca.uc!id.1.1e key J.49 f tnn\c of2022 {NATRFZ022). k c
corn:.a.1eu11tccl key J4S NATRF2022
<bta indcpcudcmc 327 shifts 100-102
de!'.10nnn.lizccl 3SS SLR 9-1
first uonnal fonn J 50 tmnsfonnatio11 l0:.?- 104. JJO
funeti<nll'II dependency 349 \ 'c nical lOS-1 ll
bybcid 332. 33J vc:rtic.al (ll)cl boriwi11.al poiring 109
inner join 34! ,'fflie11l , hift ca1c1.1lation \'i.a Vdatum 110
i1cn• 321 VLSI 94
key .UO• .344 WOSS4 99. 101
l~cal ~nd physical d«ign 33) DBMS 50. 325-.329
UQrrui,l fonru 34$-3SS dcclinnt;Ofl, m3gnc1ic 3S
NOT qucric-s 336 dcgn,cs. mi.nutcs. second,. s« coordinates.
OR ,queries 336 OMS
w1cr join }4l, $43 lldllllllilylliaogl" ~I
key 349
pril):lllt)' DEM 66. 301-301. 474. JS2. 4S6
prin:uuy opcmli<Xl, ;U2 aspect 4iS
query 335 br-cachini si:uks 4SS
ncords 330 condi1ionin& 488
relational 50. 328. 330 ~ 0 0 301
schc:IUII 33 l &lob<I 298
se«>od nonml fom1 350 hyd,ology 432,,491. S90
SQL 338 LiDAR 302
third nonnal fOnn 353 nl\llliplc rcprc:unl:ltiQII$ 66
tuple: JJO profile -193
d.trun1 89--11 l. 209 th3dcd relief 495
adju-,;tmci1t 90 slope 47S
bench mark 97 specific catcbmnu atca -191
chro:nologics IO I SRTh1 298
confusion 209-210 \'lcwsb«is 494
<bm sl1-cc1 104 wcrocu index 491
dcfillilion 91 dn•sity csiim3t1011 S46
DORIS 94 detector
d).11:'IJuic 91 spot 267
clli.p,soid 92 den:lop.,blc surface 120
E.TRF2000 99 ditrcrn~c. DBMS 332
E.TRSS9 99 diff'crenti.-1 C:OS't'"lion 104-lOS
J-c<Xktic 89 di9:ital acrilll caincra 247-249
Qll$$ ZQ9 !Ygi~I ~·~°'tloa m<>ikl, t« t>eM
OPS 97 digital ortbophotoquad, sec 00Q
HARN 97 digit.'1 tcrr.til'l model 66
1Kighl IOS
HPGN 97
724 Index

di$Jti2:i11g l.&7. 1$.1--16.J dynjlmic bcig]11 112

attril.nstcs ,,itb 01\SS 212 g1...1 21>s
auto-complete 163 GNSS lll<MUttmcttt 220
cdittog 161-162 imAgc di.t1o,rtion 253
error ISS LiDAR 2SO
Gdd ISS ortJ.omcttic height 107
GNSS 21J- 21S pit rcmo,~I 486
bardcopy 155 profile -193
1112~\rnd 154-159 nidinJ di'J)L,ccmcot 252
0Q:• $ ccr«Q 1S4 relief diipla<"Clll¢1LI .?5'2
o,•ttSboou 157 alopc 476
poi.i111 mode ISi 11$ 301
scan 161 ellipsoid
skc1c1011ixing 161 definition 92
Sli\'en 163 equation 31
~1.1tp,>ing l S7. JSS scmi•lUAjot:t..'(ia 92
s.plincs 159 sc1ni-minor a.x.i5 92
s.ttt:am inodc I S7 n .. spltt roid 31
wldenboou 1S1 cndL,p. ~CT\N pboto lS6
0 -iunoity flow fuetion 484 entities 2S
diuoh'\: 3S4-3SS IU"C:I 4 1
di,111:1,cc line 40
CaiuscWI 33 poim 40
CMling 127 c11!ity 327
grctit circ:le 33. 119 ciuity-rdationship diagram 33 1
nortbiog 127 Ert,'it01llnn1h'II Pn>tcction A~llC)'
,nappin,g 401 (EPA) JO,
distortion 130 cphC'mc:ri, 197
Cl\111.Cr:I 1ili l:Sl
map, projcetion 11i
"'°'" 01
dc6nitioo 90
projcc1iol1 122 Equ:uor- 28
reli<'i'f 2SJ cqttipotcntinl surfncc 106. JOS,, ll 2
1cl'Tflin 253 C:1'l'l.SC ~ 0 1
OMS Er.1md1cocs 9:?
eonversion to DD 31 error 157
1t,C)l11.tiOll 30 e:m'!cr:t 249
domaill 37. 167. 327 digitizing 1SS
D0Q 260 GNSS 198
001\IS 9• im11gc geometric 2S2-2S6
drainage 4SS iuclusiou 53
11<IW(»-k 4$2 LiDAR potitioo 282
droocs 261- 26.? prop:,.gatioo 6:?I
DTM 66 radial lens 1SO
dyn;im.lc 1lcight1 112 relief disp111tc:nm11 253
RMSE l79. 180
E 11c11Jc 156
casting 27. 116. 112. 127 ,li\'Cf$ 162
false' 128 table 619
edge d,ctcction 456 tilt distortion ill pllQtopphs :25J
cditin; 161-16:1 cnor. GPS. S¢c error. GNSS
clcctrornagnc1ic spectrum 241
clcctronie di.staoc:c: mettt 224 F
dc,'llti.on 41.\ fcANTc
aipccl 419 ioconsistcoey 163
<kf11lition 107 muJti-p3n .i2
DEM 29$ spati-'1 lS
 Index 115

Federal 0cogt'llphic 0.1t11 Co1nmi11ec 166 geodetic da1um $9

Federal lnfo1m111ion Proe«~ing Stand3rd. gcograpt.ic not1h 3S
k c FJPS groid 220
fOOC.. $CC f'eckral Geographic Oat.A definition 105
Conuuin,c OEOJDQl 109
file fonu.11s 'Tl OEOIDIS tOS
f,Jm 249 OEOI0202l 109
FJPS 32S. 346 height 107, 220
fl oodplain 315 hybrid !OS
flow a¢C'Ulllul111ion 484 SC'J)atalion IO'i
fl ow directiou 4$2 ,"CT1iont IOS
OS 4SJ , ·eJ"tic:al and borizonUil datums 109
0°in.fmi1y 4$4 OcoMcdi.11 16
dh·c rgcnl 484 OIS
flowcJ.an S66, 574 OOIUt)OllCllli 1-1
foot clcfinition 2
intccnatiooal 126 hardware 14
U.S. S,U'\'C )' 126 Opco source I S
fol'¢igo key J.43 organi.zatio1u IS
fo,nml, file 72 QOIS 16
friction ,u,-facc 461 societal pU$b 3. 4
function software- IS-17
loc:ll 440-l4S, 452 tcdu10logic-al 1mll 3, 4
logi~al 44 l OJCI00:1 Navigation Satellite- System
mo,·i.nt window 452 sc-c GNSS
neig.hborboad 452-1-59 OIOW.1 Spati1:tl Ont.a h1f'Dstnict1.u:T 297
nested 446 OLONASS 194
ueitcd rntler 446 ONSS S. 91, 91, 94, 97, 9$, let.i. 1&1
mlauifi,ation -144 applkatious ;: 11
ZOC\2) 459 atmospheric cfT«ts 198
fuoc1io11..1I dcpcodcnc:y 349 1m:rngi 11.g nc-Cl.ll'llCy 114
fuzzy base frcquc-oey 196
mco:,bc:rfhip 4 SO b;u:c , 1:1tion 204
overlay 451 coded signal 196
scu 4S0-4Sl COIIMS 221
cootrol point$ tSI
G cootrol upuc-m 19-1
Oeary~, C S2S CORS 210
;cocrnliziuion 15! diffcrcotial correction 204-208
boWlieb-ry 4 S dilutioii or prttisiou, DOP 101
dispb«d 153 OOP 200
cxaggc:11lled 153 dtial &cquc-ncyr«c-ivcr 196. 199. 216
fe.1ti.trc 152 efficiency 217
fusc,d 152 q,bcmcris 19·7
L:UIJ!: 1111::tbod 160 ClTOr 19&
line 159 field digitizing 21 1
uup, 152-153 field dia.itizin.s: accuracy 21 S-218
omitted ISJ height ?20
ras.tcr 53 height ruc11surat1cot :no
sin\plificd I 52 ic:,:1osphaic effects 198
gcocO<Bi.ng 319.416-1 17 multipath 200
CdlWS 3)9 na,i aatioo 211
x<ixks)' )4, S9 :<TRiP 19$
DORIS 94 POOP 200
epoch 90 pou-rrocc-ucd diffc:n:11tll'IJ 205
SLR 94 preci" poii11positioning 209
VI.Bl 94 nin,c- 197
126 Index

GNSS (~tt.) U'tl.1.$'( COtiln'l.11 26S

TIIJI~ pole 217 borne mogc mapping 536
rnn,:efindet 219 bydrolo~
iuJ..1ime diffcrcrui.:il 206 CUAHSI 30.S
RTK 216 O! flow di.rc~on 4Sl
tatdlite scgumu I 9J O.iofi11.i1y nowdi.rrttiou .SS4
tcrrnin obstruc:tioo 216 flow ttec~nuula1i011 4$4
1rnckiug 9. 221-223 flow d.ittcti011 482
user 1cgme:u1 l9J fiu,etious 4$2
WAAS ?OS ruO<k:15 SSS
wi:ldli(e 1r11cking 22) Nir1ttOi:11ll Hydro~phy Da111sc·1 30.S
OOCE: u1clli1c JOS pit 4$6
Oooilc:. Earth Eoainc 276 sinks 486
GJ>S s. 91, 97, 194, 196 specific cntebmenc nn::l 491
almanac 197 stream power indc:x .J91
CIA code 196 Wlltfflbed 482, 4SS
carrier •igmd 196 wcto«s Wdcx 49)
c!Tor aucssmcm 609
P code 196
GRACE s111cllitc 108 ldrisi t6
GRAS.'S 17 IFOV 266
gnttie\llc 149 image
GRAV- 0 iraxity rue-asurcmcut IOS IH:ti:11 24S
grn,-imctcr 106, 10$ ,:.olor lnnd adjustment 26.S
gni,i1a:tional potential 106 dtouc 261
gr.w'ity 106 1eo111e1ric correction 2.5$-260
grctl c i~I e manual intcrprcu.tiou l6J
dcfi.nition H rcso1utiOll 247
distan« 11 !) s11tctli1c 266
treater than(>). see set algebra 1C"tniu and tilt dis1ortiou 252
Greenwich rlnt1gc interpn:tnli<>n, KC photo
Mcridi~u lS. 29. 9J imcrpctation
Obscn•atoiy 28. 93. 9~. 98 i.ntp01'13:llCC tilting .57.?
grid 149 io:lu•io11 S3
nortb 116 lliclusci01is 44
~Ul'ld pl.:ite 200 indoc. 6$
OSOi 297 l"l'ISltt 56
iiiliai1.1ncc 62
H Umcr join 342
HAE. sec b-cig.hL fl"'-£ Ul§1ru)tMcous field of ,·iew 266
Jurdwt1rc- 14 iu1mutiom1l fool 126
height lntcroatiooal Tcn«trial Refeffl)CC Frame.
dynnmic 112 sec ITRF
ellipsoidal JOi t.. crpol.11tio11 SOM34
icoid 107. 220 bilinear S9
ONSS 220 cubic: c011Vol11tion 59
HAE 107. 220 exact 5)7
loc:t.l 1e1 !e,'C'I l 14 fixedr.tdiw. Sl7-519
orthQtuclrie 107. 107- 108.220 (OW .Sl9-S22
s.hif't from NAYDS8 to NAPG020ll 111 kri.3:i.11; 530-534
height l'lbovc cUipM;>id. fee 11cigb1, HAE Ing distrm.cc S30
height above mean sea kvel. SC"C heisht. near«1 neighbor 59
ortho1nt:1ric &:unpliug !IL-SB
hillshaide 49S splinc.s S22- S23
Hippan:bus 28 Thicunt poly301ts 516
histog..im 37$ trend 41uf~« 529
 Index 117

v;iriQgm.m $3.? definition 2$

intasc,c1 397 oo ellipsoid 91
il'ltcnoccioii, DBMS 332 11ign 2$
intct'\-al-ratio 3i LCC, s« proj«ttou. Lambert couforrual
W\·m ~ Di$tall('( W,i;btcd bu,rpola.tiou. conic
sec interpollltiou. row legends 172
lSO ilandard 605 lc:ss 1h.M. sec: sec a.la.ebra
itcm.t .36. 327 LiDAR 2$9, 2S.0-282, 301, 302
ITRF '9l discrc:lc: rc:t\lni 2SO
, ·crs:ions 96 c:lc,-atioi1 2SO
ITRf, s« d.irum. ITRf ,iru.d.vd codc:.s 281
\\-'111\·c(onn 280
J line 1hi11nin3 1$9, 160
join 344 liuc:11gc:.. d.iia 6 11
DBMS 332 li.ncMtefctnteing: 4 16
inner 34l logical con,i:,teoc>'•data 61 1
mau.y-10-mru1y 344 looaitudc 28. 103
mulli•l;tblc )46 con,·c:t1ion 10 XYZ E:utb·ct"111ercd
witunil 3,12 coordin:itcs. 34
Ol?C~IO.OIIC' 344 dcfinitioo 28
outer 34;? O«eowic:11 93
on cllipsoid 91
K sigi1 2$
kats, 486 Lotd; :U l
kemel 4SS
band\\idlh 543 M
edge dctC'tlio:\ 456 ou,,iµ.ctic north 35
bigl1·5>3S5 example: 45$ ckclin.:,lion 3$
uuijority 453 ruajori~· filt<t 453
111.;1pping S40-S4S nw1y-10.11ul'ly join l44
mc:w 455 mnny-10-0111,: rc:btionsbip
m<wi.ng window 4SS riistu 1:1.blc S4
neighborhood fuoi:tion 4Sl tnl,le join 34$
key 316. 330.332. 34,1 map
c:lndid.i.te 341, 349 lllgdn 436-US
CODClllCDated 345 cboroplctb 16$
for<igti 343 contour 169
priu:ia:y 33 1. 340. 349 """"'
kri~i.ng. s« im«µ0lation. kritin; dia,ita.l 16$--175
147
dot..dms:ity 169
L feature 168
labels 171 ac:1,e1aliza1ion 152
fag tol¢rau« 531 grnticule 149
Lambert coillmnul collie, sec projt"ction. arid 149
Lambe-rt confonnal conic h:uckOP)' 147
ia.odCO'\'ct iosct 148
NASS 310 isoplclh 169
NI.CD 308 miuiun1m mapping uuil 163
LANOIS S9J-S9l nca.diuc 148
l.aodsllt 272..2,73 north IUTOW 148
LaudS«f' 496 projection. sec: projection
llllCr ?2S scale 148.150, 156
also "" LiDAR 1l'·.11c:00r 148
rnnie fuldcr 219 shaded relief 495
latitude 2$.. 103 symbols 172
cou\·cnion 10 XYZ Ea11h centered n1msfonn.a1ion. see tr.\nsfonuation l 76
coordimtcs 34 0111p projc:c1io11, sec projection
728 Index

map Lm:lts(onnation Natioiial Wc1J20ch Jm·rn101')' 312-3 l.J

ace lrnmfonmtioo NATR..F'lO?l 97. 102
mruk 97 to NADS3 IOI
MAUP, sec modifotblc t1rcal unit problem nnturnljoin 342
mean 111bsolutc cm:>f 534 NeO. sec Nadonal EJC\·adon Ouasc:1
mean ci.tclc 536 uci3bbcubood 4S2
Mcr.:.iltor proj«liori 122 opc~t,ion 361
~frridi.:w n(1WOd.'.
Greenwid1 2$ 1llloca1ioi1ccntm 414
Prime 2S ccntcrcapacity 414
meridin.n dr:li1,11gc: 4SS
CC'll!nl ll? l'Otll< selection 411-' 14
metad.au1 165-167 1m.11S:it C,OSI:$ 410
dcfi11itio11 t 6S !l(1worl: models 4 10-.S 15, $61
metes ruM! bound, 13? patlu.nnlyi;is 414
1nU,im1ull m:tppi.ng uni1 43, 263. 313 reiourcc: allocation 4 lJ
~t\1U.. sc,c winiun11u w.:,ppiog unit tr1,ffic 414
mod<! NHD, sec: N11.tion11) Hydrop-apby D:u11sct
e:u1ographic S66 NLCO l0$-l09
cartographic uiodel dc1ailcd node 39. 4S.. 157
ex.ample S73-SSl ,,ominnJ 36
cell-based .SS-i north
hydtol<>s,ic 588 ;cogniphic 35
~ANOIS 590 grid 116
Jogii:al 6? m11gnctic JS
,H 4
1ICC\'\l'()rk: North AL11cri<::u, D1m11n of 1927. sec:
$.lmplc $pntial SSZ NADZ1
spati al S63 NortbAmcric3o Dnnm, of 1983. sec:
sp:iti:tl dab 1md error 60, NAO!!
$tocha,tic S90 north aJTOW 148
topo,logic.:11 ,·ccior 46 nor1l1in,g 27, 116. 122, l:?7
traffic 414 ~J5c 128
modifi:able :trcal unit problem 382-383. 510 NOT
MOOtS 295 111.so sec Boolctn ~lge~
Monte Carlo simulation 621 cable query 336
Mor.u, ·s I 5~528 1io1 cqu.:tl to(<>), sec sc1 t1lgdm11
mospb<1ructric feGilUl'C$ 4S I NSSOA. t,ec Na1ional S1andard forS1>3tial
mo,·ini wllkiow 452-459 D.at11 Ac:C'Ur&Cy
MUIR soils d.,1a 31 S NT!UP 20$
multi-pan feacure .i2 nugget 532
mu.hi·pat1 n1stcrllfe.t1.1 SS llUtl\bc:r
m\iltip:Alh VNSS signal :?00 ASCU 6S
muhi·ticmt ardlltcctu:rc 328 bitWY 67-68
nutnl:iou 36
N NWL sec National WcdruM!, Jnv,mtOf')'
NADS.3, ~c <brw:n. NADS3
nadir 252 0
NATP. 11cc N,itioMI Agriculrun: hn:tge1)' objcd
Program cartographic: lS
NASS 310 data model 61
N:itionol Agricuhurc lmngcry Progrnm 309 OOC. 5<C Opco OcOf]):i!il'II Con~itnn
Nation.al Clima1ic Data Ccn1c:r 31 i onc·tO-Jllatl)'
Na1ion.:tl l?lc, '31iot1 Oatllkt !Ol joio !44
National tlydrogrn~y Oalai<I J03 table join 344
N11tiou.al Stanclatd for Spa1W Dita Ollc:· 10-«l<:
AecU1"2()' 617 joio 344
 lndC"C 119

011e·l<>--o11e rd a1iousbip pbo1ogr,muoctiy ?45

rutcr table 54 pit 486
on~scrce:n quay 366 breach .ass
Ope11 0c0$patial Couwnium 294. 606 fill 4$$
Opcu s,,.,, Mllp 297 ..1111111 486
opcra1Eon sink 4$8
adja.ecucy .HO pi.~cl 247
butlicr 3SS, 3S9 plnncun.·a1urc 479.480
clip 447 plnnc S.11'\'C')'llig 224
conl ainmcru 3 73 PLSS. sec Public Laud Sur•:cy S~1ciu
diM<>lvc 3$4-385 plumb
eras.: -WO liue ?24
glol>nl 364, 438 point 1hi1lniug I S9
kcntcl 455 poio1c:r 6S
loci! 364 poii.UC1'S 68
logic:31 441 polnion 4i. 343
majority 4 53 iuclusio1u .$4
11l0\-i.1~ wii)dow 4S2 l'l011,plnn:tr 46
11cig.hborbood 364.438.452 topology 4S
IK'Stcd 446 pour point 482
o,·crlay 44$ prcciK" point posiliooii-g 209
r~lru.sification -14-1 precision 6l2
sclc~1ion 366 prinwy kcy 331, 340
IJ>'lial 363-365 PR.ISM daia 317
Opmi1iorul Lnndlnuget(OLij 27.?: profile
OPUS 209 cun~rore 479
OR ploc 493
2ll0 see Boolenn 11lgc~ projccl, DBMS 332
fuu;y ov<rlay 4l I proj«liOD S?-UO
tllble query 336 uiunuhal l 20
Ofdinn.1 37 ce111111I meridian 122
01tbo;ot1al 27 oonic l 20
orthoimnge, 1« ort1)()pbo11r>grnph cyli.ndric:11 120
ortbo1uc1ric height 107. 2l0 ckfinitioo 89
ottbopbo1o,t11pli 155. 253. 300, 306 dc\'ClopLblc sut(n.ce 120
<>'lier join J42, l43 distortion 117, 122
oullct -is2 Cabe casti.113 128
o,'ffla)· 394--403 false nordi.ing 12$
clip 397 forwud ll6, UO
inl CC1C'C I 39i Goode J29
1m1cr 404 im·cn.c 116. 130
slh~ 402. 403 Lambert cooformal coo.ic 122. 125
union 397 mn.p 116--132
\'CCI.Or 395 Milltt 129
O\"Cl'Slk)()ts 157 MolJwe:idc 129
oortJUng. casting 127
p oblique 120
~,..IL,x 2S-6 PL,1c Cnffl:c 120
p.u-allds 28 stalcplanc 12S.126
.tt:and:.rd 122 1~ntfonni113 ac-l'OH 182
passin: sys.ccu,s l42 traru;,·C'IK Mercator Ill. 125
POOP 200 IITM 127-129
pcrsp«liY( pr9j~1;1i~l (r411tJ
ccutoct. aefflll pbO(o 258 ,~ transformation 182
c-onvergcnce 1$3 proximity
,·ic,v l5l fiwc1ions. 3SS
pho10 intctprc1:Hion 263, 263-265 selection 31 1. 372
730 Index

Public Land Sun•cy Sys1cm 132-134 RMS'E 179, Sl<l,614-617

pynunids 71 root inon square error. 1ec R.MSE
route selection ·U 1414
Q RTK,•cc GNSS, RTK
QGIS 16. 65. 297 nw length codes 70
q\13d tl;'cCS 71 RUSLE
query .Ul. 335 sec wllvcmal soil loss equt'tion
NOT 336
011•$CfCCO 366 s
OR 336 SAGA .t97
SllmJ1lirtg
R adaptive 5 l3
R fi:L'l1i#tici1I p:tebgc 64J cluster SU
RAOA.R 242. 275 for a CC\tr.1¢)' M5Cl$lllCllt 616
radiau 32, H for inlcrpolatiou 51 l
co111.-c"1011 todcgncs 33 niocloin $ l I
radio«clcmctr)' 222 systematic 51 I
rnragc: s1udl.i1c
lnCltllll'ffl)CUI ill GNSS l97 gr.wity me3-5wcntcnl JOS
pok 217 s111dli1c images 266-279
r.m,gcfindcr cbuific,.:11ion 277
laser 219 eorupared 10 aerial pbo1og:mpbs 278
miter 39, Sl-57 Do\'c 270
ad\"aut11gcs 56 high-l"C501uti<lll 26S--l71
•tttibutc- table S4 Jkou°' 268
cclJ lluigrunc111 SJ l.•t1dMt 272
ccU dimension 51 line.ir uny 267
cdl 5itc 51 mid-rct.Olution 271-27.t
coru.pMed 10 \·«tor 56-57 o,,;,~bud i6$
convc~.ion 10 ,•cc1or 57 RADAR 275
coordi.nn.le S1 Scntii1d ?73
data model 51-57 sources 2S3
dcfiui1io11 39 SPOT 269. 271-272
pyroonids 71 spol detector 267
r~,nplina forumla 59 TM 273
r.istq o,·c:rby 44$ two-dimc1Jsionllll army 267
n:ality mesh 64 sc.1tc 148. ISO
Re.:1l,Ti111c KUmzu1ic llaial pbotogn:rphs 246
sec ONSS. RTK error 156
rcclau-i!ic:uio11 37~382, -144 lll.fl'C' \ 't. small ISO
binary 376 non-comt:m.1 in acrinl photograph 253
n:coow8 31s scalCOOr l4S
rcgi11tr:.tion 176 loC21U1cl' 161
control points l 76 scope. spolfal j(i.l
tcais1ratioii. s« tnu1.s-fonn.a1io1i SOTS 165
rcltlti<>1~I clo1.1 model SO. 33-0-33:Z , cl«ciou 366
relief di:splacrntcut 252 adjaceney 370
remote s.cruin.g 239-2SS ptO:\'.itniiy J.i2
$O\ll'OC& 2-SJ. 306 spatial 370--375
rcsaiupli.ng 59 scmi-tnt1jor :t.'tis 92
bilin<M 59 , cmi-ml110r •xis 92
cubic com-olution 59 srnti-,·ari.anec 531
nc:)rcSI neighbor 59 I CI algebra !66
rc&ou:ce allocation 414 sbo.dcd relief 495
tts1riet, DBMS 332 s.ba.pcfilc 68, 69
ri,·cr rc~c-b dam 304 sidelttp. n,cri~ pJ1oto 2S6
 Ind('.'( 73 1

,m s32 doc~unculllti,u 60$

simillll' triAnglcs fonnat 607
phocogl'llph1 '.?SS mcdi.., 607
,imple sp.1ti11I model 58? professiou11l 605
SUIJl<·P>fl .,,....1cbia ®7
eOn\.·crs:icn1 IO muki~l1 41~4 st.,tc pfane coordint11e $)'$!cm. sec
,inks 486 projectioo. stale plane
d:dc1onizi.11g 161 STATSOO 314
slivC"t" poJyg_on~ stereo photographs lSS
sec s li\'c ts sterc:omodd 156
,lh·cn J6l- l63. iS0l., 403 ,t:rc..,m power Uidc:x 49 l
,Jopc ""''Y
ddi11,cd 47S bc.:irings 226
fonnub 476 mm 91
four·ncru'til cell formul11. 477 metes and boonds 132
dlird order finite difference 4i9 Public L11nd Sun·cy System Lll- 135
SLR. Satcllile LasC"t" R.anj.tnJ 94 station 226
smoothing t:llt\'c)'illg I SI. 214--229
line 159. 160 closed ira,·cnc 226
rns:ter 10 ,·cc1orcom·cNion SS COGO 228
,o~ppU'.lg 157, 401 cootrolpolllts ISi
di.s.1:aocc 158, 159 jcodctic 99
liue 1$8 IC\<eling IOS
node: 158 opeo tnwerse 226
softw11:1>c 15 op,1ieal 224
N<OIS 16 pl3,0c ll4
AUTOCAD 17 statio11 225
gco(1tcdin t 6 tr.l\'CJ1e 226
GRASS 17 uiangulaciw 99
ldri~.i 16 S)'lUboi size t 70
QGCS 16
term.in :walytis 496 T
soils d."lt.a 314-315 table
sp.atlaJ altnbutc 325
auto.cortt111ti<>n s2.a ir.11m join 342
CO\-.riMce 4SS join 34()..347
data analysis 363 key 330, 344
!id~ 524 o,iterjoin 342. 343
in1eq,olatioo 510 primary kc-y 340
operation 363-365 quay 332, 33S
rtgrt:$s-ion SlS ni,tn- S4
scope 36-S rcl11.1c 340-3-17
~ti:il modd 563 relnti<>MI 32$
sp.atio--tcinporal model, 561- 564. 585• 593 TC2JI standard 605
bydrol~· SSS tc<.':lonic pbtes 90
•tocbttstic 590 terrain
spe:cifi,c ca1c,hutwt area 491 :uWysis ,173-a97
Sp«trn) r.ll1i:C 239 1upcct 475
spectml reO«tao« ?42 morphomctric (carure 481
splfoc.t: 159. 512-523 slope 475
SPOT lil ..:?7:? tcmin (com.)
SQL 338 slope fon'l'lulll 4 77
$RTM 19~. ~?$ i;gftwm 49~
SSUROO 31' t.bcm.atic Jayc:r 26
S11Utd.'IJ"d$ Thenn1>C r..fappcr. sec TM
anttlyi;i.s 605 tbc:odolilc 224
cc:rtiif'icatioo 605 Th.iesktt pol)'@:Ol\t 316
732 Index

rhtcc·ditncutio111LL kc 3-0 VEGETATION 29.S

TIOER 31$ vertex. 39. lSi
lilt vmica.1 danun IOS
camera :tnglc-s ?S.a Ve:!)• Long R.nugc B:11,cli11c l.nlcrfc:romclT)',
'
1unc -1. ' c w:;11.
gcograyu1 J . m .....!. '
' y C••ut12t1ou 546 s"VLBI
TIN, kc ll"iangul:ucd irrc-,uW 1K1v.'Otk \'ic\\'i.bcdt 494
TM 267. 273 ,isibili1y 494
topol<>J.Y 46-49. 163••no VLSI 94
:11djn.c-cncy 47 \Oy:igcurs WolfProject 9
counecti,ity 47
1.iric .as w
plan.o.r 46 WAAS. $CC GNSS. \\li\AS
point 48 \\'lltcrs.bcd 303-305, 370, 373, .aoo. 482,
pol'rgon .as 4$$
tablC$ 48 OS flow di.itctiou 483
m 1ufoo1u:uion l76-180, lS2 dr.linllgc nc1wori.: 48'.!:
<'lfflm I iS flow accumulation 484
confomul I SO WCS, sec Web CO\'Ct'l\P' SCT\ic-c
d.itu.m 102 \\~b Co,·cmge Sc:l"\;cc l94
fklmen 102 \\~b feature Sn'\'ic-c 29~
Molodcnski 102 \\~b :-.-ln1>J>ing Scn•icc 294, 606
pol)-uomi11l 1*0 weightings 567
\'S. proj«1ion I 82 wetiicu index 491
trnnsit 224 WFS. &ec Web F"cal\lfC Sen-ice
costs 410 WGSS4
tra\'et"Sc 226 , •c-11iol)$ 99
triwgulatcd imgubr octwork 40. 66 WGSS4. k C damru. \VGSS4
Tri.An,ulatiou sun.'e)' 99 Whitcbo.'t G.-\T 496
TR.MM l96 WMS, '" \\~b }.fappiog Scn;cc$
tuple 328. 330 \\wld Geodetic System of 1984M s« dantm.
type. \"arfablc dan:ai!'I 317 WGSS4

u x
U.S. ,Uf\·C)· foo1 116 XYl Earth-centered coordinates. 34
UAV.$Cc drones
usidcri boott 1$ 7 z
union 397, 400 zoiu1l function 459
DBMS 332
\ani\'crul wi:I lo,, cqu..iiou .SS?
mU\"<::tsal 1rn.n,vcnc Mcttator. , cc
projection, t.n'M
USLE
k c 1u1i,'crul so.ii Jou cqulllion SS2

v
,-ariogr.un S32
Vdatum 110
\'CCIQr
;rid\'autag<:s 51
41
:lll'cl\:t
com~rcd to r;,.stCT 56-57
conversion 10 raster .S7
d.inglc 4$
data model 40-SO
dcftni1ion 39
S,Jno,otb.i.ng 59