Communication Revision

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COMMUNICATION
CDC Revision
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QUESTION
Define Communication. [2]
1. The process by which information, ideas, attitudes and emotions are exchanged between one
person and another by the use of a common system of symbols, signs and behaviour.
(Hammond S 1998:19)
2. The giving, receiving or exchange of information, opinions or ideas by writing, speech or
visual means or a combination of these three- so that the material communicated is
understood by everyone.
QUESTION
Elements of communication [10]
The elements are discussed in short below:
1. Sender:
He is the person who sends his ideas to another person. For example, if a manager wants
to inform his subordinates about the introduction of a new product, he is the sender.
2. Message:
The idea, feeling, suggestion, guidelines, orders or any content which is intended to be
communicated is message. For example, message is the introduction of new product.
3. Encoding:
It is the process of converting the idea, thinking or any other component of message into
symbols, words, actions, diagram etc. For example, message is connected in words and
actions.
4. Media:
It is the medium, passage or route through which encoded message is passed by the
sender to the receiver. There can be various forms of media-face to face communication,
letters, radio, television, e-mail etc. For example manager inform about the introduction
of a new product in a meeting through presentation.
5. Decoding:
It means translating the encoded message into language understandable by the receiver.
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6. Receiver:
He is the person to whom the message has been sent. For example, subordinates are
receivers.
7. Feedback:
It is the response by the receiver. It marks the completion of the communication process.
8. Noise:
It is the hindrance in the process of communication. It can take place at any step in the
entire process. It reduces the accuracy of communication e.g. 1) Disturbance in the
telephone lines, 2) An inattentive receiver 3) Improper Decoding of Message etc.
QUESTION
Functions of communication [10]
Some of its major functions are as follows:
1. Informing: The principal function of communication is informing messages to others. It

really is done verbally or non-verbally. Verbal messages might be either oral or written.
On the other hand, non-verbal messages can be sent via human body language, gestures,
posture etc.
2. Persuading: One more essential functionality of communication is persuading a single
party by another. In business, management persuades the employees to make certain that
employees persuade management so that management accepts their ideas, opinions and
suggestions. The business also communicates with external stakeholders to persuade
them.
3. Integrating various divisions and departments: Attainment of organizational goals
requires integration and coordination of activities performed by various individuals,
groups and departments. Management can put together and coordinate those people
divisions and departments by building a communication network for the whole
organization.
4. Creating relationships through external parties: Communication creates relationships
not just with internal parties but also with the external parties like customers, suppliers,
investors, general community and government. Communication through these external
parties could be the for survival of an organization.
5. Improving labor-management association: There’s no option to excellent labor-
management relationship for achieving organizational goals. Therefore, a significant
purpose of communication is to increase labor management relationship. Communication
helps each party to express themselves and produce an atmosphere of cooperation.
6. Helping in decision making: Management is absolutely nothing but producing decisions
for creating decision, management requirements information. The function of
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communication is to supply relevant info on the management in time so that they are able
to make appropriate decisions.
7. Reducing misunderstanding: In the absence of communication, misunderstanding,
distance, conflict, controversies etc. May perhaps a rise inside the organization.
Communication helps to overcome and avoid these misunderstanding, disagreement and
controversies.
8. Solving problems: Difficulties are favorite to every business. A business faces good deal
of difficulties in its day-to-day operations. Achievement of business depends on timely
items of individual problems. Item of these problems is impossible without the need of
appropriate communication with the concerned parties.
QUESTION
Importance of Communication [10]
Communication is to the organization as blood is to the body. The success of all the functions of
management depends upon the effective communication.
Significance of communication can be understood from the following points:
1. Acts as Basis of Coordination:
Communication helps in coordinating the activities of various departments and persons in an

organisation by providing complete information about organisational goals, ways of achieving
them, interpersonal relationship among persons etc. Hence, communication acts as basis for
coordination.
2. Helps in Smooth Working of an Enterprise:
Communication ensures smooth functioning of an enterprise. Existence of an organisation

depends fully on communication. The activities of an organisation shall come to a standstill if
communication stops.
3. Acts as Basis of Decision Making:
Communication helps in the process of decision making by providing all the necessary
information. In the absence of communication of relevant information, one cannot take any
meaningful decision.
4. Increases Managerial Efficiency:
The various functions of the manager involve:
(a) Providing information regarding the goals and objectives of an enterprise.
(b) Providing instructions
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(c) Allocating jobs and responsibilities
(d) Overseeing the work of the workers.
All these functions involve communication. Thus, communication is essential for effective
performance of managerial functions.
5. Promotes Cooperation and Industrial Peace:
To ensure smooth and efficient functioning of an organisation is the main aim of the
management. This is possible only when there is peace and harmony between the management
and the workers. The two way communication helps in establishing same.
6. Establishes Effective Leadership:
A good leader must possess efficient communication skills for influencing the behaviour of the
subordinates. Thus, communication is the basis of leadership.
7. Boosts Morale and Provides Motivation:
An efficient communication system helps in motivating, inspiring and satisfying the subordinates.
Moreover, it also helps in establishing participative and democratic type of management.
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QUESTION
Major forms of communication [10]
1. Intrapersonal Communication
2. Interpersonal/Dyadic Communication
3. Extra personal
4. Small Group Communication
5. Public Communication
6. Mass Communication
INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
 Intrapersonal communication is a communication which happens within yourself.
 It is self-talk
 Here both Source (sender) and receiver is only oneso, the feedback works without any
interruption.
 Example: A person can communicate with himself through pain, thinking, feelings and
emotion etc.
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION (Dyadic Communication)

 In Interpersonal/Dyadic communication, two persons are involved in this communication
process.
 Here the Source becomes a receiver and receiver become Source
 Feedback is shared between Source and the receiver.
SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION

 Small group communication takes place in a group, usually comprising five to 10
people. This form of communication serves relationship needs (like companionship,
family bonding and affection or support) as well as task-based needs, for example,
deciding on disciplinary action or resolving conflict in the workplace.
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PUBLIC COMMUNICATION
 In public communication, Source or messages from a single person will reach or received
by huge number of audience. But in this communication there is no mutual feedbacks
between source and receiver like small group communication and it’s only focused on
Speaker.
MASS COMMUNICATION
 In mass communication, basically have a large number of audience and they are all can’t
grouped together in one place so we need certain tool or technology for communication
process. But in mass communication, there is no direct access with receiver. So, for that
they need media like newspaper, radio, television and internet. Here the audience
feedback is very less or delayed.
EXTRA PERSONAL COMMUNICATION

 It is the communication between man and environment i.e. man’s interaction with
environment like interaction with plants and animals.
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 Communication between human beings and non-human entities is extra personal
communication. For example, when your pet dog comes to you wagging its tail as soon
as you return home from work, it is an example of extra personal communication.
 Communication between human beings and non-human entities is called as extra
personal communication. For e.g. your parrot responding your greeting. In this type of
communication understanding is required between sender and receiver. Receiver
responds in sign language
QUESTION
Models of communication [10]
a. Linear model
b. Interactive model
c. Transactional model
LINEAR MODEL
 The linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process

in which the speaker speaks and the listener listens.
 The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as
a one-way process where speakers only speak and never listen.
 It also implies that listeners listen and never speak or send messages.
 Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) model is an example
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INTERACTIVE MODEL
 Schramm (1955) came out with a more interactive model that saw the
receiver or listener providing feedback to the sender or speaker.
 The speaker or sender of the message also listens to the feedback
given by the receiver or listener.
 Both the speaker and the listener take turns to speak and listen to each
other.
 Feedback is given either verbally or non-verbally, or in both ways.
 The main drawback in the interactive model is that it does not indicate
that communicators can both send and receive messages
simultaneously.
 This model also fails to show that communication is a dynamic
process which changes over time
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TRANSACTIONAL MODEL
 The transactional model shows that the elements in communication

are interdependent.
 Each person in the communication act is both a speaker and a listener,
and can be simultaneously sending and receiving messages.
 It assumes that people are connected through communication; they

engage in transaction.
 Firstly, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a
sender or a receiver.
 Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties
involved.
 So communication is fluid/simultaneous.
 This is how most conversation are like.
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QUESTION
Models of communication [10]
*Linear Model*.
 It is a one way model to communicate with others.
 It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in
the presence of noise.
 Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end
to communication.
 It also displays no feedback from the receiver.
 For example; a letter, email, text message, lecture.
*Interactive Model*.
 It is two linear models stacked on top of each other.
 The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the
sender and channels a message to the original sender.
 This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way
but a two way process.
 It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity
geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences
accumulated over the course of your lifetime.
 Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous. For example – instant
messaging.
 The sender sends a message to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait
for the message from the original receiver to react.
 Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an
answer.
*Transactional Model*.
 It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in
transaction.
 Firstly, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a
receiver.
 Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved.
 So communication is fluid/simultaneous.
 This is how most conversation are like.
 The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication
environment (how you interpret the data that you are given).
 Where the ellipses meet is the most effect communication area because both
communicators share the same meaning of the message.
 For example – talking/listening to friends.
 While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you
think through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping
your friend from talking.
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QUESTION
Difference between communication process and communication model [10]
QUESTION
Communication process [10]
Communication process consists of some interrelated steps or parts through which messages are
sent form sender to receiver. The process of communication begins when the sender wants to
transmit a fact, idea, opinion or other information to the receiver and ends with receiver’s
feedback to the sender.
.
The main components of communication process are
 Sender,
 Message,
 Channel,
 Receiver
 Feedback
 Noise
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Communication process consists of following steps:
1) The sender formulates the message that he wants to convey to the receiver.
2) He encodes or translates his message. He may take the help of symbols, words,
actions, diagrams, pictures etc.
3) He selects an appropriate channel or medium through which the message is to be
transmitted. It can be face to face communication, letters, radio, television, e-mail
etc.
4) The message is received by the receiver.
5) Received message is decoded by the receiver so that the receiver can draw the
meaning of the message.
6) The receiver sends his response to the sender. In case of any confusion, the same
is conveyed and necessary clarification sought.
Steps or elements of communication process
The communication process refers to the steps through which communication takes place
between the sender and the receiver. This process starts with conceptualizing an idea or message
by the sender and ends with the feedback from the receiver. In detail, communication process
consists of the following eight steps:
1. Sender: In the first step, the communicator develops or conceptualizes an idea to be sent.
It is also known as the planning stage since in this stage the communicator plans the
subject matter of communication.
2. Encoding: Encoding means converting or translating the idea into a perceivable form that
can be communicated to others.
3. Message: After encoding the sender gets a message that can be transmitted to the
receiver. The message can be oral, written, symbolic or nonverbal. For example, when
people talk, speech is the message; when people write a letter, the words and sentences
are the message; when people cries, the crying is the message.
4. Medium: Medium is the channel or means of transmitting the message to the receiver.
Once the sender has encoded his into a message, the next step is to select a suitable
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medium for transmitting it to the receiver. The medium of communication can be
speaking, writing, signaling, gesturing etc.
5. Transmission of message: In this step, the sender actually transmits the message through
chosen medium. In the communication cycle, the tasks of the sender end with the
transmission of the message.
6. Receiver: This stage simply involves the reception of sender’s message by the receiver.
The message can be received in the form of hearing, seeing, feeling and so on.
7. Decoding: Decoding is the receiver’s interpretation of the sender’s message. Here the
receiver converts the message into thoughts and tries to analyze and understand it.
Effective communication can occur only when both the sender and the receiver assign the
same or similar meanings to the message.
8. Feedback: The final step of communication process is feedback. Feedback means
receiver’s response to sender’s message. It increases the effectiveness of communication.
It ensures that the receiver has correctly understood the message. Feedback is the essence
of two-way communication
9. Noise: Noise is any type of disruption that interferes with the transmission or
interpretation of information from the sender to the receiver.
QUESTION
The main components of communication process 10]
The main components of communication process are as follows:
1. Context - Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This

context may be physical, social, chronological or cultural. Every communication
proceeds with context. The sender chooses the message to communicate within a
context.
2. Sender / Encoder - Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the message. A
sender makes use of symbols (words or graphic or visual aids) to convey the
message and produce the required response. For instance - a training manager
conducting training for new batch of employees. Sender may be an individual or a
group or an organization. The views, background, approach, skills, competencies,
and knowledge of the sender have a great impact on the message. The verbal and
non verbal symbols chosen are essential in ascertaining interpretation of the
message by the recipient in the same terms as intended by the sender.
3. Message - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. It is a
sign that elicits the response of recipient. Communication process begins with
deciding about the message to be conveyed. It must be ensured that the main
objective of the message is clear.
4. Medium - Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message. The
sender must choose an appropriate medium for transmitting the message else the
message might not be conveyed to the desired recipients. The choice of
appropriate medium of communication is essential for making the message
effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient. This choice of communication
medium varies depending upon the features of communication. For instance -
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Written medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed to a small group of
people, while an oral medium is chosen when spontaneous feedback is required
from the recipient as misunderstandings are cleared then and there.
5. Recipient / Decoder - Recipient / Decoder is a person for whom the message is
intended / aimed / targeted. The degree to which the decoder understands the
message is dependent upon various factors such as knowledge of recipient, their
responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of encoder on decoder.
6. Feedback - Feedback is the main component of communication process as it
permits the sender to analyze the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in
confirming the correct interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be
verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take
written form also in form of memos, reports, etc.
QUESTION
Define the following communication terms
i. Two (2) way communication. [5]

 Two-way communication occurs when the receiver sends response or feedback to
sender’s message.
 In two-way communication process, the sender first transmits the message to the
receiver.
 After receiving a message, the receiver decodes it and then sends back his or her reaction
to the sender.
 In two-way communication, information flows in two-ways: information form sender to
receiver and response from receiver to sender.
 So it is regarded as the complete communication process.
 By nature, face-to-face and telephonic conversations are the examples of two-way
communication.
 In the case of written communication, two-way flow of information will occur when
receiver sends feedback.
ii. Feedback. [5]

 Feedback refers to the response or reaction of receiver to the sender’s message.
 Feedback is the essence of communication and is the final step of communication
process.
 Without feedback from the receiver, communication process remains incomplete.
 This feedback may be an oral or written message, or an action or simply a silence.
 Transmitting or sending message is half of the communication process.
 When messages reach to the receiver, he decodes the message and sends his response to
the sender to complete the communication process.
 Feedback enables the sender to evaluate the effectiveness of his message.
 If the receiver does not understand what the sender wants to convey, then the sender
refines or repeats the message.
 “Feedback is the receiver’s basic response to the interpreted message.”
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 “Feedback consists of messages-verbal and non-verbal-that convey a reaction to the
communication’s message.”
 “Feedback is a response from the receiver that informs the sender how the message is
being interpreted form the receiver that informs the sender how the message is being
interpreted and how the communication is being received in general.”
QUESTION
Why is two (2) way communications important? [10]
1. Ensuring smooth flow of information: In two-way communication, the receiver can directly
express his response with regard to the message he received. As a result, smooth flow of
information occurs in both directions.
2. Providing acknowledgement: In two-way communication, sender sends information to the
receiver and receiver gives his response or answer to the sender. In this way, two-way
commutation acknowledges the reception of message by the receiver.
3. Implementation of directions: In the organization, superiors convey various orders,
instructions, policies, procedures etc. to the subordinates. If subordinates fail to understand
any instruction, order or policy, two-way communication allows them to ask for further
clarification. Thus, two-way communication helps implementation of superior’s directions.
4. Encouraging suggestion form employee: In order to enrich organizational plans and
policies, management should encourage suggestions from subordinates. Such encouragement
is possible when there exists two-way communication channels.
5. Increasing job satisfactions: Two-way communication provides employees with a means to
convey their complaints, attitudes, feelings, interests and opinion to their superiors.
Afterwards, superiors can take necessary steps for well-being of the employees. As a result,
job satisfaction of the employees increases.
6. Creating democratic environment: In two-way communication, both communicator and
receiver can freely express their feelings, ideas and views. This mutual exchange of
information creates a democratic environment in the organization.
7. Overcoming ambiguity: Two-way communication is also very useful to overcome any
confusion or ambiguity regarding the message as it allows the receiver to convey his response.
8. Creating congenial relationship: Congenial relationship between workers and management
is essential to achieve organizational goals. In order to create such relationship, management
must listen to the opinions and views of employees. Two-way communication makes it
possible.
9. Creating informal relationship: Another positive aspect of two-way communication is that
it enhances informal relationship between sender and receiver. Since two-way communication
allows both the participants to exchange whatever they think, they can develop a sense of
mutual understanding. The result is a better relationship between them.
10. Increasing effectiveness of communication: Effective communication depends on proper
understanding of message by both sender and receiver. Through two-way communication,
both parties can evaluate each other’s opinion and thus can increase effectiveness of their
communication.
11. Increasing efficiency: Two-way communication also positively contributes to the efficiency
of the receiver. In this communication, the receiver can seek clarification and analysis of
sender’s message that ultimately increases his knowledge, understanding and efficiency.
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QUESTION
Give any two (5) reasons; why feedback is necessary for the completion of
communication process? [10]
1. Completion of communication: Two-way communication requires feedback from the

receiver. Through the feedback, sender can understand the attitude of the receiver. The
receiver’s feedback to the sender completes the communication process loop
2. Measuring the effectiveness of communication: Feedback ensures the sender regarding the
effectiveness of his communication. By means of feedback, sender can be sure that the
receiver received the message and understood it in the proper way. Sender needs feedback in
order to determine the success or failure of communication.
3. Understanding the receiver’s view: Feedback helps to understand the receiver’s view and
opinion about the sender’s message. With this understanding, sender can determine the next
course of action.
4. Measuring the appropriateness of media: Message can be transmitted using various media.
Improper media cannot convey the message to the receiver properly. So proper understanding
of the message by the receiver and his feedback proves that the sender has selected the right
media.
5. Making correct decision: Feedback communicates the receiver’s opinion to the sender.
Considering this opinion, the communicator can take proper decision. Information of the
receiver can also improve the quality of decision.
6. Collection of information: One-way communication only sends information. If
communicator wants to gather information, he must seek feedback.
7. Coordination of activities: Responsibility of performing organizational activities is assigned
to various departments. In this case, organizational success depends on proper coordination of
inter-departmental activities. Feedback helps top management to ensure proper coordination.
8. Improving labor-management relationships: Healthy labor-management relationship is
essential for organizational success. If management wants to build a congenial atmosphere,
they should encourage two-way communication. That means, management should seek
feedback from employees as well as they should provide feedback to the employees. Through
this practice, managers can create democratic atmosphere in the organization.
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QUESTION
Communication Noise [10]
 Communication noise. In any communication model, noise is interference with
the decoding of messages sent over a channel by an encoder.
There are many examples of noise:
Environmental Noise:
 Noise that physically disrupts communication, such as standing next to loud
speakers at a party, or the noise from a construction site next to a classroom
making it difficult to hear the professor.
Physiological-Impairment Noise:
 Physical maladies that prevent effective communication, such as actual deafness
or blindness preventing messages from being received as they were intended.
Semantic Noise:
 Different interpretations of the meanings of certain words. For example, the word
"weed" can be interpreted as an undesirable plant in a yard, or as a euphemism
for marijuana.
Syntactical Noise:
 Mistakes in grammar can disrupt communication, such as abrupt changes in verb
tense during a sentence.
Organizational Noise:
 Poorly structured communication can prevent the receiver from accurate
interpretation. For example, unclear and badly stated directions can make the
receiver even more lost.
Cultural Noise:
 Stereotypical assumptions can cause misunderstandings, such as unintentionally
offending a non-Christian person by wishing them a "Merry Christmas".
Psychological Noise:
 Certain attitudes can also make communication difficult. For instance, great
anger or sadness may cause someone to lose focus on the present moment.
Disorders such as Autism may also severely hamper effective communication.
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QUESTION
Different Types of Noise [10]
a) Psychological noise. [3]
 Psychological noise is mental interference in the speaker or listener.

 Psychological noise results from preconceived notions we bring to conversations,
such as racial stereotypes, reputations, biases, and assumptions.
 When we come into a conversation with ideas about what the other person is
going to say and why, we can easily become blinded to their original message.
 Three examples of psychological noise are wandering thoughts,
preconceived ideas, and sarcasm.
b) Physiological noise. [2]
 Physiological noise has to do with distractions from the natural effects of the
body, such as being tired or hungry.
 The pains a person received will also result in physiological noise. For instance,
great anger or sadness may cause someone to lose focus on the present moment.
 An example of physiological noise on the listener’s side: hearing problems.
Maybe the listener can’t hear high tones as clearly as they used to. For some, low
tones are the problem. Their difficulty in literally hearing words and sounds
becomes physiological noise.
c) Physical noise. [2]
 Physical noise is interference that is external to both speaker and listener; it

hampers the physical transmission of the signal or message.
 Examples of physical noise: loud party at the neighbors while you’re trying to
record, loud kids who don’t want to take their nap, irritating hum of your
computer, air conditioner, or heater.
d) Semantic noise. [3]
 Semantic noise is interference created when the speaker and listener have
different meaning systems.
 This type of noise occurs when grammar or technical language is used that the
receiver (the decoder) cannot understand, or cannot understand it clearly.
 It occurs when the sender of the message uses a word or a phrase that we don't
know the meaning of, or which we use in a different way from the speakers.
 This is usually due to the result that the encoder had failed to practice audience
analysis at first. The type of audience is the one that determine the jargon one
will use
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QUESTION
Explain communication breakdown & communication barrier [10]
Communication Breakdown
 A lack of communication; a failure to exchange information

 A communication breakdown occurs when communication is incomprehensible to one
party or entirely absent between two people.
Communication barrier
 “Barriers to communication mean obstacles to the process of communication.

 “Communication barriers are the problems that arise at every stage of the communication
process and have the potential to create misunderstanding and confusion.
 “Communication, when it is impeded and does not reach the receiver is often somewhat
ineffective and the impediments are known as barriers.”
 Factors that inhibit the effective flow of information that communication.
 Communication barriers impede the flow of information or create problems in
understanding and acceptance of information.
QUESTION
Barriers to communication [10]
*Common Barriers to Effective Communication*:
 The use of jargon. Over-complicated, unfamiliar and/or technical terms.

 Emotional barriers and taboos. Some people may find it difficult to express
their emotions and some topics may be completely 'off-limits' or taboo. Taboo or
difficult topics may include, but are not limited to, politics, religion, disabilities
(mental and physical), sexuality and sex, racism and any opinion that may be n as
unpopular.
 Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance to the receiver.
Differences in perception and viewpoint.
 Physical disabilities such as hearing problems or speech difficulties.
 Physical barriers to non-verbal communication. Not being able to see the non-
verbal cues, gestures, posture and general body language can make
communication less effective. Phone calls, text messages and other
communication methods that rely on technology are often less effective than face-
to-face communication.
 Language differences and the difficulty in understanding unfamiliar accents.
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 Expectations and prejudices which may lead to false assumptions or
stereotyping. People often hear what they expect to hear rather than what is
actually said and jump to incorrect conclusions.
 Cultural differences. The norms of social interaction vary greatly in different
cultures, as do the way in which emotions are expressed. For example, the
concept of personal space varies between cultures and between different social
settings
ORGANIZATIONAL BARRIERS:
The barriers that generate form within the organization are known as organizational barriers may
be of the following types:
1. Negative organizational climate: Negative attitude of top management discourages
communication initiative of the employees.
2. Absence of communication policy: Well-designed communication policy encourages
communication in the organization. In the absence of such policies, employees fail hesitate to
communicate.
3. Excessive authority layers: Excessive authority layers acts as a severe impediment to
successful communication. In the case of excessive authority impediment to successful
communication. In the case of excessive authority layers, information reaches to its final
destination passing through several hierarchical levels. As a result, information may be
distorted or lost. Excessive authority layers also causes delay in communication.
4. Filtering: Filtering implies willful distortion of information. This problem usually arise in
upward communication. In upward communication, employees tend to pass only those
messages that create positive impression about them.
INDIVIDUAL BARRIERS: Barriers created by the sender and receiver are known as individual
barriers. Such barriers include the following:
1. Differences in personality: Personality is the set of attributes that define a person. Every
person holds a distinct personality. This individual nature of personality acts as barrier to
communication.
2. Perceptual differences: Perception is the unique way in which people respond or interpret an
object. Difference in perception is a very common problem in effective communication.
3. Fear: Fear of reprisal or attack, fear of criticism for knowing very little etc. may create
problem in communication.
4. Stereotyping: Stereotyping is generalizing about a class of people or events that is widely
held by a given culture. In case of stereotyping, people develop communication statements
and mindsets about others.
5. Halo Effect: The halo effect is the tendency to use a general impression based on one or a
few characteristics to judge other characteristics of that same individual. For example, a
manger might identify one trait of an employee, such as an excellent attendance record, and
perceive that the employee’s productivity and quality of work must also be outstanding.
6. Inattention: Sometimes communication does not reach due to the inattention of the receiver.
Such inattention may result from busyness, lack of interest about subject, suffering from
disease or family problem etc.
o
LANGUAGE OR SEMANTIC BARRIER: A common barrier to effective communication is
semantic distortion, which can be deliberate or accidental. Semantic problem arises when words
and symbols have different meanings for different people that lead to a misunderstanding. For
examples, an advertisement states, “we sell for less.” It is ambiguous and raises the question: less
than what? In another case, during meeting, a male colleague said to one of his female colleague,
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“Why don’t you dye it?” meaning her hair. The female colleague thought he said, “Why don’t
you diet?” she did not speak to him for a month. Semantic barrier presents difficult challenge
when people from different cultures communicate with each other.
OTHER BARRIERS: The following factors also act as the barrier to effective communication:
2. Information Overload: Information overload may also be a problem of effective
communication. Information overload is the situation when a person is given too much
information at a time.
3. Faulty expression: Faulty expression of message fails to convey exact meaning to the
receiver. It happens due to lack of clarity, use of vague terms, badly expressed information,
improper organization of ideas etc.
4. Status or power difference: Communication problem may arise when people of different
power or status try to communicate with each other. For example, the manager of a company
may neglect suggestion from his subordinates simply because of difference in their status.
This under treatment of people makes the communication ineffective.
5. Negative attitudes to change: Some people always resist any kind of change in the
organization. They think that ‘old is good, and are fearful about the changes. Therefore, they
create problems in communication through inattention, false interpretation, rumor, resistance
and non-cooperation.
6. Noise: Environment factors may also disrupt effective communication. One such factor is
noise. For example, in oral communication, noise hiders smooth flow of information or
message. In factories, loud noise of machines makes oral communication very difficult.
QUESTION
List any five (5) examples of barriers to communication that may be encountered in
a multi-cultural working environment. [10]
 Language Barriers (people from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds face
communication barriers)
 Stereotypes and prejudices (assumptions people make about the characteristics of members
of a cultural or social group. Many stereotypes are negative or even hostile and are a serious
barrier to workplace communication.)
 Behavior and beliefs (cultural differences in body language and other behaviors can also
cause miscommunications.)
 Emotional Display. (What is considered an appropriate display of emotion can differ from
culture to culture. In some countries, displaying anger, fear or frustration in the workplace is
considered inappropriate in a business setting)
 Religion (Similar to ethnocentrism and stereotyping, religion also disrupts communication as

it creates a specific image of people who follow other religions.)
 Signs and Symbols (Signs, symbols and gestures varies in different cultures.)
 Ethnocentrism (is the process of dividing cultures as “us” and “them”)
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QUESTION
Overcoming Barriers to communication [10]
 Developing flat organization structure: In modern time, organizations prefer flat

structure to tall one. Flat structure has fewer heretical levels that reduce communication
gap between superiors and subordinates. Therefore, business enterprises in any country
should design flat structure in place of the traditional tall structure.
 Specifying objective of communication: In order to overcome the problem of
ambiguity, communicator should specify the objective of communication. This will help
him to arrange the message concisely and clearly.
 Clear-cut message: Top executives should send clear orders, instructions, policies,
procedures and directions so that misunderstanding and confusion do not arise. This will
enhance the effectiveness of communication.
 Using simple language: Language creates numerous communication problems in
organization. Employees in the organization are neither equally educated nor trained.
Therefore, the communication should use simple and common words. At the same time,
they should avoid technical jargons so that everyone can understand it.
 Selecting proper media: Appropriate media should be used for effective
communication. Management should decide when to use oral medium and when to use
written medium. While selecting media, management must consider the nature of the
message, its importance and complexity.
 Encouraging feedback: Managers should encourage feedback from subordinates to
attain the objective of communication. This will help the manager to know the reaction of
subordinates and to take proper action.
 Providing communication training: Organizations can provide training to enhance
communication skills of their employees. In this regard, organizations can arrange
seminars, symposiums or institutional training programs.
 Creating congenial labor management relationship: Harmonious relationship between
labors and management is essential for successful communication. Relationship between
them affects the level of importance one party gives on the message of other. Therefore,
management and labor should cooperate with each other to create a favorable
communication climate.
 Using modern communication technologies: In order to facilitate speedy and regular
communication, organizations need to use modern communication devices.
 Encouraging informal communication: To make formal communication effective,
organizations can arrange informal channels. This will obviously promote good
relationship among the participants in the organization.
 Unbiased attitude of management: Management should be free from political, regional
and religious biasness. Their neutral attitude will bring a fair environment of
communication in the organization.
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QUESTION
Explain the following types of communication
a) Verbal Communication
b) Nonverbal Communication [10]
VERBAL COMMUNICATION:
Verbal communication is the process of exchanging of information or messages between two or

more persons through written or oral words.
Forms of verbal communication are as follows:
1. Oral communication: Oral communication is the process of communication in which

messages or information is exchanged or communicated within sender and receiver
through the word of mouth. It can be divided into two ways: a. Speaking b. Listening.
2. Written communication: Written communication is the process of communication in
which messages or information is exchanged or communicated within sender and
receiver through written form. It can be divided into two ways: a. Writing b. Reading.
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION:
 Nonverbal communication is the expression or exchange of information or messages

without using any spoken or written word.
 Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages.
 We can say that communication other than oral and written, such as gesture, body
language, posture, tone of voice or facial expressions, is called nonverbal
communication.
 Nonverbal communication helps receiver in interpreting the message received.
 Often, nonverbal signals reflects the situation more accurately than verbal messages.
Some of the forms of non-verbal communications are as follows:
1. Facial expression
2. Gestures
3. Body language
4. Proximity
5. Touch
6. Appearance
7. Silence
8. Paralinguistic
9. Eye Gaze or eye contact etc.
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QUESTION
Explain the following terms as used in communication
a) Verbal communication. [2]
 When messages or information is exchanged or communicated through words is called verbal
communication.
 Verbal communication may be two types: written and oral communication.
 Verbal communication takes place through face-to-face conversations, group discussions,
counseling, interview, radio, television, calls, memos, letters, reports, notes, email etc.
 Verbal communication is the process of exchanged of information or message between two or
more persons through written or oral words.
 Verbal communication is the expression or exchanged of information or messages through
written or oral words.
b) Nonverbal communication. [2]

 When messages or information is exchanged or communicated without using any spoken or
written word is known as nonverbal communication.
 The process of communication through sending and receiving wordless messages.
 Non-verbal communication is a powerful arsenal in the face-to-face communication
encounters, expressed consciously in the presence of others and perceived either consciously
or unconsciously.
 Much of non-verbal communication is unintentional people are not even aware that they are
sending messages.
 Non-verbal communication takes place though gestures, facial expressions, eye contact,
physical proximity, touching etc.
 Nonverbal communication means all communication that occurs without words (body
movements, space, time, touch, voice patterns, color, layout, design of surroundings.)
 The exchanged of information or message between two or more persons through gestures,
facial expressions eye contact, proximity, touching etc. and without using any spoken or
written word.
c) Visual communication. [2]

 Is the conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be seen?
 Visual communication in part or whole relies on eyesight.
 When communication takes place by means of any visual aid, it is known as visual
communication.
 Visual communication is a broad spectrum that includes signs, typography, drawing, graphic
design, illustration, industrial design, advertising, animation, color, signals, map, chart, poster,
slide, sign etc
 For example, to indicate ‘danger’, we use red sign, to indicate ‘no smoking’, we use an image
showing a lighted cigarette with across mark on it etc.
d) Oral communication. [2]

 Oral communication is the process of communication in which messages or information is
exchanged or communicated within sender and receiver through the word of mouth.
 It can be divided into two ways: a. Speaking b. Listening.
 Oral communication is the process of communication in which message or information is
exchanged or communicated within sender and receiver through the word of mouth.
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 In oral communication, Spoken words are used.
 It includes face-to-face conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, radio,
television, voice over internet.
 In oral communication, communication is influence by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of
speaking.
e) Written communication. [2]

 Written communication is the process of communication in which messages or information is
exchanged or communicated within sender and receiver through written form.
 It can be divided into two ways: a. Writing b. Reading
 In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate.
 A written message may be printed or hand written. In written communication message can be
transmitted via email, letter, report, memo etc.
 Message, in written communication, is influenced by the vocabulary & grammar used, writing
style, precision and clarity of the language used.
 Written Communication is most common form of communication being used in business.
 So, it is considered core among business skills.
 Memos, reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals, and electronic mail are the
types of written communication used for internal communication.
 For communicating with external environment in writing, electronic mail, Internet Web sites,
letters, proposals, telegrams, faxes, postcards, contracts, advertisements, brochures, and news
releases are used.
QUESTION
Characteristics of non-verbal communication [10]
Non-verbal communication is any information that is communicated without using words. The
important characteristics of non-verbal communication are as follows:
 No use of words: Non-verbal communication is a communication without words or

language like oral or written communication. It uses gestures, facial expressions, eye
contact, physical proximity, touching etc. for communicating with others.
 Culturally determined: Non-verbal communication is learnt in childhood, passed on to
you by your parents and others with whom you associate. Through this process of
growing up in a particular society, you adopt the taints and mannerisms of your cultural
group.
 Different meaning: Non-verbal symbols can many meanings. Cross-culture aspects give
various meanings to same expression in respect of non-verbal communication.
 Vague and imprecise: Non-verbal communication is quite vague and imprecise. Since in
this communication there is no use of words or language which expresses clear meaning
to the receiver.
 May conflict with verbal message: Non-verbal communication is so deeply rooted, so
unconscious, that you can express a verbal message and then directly contradict it with a
nonverbal message.
 Largely unconscious: Non-verbal communication is unconscious in the sense that it is
usually not planned nor rehearsed. It comes almost instantaneously.
 Shows feelings and attitudes: Facial expressions, gestures, body movements, the way
you use your eyes – all communicate your feelings and emotions to others.
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 Informality: Non verbal communication does not follow any rules, formality or structure
like other communication. Most of the cases people unconsciously and habitually
engaged in non-verbal communication by moving the various parts of the body.
QUESTION
Advantages and disadvantages of non-verbal communication [10]
It has multiple advantages or functions:
1. Complementary: Non-verbal cues complement a verbal message by adding to its meaning.

You can pat someone you offended at the back as you say sorry to him or her.
2. Easy presentation: Information can be easily presented in non-verbal communication
through using visual, audio-visual and silent means of non-verbal communication.
3. Substituting: Non-verbal message may substitute for the verbal message especially if it is
blocked by noise, interruption, long distance etc. for example: gestures-finger to lips to
indicate need for quite, facial expressions- a nod instead of a yes.
4. Accenting: Often used to accent a verbal message. Verbal tone indicates the actual meaning
of the specific words.
5. Repeat: Used to repeat the verbal message (e.g. point in a direction while stating directions.)
6. Help to illiterate people: This type of communication use gestures, facial expressions, eye
contact, proximity, touching etc. and without using any spoken or written word. So, it is very
much helpful for illiterate people.
7. Help to handicapped people: Non-verbal cues of communication greatly help in
handicapped people especially to deaf people. Deaf people are exchange message through the
movements of hands, fingers, eye ball etc.
8. Attractive presentation: Non-verbal communication is based on visual, picture, graph, sign
etc. that can be seen very much attractive.
9. Reducing wastage of time: The message of non-verbal communication reached the receiver
very fast. For this reason it reduces the wastage of valuable time of the communicator.
10. Quick expression of message: Non-verbal cues of communication like sign and symbol can
also communicate some messages very quickly than written or oral messages.
Disadvantages or limitations of non-verbal communication:
1. Vague and imprecise: Non-verbal communication is quite vague and imprecise. Since in this
communication there is no use of words or language which expresses clear meaning to the
receiver. No dictionary can accurately classify them. Their meaning varies not only by culture
and context but by degree of intension.
2. Continuous: It is possible to stop talking in verbal communication, but it is generally not
possible to stop nonverbal cues. Also, spoken language has a structure that makes it easier to
tell when a subject has changed, for instance or to analyze its grammar. Nonverbal does not
lend itself to this kind of analysis.
3. Multi-channel: while watching someone’s eyes, you may miss something significant in a
hand gesture. Everything is happening at once and therefore it may be confusing to try to
keep up with everything. Most of us simply do not do so, at least not consciously.
4. Culture-bound: Non-verbal communication is learnt in childhood, passed on to you by your
parents and others with whom you associate. A few other gestures seem to be universal.
Evidence suggests that humans of all cultures smile when happy and frown when unhappy.
However, most nonverbal symbols seem to be even further disconnected from any “essential
COMMS REVISION
meaning” than verbal symbols. Gestures seen as positive in one culture (Like the thumbs-up
gesture in the USA) may be seen as obscene in another culture.
5. Long conversations are not possible: In non-verbal communication, long conversation and
necessary explanations are not possible. No party can discuss the particular issues of the
messages.
6. Difficult to understand: Difficult to understand and requires a lot of repetitions in non-
verbal communication. Since it uses gestures, facial expressions eye contact, touch etc. for
communicating with others which may not be understandable for the simple and foolish
people.
7. Not everybody prefers: Everybody not prefers to communicate through non-verbal
communication with others. Sometimes it cannot create an impression upon people or
listeners. It is less influential and cannot be used everywhere. It is cannot be used as a public
tool for communication.
8. Lack of formality: Non-verbal communication does not follow any rules, formality or
structure like other communication. Most of the cases people unconsciously and habitually
engaged in non-verbal communication by moving the various parts of the body.
9. Costly: In some cases non-verbal communication involves huge cost. For example, neon sign,
power point presentation, cinema etc are very much costly compared to others form of
communication.
10. Distortion of information: Since it uses gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, touch, sign,
sound, paralanguage etc. for communicating with others, there is a great possibility in
distortion of information in non-verbal communication.
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QUESTION
Differences between verbal and non-verbal communication: [10]
 Verbal communication is the expression or exchanged of information or messages

through written or oral words.
 On the other hand, non-verbal communication is the expression or exchanged of
information or messages through without using any spoken or written word. The
important differences between verbal and non-verbal communication are as follows:
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Give any five (5) non-verbal cues of your choice. [10]
 Proxemics
o – interpersonal space & distance, how far away from people/objects we position ourselves
(which are public, social, personal, and intimate distance)
o People often refer to their need for “personal space”, which are also important types of
nonverbal communication. The physical distance between you and others signals your level of
intimacy and comfort. If someone you don’t know stand too close or touches too often, you
will probably begin to feel uncomfortable.
 Hepatics – touch behavior

o There are several types of touch, including functional-professional, social-polite, friendship-
warmth, love-intimacy
 Vocalic – paralanguage or paravocalics - not what you say but HOW you say it’
 pitch,  vocal quality, and
 volume,  verbal fillers
 rate,
o Paralinguistic refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language.
Paralanguage also include such vocal characteristics as rate (speed of speaking), pitch
(highness of lowness of tone), inflection, volume (loudness) and quality (pleasing or
unpleasant sound).
 Vocal characterizers (laugh, cry, yell, moan, whine, belch and yawn). These send
different message in different cultures (Japan- giggling indicates embarrassment;
India- belch indicates satisfaction)
 Vocal qualifiers (volume, pitch, rhythm, tempo and tone). Loudness indicates
strength in Arabic cultures and softness indicates weakness; indicates confidence and
authority to the Germans; indicates impoliteness to the Thai; indicates loss of control
to the Japanese. (Generally, one learns not to “shout” in Asia for nearly any reason).
Gender based as well women tend to speak higher and more softly than men.
 Vocal segregates (UN-huh, shh, uh, ooh, mmmh, hummm, eh mah, lah). Segretates
indicate formality, acceptance, assent, uncertainty.
 Kinesics
o – body movements (gestures)
o Some parts of our body can express many indications without any sound. Message can be
transmitted with the help of our body movements which is called body language. Body
language is a form of non-verbal communication, which consists of posture, gestures, facial
expressions, eye movements etc.
 gestures,
 head movements
 posture,
 eye contact,
 facial expressions
 Chronemics – time
Another type of non-verbal communication involves time. Thant is how we give meaning to
time communicates to other. For example, begin late in work everybody a worker can be
considered as a man of carelessness but if a manager does it; we say it is a symbol of power.
We know, time can play a vital role to reduce tension, conflict among groups. It is said that-
“Kill the time to delay the justice”.
 Oculesics [ocalics] – use of eyes - a subcategory of kinesics, eye movement, eye behavior, gaze, and
eye-related
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
 Different types of Non Verbal Cues
 Medias Or Ways Or Methods Or Kinds Of Non-Verbal Communication [10]
Non-verbal communication is the expression or exchanged of information or messages through without

using any spoken or written word. Several symbols can be used in non-verbal communication. We will
discuss here only the following types of communication that occur without words.
A. Body language: Some parts of our body can express many indications without any sound. Message can
be transmitted with the help of our body movements which is called body language. Body language is a
form of non-verbal communication, which consists of posture, gestures, facial expressions, eye movements
etc.
1. Facial expression:
2. Gestures:
3. Posture
4. Eye Gaze or Eye contact:
5. Appearance and dress:
6. Touch:
7. Silence:
B. Space or proximity: People often refer to their need for “personal space”, which are also important
types of nonverbal communication. The physical distance between you and others signals your level of
intimacy and comfort. If someone you don’t know stand too close or touches too often, you will probably
begin to feel uncomfortable.
C. Time: Another type of non-verbal communication involves time. Thant is how we give meaning to time
communicates to other. For example, begin late in work everybody a worker can be considered as a man of
carelessness but if a manager does it; we say it is a symbol of power. We know, time can play a vital role to
reduce tension, conflict among groups. It is said that- “Kill the time to delay the justice”.
D. Paralinguistic (Tone and volume of voice): Paralinguistic refers to vocal communication that is
separate from actual language. Paralanguage also include such vocal characteristics as rate (speed of
speaking), pitch (highness of lowness of tone), inflection, volume (loudness) and quality (pleasing or
unpleasant sound).
 Vocal characterizers (laugh, cry, yell, moan, whine, belch and yawn). These send different
message in different cultures (Japan- giggling indicates embarrassment; India- belch indicates
satisfaction)
 Vocal qualifiers (volume, pitch, rhythm, tempo and tone). Loudness indicates strength in Arabic
cultures and softness indicates weakness; indicates confidence and authority to the Germans;
indicates impoliteness to the Thai; indicates loss of control to the Japanese. (Generally, one learns
not to “shout” in Asia for nearly any reason). Gender based as well women tend to speak higher
and more softly than men.
 Vocal segregates (UN-huh, shh, uh, ooh, mmmh, hummm, eh mah, lah). Segretates indicate
formality, acceptance, assent, uncertainty.
E. Visual communication: When communication takes place by means of any visual aid, it is known as
visual communication. Such signals, map, chart, poster, slide, sign etc. for example, to indicate ‘danger’,
we use red sign, to indicate ‘no smoking’, we use an image showing a lighted cigarette with across mark on
it etc.
COMMS REVISION
Briefly discuss the following types of communication that occur without words,
giving examples
a) Body language. [2]
 Some parts of our body can express many indications without any sound.
 Message can be transmitted with the help of our body movements which is called body
language.
 Body language is a form of non-verbal communication, which consists of posture, gestures,
facial expressions, eye movements etc.
b) Space or proximity. [2]

 People often refer to their need for “personal space”, which are also important types of
nonverbal communication.
 The physical distance between you and others signals your level of intimacy and comfort.
 If someone you don’t know stand too close or touches too often, you will probably begin to
feel uncomfortable
c) Time. [2]
 Another type of non-verbal communication involves time.
 That is how we give meaning to time communicates to other.
 For example, begin late in work everybody a worker can be considered as a man of
carelessness but if a manager does it; we say it is a symbol of power.
 We know, time can play a vital role to reduce tension, conflict among groups. It is said that-
“Kill the time to delay the justice”.
d) Paralinguistic (tone and volume of voice). [2]

 Paralinguistic refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language.
 Paralanguage also include such vocal characteristics as rate (speed of speaking), pitch
(highness of lowness of tone), inflection, volume (loudness) and quality (pleasing or
unpleasant sound).
 Vocal characterizers (laugh, cry, yell, moan, whine, belch and yawn).
 Vocal qualifiers (volume, pitch, rhythm, tempo and tone).
 Vocal segregates (UN-huh, shh, uh, ooh, mmmh, hummm, eh mah, lah). Segretates indicate
formality, acceptance, assent, uncertainty.
e) Visual communication. [2]

 When communication takes place by means of any visual aid, it is known as visual
communication.
 Such signals, map, chart, poster, slide, sign etc. for example, to indicate ‘danger’, we use red
sign, to indicate ‘no smoking’, we use an image showing a lighted cigarette with across mark
on it etc.
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Body language is a form of non-verbal communication, which consists of facial

expressions, posture, gestures, eye movements, appearance & dress. Briefly explain
these [10]
a) Facial expression. [2]
 Facial expressions are a form of nonverbal communication.

 They are a primary means of conveying social information between humans,
 The eyes are often viewed as important features of facial expressions.
 Aspects such as blinking rate can be used to indicate whether a person is nervous or whether
he or she is lying.
 Also, eye contact is considered an important aspect of interpersonal communication.
 However, there are cultural differences regarding the social propriety of maintaining eye
contact or not.
 Beyond the accessory nature of facial expressions in spoken communication between people,
they play a significant role in communication with sign language. Many phrases in sign
language include facial expressions in the display.
 A facial expression is one or more motions or positions of the muscles in the skin of face.
These movements convey the emotional state of the individual to observers. Facial
expressions for happiness, sadness, anger and fear are similar throughout the world. Proverb
says, “Face is the index of mind. “Example: By waving our hands we express ‘good-bye’; by
shaking our head from side to side we express “we do not know”.
b) Gestures. [2]
 A gesture is a form of non-verbal communication or non-vocal communication in which

visible bodily actions communicate particular messages, either in place of, or in conjunction
with, speech.
 Gestures refers to visible bodily actions communicate particular messages which include
movement of the hands, face, eyes, head or other parts of the body.
 Common gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate numeric amounts.
 Culture-specific gestures that can be used as replacement for words, such as the hand wave
used in western cultures for “hello” and “goodbye”.
 Gestures include movement of the hands, face, or other parts of the body.
 Gestures differ from physical non-verbal communication that does not communicate specific messages,
such as purely expressive displays, proxemics, or displays of joint attention.
 Gestures allow individuals to communicate a variety of feelings and thoughts, from contempt and
hostility to approval and affection, often together with body language in addition to words when they
speak.
c) Posture. [2]
 In humans, one of the means of communication is the posture of the body

 Posture indicates the position in which we hold the body when standing or sitting.
 It can help to communicate non-verbally.
 Posture conveys information about:
o Interpersonal relations
o Personality traits such as confidence, submissiveness, and openness.
o Social standing
o Current emotional states
‘
d) Eye gaze. [2]
COMMS REVISION
 To look at something or someone for a long time, especially in surprise or admiration, or

because you are thinking about something else:
 Eye contact indicates looking, staring and blinking etc. which is important in nonverbal
behaviors.
 Looking at another person can indicate a range of emotions, including hostility, attention,
interest and attraction, defines power and status and has a central role in managing
impressions of others.
e) Appearance and dress. [2]
 External appearances also play a vital role to communicate others.

 Our clothes and dresses provide a good visual signal to our interest, age, personality, taste and
sex.
 Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles and other factors affecting appearance are also
considered a means of nonverbal can evoke different moods.
 Consider differing cultural standards on what is attractive in dress and on what constitutes
modesty.
 For example, seeing the dress of army officers, we can easily determine the job status.
QUESTION
Advantages and disadvantages of written communication [10]
Advantages of written communication:

 Easy to preserve: .
 Easy presentation of complex matter:
 Permanent record:
 Prevention of wastage of time and money:
 Accurate presentation:
 Use as a reference:
 Delegation of authority
 Longevity:
 Effective communication:
 Maintaining image: .
 Proper information: .
 Less distortion possibility.
 No opportunity to misinterpret:
 Controlling tool:
 Easy to verify:.
 Others: Clear understanding, Legal document, Acceptability, Reduction of risk, Creating
confidence, Easy circulation, Wide access or coverage etc.
Disadvantages of written communication

 Expensive:
 Time consuming: Written communication takes time to communicate with others. It is a time
consuming media. It costs the valuable time of both the writer and the reader.
 Useless for illiterate person: It messages receiver is illiterate, written communication is
quite impossible. This is major disadvantage written communication.
COMMS REVISION
 Difficult to maintain secrecy: It is an unexpected medium to keep business secrecy. Secrecy
is not always possible to maintain through written communication. Because here needs to
discuss everything in black and white.
 Lack of flexibility: Since writing documents cannot be changed easily at any time. Lack of
flexibility is one of the most important limitations of written communication.
 Delay in response: It takes much time to get a response from the message receiver; prompt
response is not possible in case of written communication that is possible in oral
communication.
 Delay in decision making: Written communication takes much time to communicate with all
the parties concerned. So the decision maker cannot take decisions quickly.
 Cost in record keeping: It is very difficult and expensive to keep all the records in written
communication.
 Complex words: Sometimes the writer uses complex words in writing a message. It becomes
difficult to meaning out to the reader. So the objectives of the communication may lose.
 Lack of direct relation: If there is no direct relation between the writer and the reader, writer
communication cannot help to establish a direct relation between them.
 Other: Prompt feedback is impossible, Slowness, Bureaucratic attitude, Understanding
problem between boos and subordinates, lack in quick clarification and correction, formality
problem, lack of personal intimacy, etc.
QUESTION
Different types of written communication [10]
A. Media of written communication to management:

1. Special management bulletin: The bulletin which is issued for emergency matters
related to management is called special management bulletin. This kind of bulletin must
be published promptly.
2. Management news copy: The less important management issues are published in this
news copy. Generally this new copy is published weekly.
3. Formal management report: Formal management report is one of the most important
media of written communication to management. It emphasizes the upward
communication.
4. Publications: Some organizations publish special journals or publications for the high
level officer. It provides officers information about lost-reduces, safety system, decreases
of accident, improvement of quality etc.
B. Media of written communication for employees:
1. Bulletin for employees: Bulletin is published to inform the employees of emergency and
important matters within a very short time. Generally it is hanging on a notice board.
2. Newspaper: Newspaper is a wide used medium to communicate with employees.
Company’s planning, policy, procedure objectives, problems is published in it to inform
employees. Generally it is published weekly.
3. Publication of monthly paper: Some large companies publish it to inform everything to
the employees. The company’s role and plan are also stated here.
4. Letters: Letter is one of the most important media of written communication for
employees. Sometimes the higher authority sends letter to the employee without asking
any response.
5. Employee’s notebook: Sometimes the management supplies notebook to the employees
in which speech of executives, history of the organization, planning, policy, order for the
work are stated.
COMMS REVISION
6. Reading rack: Necessary books for the employees can be arranged on the shelf so that
they can read and get knowledge.
7. Notice: Notice is an important medium to communicate with employees. By which the
employees are invited to attend a special meeting.
8. Internal circular: It is one of the most important media of written communication. It is
used for internal communication. When all the employees are informed at a time, internal
circular is used.
9. Complain Book: A complains book can be kept in a definite place so that the employees
can write their complaints with it.
10. Memo: Memo is a popular medium of internal written communication. The memo is a
short form of letter usually used to communicate with the employees of the same
organization.
11. Report: Report is an organized statement of facts and findings that contains information
obtained by proper inquiry and examination and evaluation of any past event relating to a
particular subject or problem that helps to decision making.
12. Other media: Salary envelope, annual financial reports or statements, Note sheets,
Question box, Essay competition etc.
QUESTION
Different types of oral communication [10]
Medias or ways or techniques or channels of oral communication
The channels or methods or oral communication may be classified broadly in two categories non
mechanical channels and mechanical channels which are described below:
A. Non mechanical channels
 Conversation: conversation means the informal discussion among the people. When one
person discusses his views, opinion to another person and exchanges their views in the
presence of both then it is called face to face conversation. It also includes the face-to-
face discussion on a particular issue. In this method both the information receiver and
sender can exchange their views freely and fairly.
 Interview: It suggests a meeting between two or more persons for the purpose of getting
a view of each other or for knowing each other. When we normally think of an interview,
we think a situation in which an employer tries to size up an applicant for a job. The
employer’s aim is to know whether the applicant can be fit for service to this organization
and the applicant’s aim is to find whether the job being offered by the organization can be
suitable to him. Its first, the speaker asks questions to the listener and then the listener
answers the question. There are three major techniques of interview. They are as follows:
o Direct questioning
o Non-directive interview and
o Guided interview
 Does speech: Speech means what the speaker says in front of the audience. It is fully
audience-oriented system. Generally the political leaders, the managers, the business man
or the workers’ leaders use this system sometimes. It can build tension or it can relax
tension. This system is practiced in public gathering at company meetings, inauguration
and seminars etc. In needs to considerable skills otherwise it is not effective.
COMMS REVISION
 Group discussion: Group discussion is a popular method of oral communication.
Management arranges group discussion to take a decision on a special matter. Group
discussion is very helpful to human relation, idea getting an idea development and
training.
 Formal training courses: Effective communication can be performed through formal
training courses. It is a wide used technique of oral communication. Both the trainer and
the trainee can exchange their views directly.
 Meeting: Meeting means the formal group discussion about a specific predetermined
topic or subject. Meeting members to get together and discuss about a problem or issue or
a special matter. There are several types of meeting such as –
o Security meeting
o Minutes meeting
o Social meeting
o General meeting itself
 Counseling: Counseling is an effective medium of oral communication. Generally it
held yearly or bi-yearly. It is adopted by the higher authority for their followers.
 Committee: Committee is an organization. The committee meeting is a popular
technique of oral communication. Special decision is taken through face to face
discussion of a committee meeting.
 Special prize-giving ceremony: Sometimes the businessmen can meet with others
arranging a special prize giving ceremony for the workers. In this ceremony the
businessmen can exchange their views and ideas orally.
 Conference: Conference is a kind of meeting at which participants exchange views and
talk together. A conference may be held to exchange views on some problem being faced
by the organization or some other issue related to it and it may even suggest a solution
but the suggestions from a conference are not binding. They are more in the nature of the
recommendation.
 Lectures: Lecture is used to create an understanding of a topic or to influence behavior,
attitudes of the trainee through spoken words. The lecture is telling someone about
something. The method is an effective way to introduce new information or concepts to a
group of learners who gathered at on place. A lecture is given to enhance the knowledge
of the listener or to give him the theoretical aspect of a topic.
 Informal communication: Informal communication is another technique to exchange
information orally. It can be occurred in the playground, tea table etc. In those situations
both the boss and subordinate can exchange their views informally.
 Others: Invitation to a lunch, Brainstorming, Advisory board, Inspection of factory and
office.
B. Mechanical channels
Telephone: Telephone set is an instrument that converts voice and other sound signals into a form
that can be transmitted to remote locations and that receives and reconverts waves into the waves
into sound signals. The telephone plays a vital role in communication when the two persons stay
in different places they communicate with each other by telephone. Their exchange information
and their views and immediate feedback are possible under this system. Now-a-days we can see
that every organization is using the telephone to exchange the information and views orally.
 Mobile or cell phone: A mobile phone (also known as a cellular phone, cell phone and a
hand phone) is a portable telephone that connects to the telephone network over the radio
wave transmission. It connects to a wireless communications network through radio wave
or satellite transmissions.
COMMS REVISION
 Radio: Radio is the indirect media of oral communication. It is a one-way
communication system. The receiver can only hear the message from the sender. The
receiver cannot reply.
 Television: Television is also the indirect media of oral communication. It is a one-way
communication system. Here, receiver cans here the messages and side by side see the
sender. The receiver cannot reply.
 Video conference: Video conference is a kind of teleconferencing communication where
people staying in different corner or locations and participate in a face-to-face group
meeting or group discussion through the help of electronic video camera technology.
 Teleconferencing: Teleconferencing is a kind of communication where people staying in
different corner or locations and participate in group meetings or group discussion
through electronic telephone technology.
QUESTION
Advantages and disadvantages of oral communication [10]

1. Time saving:
2. Cost savings:
3. More powerful: .
4. Effectiveness: With the help of variations in the tone, pitch and intensity of voice, the speaker
can convey shades of meaning. This factor also contributes to the effectiveness of oral
communication.
5. Immediate feedback:
6. More suitable:
7. A relationship develops: Oral communication is mostly carried out helps to promote friendly
relations between the parties communicating with each other.
8. Flexibility: By the demand of the situations, oral instructions can be changed easily and for
these cases maintain the formalities are not necessary. So it is very much flexible and
effective.
9. Easiness: Correction of errors: If any error is expressed at the time of oral communication.
It was possible to rectify at that time or within a very short time.
10. Informal communication: In oral communication, no need to maintain such formalities
which are needed in written communication. So it is easy and helpful to any organization.
11. Motivation: In oral communication system, top executives and sub ordinates staff can sit
face-to-face and exchange their views directly, so sub-ordinates are motivated day by day.
12. Special applications: Oral communication is more helpful in communicating messages to
groups of people at assembly meetings etc.
13. Maintaining secrecy: Interested parties of oral communication can maintain the secrecy of
messages easily.
Disadvantages of oral communication
1. No record: In oral communication, messages are difficult to record. So it is impossible to

preserve the message for future.
2. Distortion of the word: If distortion of the word occurs in oral communication, then main
goals of the organization may be filed.
COMMS REVISION
3. Inaccuracy: There is very possibility of inaccurate messages to reach the destination. So, the
reverse result of expected plan may be occurred.
4. Limited use: The scope of usage of oral communication is limited. It is not suitable for
lengthy messages. It should be sued for short message.
5. Probability of omitting main subject: Sometimes, main subject may be omitted to express a
word for communicating. So, expected result may not be achieved.
6. No legal validity: there is any legal validity of the oral message. As, the oral messages are
not taped and kept records, so it can be denied easily if the situation goes against the speaker.
7. Late decision: It takes time to reach a decision. At the beginning stage, sometime is killed in
the discussion of any personal matters. Besides some time is also wasted for irrelevant
discussion. In this way decision making is delayed.
8. Less important: In oral communication, meaningless speech can mislead the main effects of
the communication. But when the information comes out in written, we take it seriously.
9. Lack of secrecy: In oral communication, the important and secret information may be
disclosed.
10. Creates misunderstanding: The speaker often gives message without having properly
organized it earlier. So, it is possible that he may not be able to make himself properly to
communicate with the receiver. As a result, misunderstanding May develops.
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION VS ORAL COMMUNICATION
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Explain
1. Formal Communication
2. Informal Communication [10]
1. Formal Communication
 In formal communication, certain rules, conventions and principles are followed

while communicating message.
 Formal communication occurs in formal and official style.
 Usually professional settings, corporate meetings, conferences undergoes in formal
pattern.
 In formal communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and correct
pronunciation is required.
 Authority lines are needed to be followed in formal communication.
2. Informal Communication
o Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with formal
communication channels.
o It’s just a casual talk.
o It is established for societal affiliations of members in an organization and face-to-
face discussions.
o It happens among friends and family.
o In informal communication use of slang words, foul language is not restricted.
Usually.
o informal communication is done orally and using gestures.
o Informal communication, Unlike formal communication, doesn’t follow
authority lines.
o In an organization, it helps in finding out staff grievances as people express more
when talking informally.
o Informal communication helps in building relationships.
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Explain
a) Horizontal Communication
b) Vertical Communication. [10]
Differences between horizontal and vertical communication [10]
Horizontal and vertical communications are the two different types of internal communication.
These two types of communications differ in the following ways:
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Explain
a) Upward Communication
b) Downward Communication. [10]
Upward Communication
 When information flows form subordinated to superiors, it is called upward

communication.
 The purpose of upward communication is to provide information to the managers from
subordinates.
 Through this communication, subordinates convey their opinions, suggestions,
complaints etc. to their superiors.
 The lower-level employees initiate up-ward communication and the message ultimately
reaches to the upper-level management.
 It may take place in the form of feedback of downward communication.
The following figure represents the upward flow of information:
Downward communication
 Downward communication is the communication where information or messages flows

from the top of the organizational structure from the bottom of the organizational
structure.
 Downward communication occurs when information flows down the hierarch form
superiors to subordinates.
 This type of communication may forms such as staff meetings, company newsletter,
company policy statement, information memos, e-mail, face-to-face contact, orders,
instruction etc.
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Media or ways of upward communication. [10]
The subordinates can communicate their problems, attitudes, complaints and suggestion to their
superiors through various ways. That means, there are a number ways or means or methods of
upward communication.
1. The popular written media of upward communication are discussed below:
 Report: Report is one of the most important a widely used media of upward communication.
Subordinates prepare reposts periodically or regularly on various routine issues. They also
prepare special report when need arises. Reports are then submitted to the higher authority for
supplying necessary information.
 Memo: Memo is the short form of memorandum. A memo is a short piece of writings
generally used to exchange information among the persons within the organization. Superiors
usually send information to their subordinates through memo. However, subordinates can
also write memos to convey essential information to their superiors for making decisions.
 Suggestion and complaint boxes: Some organizations install suggestion and complaint
boxes at some convenient places in the office or factory through suggestion box, management
invites the employees to submit their suggestions for improving the efficiency of
organizational operations. On the other hand, complaint box is placed to submit any
complaint of the employees regarding any aspect of their employment.
 Direct letters: Subordinates can write letters directly to their superiors at their superiors at
their own initiation or they may be asked by their superiors write about any directed matter.
 Questionnaire: Sometimes managers encourage upward communication by asking questions
to their subordinates. For this purpose, they distribute questionnaires to the employees.
Through questionnaires, management can know the attitudes, feelings and complaints of the
employees.
2. The oral media of upward communication are as follow:
 Grievance procedure: Grievance is the employee dissatisfaction over any aspect of their
employment. Grievance procedure provides the employees with a formal channel of appeal to
their superiors. In modern organizations, there is well-established procedure for handing
employee grievances that acts as a mode of upward communication.
 Joint setting of objectives: In participative organizations, superiors and subordinates sit
together for setting objectives. In this case, the superiors seek information and suggestions
from the bottom-level managers and employees.
 Employer-employee meeting: Meeting between employer and employees is a very useful
medium of upward communication. In the meeting, the superior can raise problems and seek
information, guidelines or suggestions from the subordinates.
3. Other Media: In addition to written and oral media, superiors can encourage upward
communication through the following symbolic medium.
o Open-door-policy: Open-door-policy of management inspires the employees to feel
that the manger’s doors are always open to them. Whenever they want they can enter
into the manager’s room and talk everything to the superiors without any fear or
hesitation.
These are the commonly used media of upward communication. However, all the media
are not suitable for every message. Selection of a particular medium in a particular
situation depends on the nature and importance of the message.
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Media or ways of downward communication [10]
Methods of downward communication
Both written and oral methods are used in transmitting messages of downward communication.
Actually, section of media depends on the nature, urgency and importance of the message to be
communicated. The followings are the frequently used media or methods of downward
communication.
1. Oral Media or Method: Downward communication is mainly done by means of oral
media or method. Usually, the supervisors give instructions to their subordinates through
face-to-face and telephonic conversation. Beside this, managers also exchange relevant
information to their subordinates through meetings, conferences, lectures etc.
2. Written Media or Method: Organization of any size and nature sends important
information to its employees in written forms through letters, circulars, manuals,
bulletins, posters annual reports etc. generally, letters and memos communicate important
organizational directives; circulars, manuals and bulletins communicate policies and
procedures and annual report communicates organizational activities and performance at
the end of the year.
3. Other Media or Method: In addition to oral and written media or method, audio, visual
and audio-visual media are also used in downward communication. Radio, television,
poster, signal, symbol, graphs etc. some of the commonly used instruments that convey
messages to the subordinates.
QUESTION
Objectives or purpose of downward communication [10]
It is a system of communication where communication takes place form upper level to downward
or form the superior to subordinate level. The following objectives are available in downward
communication.
1. Supply information: Work style, method, responsibility, duties etc. are supplied to
subordinates by this communication system.
2. Assigning work: Through downward communication, superior assigns different works to
their subordinate.
3. Explaining policies and plan: The objective of an organization is to inform institution’s
plan, policy, program etc. to lower level by this communication system.
4. Responsibility and duty: Inter departmental duties and responsibilities are distributed by
this communication system.
5. Directing subordinates: Downward communication is directive in nature. To give
directions to the subordinates, top executives use this communication method.
6. Evaluation of performance: Top executives evaluate the performance of their
subordinate through this communication method. After evaluation of workers work, the
analyzed result is informed to others for incentive.
7. Explain the change environment: Any change or organization’s plan, policy, method
and program are informed to all employees with the help of this communication system.
COMMS REVISION
8. Coordination and cooperation: To coordinate and cooperate of the subordinates of their
works downward communication is needed. For achievement of expected result,
downward communication is the best method.
9. Delegate authority: In large organization, it is very much essential to delegate some
authority to their subordinates. Without downward communication delegation of
authority is impossible.
10. Establish discipline: Top level hierarchy of the organization try to maintain
organizational discipline through downward communication to their subordinates by
issuing job related rules and regulation.
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Explain The Term Meeting [5]

 A meeting is a group communication in action around a defined agenda, at a set time, for
an established duration.
 Meetings can be effective, ineffective, or a complete waste of time.
 If time is money and effectiveness and efficiency are your goals, then if you arrange a
meeting, lead a meeting, or participate in one, you want it to be worth your time.
 Meetings can occur face-to-face, but increasingly business and industry are turning to
teleconferencing and videoconferencing options as the technology improves, the cost to
participate is reduced, and the cost of travel including time is considered.
 Regardless how you come together as a team, group, or committee, you will need to
define your purpose in advance with an agenda.
Advantages of meetings:
In the business organizations meetings are used for a variety of purpose. There are some
advantages of meeting which are stated below:
1. Democratic process: Meeting is a democratic process of taking decision. None can
blame other for the decision because it is taken in presence of all the members.
2. Improve decision: Improve decision can be taken through meeting. Because every
matter is discussed pros and cons and nothing is left over unconsidered. Proverb says
”Two heads are better than one.”
3. Participative management: Participative management can be materialized through
meeting. Al the departmental heads and supervisors may sit together for taking decision.
4. Help in co-ordination: Meeting can help for co-coordinating the work as a whole
because all the parties or members are presented in the meeting.
5. Covey information to a large gathering: Meeting can convey information for all
departments. Besides the presented members exchange their views, idea, opinion and
feeling at a large gathering.
6. Others: Provide necessary information to a group of people, report on some incidents or
activities, create involvement and interest, formulate policies etc.
Disadvantages of meetings:
There are some limitations and disadvantages of meeting. These limitations and disadvantages are
discussed below:
1. Time consuming: Meeting takes much time to take decision
2. Costly:
3. Formalities: There are many formalities to hold on a meeting. Agenda, minutes,
regulations are needed for a valid meeting.
4. Difficult to control:
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
 Essentials of a valid meeting | Conditions of valid meeting
 Requirement or essentials of a valid meeting or, necessary conditions of a
valid meeting:
 Preconditions of a valid meeting: [10]
A valid meeting should have the following elements:
1. Legal objectives: Any meeting must have legal objectives. Meetings on illegal or
unethical purposes cannot be valid in the eye of law.
2. Convened by proper authority: A valid meeting should be contended by the proper
authority of the company.
3. Serving proper notice in proper time: Notice of a meeting must be served timely by
maintaining rules and regulations of the companies act.
4. Presence of authorized persons: To make a meeting valid person who is entitled to
present in a particular type of meeting should be present in the meeting.
5. Presided over by a chairman: A valid meeting should be presided over by a chairman
who will be selected by the members.
6. Specific agenda: A detail agenda should be prepared before the meeting and the meeting
should be operated by following agenda.
7. Quorum: Quorum is the minimum number of persons that must be present in the meeting
to make it valid.
QUESTION
Explain the following types of meetings.

a) Public meeting
b) Private meeting
c) Command or management meetings
d) General meetings
e) Special meetings
f) Committee meetings
g) Shareholders meeting
h) Statutory meeting:.
i) Annual general meeting:
j) Extra-ordinary general meeting:
a) Directors meeting:
b) Board meeting:
c) Special meeting:
d) Class-meeting:
e) Creditors meeting:
a) Public meeting - every member of the public is allowed (to discuss, e.g. political issues.)
a) Private meeting – Only the members of the organisation are allowed to attend the
meeting.
b) command meetings – are attended only by management;
COMMS REVISION
c) General meetings are attended by members of staff on a regular basis (annually, weekly,
monthly) and on
d) Special meetings. Special occasions
e) Committee meetings are attended only by members serving on a specific committee.
Committee meeting: According to article of association the Board of Directors
sometimes make special committee to complete in any special work among some
directors of the company. This committee member sometimes meets together for
coordinating the work properly. This type of seating is called committee meeting
f) Shareholders meeting: When the meeting is held with the shareholders of the company
it is called shareholders meeting.
g) Statutory meeting: According to company laws, after getting the letter of commence,
the company arranges a meeting after one month of six months. This is the first general
meeting of the company and during the life of the company this type of meeting held
once. The company gives the circular before 21 days of the meeting. The decisions of the
meeting are called statutory decision.
h) Annual general meeting: After registration of the company, the company is bound to
invites the first general meeting with in eighteen months. Then the general meeting will
be held in every year. The differences of the two general meeting cannot be more than
fifteen months. The decisions of the meeting are called general decision.
i) Extra-ordinary general meeting: If necessary of the company this type of meeting can
be held on any time. The director or some shareholders can invite this meeting one tenth
of the shareholders may give the requisition to the Board of directors to arrange this type
of meeting. After getting the requisition of the board of Directors fail to arrange a
meeting with in twenty one days, the shareholder can invite the meeting within three
months. The decision taken by the meeting is called special decision.
j) Directors meeting: When the meeting is held among the directors of the company it is
called directors meeting.
k) Board meeting: According to article of association. The board of directors meeting is
called Board Meeting. If nothing about this type of meeting in the article of association,
then by Table- A rules of the company law this type of meeting can be held on.
According to rules of company law the company is bound to arrange the meeting once in
one month and at least four times within a year the Quorum: is filled up by 1/3 rd of the
directors present or at least two directors present. Each director is preserved one vote and
if any case the directors vote can be divided equally, then the president give the casting
vote and take the decision.
l) Special meeting: For any special situation, when the meeting is arranged by the
company, it is called special meeting. The types of the special meetings are as follows:
m) Class-meeting: The Company has different kinds of shares. When the meeting is
arranged by any one kind of shareholders it is called class meeting.
n) Creditors meeting: The directors or their appointed lower can invite this type of
meeting. Moreover this type of meeting may be arranged by the order of the court. If
necessary to reconstruct or to dissolve or to any amalgamate the company to preserve the
rights of the creditor this type of meeting is invited by their proper authoritative person.
The creditors who will be present in the meeting or the presence of three-fourth credit
holders of the total credit can take the decision and the court will give the instruction on
the basis of this decision and the creditors are bounded to abide by the decision.
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Duties of chairman and secretary in a meeting [10]
The following is expected from:

The chairperson: He she plays a key role in the success of the meetings: The chairperson should
therefore be tactful, diplomatic, sincere, a good communicator and above all a
respectable leader. The main function of the chairperson is to maintain order
during the meeting.
Secretary: The secretary must be well organised and attend to matters such as the venue for
the meeting, the drafting of the notice and agenda and taking down the minutes
of the meeting, The secretary should therefore, be well skilled in
communication,
Role or function or duties of chairmen of a meeting:

In all types of meetings, you have the following responsibilities as a presiding officer.
 Arranging the time and place
 Preparing and serving an agenda.
 Calling the meeting to order on time
 Making clear the purpose of the meeting
 Keeping the discussion on course
 Controlling over enthusiastic members
 Electing contributions from each member
 Creating a good atmosphere
 Summarizing the discussion form time to time
 Working to end the meeting on schedule
 Thanking to the members
Secretarial work relating to statutory meeting

1. Functions before the meeting:
 Maintaining time for statutory meeting,
 Preparing statutory statement or report,
 Drafting a notice for the meeting,
 Collecting the auditor’s certificate,
 Selection the place of the meeting,
 Preparing agenda of the meeting,
 Listing the name of members who will attend the meeting,
 Calling on board of directors meeting,
 Preparing final notice of the meeting.
 Serving the notice to the concerned members.
2. Functions at the meeting:
 Determining the quorum of the meeting,
 Stating or reading the agenda,
 Supply of the necessary explanations,
 Giving the explanations,
 Writing the rough minutes
3. Functions after the meeting:
 Preparing final minutes and resolutions,
 Submitting the statutory report
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Explain the following terms

a) Notice
b) Agenda
c) Minute [10]
Notice
 A notice is a written or an oral statement that contains the particulars of holding a
meeting.
 When a circular is served among the members of the meeting to attend the meeting, it is
called a notice.
 It is letter of invitation that carries the request to the members to attend a meeting.
 A notice includes time, place, date and agenda of a meeting.
 The notice should be sent by the proper authority in due time so that the members can
attend the meeting in time.
 So, notice is formal written or formal information, notification or warning about a fact or
an invitation to the concerned person for attending the meeting.
A notice can be formal or informal.

MUTARE POLYTECHNIC
Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education
NOTICE OF A MEETING
Notice is hereby given of a monthly academic board meeting. It is to be held in the

boardroom on the 21st of June 2012 at 0900 hours.
The minutes of the meeting held on the 20th of May 2012 are attached.
C Gatsi
Chairwoman
Cell: 0772 950 037
10 June 2012
Notice of a monthly meeting is given above. If you are requested to write the notice of an annual
meeting, then it is obvious that you’ll replace monthly with annual.
Agenda
 Agenda means things to be done.
 It is usually sent along with the notice of the meeting.
 It is a list of the topics to be discussed in a meeting.
 Sometimes the agenda is prepared after the circulation of the notice in order to include
the member’s opinion.
 If the subject matter of the meeting is secret, the agenda may not be circulated.
 Agenda is document that outlines the contents of a forth coming meeting.”
COMMS REVISION
 So, agenda is an items or issues prepared by the secretary and which are to be discussed
or transacted in a forth coming mitten.
Below is the agenda of the monthly meeting. N.B points 1-7 on the agenda are standard for most
meetings for all organisations. Points 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3 are specific “new Business” matters
pertaining to the specific organisation. Points 8 and 9 are standard.
AGENDA
1. Attendance Register.
2. Apologies.
3. Opening and Welcome.
4. Finalisation of the agenda.
5.Minutes of meeting held on 20 May 2012
6. Matters arising.
7.New business:
7.1 Symposium and Miss Poly
7.2 Main Graduation
7.3 MOTION; That the Symposium invitation letters to High Schools be
sent to the Regional offices of Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture
Offices.
PROPOSAL: Ms G Sithole
SECONDED: Ms T Mawoyo
8. Date of next meeting.
9. Closure.
Features or characteristics of agenda:
The features of agenda can be state as follows:
1. Generally, agenda is sent along with the notice of the meeting.

2. It is written at the end but before or after the signature of the convener of the meeting.
3. It is arranged according to the importance of the end.
4. Controversial topics should be written at the end.
5. The topics are determined by the secretary with consulting the higher authority or the
convener of the meeting.
6. It written in brief but explicit manner
Minute
 Minute is an official written statement of the motions and resolutions taken in a meeting.
 It is brief but a complete record of all discussions held among the members of the
meeting.
 It is also defined as the official record of the proceeding of a meeting that should be
needed to approve by the participating members of the meeting.
 An accurate written record of meetings is essential not only for all those who attended the
meeting but also for those who were unable to attend. Some definitions of minute are as
follows:
COMMS REVISION
 Minutes are the official records of the proceedings of meeting.”
 So, minutes are the brief and complete official written record of all discussion which is
held among the members of the meeting.
QUESTION
Difference between agenda and minute: [10]

Both agenda and minutes are the important documents of a meeting. But they differ from each
other in respect of the following points:
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Essential elements or factors of a valid notice: [10]
The essentials or elements or factors of a valid nonce are given below:
1. Signature: The notice must be signed by the proper authority. Only the legal authority
should serve the notice.
2. Proper time: The notice must be served in proper time. It should be circulated according
to the rules and regulations of the company or the organization.
3. Time date and place: The time, date and place of the meeting must be stated in the
notice.
4. Unconditional: There must be no condition or complexity in the notice about attending
meeting. Always a notice is unconditional.
5. Agenda: Agenda means topics to be discussed in a meeting. A valid notice should
contain the agenda of the meeting.
6. Conciseness: The notice must be short in size. It should be clear, simple and easy.
7. Proper persons: Notice should be served to the proper persons who are entitled to attend
the meeting.
8. Enclosure: An explanatory statement should be sent with the notice.
QUESTION
Importance or necessities of agenda:[10]

The necessity or importance’s of an agenda are as follows:
1. As it is circulated in advance, the members of the committee or meeting can take

preparation to discuss the topics accurately.
2. It helps to take prompt decision.
3. Since it has a set of order, it helps the chairperson to conduct the meeting smoothly.
4. It can ensure covering all the topics that will be discussed in a meeting.
5. It helps to control the unnecessary talking in the meeting.
6. It is helps to write the minutes and resolution of the meeting.
7. As it is served earlier, the members of the meeting can exchange their thought and ideas
informally before holding the meeting.
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Meetings terminology [10]
Constitution: A set of rules and regulations which govern the organisation. These have
been accepted by members during the inaugural (very first) meeting. The
constitution is that which prescribes to the members how they must
behave and which decisions are legally binding.
The Quorum: A minimum of members, as prescribed by the constitution, must be
present during a meeting before a legally binding decision may be taken.
Voting on issues, therefore, presupposes that the prescribed minimum
number of members should be present (before any legally binding
decision may be made.)
The Chairperson: This person presides at the meeting. The chairperson’s duty is to
maintain order during the meeting and to control the procedure. The
chairperson's role is to run meetings in a way that encourages decisions.
The chairperson should allow fair and open discussion of matters and
stick to the agenda, so that decisions can be made. If there is no
committee, the owners corporation chairperson must be a lot owner.
The Secretary: The role of the Secretary is to support the Chair in ensuring the smooth
functioning of the Management Committee. In summary, the Secretary
is responsible for: Ensuring meetings are effectively organised and
minuted. Maintaining effective records and administration.
The Treasurer: The main duties of a treasurer are to oversee the financial
administration of the organisation, review procedures and financial
reporting, advise the board on financial strategy, and advise on
fundraising. A treasurer is in charge of the organisation’s financial
matters.
Proposal: This is a suggestion made by someone during the meeting. If a proposal

is given to be discussed before the meeting, then we call it a motion. A
motion becomes a resolution when the motion is either accepted or
rejected.
Ad hoc Committee: During a meeting, it may become clear that certain issues have to be
attended to. The appointment of members on the committee is then done
on a temporary basis: they are expected to conduct investigations into the
matters and then report back to the members at another meeting after the
completion of the investigation.
Voting: It is sometimes necessary to vote ( to reach a decision on a matter).
Voting procedures have their own terminology:
Ballot: Voting in secret, either by ballot (putting votes in a ballot- secretly- or
voting anonymously.
Deadlock: Sometimes a situation rises where equal numbers of votes are for and
against a proposal.
COMMS REVISION
Casting vote if a deadlock exists, then the chairperson may have the casting vote, in
other words, the deciding vote.
Nemine despentiente:(nem.dis) No one disapproves of a motion, everyone approves of
it: this is called unanimous approval.
Nemine controdicente:(Nem.con.): No one votes, against the motion but a few people
abstain from voting.
Abstain: To refuse to vote.
Proxy: The permission given to a person by another member (who cannot be
present at the meeting) to vote on his behalf.
Resolution: Agreement by a majority of the members at a meeting on a motion – this
agreement may be positive or negative (for or against the motion).
Unanimous; When all members vote in favour of a motion.
Motions each item to be discussed will have a proposal, normally called a motion
to which members will speak. A motion is a proposal put forward for
discussion and decision at a meeting. It can be in writing before the
meeting or may be a proposal during the discussion.
Changes motions may be changed before they are voted upon by amendment or
addendum. An amendment is a proposal to alter a motion which has
been submitted to a meeting e.g. by adding, inserting or deleting words
of the original motion.
Addendum: is the addition of words to a motion and is treated in the same way as an
amendment.
Closure: End of a meeting.
Guillotine ruling: This is a specific time restriction placed on a discussion of a proposal or
the time given to a speaker or on the actual duration of a meeting.
In camera: When the proceedings for a meeting take place behind closed doors. It is
of a sensitive, confidential nature.
Attendance Register: The actual record of numbers attending a meeting.
Point of order: The chairperson has to decide if a member’s contribution to the meeting
is in line with the constitution or relevant to the point on the agenda.
Verbatim: The exact words of a speaker.
Second: To second a proposal, means that another person agrees with the
original proposal, necessitating the meeting’s attention to the matter.
Precedent: When something that occurred in the past is used as a basis for future
actions.
Suspension: The prohibition of a member from taking part in the activities of an
organisation.
Honorarium: An honorarium is paid to any person for recognition of duties performed
during a year, e.g. the treasurer, for accounting duties.
Status quo: The current situation.
Ex officio: the authority which a person has as result of his or her position.
Adjournment: When a meeting is closed before all the topics on the agenda have been
discussed, the discussion, however, will resume after a break. This is not
an official closure.
COMMS REVISION
Co-option being invited to join the deliberations of a meeting, but not allowed to
vote.
Term Definition
Title, time, date, location, phone number, e-mail contact, and any other
Title Header
information necessary to get all participants together.
Participants Expected participants
Subject Line Purpose statement
Call to Order Who will call the meeting to order?
If everyone is new, this is optional. If even one person is new, everyone should
Introductions
briefly introduce themselves with their name and respective roles.
Roll Call This may quietly take place while introductions are made.
Notes from the last meeting are read (if applicable) with an opportunity to
Reading of the
correct. These are often sent out before the meeting so participants have the
minutes
opportunity to review them and note any needed corrections.
Term Definition
List any unresolved issues from last time or issues that were “tabled,” or left
Old Business
until this meeting.
New Business This is a list of items for discussion and action.
This is optional and applies if there are subcommittees or groups working on
Reports
specific, individual action items that require reports to the group or committee.
Good of the This is the time for people to offer any news that relates to the topic of the
Order meeting that was otherwise not shared or discussed.
Note time, date, place meeting adjourned and indicate when the next meeting is
Adjournment
scheduled.
COMMS REVISION
COMMUNICATION
LETTERS & REPORTS
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Enquiry/ inquiry letter [10]
INQUIRY LETTER
 Make an inquiry when you are requesting more information about a product or service.
 This type of business letter tends to include specific information such as product type, as
well as asking for further details in the form of brochures, catalogues, telephone contact,
etc.
 Making inquiries can also help you keep up on your competition!
KINDS OF INQUIRY LETTERS:
Inquiry letters fall in three categories:

1. Trade inquiry,
2. Status inquiry and
3. General inquiry
1. Trade Inquiry:-
A trade inquiry (or sales related inquiry) is written with the intention of making business deals
with the addressee. Such inquiry letters are written regarding products or services purchased or
being considered for purchase. The trade inquiries ask information about the supply of goods,
availability of goods, delivery time, leaflet or catalogue, quotations or price, method of transport,
insurance, samples and terms and discount, etc.
2. Status Inquiry:-
Status inquiry is written to know the financial position of some individual or firm usually
prospective buyer. Inquiries about the character, qualifications, experience and performance of
the applicant for job or membership may also be termed as status inquiries.
3. General Inquiries:-
General inquiry is made to get information about rules and procedures used in other
organizations, government policies, market conditions etc. General inquiry may also seek
information for private or business research. For example a firm may receive inquiries for various
data from students, teachers or executives of other organizations.
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
John House, Washington, New York, has applied for credit purchase from Anna
Enterprise, 20, TUCSON AZ 85705 USA. In the letter, John House has mentioned the name
of Mr. Michel, Manager, Mahan Boutiques and Fabrics of Taxes, as reference.
Write business status inquiry letter on behalf of Anna Enterprise. [10]
Anna Enterprise
(Wholesaler of Quality Fabrics)
20, TUCSON AZ 85705 USA
December 07, 2013
Mr. Michel
Manager
Mahan Boutiques and Fabrics,
Texas.
Sub: Inquiring the financial status of John House, Washington, New York.
Dear Mr. Michel,
Will you please respond to the following questions about John House, Washington, New York,
which has listed your name as a credit reference on its letter for credit purchase?
1. How long John House has a credit account with your company?
2. What is the credit limit you currently extend to them?
3. What is the maximum amount of credit you have ever extended to them?
4. Has it ever been delinquent in paying his dues?
I assure you that information provided by you will be treated confidentially. If you send answers
to the above questions with December 25, 2013 will be highly appreciated. We will be highly
glad to provide you any such help in future.
Sincerely,
(Mr. Michel Jackson)
Manager, Credit Division
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Assume that you are the manager of Mr. Anna Trade International, 54, Washington, New
York. Mr. Michel Trading Agency, 302, TUCSON AZ 85705 USA has a letter to you
inquiring the financial solvency of John and company, 14/1, Taxes, Washington.
Write a positive response to this business status inquiry letter. (Favorable reply to the
inquiry letter given in specimen).[10]
Anna Trade International

54, Washington, New York
Phone: 914554656 Fax: 099-9152752568
Date: November 31, 2013
Manager
Mr. Michel Trading Agency
302, TUCSON AZ 85705
USA.
Subject: Reply to financial status inquiry of John and company, 14/1, Taxes, Washington.
Dear Sir,
Thank you for your letter of November 28, 2013. We have regular and satisfactory business
relation for long time with John and company, 14/1, Taxes, Washington about whom you have
sought information. They are doing business in this line since long ago with utmost sincerity and
honesty. Their financial capability and business goodwill are highly appreciable. Their business
dealings and payment records with us during the last several years can be held in high esteem.
You can supply them goods worth 1300$ on credit in a single consignment without any
hesitation.
We feel proud to provide information about the firm and we think our confidence on this firm
will never be misplaced. Expecting your business success.
Thanking you.
Sincerely yours.
(Mr. Jonson)
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Contents or elements of reply letter to business status inquiry letter. [10]
The particular answer business standing inquiry letter can be sometimes positive as well as
negative. Regardless of the characteristics associated with response is actually, its full of a
number of normal information as well as unique positive as well as negative view.
This items are likely to be a part of an answer to business standing inquiry letter:
 Acknowledging this notice from the inquirer. This means, acclaim with the notice
associated with request should be mentioned.
 Name, address along with points with the corporation regarding which usually
information is actually provided.
 Giving certain information as questioned through the inquirer. Data delivered should be
appropriate in addition to applicable whether it’s positive as well as negative.
 The particular replier must not fit his or her own assumptions while using the
information.
 Any affirmation producing this intention to never take any legal responsibility resulting
from long term orders while using the likely shopper.
 Requiring this enquirer to keep up secrecy with the information delivered.
 Offering warranty associated with providing additional help out with long term.
 Producing ache if the information delivered is going from the possible shopper.
 Making use of basic in addition to unambiguous words and phrases in addition to
paragraphs.
 Wanting inquirer’s business success along with thank you.
 Mentioning this name, location in addition to address with the information provider
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Quotation letter [10]

 A letter of quotation is any letter written in reference to the price of a service or product.
 A formal statement of promise (submitted usually in response to a request for quotation) by potential supplier to supply the
goods or services required by a buyer, at specified prices, and within a specified period. A quotation may also contain terms of
sale and payment, and warranties. Acceptance of quotation by the buyer constitutes an agreement binding on both parties.
 This could range from a customer or client requesting or accepting a quote, to the supplier or service provider sending the quote
amount.
 Either of these letters could be headed as a letter of quotation.
 For example you would write a letter of quotation to a ventilation company explaining your situation and requesting a quote to
complete the job.
 Because money is likely to be exchanged it is important for both parties to be clear about the service or product in question and
the terms of the agreement.
Letter of Quotation Request Sample
DESU, HEAD OFFICE

9/2, Surya Kiran Building,
New Delhi (India).
25/02/2016
M/s Popular Cables,

C-12/5, Sadar Market,
Delhi (India).
Dear Sir,
You have previously supplied us cables and we should be glad if you would now quote
for the items named below, manufactured by Saru Cables. The cables we require are
listed in your Catalogue no. 24 and 38.
Catalogue No. Dimensions

No. 28...................3/2
No. 36.................3/41
No. 27.................7/20
No. 40.................1/40
Prices quoted should include packing and delivery at the above address.
While replying please state (i) discount, (ii) mode of payment, (iii) date of delivery
Yours faithfully,
K. Madan
(Manager)
COMMS REVISION
Letter of Quotation to Customer Sample
POPULAR CABLES
C-17/7, Sadar Market,
Delhi.
28/02/2016
DESU Head Office,

9/1, Surya Kiran building,
New Delhi.
Dear Sir,
With reference to your inquiry of 19th Oct. 1996 for further supply of our cables, we are
pleased to quote at follows:
Cable Dimension $s. Per Cable

3/2...................... 178 each
3/41.................... 120 each
7/20.................... 238 each
1/40.................... 140 each
These prices include packing and delivery charges.
We can deliver from our stock and will allow you a discount of 100% but only on items
in quantities of 200 or more. In addition, there shall be a cash discount of 5% on total cost
if payment were made within 45 days from the date of invoice.
We hope you will find these terms satisfactory and look forward to your order.
Yours faithfully
Satrajit Jana
(Manager)
QUESTION
Order letter [10]
COMMS REVISION
 Is a document that confirms the details of a purchase of goods or services from one party to
another?
 Also known as a purchase order or PO, begins the paper trail of a specific purchase.
 The objective is to provide the vendor with detailed instructions for fulfilling an order.
 It also serves as a legal record of the transaction and, consequently, should be written with care.
 It usually includes more information about what you are ordering, like quantity, model number, or
color, the payment terms, and the matter in which the products are to be shipped.
 When the recipient receives this letter, they will process the order and send the merchandise.
.
What are main points of a good order letter?
Mention the circumstances under which an order letter needs reply.
An order letter needs to be correct, complete and definite so that the reader may fill it exactly.
Incompleteness or errors may mean further correspondence, shipping delays, complicated billing,
repacking and reshipping and loss of business.
Therefore, a good order letter should:
1. Include full details of quantities, prices, colors, sizes etc.

2. Quote catalogue number if any.
3. State the requirements as to delivery – date, place, mode of transport etc.
4. Confirm the terms of payment agreed in preliminary negotiation.
5. Refer to the enclosure of cheque, pay order or draft or samples or colour of material if any.
Replying of Orders:
Ordinarily order letters need to reply. But replies should be written under following circumstance.
1. When a customer requests for acknowledgement in confirmation of the order.

2. When an order is incorrect incomplete or vague.
3. When an order cannot be complied with.
4. When extra time is needed to fill the order.
The letter that is written by a potential buyer to the seller requesting him to deliver goods is
known as order letter. By writing inquiry letters, buyers can collect necessary information about
the price, quality of goods and terms of sale. If the buyer finds the quoted price, quality of goods
and terms of sales satisfactory, he places an order to supply goods in his address. The seller
delivers the good according to the buyer’s order.
In modern time, sellers supply printed orders forms to the customers and customers place orders
by filling up those printed order blanks. In this case, the printed order sheet or blank is considered
as the order letter.
QUESTION
Factors to Be Considered In Writing Order Letter or, Contents of Order Letter [10]
COMMS REVISION
 Through order letter, the potential buyers request the suppliers to deliver goods to them.
 In modern time, printed order blanks or purchase order forms supplied by the seller are
typically used for placing orders.
 However, in absence of order blanks and purchase order forms, order letters are written.
 Such letters contain three major categories of information:

1. Information about the items being ordered;
2. Information relating to shipping; and
3. Information relating to payment.
1. Information about the items being ordered: An order letter must contain full particulars of
goods ordered. Such information include the followings:
 Product name
 Brand name
 Quantity
 Catalog number
 Model number
 Color
 Size
 Weight
 Unit price
2. Information relating to shipping: Shipping information is very important. In absence of

shipping information, there can arise misunderstanding between buyer and seller. Shipping
information may include the followings:
 Desired receipt date;
 Desired shipping location; and
 Mode of shipping (rail, road, or waterways).
3. Information relating to payment: Mode of payment of prices for the ordered items must be
clearly indicated. The seller will accept the order letter only when both of them come to a
common ground relation to payment of price. Payment information include the following:
 Mode of payment (cash, cheque, draft)
 Payment data
The above stated factors are usually included in order letter. However, the buyer can include any
other instruction or element if he thinks necessary.
QUESTION
Write an order letter [10]
Starting to Write
COMMS REVISION
 Politely thank the buyer or client for their custom.
 Briefly outline the details of the transaction, such as the item model name, color
etc, the name of the buyer or client, their address if relevant, and the medium of
payment. This is essentially a summary of the order to reassure the recipient that
everything is going smoothly.
 Provide contact information so the recipient can get in touch if there’s a problem.
Letter of Order Sample
Mancini Kitchen Equipment

Troy D. Mancini
4220 Straford Park
Harold, KY 41635
Dear Mr. Mancini,
We would like to purchase twenty two (22) individual stand mixers (Model #43423), all in the
color red.
We would like you to charge this purchase to the preexisting account that we have with you,
business account #543234.
We hope to receive this order no later than Friday, November 11th, 2009. Attached to this letter
please find our preferred shipping method and receiving address.
Please confirm that you received this order by calling us at 232-231-4563 anytime during
business hours, Monday to Friday.
Thank you for your cooperation

Keller Kitchen Co.
Letter of Order and Acknowledgment Sample
Hello Victor,
COMMS REVISION
Thank you for your recent purchase from Furniture World. The team are currently working on
getting your item dispatched, and it should be with you within 5 working days.
Order Details
Order Number: 86675564
Mellow White Leather Sofa
Price Inc Delivery: $754
Payment Method: Credit Card
Delivery Address:
8561 Honey Pioneer Autoroute, Burnt House, Wisconsin, 53091-3064
Note: Because this is a large item you will need somebody to sign for the delivery upon arrival
and to grant the drivers access to the property in order to position it somewhere convenient.
If you should have any problems or queries about this order please contact customer support on
(534) 872-9133, or via email at support@furnitureworld.us
All the best,

Furniture World
QUESTION
Write a delivery letter [10]
COMMS REVISION
The _______
(designation),
_______________
(company).
Subject: Acknowledgement Letter for Receiving Goods
Dear Sir,
This letter has been written to inform you, that I acknowledge the receiving of goods by
your company. The slip and invoice has been checked. All the goods are passed from the
session of checking and no defect have been found.
The number is items is proper and without any doubt. Under signatory is grateful for your
punctuality.
Warm Regards,
Name:________
Signature:_______
Designation:_______
Date:_________
QUESTION
Collection letter [10]
 Letters written for realizing payments from the debtors are known as collection letters.
COMMS REVISION
 The need for writing collection letters arises from credit sales.
 Selling on credit is a traditional business policy that enhances volume of sales.
 Under the credit sales policy, the sellers allow the customers a definite period for
payment of dues.
 However, sometimes the buyers make unexpected delay in paying their dues.
 Even, some custom stances, the sellers write letters reminding and requesting the
customers to pay the due bills.
 Instead of sending one letter or repeated copies of the same letter, credit departments
send a series of letters.
 “Collection letters ask customers to pay for the goods and services they have already
received.”
 “Collection letters are used by an organization to entice its charge customers to pay an
outstanding charge-account balance.”
 Collection letters are written in a series. When collection letters are written in a series
beginning with a simple reminder and end with a warning letter indication legal action
the dues promptly by retaining the customers with the company.
Features of collection letter
Collection letters possess some distinct features that differentiate them from other business
letters. Some of the features of collection letter are as follows:
1. Parties involved: Buyer who buys on credit and seller are involved in collection letter.
Seller writes this letter to the buyer for payment of dues.
2. Series of letter: Collection letters are written in a series. The series includes remainder
letter, inquiry letter, appeal and urgency letter and warning letter.
3. Objective: The prime objective of writing collection letter is to realize the dues from the
customers.
4. Governing principle: The governing principle of the letter is to collect the dues by
retaining the customers with the company.
5. Referring the previous letter: When dunning letters are written in a series, every
subsequent letter mentions the reference of immediate earlier letter.
6. Threat for legal action: The last letter of collection letter series warns the customer that
the matter has been handed over to the lawyers for taking necessary legal action.
7. Sent through registered post: The seller sends collection letter especially, the lat letter
of the series though registered with acknowledgement to avoid unnecessary delay, or
missing of the letter or denial from the part of the customer.
8. Language: The letter is written by using friendly, persuasive but straightforward
language.
INITIAL COLLECTION LETTER
Dear _____:
COMMS REVISION
This letter is a friendly reminder that payment on your account in the amount of
$________ on your account was due on ________. If you have already sent us your
payment, kindly disregard this letter. If not, please send us your payment promptly.
Yours truly,
FOLLOW UP COLLECTION LETTER
Dear _____:
This is our second reminder that payment on your account in the amount of $________
on your account was due on ________. We value your business and hope to keep you as
a customer. However, we do require payment according to the terms of our invoices.
Please send us your payment promptly.
Yours truly,
FINAL DEMAND COLLECTION LETTER
Dear _____:
This is our final reminder that payment on your account in the amount of $________ on
your account was due on ________. If we do not receive payment in full by _____, we
will submit your account for collection.
Yours truly,
Polite First Reminder Letter for a Good Customer

Dear {client};
COMMS REVISION
You have been a valued customer for many years, and you have always been
conscientious about paying your bills within the 30-day payment period. This is just a
reminder that your payment of {amount} for invoice # {0000} has not been received by
our office. If you forgot to mail us your payment, please send it today. If you have
already mailed your check, please disregard this notice.
As always, if you have any questions or problems feel free to contact us at {phone
number} or {email address}.
Sincerely,
{Your Name}
{Your Title}
Collection Letter - First Notice 30 Days Late

Dear {client};
We know that life can sometimes be difficult and staying on top of invoices is not always
easy. That’s why we wanted to send you a friendly reminder regarding invoice # {000} in
the amount of {$.00} that is currently past due. If you experienced an issue with your
order, please do let us know. If you have any questions regarding this invoice, please call
us at {phone} or contact us via {email}.
We value your business and are here to help you. If your payment has already been
submitted, we thank you and please disregard this notice.
Sincerely,
{Your Name}
{Your Title}
Collection Letter - Second Notice 60 Days Late

Dear {client};
COMMS REVISION
We hope that everything is going well for you and that you are enjoying the products that
we provided.
However, it has been two months now since we have received a payment and we are
wondering if there is some sort of problem we can help you with. Have you already put a
check in the mail to us in the amount of {$.00} for invoice # {0000}?
If not, please give this matter your attention today, since we want to be able to extend you
credit the next time you shop with us.
Of course, if there is some sort of problem, know that you can contact us at {phone
number} or {email} so we can help.
Sincerely,
{Your Name}
{Your Title}
Collection Letter - Third Notice 90 Days Late

Dear {client};
We show your account has a past due balance of {$.00} Previous attempts to collect the
balance have failed.
Please call me immediately at {phone} to resolve the balance on your account and to
avoid having invoice # {000} referred to a collection agency. Your prompt attention is
required to resolve this issue.
Sincerely,
{Your Name}
{Your Title}
Collection Letter - Final Notice - Collections/Legal
COMMS REVISION
Dear {client};
Your account is now seriously past due. We have sent you numerous payment requests
and still have not received your past due payment in the amount of {$.00}.
Please remit {$00} from invoice # {000} within three days or your account will be
closed, any outstanding orders will be cancelled, and this matter will be referred to a
collection agency.
Please call me within the next three business days at {phone} so that we may discuss how
to resolve this quickly.
Sincerely,
{Your Name}
{Your Title}
QUESTION
Claim letter [10]
COMMS REVISION
CLAIM LETTER
 When affected buyer writes a letter to the seller raising complaints and demanding
compensation, it is known as clam letter.
 Generally, a losing buyer writes claim letters to the seller.
 However, sometimes the buyer writes the letter to the transportation authority if any
damage is caused by their negligence.
 Again, seller or transportation authority may also write claim letter to the buyer claiming
their demand.
 , “A claim letter is a message designed to inform its recipient about the writer’s
dissatisfaction with a product or service.”
 “A claim letter is a request for adjustment. When writes ask for something to which they
think they are entitled refund, replacement, exchange, payment for damages and so on the
letter is called a claim letter.”
Mode of claims or Type of claims
Although claim letters are written for possible compensation or adjustment but the mode of
claims asked for are not always same. Depending on the nature of damage or loss, the buyer can
claim one or more of the followings:
 Partial or full refund of purchase price of the product or service.
 Future delivery of the products with correct items.
 Replacement of defective products.
 Repair of the damaged products.
 Reduction in the price.
 Credit the amount to purchase account.
 Cancellation of order or portion of order.
 Rescheduling the payment installments.
 Correction of error in bill.
Making a Claim
Unfortunately, from time to time it is necessary to make a claim against unsatisfactory work. This
example business letter provides a strong example of a claim letter and includes important
phrases to express your dissatisfaction and future expectations when making a claim.
QUESTION
What are contents of claim letters?[10]
COMMS REVISION
A dissatisfied party may either discontinue business contact or may complain through a claim
letter. The former option can never be recommended.
Complaint is basically unpleasant, therefore, should be based on the following points:
1. Statement of claim, supported by facts and figures.

2. Indication of loss and inconvenience.
3. Request for explanation of the cause.
4. Emphasis on quick action.
5. Suggestion for reasonable adjustment.
6. Courteous and non-accusatory words.
Adjusting a Claim
Even the best business may make a mistake from time to time. In this case, you may be called
upon to adjust a claim. This type of business letter provides an example to send to unsatisfied
customers making sure that you address their specific concerns, as well as retain them as future
customers.
QUESTION
M/s. Anna cloth store, House no. 07, Road no. 14 North 302, TUCSON AZ 85705, USA has
purchased 2000 meters of suit cloths with a total cost of 12000$. from Michel enterprise. :
M/s. Anna cloth store has returned the shipment as quality does not match with the order
specification.
COMMS REVISION
Write a claim letter to the manager, Michel enterprise, 20, Kualampur, Malaysia, Claiming
full refund of the purchase price. [10]
M/s.
Anna cloth store
House no. 07, Road no. 14 North 302,
TUCSON AZ 85705,
USA
November 27, 2013
Manager
Michel enterprise
(Wholesaler of quality fabrics)
20, Kualampur, Malaysia
Dear Manager,
On November 07, 2013 we purchased 2000 meters suit cloths. The quality of your
shipment does not match with our order specification. Since the use of low quality cloth
will damage our business goodwill, we have returned your shipment along with a request
for cash refund of 12000$.
We believe that your company has deep concern for its customers. We are also convinced
with the earlier dealing of your company.
Refunding the money within the next 10 days will be highly appreciated. We are looking
for future business.
Sincerely,
(Mr. Jonson)
Purchase Manager
QUESTION
COMMS REVISION
The Bangladesh Commerce College, Road No 7, Uttara, Dhaka has purchased some books
from Jamuna Publishing Pvt. Ltd. Bangla Bazar, Dhaka. The publisher has sent older
edition of the books.
Write a claim letter for replacing the books with the new edition.[10]
The Bangladesh Commerce College

ESTD. 1992
Road No. 7, Uttara, Dhaka.
Phone————————
November 25, 2013
Manager
Jamuna Publishing Pvt. Ltd.
Bangla Bazar, Dhaka
Dear Sir,
In response to our November 10, 2013 order letter, you have sent the ordered books. You
delivery has reached to us on November 20, 2013. We have got all the books. But you
have sent the older edition of some books.
Books of older edition are being returned. We are requesting for replacing the books with
2013 edition.
Your replacing the books soon will be appreciated
Sincerely
(Mr. Jonson)
Principal
QUESTION
Suggestions for improving the effectiveness of claim letter |

Characteristics of good claim letter. [10]
COMMS REVISION
A claim letter possesses the general qualities of a good commercial letter like completeness,
conciseness, use of easy and simple language etc. however, a good claim letter is one that has the
following characteristics:
1. Fair claim: An effective claim letter contains a realistic, fair and honest claim or request.
If the buyer makes any unfair claim, it proves his dishonesty. As a result business
relationship between buyer and seller may end.
2. Showing confidence upon the seller: The buyer should be confidant that seller will
accept his claim. Such confidence will motivate the seller to settle the claim with due
consideration.
3. Free form anger: An effective claim letter never shows anger to the recipient. Anger or
antagonism reduces the chance of getting compensation.
4. Inclusion of facts courteously: A good claim letter states all relevant facts logically.
Courteously and impersonally. It includes neither exaggerated nor irrelevant facts.
5. Definite request: An effective claim letter makes a definite request. Such request may
be of the followings:
o Replacement of the product or service.
o Partial or full refund of the purchase price of the product or service
o Replacement of shipments
o Cancellation of an order or part of the order
o Correction of an error in bill
6. Free from guess and opinion: It is unwise to guess or to give opinion holding any
specific person responsible for the damage. The letter should be written impersonally and
the charge of detecting the responsible persons should be given to the seller.
QUESTION
Complaint letter [10]
COMMS REVISION
 A complaint letter advises the reader of an error in a business transaction or a defect discovered in
a consumer product or service. The objective is to provide detailed information regarding the error
or defect and to serve as a legal document recording the writer's claim and the corrective action or
adjustment being requested.
Keep in mind that your reader is a trained customer service professional and not very likely to be
the person responsible for the error or defect. Rather than being angry, use a firm but courteous
tone when stating a complaint. Remember, you want results, not a fight.
The scope of a complaint letter should include only those facts that validate your claim and a
request that corrective steps be taken. It may also detail the options that you are willing to accept
in satisfaction of the claim.
The letter written for this purpose is known complaint letter.
 In business, occurrence of mistakes is common and natural even though the parties are causations
and careful. Some of the customary mistakes are supplying low quality products, charging high
prices, low quality packaging, damage of products due to poor packaging etc. so complaint letter is
drafted by the buyer mentioning the mistakes occurred or claiming for the damage to the seller or
to the transportation authority.
Cause of drafting complaint letter
After placing orders, customers expect that sellers will deliver the products accordingly. If the seller fails to
do so, customers write complaint letter. Such letter is usually written for the following reasons or causes :
 Merchandise not received.
 Part of the merchandise not received
 The merchandise received was not received
 Delivery of defective products
 Goods received in a damaged condition
 Quantity of good is not what was ordered
 Goods delivered to wring address
 Delivery of goods is delayed
 Impoliteness of office staff of the seller
 Delivery of mix-up products
 Clerical or book keeping errors
 Mistakes in the bill
 Charging high price
 Price included for goods returned
 Reminders for payment of bill already paid
 Poor quality of packaging
 Faulty insurance coverage
 Missing of products during transportation
 Carelessness of transportation authority
 Ignoring the provisions regarding brokerage, commission and discount
QUESTION
Factors to be considered while drafting complaint letter [10]
COMMS REVISION
A complaint letter should be written in a polite and considerate way by incorporating the
following factors or elements:
1. Specific cause of complaint: In a complaint letter, the customer should mention the
specific cause of complaint. This will help the seller to understand his fault and to take
necessary step for adjustment.
2. Nature of loss: Complaint letter must specify the nature and extent of damage caused in
terms of money, loss of sales, loss of service or goodwill.
3. Amount of loss: If any financial loss has to fault to the seller or transport authority,
actual amount of loss should be mentioned with supportive documents.
4. Possible remedy: A complaint letter should clearly indicate the probable remedies for
setting the complaint.
5. Avoiding assumptions: In the letter, the buyer should include only the actual event.
There should not be any assumption on the part of the buyer.
6. Courteous language: Language of complaint letter should be simple, easy, courteous
and friendly. However, its tone should be straightforward.
7. Documentary proof: Sufficient documents should be enclosed as proof of complaint.
Without necessary documents, the letter may have no value to the recipient.
8. Controlling anger: Though anger is a natural reaction of the affected buyer, it is not wise
to express anger. Rather, the buyer should make the complaint in a respectful and
considerate way.
9. Art of presentation: Complaint should be made artfully. That is the buyer should raise
the complaint in a way that does not hurt the seller. Artful presentation requires raising
the complaints passively rather than directly.
10. Mentioning preventive measures for future: For preventing the mistakes in future, the
buyer can suggest the seller some alternative course of actions.
QUESTION
M/s. Anna Food Products Ltd. has placed an order on December 05, 2013 to Mr. Michel
Flour Mills Ltd. For 2000 bags of flour to be sent within December 15, 2013. Mr. Michel
Flour Mills has accepted the order but the delivery of shipment was delayed for 3 (three)
COMMS REVISION
days, draft a complaint letter to the Manager, Mr. Michel Flour Mills Ltd. 10, Washington,
New York, for the delay. [10]
M/s. Anna Food Products Ltd.

302, TUCSON AZ 85705,
USA
December 20, 2013
Manager
Michel Flour Mills Ltd.
10, Washington, New York
Dear Manager,
We have placed an order on December 05, 2013 for 2000 bags of flour to be sent within
December 15, 2013. You have sent an order acknowledgement letter and promised to deliver the
shipment within the stipulate time. But it is unfortunate that the actual delivery was delayed for
03 (Three) days.
Due to your delay in sending the shipment, we could not maintain promise with our customers.
Recurrence of this problem will force us to business elsewhere.
We expect that you will take the matter seriously and will take necessary step to prevent its
recurrence. We are looking for future business.
Thanking you,
(Mr. Jonson)
Manager
QUESTION
COMMS REVISION
M/s. Anna enterprise, House no. 07, Road no. 14 North 302, TUCSON AZ 85705, USA, is
the seller of high quality local and foreign furniture for home and office. It has purchased
100 nos. office desks from Michel furniture Ltd. Kualalampur, Malaysia, on February 10,
2013. After receiving the shipment, some of the desks were found defective. Write a
complaint letter to the manager of Michel furniture Ltd.[10]
M/s. Anna enterprise

House no. 07, Road no. 14
North 302, TUCSON AZ 85705,
USA
February 25, 2013
Manager
Michel furniture Ltd.
Kualampur, Malaysia.
Dear Manager,
We have purchased 100 nos. of office desks on February 10, 2013 and the shipment reached to us
on February 22, 2013. After inspection of the shipment, we have found 20 (Twenty) defective
desks. Sale of the defective desks will have a negative impact on our reputation. Therefore, we
have kept those desks in the storeroom.
We believe that it was an inadvertent mistake and you will take necessary step to stop its
recurrence.
We are waiting for your decision regarding the defective desks.
Thanking you,
(Mr. Mr. Jonson)
Manager
QUESTION
COMMS REVISION
Adjustment letter [10]
 Adjustment letter is a reply letter to the buyer’s complaint or claim.
 In other words, when seller or transportation authority writes letter in response to the
complaint or claim letter of the buyer, it is known as adjustment letter.
 This letter informs the customer either acceptance or rejection of their complaints and
claims. Acceptance of the claims may take different forms such as simply regretting for
the mistakes, or making correction to the mistakes through payment of compensation.
Reply to complaint letter plays a vital role in enhancing the goodwill of a company and
maintaining relationships with the customers.
 “An adjustment letter is the reply to a compliant or claim letter”.
 Finally, we can say that an adjustment letter gives answer to the customer’s claim letter.
Though this letter, the seller notifies the customer whether his claim is granted or
rejected. Since this letter settles the claims of the customers, it is also termed as letter of
claim settlement. This letter helps to build and maintain goodwill with the customers.
 An adjustment letter is a reply to a complaint (claim letter).

 It is better to make adjustment than to risk losing a customer.
 Complaints should not be discouraged, because (1) they provide a means of discovering
and correcting poor service, and (2) They provide an opportunity to win back goodwill.
Analysis of Complaint:
In dealing with a complaint all related facts should be investigated to determine (a) whether the
complaint is justified and (b) whether, and how, adjustment is to be effected.
Justification of Complaint:
Experience proves that most of the complaints are justified. They are usually a result of fault on
the part of the seller or third party (transporter, etc.). A complaint is considered unfair when buyer
is at fault and the request is for undue advantage.
Grant of Adjustment:
A justified complain needs proper adjustment, e.g., refunding money, replacing merchandise,
performing additional service, admitting fault and assuring care in future, and taking rightful
action against third party responsible for the damage. Proper explanation is necessary if buyer is
at fault or complaint is based on misunderstanding.
Adjustment Principles:
COMMS REVISION
1. Answer promptly to avoid further complaint. When immediate adjustment is not possible, an
acknowledgement letter assures that the complaint is being conserved.
2. Give the customer the benefit of doubt by assuming that the customer is right, unless the facts
prove him/her wrong.
3. Accept blame gracefully when it is justified: to beg pardon or be unnecessarily humble is
considered poor acceptance that may result in loss of goodwill.
4. Be diplomatic, especially when the addressee is at fault or complaint is based on
misunderstanding. A diplomatic writer can say anything without insulting the reader.
Organizing the Adjustment Letters:
The ideas in an adjustment letter are ordinarily arranged as follows:
1. Conciliatory Statement:
 Expression of regret even if the customer is at fault or appreciation for having been
informed is an effective start of an adjustment letter.
2. Explanation of Facts:
 Explaining the facts relating to complaint, clarifying the position in case of
misunderstanding or indicating the customer’s fault (if any) should be the next step.
3. Statement of Adjustment:
 Grant of the adjustment (if any), suggesting a substitute for requested adjustment (when it
cannot be granted) or a mere acceptance of fault with assurance of taking care in future,
should be stated as the third step.
4. Statement of Goodwill:
 A last paragraph may be added (if appropriate) for rebuilding of goodwill and renewal of
business relations.
QUESTION
COMMS REVISION
Factors to be considered while drafting Adjustment Letter Or,

Contents of Adjustment Letter [10]
In drafting adjustment letter, the following points should be kept in mind so that in can convince
the affected buyer:
1. Acknowledging the claim letter: At the begging of the adjustment letter, seller
should acknowledge the claim letter of the customer and thank the customer for
pointing out the mistakes.
2. Regretting for mistakes: Reply letter should regret for the mistakes and
inconvenience of the seller sincerely. If the seller is definitely at fault, he can
apologize by saying,” I am sorry”, “We apologize” etc.
3. Immediate reply: After receiving the complaint from the buyer, the seller should
give its reply immediately. Delay in reply may create further arrogance.
4. Granting immediate promise: If the customer demanded for something specific
like a refund or replacement, the seller should grant the promise immediately.
5. Assuring preventive measures: After receiving the claim from the customers,
preventive measures taken by seller should be indicated. Seller must also assure
the customer that he will not face any such inconvenience in future.
6. Offering further cooperation: In order to promote goodwill of the company and
sustain relationship with customers, the seller should offer further cooperation and
assurance of satisfaction.
7. Convincing customer: If the claim of the customer is unfair, unreasonable and
unjust, the seller should not react violently. Rather, he should convince the buyer
to consider the matter from the seller’s angle.
8. Courteous and friendly language: The language of adjustment letter must be
courteous and friendly. Such language will cool down the anger of the buyer.
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Write an adjustment letter [10]
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Memorandum [10]
What is memo or memorandum?
 Memorandum is popularly known as memo.

 The literal meaning of the word memorandum is a note to assist the memory.
 Memos are the written internal communication means for exchanging information
relating to day-to-day functions within the organizations.
 “Memorandum is a form of letters written inside the business”.

 “Memos are used to communicate with other employees, regardless of where the
employees may be located in the same organization.”
 “Memo is a written communication form one person to another (or a group of people)
within the same organization.”
 So, memorandum or memos are an internal short note or letter in which information
exchanged among superiors and subordinates or same potion of employees in the
organizational structure.
Advantages of memo
We know memorandum serves various purposes. it is a common means of writer, communication

within the organization. The main advantages of memos are discussed below:
1. Time saving: We can see that may organizations use printed memo. As it is usually
printed, it takes less time to draft it.
2. Less formality: No formality is necessary in drafting a memo, usually inside address,
salutation and complimentary closing is omitted in it.
3. Maintenance good relationship: It can help to maintain the good relationship among the
boss and subordinates, because the bossing attitude is absent here.
4. Low cost: The cost of communication through a memo is less than those of others.
5. References: Memo is a written document. So, it can be used for future references.
6. Inform the decisions and actions: The main objective of memo is to inform the
decisions and actions. For this purpose, it should be written by the higher authority.
7. Request the decisions and actions: The objective of memo is to request the decisions
and actions. For this objective, it may be drafted by the sub-ordinate.
8. Provide information: Another important objective of the memo is to provide
information form one level to another within the business.
9. Remind someone of action: Memo is also written to remind someone of action, if
requires.
10. Others: Issuing orders and instructions, providing response, providing suggestions,
presenting informal report, solving problems.
COMMS REVISION
Disadvantages of memo
There are few limitations or Disadvantages of memos they are:

1. Limited application: It is not widely used means of communication. Memorandum is
mainly used in business firms. It maintains communication only among the employees of
the same firm regardless of distance.
2. Time consuming: It takes time to be sent to a distant branch or office.
3. Expensive: As usually a memo is a per-printed form, it is expensive than other means.
Sometimes huge printed memos remain unused.
4. Lack of formality: It provides only informal communication.
5. Lack of explanation: Memo is written in a short form. So the meaning of it may not be
cleared to the reader.
6. Less important to the reader: As it is an informal means of communication, it can be
less important to the reader.
7. Not suitable for illiterate people: Office memo is a one kind of written communication.
So, illiterate people are not able to read and understand it.
Guidelines for writing effective memos or drafting memos
In order to make interoffice communication easier, please adhere to the following guidelines for
Writing effective memos:
1. Summarize the conclusions in the introduction paragraph

2. State the basis for conclusion in the introductory paragraph
3. Begin each subsequent paragraph with a thesis statement
4. Support the thesis statement in the body of the paragraph
5. Be concise
6. Know the audience
7. Avoid jargon
8. Stay objective
9. Use active verbs
10. Anticipate counterarguments
11. Provide “road signs” as needed
12. Cite the sources
13. Number the pages
14. End with a concluding paragraph
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Different Parts of a Memo [10]
1. The title “MEMO” or “MEMORANDUM”
2. The Heading:
 TO: [Reader’s name and job title]

 cc: [List others who are receiving copies]
 FROM: [Your name and job title]
 DATE: [Day, month, and year, spelt out]
 SUBJECT: [Topic of the memo]
o To: The name of the person or persons to whom the memo is being sent.
o cc: The name of person(s) receiving a copy (if appropriate)
o From: The name of the sender.
o Date: The date of writing memo is also important to take action in time.
o Subject: Short information of the memo.
o The subject is a brief statement telling what the memo is about.
o The subject line is not a complete sentence but rather a concise phrase which
indicates some specific information.
o In section ‘To’, a courtesy title – Miss, Mrs., Mr., Dr. is often included.
o But in section ‘From’ the write does not use a courtesy title.
3. The message or body:

 Message is the main body of a memo.
 The message contains the following matters:
(a) Introduction: The message represents the main idea in the first paragraph. It is
called the background of the information. It should contain these key components of
a business letter: an opening that clarifies why the memo is being sent; -
(b) Details: In the second paragraph you should write details about information to
support the introduction. It should be logical and separate into paragraph. Details that
are needed for understanding or support of what is being presented or asked. -
(c) Response: It is called the action statement. In this paragraph you should state: action
you want to reader to take, Action you will take, Action that you are requested to
take, Dead line etc. Make clear what action is requested.
4. The Reference Initials

 Typed initials at the bottom of the page should be used to indicate who typed the
memo if that person is different from the person writing it.
5. Notations/ attachments
COMMS REVISION
 If there is an attachment, it should be noted at the bottom of the page in the notations
part.
 If you refer to graphs, charts, policies, reports, minutes or other business documents
in your memo, attach them to the back of the memo.
 Include on the memo page a note at the bottom that one or more documents is
attached.
6. Your initials or Signature

 The person sending the memo should write his/her initials over or next to his/her
name in the ‘From’ part of the heading to document that it really came from him/her;
or, alternatively, the person may sign the memo at the bottom beneath the message . -
MEMO
TO: Kelly Anderson, Marketing Executive
FROM: Jonathon Fitzgerald, Market Research Assistant
DATE: June 14, 2025
SUBJECT: Fall Clothes Line Promotion
Market research and analysis show that the proposed advertising media for the new fall lines need to be
reprioritized and changed. Findings from focus groups and surveys have made it apparent that we need to
update our advertising efforts to align them with the styles and trends of young adults today. No longer are
young adults interested in sitcoms as they watch reality televisions shows. Also, it is has become
increasingly important to use the internet as a tool to communicate with our target audience to show our
dominance in the clothing industry.
Internet Advertising
XYZ Company needs to focus advertising on internet sites that appeal to young people. According to
surveys, 72% of our target market uses the internet for five hours or more per week. The following list
shows in order of popularity the most frequented sites:
 Google
 Facebook
 Myspace
 EBay
 iTunes
Shifting our efforts from our other media sources such as radio and magazine to these popular internet sites
will more effectively promote our product sales. Young adults are spending more and more time on the
internet downloading music, communicating and researching for homework and less and less time reading
paper magazines and listening to the radio. As the trend for cultural icons to go digital, so must our
marketing plans.
J.F
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
Contents of a CV [10]
Contents of resume: Contents and layout of resume or curriculum vitae vary widely. There is no
single best way to write resume.
However, a factual and effective resume usually contains the following contents:
1. Opening section: Opening section of a resume generally includes following two items:
o Identifying information: Identifying information includes name, contact address
(both present and permanent), e-mail address and telephone number of the applicant.
o Career objective: A modern resume includes a statement of immediate and long-
term career objective of applicant. This statement helps the employer to evaluate
what type of job the applicant likes. Career objective also helps the employer to
categorize the applicants.
2. Education or academic qualification: This section of resume contains a list of degree

achieved along with name of the in situation granting the degree, year of obtaining the
degree, courses taken, position obtained etc.
3. Work experience: In this section, a list of employment and description of work experience
are incorporated by following a reveres chorological order. It mentions employer’s name and
location, duration of employment and position held.
4. Achievements and awards: This section includes school and community memberships,
offices held, honors, publications, language skills etc. of the applicant.
5. Personal data: Personal data include applicant’s age, religion, gender, nationality, marital
status, hobby, height, date of availability etc.
6. Reference: Most resumes mention references from which the employer can seek information
about the applicant. Generally, name of the former employers and teachers are mentioned as
reference.
COMMS REVISION
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
REPORTS [10]
 A document containing information organized in a narrative, graphic, or tabular
form, prepared on ad hoc, periodic, recurring, regular, or as required basis.
Reports may refer to specific periods, events, occurrences, or subjects, and may
be communicated or presented in oral or written form.
 Are fixed format documents. They are written as a result of instructions given to someone
to investigate and report on a problem.
 A report is written for a clear purpose and to a particular audience. Specific information
and evidence are presented, analyzed and applied to a particular problem or issue.
 The information is presented in a clearly structured format making use of sections and
headings so that the information is easy to locate and follow.
 When you are asked to write a report you will usually be given a report brief which
provides you with instructions and guidelines.
 The report brief may outline the purpose, audience and problem or issue that your report
must address, together with any specific requirements for format or structure.
 This guide offers a general introduction to report writing; be sure also to take account of
specific instructions provided by your department.
Purposes or Objective of Business Reports
Reports are the primary means of communication in organization. In large-scale organizations,

there is no alternative to use reports. Reports also play an important role in small-scale
organizations. Some points highlighting the purposes or objectives or important of business report
are presented below-
1. Transmitting Information: Business report is very important for transmitting information
from one person to another or form one level to another. Although a manager can personally
collect required information in a small scale enterprise, it is not possible in the context of a
large scale organization. In the latter case, the managers rely on reports for obtaining
necessary information.
Interpretation and Explanation of event: Report provides interpretation and explanation of
information. As a result, readers can easily understand it.
2. Making decisions: A report is the basic management tool for making decisions. The job of a
manager is nothing but making decisions. Reports supply necessary information to managers
to solve problems.
3. Communication with external stakeholders: In addition to internal use, reports also
communicate information to the external stakeholders like shareholders, creditors, customers,
suppliers, government officials and various regulatory agencies. In the absence of formal
business report, such stakeholders would remain at dark about the organizations.
4. Development of information base: Reports also contribute to the development of
information base in organization. It develops information base in two ways. Firstly, day to
day information is recorded permanently for writing reports. Secondly, the written reports are
COMMS REVISION
preserved for future reference. In these ways, reports help in developing a strong and sound
information base.
5. Developing labour management relationship: Reports also help to improve labour
management relationship particularly, in large organizations. In a large organization, there is
little opportunity of direct communication between top-level management and employees. In
this case, report is used as mechanism of keeping both sides informed about each other and
improving their relationships.
6. Controlling: Controlling is the final function of management. It ensures whether the actual
performance meets the standard. In order to perform the managerial function of controlling,
report serves as a yardstick. It supplies necessary information to impose controlling
mechanism.
7. Recommending actions: Reports not only supply information but also recommend natural
actions or solutions to problem. When someone is given the charge of investigating a
complex problem and suggesting appropriate remedy, the investigator usually submits a
report to the concerned manger.
Above discussion makes it clear that reports are the commonly used vehicles that help managers
in planning, organizing, staffing and controlling. In a nutshell, report is indispensable for carrying
out the management functions. Report is the nerve of an organization that circulates information.
The major purposes of reports are to -:

• Inform
• Record facts
• Persuade
• Help in decision making
• Recommend action
Reports are widely used in organisation for making decisions:
1. They should be based on careful research.

2. Clearly and logically written in an objective, impersonal style.
3. Constructed with the appropriate sections.
4. Well presented with high readability.
5. Written with a specific audience in mind.
Characteristics of Report
 Complete and Compact Document: Report is a complete and compact written

document giving updated information about a specific problem.
 Systematic Presentation of Facts: Report is a systematic presentation of facts, figures,
conclusions and recommendations. Report writers closely study the problem under
investigation and prepare a report after analyzing all relevant information regarding the
problem. Report is supported by facts and evidence. There is no scope for imagination in
a report which is basically a factual document.
 Prepared in Writing: Reports are usually in writing. Writing reports are useful for
reference purpose. It serves as complete, compact and self-explanatory document over a
long period. Oral reporting is possible in the case of secret and confidential matters.
 Provides Information and Guidance: Report is a valuable document which gives
information and guidance to the management while framing future policies. It facilitates
planning and decision making. Reports are also useful for solving problems faced by a
business enterprise.
COMMS REVISION
 Self-explanatory Document: Report is a comprehensive document and covers all
aspects of the subject matter of study. It is a self-explanatory and complete document by
itself.
 Acts as a Tool of Internal Communication: Report is an effective tool of
communication between top executives and subordinate staff working in an organization.
It provides feedback to employees and to executives for decision making. Reports are
generally submitted to higher authorities. It is an example of upward communication.
Similarly, reports are also sent by company executives to the lower levels of
management. This is treated as downward communication. In addition, reports are also
sent to shareholders and others connected with the company. It may be pointed out that
report writing / preparation acts as a backbone of any system of communication.
 Acts as Permanent Record: A report serves as a permanent record relating to certain
business matter. It is useful for future reference and guidance.
 Time Consuming and Costly Activity: Report writing is a time consuming, lengthy and
costly activity as it involves collection of facts, drawing conclusion and making
recommendations.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A REPORT
 They have clearly defined sections.

 They are based on facts.
 They are used for making decisions.
 They often give detailed technical information.
 They should be set out in a highly readable way.
 They should be written in a formal, impersonal style.
 They are often accompanied by a letter of transmittal. This letter records that the work
has been done.
COMMS REVISION
QUESTION
TYPES OF REPORTS:[10]
• Informative report (stresses about facts) –give the facts of a situation. The writer will
also stress the procedures
• Investigative Reports (gives results of an investigation and recommends action) – are
written because the writer has been instructed to investigate the problem, draw
conclusions from the facts and recommendations. The writer for example has been asked
to investigate the causes of the factory fire, draw conclusions and recommendations
• Feasibility Reports (examines whether something can be done or not and recommend
action) are related to investigation reports. They are written because someone has been
instructed to investigate whether something can or should be done or not.
• Evaluative reports – investigation and feasibility reports evaluate the facts.
• Technical reports – contains large amounts of technical information. Information often
set in tables, graphs e.tc
• Interim reports - Are written to inform managers of the progress of a project.
PROGRESS REPORTS
 Progress reports are common and critical documents in science and engineering.
 The basic point of a progress report is to summarize the status, progress, and likely future
for a particular project.
 In a progress report you are often expected to commit to an exact schedule for the project
completion, discuss the status of the materials being used and account for the money
spent, and summarize concretely both the current findings and the predicted results. T
 he professionalism of the progress report is often vital to the future of the project.
Style for Progress Reports
The following stylistic advice can be applied to most progress reports you write:
 Include a working title and the words “Progress Report” at the top of the page.
 Use section headings in the report to simplify both the writing and reading process.
 Open the report with a “Scope and Purpose” section, where you give a condensed version
of your future report’s introduction and objective.
 Always include a section entitled, for example, “Progress,” which summarizes the work’s
pace and progress and explains any snafus, dilemmas, or setbacks.
 Always include a section entitled, for example, “Remaining Work,” which honestly
assesses the work that must still be completed. Think right on the page in this section,
posing questions, speculating meaningfully, exploring your options.
 Always include a section that projects the expected results. Commit to a schedule for
obtaining those results if possible.
 If necessary, include a section in which you directly solicit advice from your teacher or
advisor. Be forthright and professional about the nature of the advice you need.
COMMS REVISION
 Keep your paragraphs short and focused—just a few paragraphs per section, typically.
 Your tone can often be straightforward and familiar—therefore, as a rule, you can use “I”
and “you” freely—but do not lapse into informality.
 Avoid being overly optimistic, pessimistic, apologetic, cocky, or self-deprecating.
RECOMMENDATION REPORT
 A recommendation report proposes a solution to a problem or evaluates possible
solutions and recommends one.
 Before proposing or recommending a solution, the report needs to identify the problem.
ACCIDENT REPORT
All accidents are considered as incidents; however an accident report form focuses more on the
injury whereas the incident report form is intended to focus on the cause and prevention of further
occurrences.
The Accident Report Form is in 2 parts. The first part is completed by the employee who suffered
the accident, and the second part is completed by the supervisor.
An accident report is an important tool used to document the accident and assist in investigating
the cause. It also assists to develop procedures that may be put in place to prevent it from
happening again.
The supplied template calls on the employees, with the assistance of a manager, to fill in the first
page details including:
 employee details,
 injury details- including date, time and expected time off,
 medical treatment required, and
 events leading up to the injury- this is important to gain the employees perspective of
what actually happened.
The second section of the form is to be completed by the manager and requires the manager to
identify the following:
 witness details,
 how the accident happened, and
 how a recurrence can be prevented.
It is important to show outcomes of the investigation, and to document what actions can or will be
taken to prevent another injury occurring in a similar scenario.
The Manager should decide, or, if requested by employees, whether or not the accident should
also be documented as an incident needing further investigation. This may well be the case
depending on the cause of the accident and the possibility of it happening again due to job design,
system or procedural faults needing additional investigation and control.
Should your company decide to merge both the accident and incident form together into one
document then the suitability of this should be assessed at senior management level to ensure that
a detailed and documented approach to both matters is still achieved.
COMMS REVISION
COMPILING A REPORT: SCHEMATIC REPORT

BODY OF REPORT
• Introduction
• Procedure for gathering
• Conclusions (insight and implications)
• Recommendations (the action to be taken)
• Findings (the Facts)
• Bibliography
• List of references
• Appendices
THE PURPOSE
• It is important to establish immediately the exact purpose of the report. Think of who is
to read it, what is it intended to achieve and how it will be used.
FORMAT OF A REPORT
1. COMPANY NAME
2. REPORT TITLE
3. TERMS OF REFERENCE.
• They form the opening of the report.
• They should include the following:
(a) By whom the report has been requested e.g.
At the request of a sales director or as directed by the board.
(b) The precise areas to be covered e.g.

To enquire into present procedures of.................
To examine how the................................................................................
To carry out a feasibility study into the...................................................
(c) What is intended should be the outcome of the report e.g.
To establish the nature and extent of existing problems and make recommendations for their
solution.
To inform shareholders of plans for rationalisation.
(d) Establishing the limits of the report, such as recognition of financial or economic
constraints, company policy, union, agreements or factors external to a department which
partially determine the working method.
4. PROCEDURES
This element concerns the method of investigation to be adopted. Methods which might be
mentioned include:
(a) Experiment
(b) Observation – observation of customer of staff behaviour
(c) Survey
COMMS REVISION
(d) Consultation
(e) Research
5. FINDINGS – Found when the procedures are analysed.
6. CONCLUSION - These are the solutions.

- The derived from findings.
7. RECOMMENDATIONS - These are suggestions.

They are derived from the conclusions.
8. SIGNATURE.
9. NAME – His /Her name full.
10. DESIGNATION – His / her post or position in the organisation.
EXAMPLE OF A SCHEMATIC REPORT

Terms of Reference
Margaret
Anderson, Director of Personnel has requested this report on employee benefits satisfaction. The
report was to be submitted to her by 28 June.
Procedure
A representative selection of 15% of all employees was interviewed in the period between April
1st and April 15th concerning:
1. Overall satisfaction with our current benefits package
2. Problems encountered when dealing with the personnel department
3. Suggestions for the improvement of communication policies
4. Problems encountered when dealing with our HMO
Findings
1. Employees were generally satisfied with the current benefits package.
2. Some problems were encountered when requesting vacation due to what is perceived as
long approval waiting periods.
3. Older employees repeatedly had problems with HMO prescription drugs procedures.
4. Employees between the ages of 22 and 30 report few problems with HMO.
5. Most employees complain about the lack of dental insurance in our benefits package.
6. The most common suggestion for improvement was for the ability to process benefits
requests online.
Conclusions
1. Older employees, those over 50, are having serious problems with our HMO's ability to
provide prescription drugs.
2. Our benefits request system needs to be revised as most complaints concerning in-house
processing.
3. Improvements need to take place in personnel department response time.
4. Information technology improvements should be considered as employees become more
technologically savvy.
COMMS REVISION
Recommendations
1. Meet with HMO representatives to discuss the serious nature of complaints concerning
prescription drug benefits for older employees.
2. Give priority to vacation request response time as employees need faster approval in
order to be able to plan their vacations.
3. Take no special actions for the benefits package of younger employees.
4. Discuss the possibility of adding an online benefits requests system to our company
Intranet.
Important Points to Remember
 A report is divided into four areas:
o Terms of Reference- This section gives background information on the reason
for the report. It usually includes the person requesting the report.
o Procedure- The procedure provides the exact steps taken and methods used for
the report.
o Findings- The findings point out discoveries made during the course of the
report investigation.
o Conclusions- The conclusions provide logical conclusions based on the findings.
o Recommendations- The recommendations state actions that the writer of the
report feels need to be taken based on the findings and conclusions.
 Reports should be concise and factual. Opinions are given in the "conclusions" section.
However, these opinions should be based on facts presented in the "findings".
 Use simple tenses (usually the present simple) to express facts.
 Use the imperative form (Discuss the possibility ..., Give priority ..., etc.) in the
"recommendations" section as these apply to the company as a whole.

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COMMS REVISION

Define Communication. [2]

Elements of communication [10]

The elements are discussed in short below:

Functions of communication [10]

Some of its major functions are as follows:

1. Informing: The principal function of communication is informing messages to others. It

Importance of Communication [10]

Significance of communication can be understood from the following points:

1. Acts as Basis of Coordination:

Communication helps in coordinating the activities of various departments and persons in an

2. Helps in Smooth Working of an Enterprise:

Communication ensures smooth functioning of an enterprise. Existence of an organisation

3. Acts as Basis of Decision Making:

4. Increases Managerial Efficiency:

The various functions of the manager involve:

(a) Providing information regarding the goals and objectives of an enterprise.

(b) Providing instructions

(d) Overseeing the work of the workers.

5. Promotes Cooperation and Industrial Peace:

6. Establishes Effective Leadership:

7. Boosts Morale and Provides Motivation:

Major forms of communication [10]

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION (Dyadic Communication)

SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION

EXTRA PERSONAL COMMUNICATION

 The linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process

 Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) model is an example

 The transactional model shows that the elements in communication

 It assumes that people are connected through communication; they

Steps or elements of communication process

The main components of communication process are as follows:

1. Context - Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This

i. Two (2) way communication. [5]

ii. Feedback. [5]

Why is two (2) way communications important? [10]

1. Completion of communication: Two-way communication requires feedback from the

There are many examples of noise:

a) Psychological noise. [3]

 Psychological noise is mental interference in the speaker or listener.

b) Physiological noise. [2]

c) Physical noise. [2]

 Physical noise is interference that is external to both speaker and listener; it

d) Semantic noise. [3]

 A lack of communication; a failure to exchange information

 “Barriers to communication mean obstacles to the process of communication.

*Common Barriers to Effective Communication*:

 The use of jargon. Over-complicated, unfamiliar and/or technical terms.

 Religion (Similar to ethnocentrism and stereotyping, religion also disrupts communication as

 Developing flat organization structure: In modern time, organizations prefer flat

Verbal communication is the process of exchanging of information or messages between two or

Forms of verbal communication are as follows:

1. Oral communication: Oral communication is the process of communication in which

 Nonverbal communication is the expression or exchange of information or messages

 Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages.

Some of the forms of non-verbal communications are as follows:

b) Nonverbal communication. [2]

c) Visual communication. [2]

d) Oral communication. [2]

e) Written communication. [2]

Characteristics of non-verbal communication [10]

 No use of words: Non-verbal communication is a communication without words or

Advantages and disadvantages of non-verbal communication [10]

It has multiple advantages or functions:

Common Barriers to Effective Communication: