Part - 1

CEC603: Environmental Engineering (3-1-0)

Syllabus:

Water – uses & requirement: Sources, Quantity, Quality criteria, Intakes & transportation.

Conventional water treatment methods: Aeration, Sedimentation, Coagulation & flocculation,

Filtration, Disinfection – including design of units. Other miscellaneous water treatment processes.

Water storage & distribution systems, Design of pipe networks.

Introduction to plumbing systems in buildings.

Estimation of quantities of sanitary wastewater & storm water runoff.

Sewerage system, Design of sewers, Sewer appurtenances, Materials of sewer construction.

Quality & characterisation of domestic wastewater: different parameters including oxygen

demands, Standards of sewage disposal.

Principles of wastewater treatment, Physical, chemical & biological treatment methods, Primary &
secondary treatment, Bio-filter, Activated sludge process, Stabilisation pond, Septic tank.

Introduction to other treatment processes including digestion & disposal of sludge.

Principles of stream sanitation.

Study Material:

1. Environmental Engineering (Vol. I & II) – by – Punmia, Jain & Jain [Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd,
New Delhi]

2. Environmental Engineering (Vol. I & II) – by – S. K. Garg [Khanna Publishers, Delhi]

3. Environmental Engineering – by – H.S. Peavy, D. R. Rowe & G. Tchobanoglous [McGraw Hill

Education (India) Private Limited, New Delhi]

4. Wastewater Engineering, Treatment & Reuse (4th Ed) – by – Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. (Revised by G.
Tchobanoglous, F. L. Burton & H. D. Stensel [Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, New
Delhi]
NPTEL Study Material:

Subject Name Discipline SME Name Institute Content Type

NOC:Water Civil Engineering Prof. Manoj IIT Kharagpur Video

Supply Kumar Tiwari
Engineering
NOC:Wastewater Civil Engineering Prof. Manoj IIT Kharagpur Video
Treatment and Kumar Tiwari
Recycling
Wastewater Civil Engineering Dr. M.M. IIT Kharagpur Web
management Ghangrekar
Part – 2

Municipal Water Supply

(Source. britannica.com)

(Source.medium.com)
 (Source.lymphate.com)

(Source.researchgate.net)
Source of Water

Water Cycle

(Source.pennsylvaniaamwater.com)

(Source.open.edu)
(Source. science.howstuffworks.com)

(Source.sciencelearn.org.nz)
(Source.en.wikipedia.org)

(Source.britannica.com)
Availability of water on the Earth

(Source.nationalgeographic.org)
Part – 3

(Source.researchgate.net)

Sources of Water

(Source.m.youtube.com)
Types of natural sources of water available on the earth’s surface:

(a) Groundwater
(b) Surface water

Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in
the fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when
it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in
rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table. Groundwater
is recharged from the surface; it may discharge from the surface naturally at springs and seeps, and
can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal,
and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells.

(Source.livescience.com)
Typically, groundwater is thought of as water flowing through shallow aquifers, but, in the technical
sense, it can also contain soil moisture, permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in very low
permeability bedrock, and deep geothermal or oil formation water. Groundwater is hypothesized to
provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults.

(Source.usgs.gov)
Groundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water.
Therefore, it is commonly used for public water supplies.

Use of groundwater has related environmental issues. For example, polluted groundwater is less
visible and more difficult to clean up than pollution in rivers and lakes. Groundwater pollution most
often results from improper disposal of wastes on land. Major sources include industrial and
household chemicals and garbage landfills, excessive fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture,
industrial waste lagoons, tailings and process wastewater from mines, industrial fracking (the process
of injecting liquid at high pressure into subterranean rocks, boreholes, etc.), oil field brine pits, leaking
underground oil storage tanks and pipelines, sewage sludge and septic systems. Additionally,
groundwater is susceptible to saltwater intrusion in coastal areas and can cause land
subsidence when extracted unsustainably, leading to sinking cities and loss in elevation. These issues
are made more complicated by sea level rise and other changes caused by climate changes which will
change precipitation and water scarcity globally. (Ref. Wikipedia)

(Source.serc.carleton.edu)
 (Source.communityimpact.com)

Surface water is water located on top of the Earth's surface such as rivers, creeks, and wetlands. This
may also be referred to as blue water. The vast majority is produced by precipitation and water runoff
from nearby areas. As the climate warms in the spring, snowmelt runs off towards nearby streams
and rivers contributing towards a large portion of our drinking water. Levels of surface water lessen
as a result of evaporation as well as water moving into the ground becoming ground-water. Alongside
being used for drinking water, surface water is also used for irrigation, wastewater treatment,
livestock, industrial uses, hydropower, and recreation. It is recorded by the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), that approximately 68% of water provided to communities comes from surface
water. For USGS water-use reports, surface water is considered freshwater when it contains less than
1,000 milligrams per litre (mg/L) of dissolved solids.
There are three major types of surface water.

Permanent (perennial) surface waters are present year-round. This includes rivers, swamps, and
lakes.

Semi-permanent (ephemeral) surface water refers to bodies of water that are only present at certain
times of the year including areas such as creeks, lagoons, and waterholes.

Man-made surface water is water that can be continued by infrastructure that humans have
assembled. This would be lakes, dams, and artificial swamps. The surface water held by dams can be
used for renewable energy in the form of hydropower. Hydropower is the forcing of surface water
sourced from rivers and streams to produce energy. (Ref.wikipedia)
Zones of groundwater (Ref.wikipedia)

Water beneath the surface can essentially be divided into three zones: 1) the soil water zone,
or vadose zone, 2) an intermediate zone, or capillary fringe, and 3) the ground water, or saturated
zone.

Fig. (Source.link.springer.com) Zones of groundwater.

The vadose zone, also termed the unsaturated zone, is the part of Earth between the land surface and
the top of the phreatic zone, the position at which the groundwater (the water in the soil's pores) is
at atmospheric pressure.

The capillary fringe is the subsurface layer in which groundwater seeps up from a water table
by capillary action to fill pores. Capillary action supports a vadose zone above the saturated base
within which water content decreases with distance above the water table.

The saturated zone, a zone in which all the pores and rock fractures are filled with water, underlies
the unsaturated zone. It is an area where water exists and will flow freely to a well, as it does in an
aquifer.

An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or unconsolidated

materials (gravel, sand, or silt). Groundwater can be extracted using a water well. The study of water
flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology.

There are the following four types of aquifers, i.e., (1) Unconfined Aquifer, (2) Perched Aquifer, (3)
Confined Aquifer, and (4) Leaky Aquifer or Semi-Confined Aquifer.
Unconfined aquifers are those into which water seeps from the ground surface directly above
the aquifer.

Confined aquifers are those in which an impermeable dirt/rock layer exists that prevents water from
seeping into the aquifer from the ground surface located directly above.

Fig (Source.ngwa.org). Different types of aquifers.

Part – 4

An aquitard is a zone within the Earth that restricts the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to
another. An aquitard can sometimes, if completely impermeable, be called an aquiclude or
aquifuge. Aquitards are composed of layers of either clay or non-porous rock with low hydraulic
conductivity.

(Source.theconstructor.org)

A perched water table (or perched aquifer) is an aquifer that occurs above the regional water table.
This occurs when there is an impermeable layer of rock or sediment (aquiclude) or relatively
impermeable layer (aquitard) above the main water table/aquifer but below the land surface.

A leaky aquifer, also known as a semi-confined aquifer, is an aquifer whose upper and lower
boundaries are aquitards, or one boundary is an aquitard and the other is an aquiclude.

(Source.nptel.ac.in)
 (Source.bgr.bund.de/whymap)

Types of wells
• Dug/Bored wells are holes in the ground dug by shovel or backhoe. They are lined (cased) with
stones, brick, tile, or other material to prevent collapse.
• Driven wells are constructed by driving pipe into the ground.
• Drilled wells are constructed by percussion or rotary-drilling machines.
There are two broad classes of drilled-well types, based on the type of aquifer the well is in:

• Shallow or unconfined wells are completed in the uppermost saturated aquifer at that location
(the upper unconfined aquifer).
• Deep or confined wells are sunk through an impermeable stratum into an aquifer that is
sandwiched between two impermeable strata (aquitards or aquicludes). The majority of deep
aquifers are classified as artesian because the hydraulic head in a confined well is higher than the
level of the top of the aquifer. If the hydraulic head in a confined well is higher than the land
surface it is a "flowing" artesian well.

A tube well is a type of water well in which a long, 100–200 millimetres (3.9–7.9 in)-wide, stainless
steel tube or pipe is bored into an underground aquifer. The lower end is fitted with a strainer, and a
pump lifts water for irrigation & other purposes.
Two additional broad classes of well types may be distinguished, based on the use of the well:

• production or pumping wells, are large diameter (greater than 15 cm in diameter) cased (metal,
plastic, or concrete) water wells, constructed for extracting water from the aquifer by a pump (if
the well is not artesian).
• monitoring wells or piezometers, are often smaller diameter wells used to monitor the hydraulic
head or sample the groundwater for chemical constituents. Piezometers are monitoring wells
completed over a very short section of aquifer. Monitoring wells can also be completed at multiple
levels, allowing discrete samples or measurements to be made at different vertical elevations at
the same map location.

Estimation of the rate of availability of water from aquifers ---- Dupuit – Thiem’s Formula

Case 1: Unconfined Aquifer

Let a well be driven in the aquifer & water pumped heavily so as to cause sufficient draw down by
lowering of the ground water table.

When the water level in the well decreases, the water level in the neighbourhood will also fall down
as water moves towards the well by overcoming the resistance to move through the pore spaces in
the surrounding soil.

This results in the development of an inverted conical surface of the depressed water table all around.
The base of this cone has a radius, known as the Radius of Influence. The area covered at the circular
base of this inverted conical zone is known as the Zone of Influence.

The depressed form of the water table is known as the Drawdown Curve in 2D.

Two observation wells lying within the zone of influence of the main pumped well are to be driven.

Let these wells be numbered as 1 & 2 and let them be at distances of r1 and r2 from the main well (c/c
distance). Let d be the depth of the well or the aquifer, below the static water table.
 Fig. Well in an unconfined aquifer.

By Darcy’s Law, flow through any concentric cylindrical section of the water bearing stratum is given
by, Q = K.I.A, where—

K = coefficient of permeability of the aquifer,

I = hydraulic gradient,

A = area through which the flow occurs (here it is a cylindrical area surrounding the main well)

Let us consider an element [at (x, y) coordinate, say] on the drawdown curve, situated at a radial
distance r from the main well & where the depth of the water level from the base of the aquifer is h.
Then at this point, A = 2πrh.

If we consider an elemental length of the drawdown curve, then I = dh/dL.

Assuming the inclination of the water surface to the horizontal is small, so that tan θ ≈ Sin θ. Thus, we
have dh/dL ≈ dh/dr.

Putting these values in the expression of Darcy’s law, we have –

Q = K. (dh/dr). (2πrh)

= 2πKhr. (dh/dr)

Or, (dr/r) = (2πK/Q).(hdh)

𝑟 𝑑𝑟 2𝜋𝐾 ℎ
Or, ∫𝑟 2 𝑟
=
𝑄
∫ℎ 2 ℎ𝑑ℎ [ K is considered constant at all places & at all times (i.e.
1 1
homogeneous soil) & in all directions (i.e. isotropic soil)]

ℎ2
𝑟2 2𝜋𝐾 ℎ2
Or, [ln 𝑟 ]𝑟 = [ ]
1 𝑄 2 ℎ1

𝑟2 2𝜋𝐾 (ℎ22 − ℎ12 )

Or, 𝑙𝑛 ( ) =
𝑟1 𝑄 2

𝜋𝐾(ℎ22 − ℎ12 )
Or, 𝑄= 𝑟
𝑙𝑛( 2)
𝑟1

Case 2: Confined Aquifer

Fig. Well in a confined aquifer.

Here we may proceed similar to the case of the unconfined aquifer except a few considerations as:

(i) Due to confinement of the aquifer, we have to consider the level of piezometric surface instead
of the ground water table in the earlier case. This actually represents the pressure head of the
water available within the aquifer and this surface will have to be considered in place of the
drawdown curve taken in the earlier case.

(ii) Due to the confinement of the water bearing layer, water comes towards the main well radially
from the entire depth of the aquifer, which is the thickness of the aquifer (H) & thus a constant
quantity.

Thus, from the expression of Darcy’s law, here we have –

Q = K.I.A

= K. (dh/dr). 2πrH

Or, Q = (2πKH).r.(dh/dr)

Or, (dr/r) = (2πKH/Q).dh

𝑟 𝑑𝑟 2𝜋𝐾𝐻 ℎ
Or, ∫𝑟 2 𝑟
=
𝑄
∫ℎ 2 𝑑ℎ
1 1

2𝜋𝐾𝐻
Or, [ln 𝑟]𝑟𝑟21 = [ℎ]ℎℎ2
𝑄 1

𝑟 2𝜋𝐾𝐻
Or, 𝑙𝑛 ( 2 )= (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
𝑟1 𝑄

2𝜋𝐾𝐻(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
Or, 𝑄= 𝑟
𝑙𝑛( 2)
𝑟1

Specific capacity of a well is the rate of flow from a well per unit of draw down. It should be
determined for the fall of the first meter, as it is not the same for all the drawdowns.

Coefficient of Transmissibility is given by T = K.d (for unconfined aquifer)

= K.H (for confined aquifer).

The assumptions for Dupuit – Thiem’s well formula are as follows:

(i) The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic & of infinite areal extent, so that its coefficient of
permeability is constant everywhere.
(ii) The well has been sunk through the full depth of the aquifer & it receives water from the
entire thickness of the aquifer.
(iii) Pumping has continued for a sufficient time at a uniform rate, so that the equilibrium
stage or steady flow conditions have been reached.
(iv) Flow lines are radial & horizontal, and the flow is laminar.
(v) The inclination of the water surface is so small so that its tangent can be used in place of
sine for the hydraulic gradient in Darcy’s equation.
Part – 5

Well tests

These are actual tests carried out in order to determine the yield of well. They are –

(a) Direct pumping test

(b) Recuperating test.

Direct pumping test

(a) A well is, first of all, constructed through the aquifer, of which the yield is to be estimated.
(b) A huge amount of water is drawn from the well, so as to cause heavy drawdown in its water
level.
(c) The rate of pumping is changed & so adjusted that the water level in the well becomes
constant.
(d) In this condition of equilibrium, the rate of pumping will be equal to the rate of yield.
(e) Hence the rate of pumping will directly give the yield of the well at a particular drawdown.

Recuperating test

(a) Water is, first of all, drained from the well at a fast rate so as to cause sufficient drawdown.
(b) The pumping is then stopped.
(c) The water level in the well will start rising.
(d) The rise is noted at regular intervals of time, till the initial level is reached.
(e) Knowing the area of the well & the rise of the water level, the volume of the water yielded in
that given time interval, can be worked out at different drawdowns.

Prob. A well penetrates into an unconfined aquifer having a saturated depth of 100m. The discharge
is 250 lpm at 12m. drawdown. Assuming equilibrium flow conditions & a homogeneous aquifer,
estimate the discharge at 18m. drawdown. The distance from the well where the drawdown
influences are not appreciable may be taken to be equal for both the cases.

Soln.

Given, thickness of the unconfined aquifer, d = 100m;

Case I Drawdown (at the main well), s1 (say) = 12m;

So, the depth of water in the main well, hw = 100 – 12 = 88m.

Corresponding discharge, Q1 = 250 lpm.

Case II Drawdown (at the main well), s2 (say) = 18m;

So, the depth of water in the main well, hw = 100 – 18 = 82m.

We have to determine the corresponding discharge, Q2.

In absence of the observation wells we have to consider a combination of the main well & the outer
limit of the zone of influence, situated at a distance = radius of influence = R (say).

Thus, using the well formula for an unconfined aquifer, discharge is given by –

𝜋𝑘(𝑑 2 − ℎ𝑤
2)
𝑄=
𝑅
ln ( )
𝑟𝑤
Where, k = coefficient of permeability & rw = radius of the main well.

In Case I, applying the formula we have,

𝜋𝑘(1002 − 882 )
250 =
𝑅
ln ( )
𝑟𝑤
𝜋𝑘 250
Or, 𝑅 = 1002 − 882
ln( )
𝑟𝑤

= 0.1108.

In Case II, applying the formula we have,

𝜋𝑘(𝑑 2 − ℎ𝑤
2)
𝑄=
𝑅
ln ( )
𝑟𝑤
= 0.1108 x (1002 – 822) lpm

= 363.03 ≈ 363 lpm.

Prob. A pumping test was made in a medium of sand & gravel to a depth of 15m. where a bed of clay
was encountered. The normal ground water level was at the surface. Observation holes were located
at distances of 3m. & 7.5m. from the pumping well. At a discharge of 3.6 lit/sec from the pumping
well, a steady state was attained in about 24 hrs. The drawdown at 3m. was 1.65m. & at 7.5m. was
0.36m. Compute the value of the coefficient of permeability of the soil.

Soln. From the problem statement, the aquifer mentioned here is unconfined in nature, having a total
thickness of 15m.

Given, Q = 3.6 lit/sec = 3.6 x 10-3 m3/sec.

r1 = 3m; s1 = 1.65m; h1 = 15 – 1.65 = 13.35m.

r2 = 7.5m; s2 = 0.36m; h2 = 15 – 0.36 = 14.64m.

From the well formula for an unconfined aquifer,

𝜋𝑘(ℎ22 − ℎ12 )
𝑄= 𝑟
ln (𝑟2 )
1
𝑟
𝑄.ln(𝑟2 )
1
Or, 𝑘 =
𝜋(ℎ2 − ℎ12 )
2

7.5
3.6 𝑥 10−3 𝑥 ln( )
3
=𝜋𝑥 (14.64 2 − 13.352 )
m/s

= 2.9 x 10-3 m/s.

Prob. A 30cm. dia. well penetrates 25m. below the static water table. After 24 hours of pumping at
5400 lpm the water level in a test well at 90m. is lowered by 0.53m. & in a well 30m. away, the
drawdown is 1.11m. What is the transmissibility of the aquifer?

Soln. From the problem statement, the aquifer mentioned here is unconfined in nature, having a total
thickness of 25m.

Given, Q = 5400 lpm = (5400/1000) = 5.4 m3/min.

r1 = 30m; s1 = 1.11m; h1 = 25 – 1.11 = 23.89m.

r2 = 90m; s2 = 0.53m; h2 = 25 – 0.53 = 24.47m.

From the well formula for an unconfined aquifer,

𝜋𝑘(ℎ22 − ℎ12 )
𝑄= 𝑟
ln (𝑟2 )
1
𝑟
𝑄.ln(𝑟2 )
1
Or, 𝑘 =
𝜋(ℎ2 − ℎ12 )
2

90
5.4 𝑥 ln( )
30
= 𝜋 𝑥 (24.472 − 23.892 ) m/min

= 0.0673 m/min.

So, coefficient of transmissibility, T = k.d (where d is the thickness of the aquifer)

= 0.0673 x 25

= 1.6825 m2/min.
Part – 6

Prob. A 60cm. Ф well is being pumped at a rate of 1360 lpm. Measurements in nearby test wells were
made at the same time as follows. At a distance of 6m. from the well being pumped, the drawdown
was 6m. & at 15m. the drawdown was 1.5m. The bottom of the well is 90m. below the ground water
table.

(a) Find the coefficient of permeability.

(b) If all the observed points were on the drawdown curve, what was the drawdown in the well
during pumping?
(c) What is the specific capacity of the well?
(d) What is the maximum rate at which water can be drawn from this well?

Soln. From the problem statement, the aquifer mentioned here is unconfined in nature, having a total
thickness of 90m.

From the well formula for an unconfined aquifer,

𝜋𝑘(ℎ22 − ℎ12 )
𝑄= 𝑟
ln (𝑟2 )
1
Given, Q = 1360 lpm = (1360/1000) = 1.36 m3/min.

r1 = 6m; s1 = 6m; h1 = 90 – 6 = 84m.

r2 = 15m; s2 = 1.5m; h2 = 90 – 1.5 = 88.5m.

𝑟
𝑄.ln(𝑟2 )
1
(a) 𝑘=
𝜋(ℎ22 − ℎ12 )
15
1.36 𝑥 ln( )
6
= 𝜋 𝑥 (88.52 − 842 ) m/min

= 5.11 x 10-4 m/min.

(b) Given, rw = (60/2) x (1/100) m = 0.3 m

r2 = 15m; h2 = 88.5m.

From the well formula,

𝜋𝑘(ℎ22 − ℎ𝑤2)
𝑄= 𝑟
ln (𝑟2 )
𝑤
 𝑟
𝑄.ln(𝑟 2 )
Or, hw = √ℎ2
2 𝑤
− m
𝜋𝑘

15
1.36 𝑥 ln( )
= √88.52 − 0.3
𝜋 𝑥 5.11 𝑥 10−4

= 67.217 m.
Thus, required drawdown = 90m – 67.217m = 22.783 m.

(c) Let us find out the value of the radius of influence, R (say).

𝜋𝑘(𝑑2 − ℎ𝑤
2)
1.36 = 𝑄 = 𝑅
ln( )
𝑟𝑤

𝜋𝑘(𝑑2 − ℎ2
𝑤)
[ ]
Or, R = 𝑟𝑤 . 𝑒 1.36

𝜋 𝑥 5.11 𝑥 10−4 𝑥 (902 − 67.2172 )

[ ]
= 0.3 𝑥𝑒 1.36

= 20.57 m.

𝜋𝑘.(902 − 892 )
Thus, specific capacity = 20.57
ln( )
0.3
𝜋 𝑥 5.11 𝑥 10−4 𝑥 (902 − 892 )
= 20.57
ln( )
0.3
= 67.97 x 10-3 m3/min.
(d) Maximum discharge will occur when hw = 0.

𝜋𝑘.(902 − 02 )
Thus, Qmax = 20.57 m3/min.
ln( )
0.3
= 3.0756 m3/min
= 3075 lit/min.
Infiltration galleries

These may be described as horizontal wells constructed along the river banks or other seepage areas
from where water can be tapped across the line of flow. It consists of a tunnel made up of concrete
or masonry & a floor of cement concrete. Numerous weep holes are provided along the wall so that
water can enter it. The entire upper surface of the gallery is covered with graded gravel & sand. The
infiltration gallery is generally provided with a bottom slope so that the water may be collected first
in a suction well & later pumped into the supply system.

Fig (Source.mjcetpc506ce.blogspot.com). Sectional elevation view of an infiltration gallery.

The galleries are generally laid parallel or perpendicular or sometimes even at an angle to the direction
of surface flow & in the straight reaches of the river where stream velocities are low. However, the
gallery laid perpendicular to the flow of the sub-surface stream yields maximum quantity of water.
The yield from a gallery also depends on the size & character of the media in which it is placed & on
the depth of the aquifer.

Fig (Source.clean-water-for-laymen.com). Multiple pipe infiltration system layout.

The infiltration galleries are cheap & dependable. However, if they are not properly located
or maintained, they may get chocked & even washed away due to heavy flood. Still they can
serve the role of a good source of water in such places where surface water in a perennial
stream is not sufficient enough for water demand during the dry period.
Fig (Source.tid.org) A typical infiltration gallery project under construction.

Fig. Different layouts of infiltration galleries w.r.t. alignment of stream

 Fig (Source.theconstructor.org). Schematic diagram of an infiltration gallery.

Considering the validity of all assumptions made in connection with the well formula discussed earlier,
we can start with the expression for discharge Q according to Darcy’s law as –

Q = k.i.A,

Where, k = coefficient of permeability of the aquifer developed due to percolation from the stream,

i = hydraulic gradient, &

A = area through which flow occurs towards the gallery.

Let us consider an element on the drawdown curve, situated at a distance x from the face of the gallery
and having a height of water level x due to formation of drawdown curve. The height of water at the
gallery be h.

Let us consider unit length of the gallery, for which let the flow be q. Then the area through which
flow of water takes place towards the gallery = (y x 1) ----- for supply of water from one side of the

gallery,

= 2 x (y x 1) ---- for supply of water from both sides of the gallery.

Considering small inclination of drawdown curve, as earlier, i = dy/dx.

Considering supply of water from both sides of the gallery, the width of the zone of influence on one
side of the aquifer = L, and the thickness of the aquifer = H,

q = k.(dy/dx).2y
or, qdx = 2kydy
𝐿 𝐻
or, q ∫0 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑘 ∫ℎ 𝑦𝑑𝑦
 𝐻
𝑦2
or, q.[𝑥 ]𝐿0 = 2𝑘 [ ]
2 ℎ

(𝐻 2 − ℎ2 )
or, q.L = 2k.
2
𝑘
or, q = (𝐻 2 − ℎ2 )
𝐿
𝑘
For one sided supply to the gallery, in a similar way, q = (𝐻 2 − ℎ2 )
2𝐿

If we want to use a perforated pipe to replace the gallery, then if –

L = length of the gallery & also the length of the pipe,

D = dia. of the pipe,

p = portion of area of perforation in the wall of the pipe in fraction,

we may write –

π.D.L.p =2.h.L
2ℎ
or, D =
𝜋𝑝
the length of the pipe can be determined from –

π.D.L.p x v = Q, where v is the velocity of approach at the perforations and Q is the total quantity
required for supply.

The velocity v should be less than the scouring velocity of sand particles near the gallery & for this,
sometimes gravel packing is done around the pipe along its length.

Prob. A stratum of clean sand & gravel 5m deep has k = 1 x 10 -3 m/s & supplied with water from a
diffusion ditch that penetrates to the bottom of the stratum. If the water surface in an infiltration
gallery laid parallel to the ditch lies 1m above the sole & its distance to the diffusion ditch is 12m, what
is the flow/m of the gallery?

Soln. As this is a case of one-sided supply to the gallery, the discharge q per unit length is given by –
𝑘
q= (𝐻 2 − ℎ 2 )
2𝐿
Given, k = 1 x 10-3 m/s;

L = 12m;

H = 5m;
 h = 1m.

1 𝑥 10−3
Thus, q = (52 − 12 )
2 𝑥 12
= 1 x 10-3 m3/s per m length

= 1 lps per m length.

Prob. 5000 m3/d of water is to be obtained from an infiltration gallery. The gallery is placed at a depth
of 6m from the sub-surface water table. The permeability of the bed is 100m/d. Find the length of the
gallery if the drawdown is not to exceed 4.5m. The value of width of the zone of influence may be
taken as 120m.

Soln. Given, q = 5000 m3/d;

k = 100 m/d;

L = 120 m;

H = 6 m;

h = 6 – 4.5 = 1.5 m.
𝑘
Then, flow per unit length of the gallery, q = (𝐻 2 − ℎ2 )
𝐿
100
= (62 − 1.52 )
120
= 28.125 m3/d.
5000
Thus, the required length of the gallery =
28.125
= 177.77 ≈ 178 m.

Impounding Reservoir

An impounding reservoir may be defined as a basin constructed in the valley of a stream to store (or,
impound) water during excess steam flow & to supply water when the flow of the stream is insufficient
to meet the demand of water. For adequate supply of water, the reservoir should be full when the
rate of stream flow begins to fall below the rate of demand of water.
Choice of reservoir site

The suitability of a site must be judged from the following points:

(a) Quantity of water available – it should be sufficient to meet all the demands throughout the
year.
(b) Quality of the source – the objectionable salts & minerals soluble in water should be absent.
Also, the site should be free from marshy layers & vegetation which affect the colour, odour
& taste of water.
(c) Availability of cheap land which is going to be submerged.
(d) Possibility of construction of a reasonably water-tight reservoir.
(e) Distance of the source from the consumer.
(f) Elevation of the supply point of water – proper elevation of the reservoir will ensure adequate
supply through gravity flow.

Fig (Source.fao.org) Concept of the site of an impounding reservoir.

Part – 7

Capacity of an impounding reservoir

Here the relationship between the draft & the flow in the river is to be studied.

Draft (D) may be defined as the intended or actual quantity of water drawn for use.

Flow (Q) may be defined as the actual quantity of naturally available water available in the stream at
any point of time.

Then, deficit = draft – flow = (D – Q).

Considering variable flow in the stream due to seasonal factors, the required capacity of a reservoir =
maximum of Σ(D – Q).

Prob. From the given data for the stream flow & the rate of consumption, find out the required
capacity of the reservoir (by numerical method). All the flow figures are in million litres.

Order
Deficit Cumulative
of Runoff (Q) Draft (D) Required capacity
(D – Q) deficit
month
1 1000 300 (-700)0 0 Capacity =
2 1500 300 (-1200)0 0 maximum
3 500 300 (-200)0 0 cumulative deficit =
4 200 300 100 100 1000 million litres.
5 100 300 200 300
6 200 300 100 400
7 1500 300 (-1200)0 0
8 1000 300 (-700)0 0
9 500 300 (-200)0 0
10 100 300 200 200
11 0 300 300 500
12 0 300 300 800
13 100 300 200 1000
14 300 300 0 0
15 1500 300 (-1200)0 0
16 1000 300 (-700)0 0
17 300 300 0 0
18 200 300 100 100
Prob. From the following record of average monthly streamflow determine the required reservoir size
to provide a uniform flow of 10,000 m3/d.

Month J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M
Monthly
flow in 0.18 1.02 1.32 0.51 0.87 0.67 0.19 0.08 0.07 0.04 0.10 0.26 0.20 1.10 1.01
106 m3

Soln. Given, demand of water = 10,000 m3/d.

Average number of days in a month = 365/12 = 30.4

Thus, average monthly demand = 30.4 x 10,000 = 0.304 x 106 m3.

It is assumed that at the start of the dry period the reservoir is full.

Month Monthly flow Monthly draft Deficit (D – Q) Cumulative Capacity of the

in 106 m3 (Q) in 106 m3 (D) deficit reservoir in 106 m3
J 0.18 0.304 0.124 0.124 Storage capacity =
F 1.02 0.304 (-0.716) 0 0 maximum
M 1.32 0.304 (-1.016)0 0 cumulative deficit =
A 0.51 0.304 (-0.206)0 0 1.188 x 106 m3.
M 0.87 0.304 (-0.566)0 0
J 0.67 0.304 (-0.366)0 0
J 0.19 0.304 0.114 0.114
A 0.08 0.304 0.224 0.338
S 0.07 0.304 0.234 0.572
O 0.04 0.304 0.264 0.836
N 0.10 0.304 0.204 1.04
D 0.26 0.304 0.044 1.084
J 0.20 0.304 0.104 1.188
F 1.10 0.304 (-0.796)0 0
M 1.01 0.304 (-0.706)0 0
Graphical method of determination of reservoir capacity – Mass Curve Method

Fig (Source.nzdl.org) Reservoir capacity determination by Mass Curve method.

Fig. Process of determination of reservoir capacity by mass curve method.

Prob. Determine the constant rate of draft permissible from a storage of capacity 160 million litres /
sq. km. of catchment area from a stream with the record of monthly mean run off values as follows:

Order of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
months
Recorded 134 178 74 7 6 5 4 0 28 18 106 134 32 83 89
run off
(Q),
ML/km2

Soln. Given, storage capacity = 160 ML/km2.

ΣQ = 898 ML/km2.

So, monthly average run off = 898 / 15 = 59.87 ≈ 60 ML/km2, which is the maximum possible value of
draft for an installed reservoir.

Order Maximum Recorded Deficit Cumulative Remarks

of possible draft run off (Q), (D – Q), deficit
month (D), ML/km2 ML/km2 ML/km2 Σ(D – Q), ML/km2
1 60 134 (-74) 0 0
2 60 178 (-118) 0 0
3 60 74 (-14) 0 0
4 60 7 53 53 Dry period starts
5 60 6 54 107
6 60 5 55 162
7 60 4 56 218
8 60 0 60 278
9 60 28 32 310
10 60 18 42 352 Maximum cumulative
deficiency during dry
period
11 60 106 (-46) 0 0
12 60 134 (-74) 0 0
13 60 32 28 28
14 60 83 (-23) 0 0
15 60 89 (-29) 0 0

Required reservoir capacity = 352 ML/km2, whereas the actually installed reservoir capacity = 160
ML/km2.

So, total shortfall = 352 – 160 = 192 ML/km2, which is the shortfall over the dry period.

Thus, spreading the shortfall over a period of 7 months, shortfall per month = 192 / 7 = 27.43 ≈ 27.5
ML/km2.

Therefore, allowable or permissible draft = 60 – 27.5 = 32.5 ML/km2.

Intake structures

The devices installed for withdrawal of water from the source are called intakes.

A water works intake may be defined as a device or a structure placed in a surface water source so as
to permit withdrawal of water from the source. They are used to draw water from lakes, reservoirs or
rivers in which there may be either a wide fluctuation in water level or it may be proposed to draw
water from the most desirable depth.

Types of intake

Depending on the type of source, the intakes may be classified as:

(a) River intake

(b) Canal intake
(c) Lake intake
(d) Reservoir intake.

Depending on the functioning style, the intakes may be classified as:

(a) Dry intake

(b) Wet intake
(c) Submerged intake.

The dry intake tower contains no water in it. The water enters through ports connected to the actual
intake pipes which distributes it from the tower under pressure. The inlet velocity should be small.
The interior of the tower is accessible for the operation of valves.

Fig (Source.abhashacharya.com.np). Dry intake structure.

The wet intake tower is filled with water to the level of the source of supply & water is then withdrawn
from it by pumping etc. This is the most common type constructed for the water works.

Fig (Source.abhashacharya.com.np). Wet intake structure.

The submerged intake structures are constructed entirely under water. These are less expensive to
construct & can be built so that navigation is not affected. However, they create a slight obstruction
to the flow of the stream & offer difficulty of maintenance & inspection. They are generally placed in
streams with low water depth & where water is available at a substantial distance away from the
banks.

Fig (Source.civilenggforall.com). Submerged intake structure.

Part – 8

Location of intakes

Factors to be considered are:

(a) Availability of best quality of water;

(b) Absence of strong currents in water that may threaten the safety of the intake;
(c) Location to be selected carefully in meandering stretches of rivers;
(d) Navigation channels to be avoided due to chance of pollution from vessels;
(e) For a running water source, the location should be on the upstream side of the point of
pollution;
(f) Proximity to the community;
(g) Availability of power & its reliability;
(h) Accessibility;
(i) Floods;
(j) Possibility of damage by moving objects & other hazards.

Fig. Suitability of location for intakes at meandering stretches of a river.

Tube wells (Ref4)

An open well is suitable for discharges up to 0.005 m3/s. This is because the cross-sectional area of
flow is less in open wells & the water can be withdrawn safely only at the critical velocity for the soil.

A tube well is a long pipe sunk into the ground with a strainer which allows water to pass through but
prevents sand from coming in. Because of the strainer, high velocity of flow can be permitted without
danger of soil particles being carried away with water. Due to the increased velocity & more cross-
sectional area of flow, a tube well, though much less in diameter than an open well, gives discharge
much more than the open well.

Types of tube wells (Ref.yourarticlelibrary.com)

(a) Strainer well

(b) Cavity well
(c) Slotted well

Strainer type well

In tube wells the metal pipe driven in ground is perforated to allow only clear water to enter the hole.
The wire net with finer openings excludes the objectionable soil particles from entering the tube well.
Total area of the openings in the metal tube and in the strainer is kept the same.

Moreover, there is some annular space left between the perforated metal tube and the strainer. If the
space is not left the strainer may rest directly over the tube and consequently the open area of
perforations will be reduced.

Normally the mesh size of the wire net or strainer is kept equal to D60 (dia. from which 60% of soil is
finer) to D70 of the surrounding soil. This type of well derives water from one aquifer of unlimited
extent or from a confined aquifer or from number of aquifers.

Fig (Source.yourarticlelibrary.com). Strainer type tube well.

 (a) (b) (c)

Fig (Source.yourarticlelibrary.com). Different types of strainers: (a) Brownlie, (b) Ashford, (c) Cook’s.

Chocking of strainers:

(a) Mechanical chocking – can be reduced by providing slits which expand inwards. Other methods are
– providing screening or shrouding and permitting inflow velocity lesser than the critical for
surrounding soil.

(b) Chemical chocking – can be reduced by providing large slit area & having low inflow velocity.

Cavity type well

In this type water contribution to bore hole takes place through the bottom layer only.
It derives water from the previous layer underlying the hard impervious layer. The tube well is taken
down till it penetrates the impervious or mota layer and reaches the water bearing layer. In the initial
stages when the water is pumped out fine sand comes in the tube well with the water and
consequently a hollow or cavity is formed at the bottom. The bottom of the cavity for some thickness
is thus made free of finer particles.

After the cavity formation only, clear water enters the tube well. Since the rate of pumping is more,
the velocity of water entering the coarse sand layer is critical but when it comes in the hollow the
velocity is reduced. Finally, the water enters the tube well at the bottom with a velocity lower than
the critical velocity. The main difference between a strainer and cavity tube well is that in the former
the inflow is radial whereas in the later it is spherical.

Fig (Source.quora.com) Cavity type tube well.

Slotted type well

Sometimes the nature of subsoil formation is not anticipated correctly. Obviously bore hole driven for
constructing strainer well will be a failure. If a mota formation is present, cavity well may be resorted
to. But if neither of the conditions are existing the slotted tube well can be rightly constructed. There
should be of course an aquifer present at the bottom. In the bore hole (say 36 cm diameter) a 15 cm
diameter education pipe is lowered till it reaches the bottom.

The size of the slots may be 25 mm x 3 mm with 12 mm spacing. As the slots are quite wide, to avoid
sand entry in the pipe a filter of shingle is provided at bottom, surrounding the slotted pipe portion.
Finally, before withdrawing the 36 cm diameter pipe casing the shingle is poured in the annular space
between the education pipe and the casing pipe. The development of this well is done gradually with
the compressed air. Thus, the slotted tube well, unlike strainer well receives inflow only at bottom
through shingle shrouding.

Fig (Source.civilengineering.blog). Slotted type tube well.

Methods for drilling tube wells

(a) Wash boring or water jet boring method

(b) Cable tool method (also known as percussion or standard method)
(c) Hydraulic rotary method
(d) Reverse rotary method
 Fig (Source.researchgate.net) Wash boring method.

Fig (Source.sciencedirect.com) Cable tool or percussion method.

Fig (Source.shankarborewell.com) Hydraulic rotary method.

Fig (Source.pinterest.com) Reverse rotary method.

Well shrouding (Source.engineeringenotes.com)

The shrouding is a layer of coarse material such as gravel and coarse sand interposed in the annular
space between the well pipe and the aquifer soil. The shrouding prevents the finer particles of the soil
coming in contact with the strainer and chocking it, acts as a screen or filter introduced between the
strainer and the aquifer soil to allow only water to pass through and not sand, and protects the well
pipe from caving in of the surrounding formation. Further the shrouding also increases the effective
well diameter. In general, a shrouded well has a greater specific capacity than the one of the same
diameters but not shrouded.

The shrouding is usually not required in rocky and consolidated formations, but it is essential in sandy
and unconsolidated formations. It is also essential in a slotted type tube well where wire mesh (or
screen) is not used. Such a tube well is usually provided with a thick shrouding and it is also sometimes
known as gravel-packed well.

Well development (Source.engineeringenotes.com)

Well development is the process of removing fine material from the formations surrounding the
strainers or the screened sections of the well pipe.

It is aimed at:
(i) Increasing the specific capacity of the well
(ii) Preventing the sand flowing into the well
(iii) Obtaining maximum economic well life.

Methods of well development are:

(a) By pumping
In this method the well is pumped in a series of steps from a low discharge to the one
exceeding the design capacity. At each step the well is pumped until clear water is obtained,
after which the power is shut off. The discharge rate is then increased and the procedure
repeated until the maximum capacity of the pump or well is reached.

(b) By surging
In this method a surging action is imparted to the water in the well by up and down movement
of surge block. A surge block is essentially a plunger. The surging action is transmitted to the
screened section by the water column. Surging is started slowly and the speed is gradually
increased up to the point the surge block can rise and fall smoothly without jerking.

The downward stroke of the surge block causes back wash of water from the well which
results in dislodging of the sand particles in the surrounding formation. The upward stroke of
the surge block causes sucking action and thus pulls the dislodged sand particles from the
surrounding formation into the well.

(c) By compressed air

In this method an air compressor is used. The compressed air is released suddenly into the
well. The inrush of air into the well creates a powerful surge within the well due to which the
pressure increases and the water flows outwards through the strainer into the surrounding
formation where it loosens the fine material. The air valve is then closed so that the pressure
 decreases and the water from the surrounding formation enters the well bringing the
loosened fine material with it. The water is then pumped out from the well to remove the
loosened fine material from the surrounding formation. The pumping is continued until water
free from sand is obtained.

(d) By back washing

In this method the top of the well is fitted with an air tight cover. In the beginning the
compressed air is released into the well through the long air pipe which forces air and water
out of the well through the discharge pipe. When clear water starts coming out of the well,
the air supply is shut off by closing the valve and the water is allowed to return to its static
level. The three-way valve is then turned to admit compressed air into the top of the well
through the short air pipe.

This back washes the water from the well through the discharge pipe and at the same time
agitates the fine material surrounding the well. Air is supplied through the short air pipe until
air begins to escape from the discharge pipe.

The valve is then turned so that air is again supplied through the long air pipe so that the pipe
assembly works as an air lift pump and the water is pumped out from the well. The operation
is repeated till clear water comes and the well is fully developed.
Part – 9

Estimation of water requirement for a town

Required information:

(a) Per capita water demand

(b) Population to be served
(c) Design period.

Various uses of water

(a) Domestic needs

(b) Institutional needs – for schools, colleges, hostels, offices, factories;
(c) Public purposes – street washing or street watering, flushing of sewers, watering of public
parks;
(d) Fire – fighting
(e) Industrial & commercial uses – including central air – conditioning;
(f) Requirement for livestock;
(g) Waste & loss.

As per National Building Code (NBC) of basic requirement of water supply, drainage & sanitation
(IS:1172 – 1971), the minimum recommendation for all residences provided with full flushing system
for excreta disposal is 135 lpcd.

Minimum requirement for domestic & non – domestic needs (according to CPHEEO – Central Public
Health & Environmental Engineering Organisation) for communities with population –

Upto 10,000 : 70 – 100 lpcd

10,000 – 50,000 : 100 – 125 lpcd

Above 50,000 : 125 – 200 lpcd

For rural communities –

Without house service connection : minimum 40 lpcd

With house service connection : minimum 70 lpcd.

Institutional needs

Type of unit Demand of water (lpcd)

Hospitals: (a) No. of beds upto 100 340
(b) No. of beds > 100 455
Hotels 180 lit (per bed)
Hostels 135
Restaurants 70 lit (per seat)
Terminal stations 45
Schools / colleges (without boarding) 45
Offices 45
Factories: (a) With bath facility 45
(b) Without bath facility 30
Cinemas, theatres 15
Public purposes

Type of use Demand of water

Public parks 1.4 lit./m2/d
Road washing 1.0 – 1.5 lit./m2/d
Sewer cleaning 4.5 lpcd

Livestock requirement

Type of livestock Demand of water

(lit/animal/day)
Cows 68.25
Goats 13.60
Chickens 0.09

Industrial requirement

Industry Unit of production Kilolitres per unit of production

Steel Tonne 200 – 250
Paper Tonne 200 – 400
Special quality paper Tonne 400 – 1000
Petroleum refinery Tonne (crude) 1.5 – 2.0
Fertiliser Tonne 80 – 200
Sugar Tonne (cane crushed) 1–2
Textile 100 kg (goods) 8 – 14
Distillery Kilolitre 122 – 170
Automobile Vehicle 40

Fire – fighting demand

Usually provision for fire – fighting demand is made as a coincident draft on the distribution system
along with the normal supply to the consumers as assumed. It is desirable that 1/3rd of the fire –
fighting requirements form part of the service storage. The balance requirement may be distributed
in several static tanks at strategic points. The high-rise buildings should also be provided with
adequate fire – fighting storage.

(a) According to CPHEEO, a provision in KL/d based on the formula 100√𝑃 where P = population
in thousands, may be adopted for communities > 50,000.

(b) National Board of Fire – underwriters (USA) (American Insurance Association)

Q = 4637√𝑃(1 − 0.01√𝑃), where Q is in lpm & P is the population in thousand.

(c) Insurance Service Office (USA)

𝑄 = 18𝐶(𝐴)0.5

Where, Q = fire flow required in gpm (US) or in (lpm/3.785);

 A = total floor area in ft2 or m2 x 10.76

C = constant depending upon the materials of the building

= 1.5 --- wood work
= 1.0 --- ordinary construction
= 0.8 --- for non-combustible materials
= 0.6 --- for fire resistive materials.

Prob. What fire flow & storage are required for fire protection in a city of 10,000 population according
to the requirements of National Board of Fire Underwriters? Given that the duration of fire is 10 hrs.

Soln. Here the relation to be used is -- Q = 4637√𝑃(1 − 0.01√𝑃)

Thus, Q = 4637√10(1 − 0.01√10) lpm

= 14199.78 ≈ 14200 lpm.

For 10 hrs. duration, storage = 14200 x 60 x 10 lit. = 8520000 lit. = 8.52 x 106 lit.

Prob. Determine the fire flow for a 3 – storied wood framed building covering 700m2 which connects
with a 5 – storied fire resistive construction covering 900m2.

Soln. Using the relation given by Insurance Service Office (USA),

𝑄 = 18𝐶(𝐴)0.5
Thus,
𝑄 = [18𝑥1.5𝑥(3 𝑥 700 𝑥 10.76)0.5 + 18𝑥0.6𝑥(5 𝑥 900 𝑥 10.76)0.5 ]x 3.78 lpm
= 24324.76 ≈ 24325 lpm.

Prob. Water is supplied @ 100 lpcd to a community of 50 lakh population. Estimate the maximum
demand of the community during a fire. Use the formula 𝑄 = 100√𝑃. Given that maximum daily
demand is 1.8 times the average daily demand.

Soln. Average daily demand = 50,00,000 x 100 lit.

Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x 50,00,000 x 100 lit. [ 1.8 is known as the peaking factor]

Fire demand = 100√5000 = 7071.07 KL = 7071.07 x 103 lit.

Thus, overall maximum demand of the day = maximum daily demand + fire demand

= 907 x 106 lpd.

Part – 10

Waste & loss

For a well-managed water works this quantity should not exceed 15% of the total consumption of
water (usual range is 20% – 30%).

Per capita demand of water

For an average Indian town in all respects, as per IS, the per capita demand may be taken as follows:

Domestic use = 135 lpcd

Industrial use = 50 lpcd

Commercial use = 20 lpcd

Public uses = 10 lpcd

Waste & loss = 55 lpcd

Total = 270 lpcd

Factors affecting per capita demand of water of a town

(a) Climatic conditions

(b) Living standard of people
(c) Size of the towns
(d) Quality of water
(e) System of water supply (whether intermittent or continuous)
(f) Pressure in the distribution system
(g) Method of sanitation (whether flushing system is in use)
(h) Method of charging (whether metered or not)

Few points regarding metering of water usage

Advantages of metering Disadvantages of metering

(a) The consumer should pay in proportion
to the amount used by him.
(b) Waste is diminished, resulting in
financial saving to all.
(c) Loads on treatment plants, pumps etc.
are minimised.
(d) Loads on sewers may be reduced.
(e) The careful consumer benefits; the
careless consumer is penalised.
(a) Limited use of water may result in
unhygienic conditions & diseases.
(b) Meters are costly to install, to maintain
& to read.
(c) Pressure losses through meters are
appreciable & add to the cost of
pumping.
Design period

Items Design period (years)

Storage by dams 50
Infiltration works 30
Electric motors & pumps 15
Water treatment units 15
Raw water & clear water conveying mains 30
Service reservoir (overhead or ground level) 15
Distribution system 30

Variation of water demand

(a) Seasonal variation

(b) Daily variation
(c) Hourly variation

The values of demand may be obtained by applying suitable peaking factors. Thus –

Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x Average daily demand;

Maximum hourly consumption of the maximum day = 1.5 x average hourly consumption of the

maximum day

= 1.5 x (Maximum daily demand / 24)

For impounding reservoirs, the seasonal variation is to be considered.

For sources of water e.g. wells etc. and for pumping & treatment units, the daily variation is
considered.

For design of distribution systems, hourly variations are taken into consideration.

Population forecast

Fig (Source.engineeringnotes.com). Ideal population growth curve.

Following methods are generally adopted:

(a) Arithmetical progression

(b) Geometrical progression
(c) Incremental increase
(d) Decreasing rate of increase
(e) Extension of population growth curve
(f) Comparison with larger but similar cities.

Arithmetical progression

This method assumes that the population is increasing at a constant rate. The rate of change of
population with time is constant.

i.e. dp/dt = C (a constant)

integrating P2-P1 = C(t2-t1)

Where P1 = Population at the time t1 first census

P2 = Population at the time t2 last available census

The value of constant C is determined as the average growth in population per unit time interval.

Now the population after n decade can be determined by the formula

Pn = P + n. C

Geometrical progression

This method assumes that the percentage increase in population from decade to decade remains
constant. In this method the average percentage of growth of last few decades is determined; the
population forecasting is done on the basis that percentage increase per decade will be the same.

If the present population is P and the average percentage growth is IG the population at the end of n
decade will be:

𝐼𝐺 𝑛
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃 (1 + )
100
Incremental increase
This method is improvement over the above two methods. The average increase in the population is
determined by the arithmetical method and to this is added the average of the net incremental
increase once for each future decade.

If P be the present population, r is the average incremental increase per decade, I is the average
increase per decade, then the population after n decades is given as –

𝑛(𝑛+1)
Pn = P + n.I + .𝑟
2

Decreasing rate of increase

It has been seen that all life grows within limited space. If the complete growth of a very old city is
plotted, it will be seen that the curve has S-shape, which indicates that early growth takes place at an
increasing rate, latter growth is at a decreasing rate which indicates that saturation limit is reached.

In this method, the average decrease in the percentage increase is worked out and is then subtracted
from the latest percentage increase for each successive decade.

Extension of population growth curve

In this method the populations of last few decades are correctly plotted to a suitable scale on the
graph with respect to decade. The curve is smoothly extended to forecast the future population. The
graph of present city is plotted from the beginning and it will show the growth curve.

Fig (Source.engineeringnotes.com) Typical extension of population growth curve.

Comparison with larger but similar cities

In this method, the cities having conditions and characteristics similar to the city whose future
population is to be estimated are first of all selected. It is then assumed that the city under
consideration will develop as the selected similar cities have developed in the past. This method has
a logical background, and if statistics of development of similar cities are available quite precise and
reliable results can be obtained.

Now, suppose it is required to estimate the population of the city A at the end of year 2010. And let
the available data show that this city A has reached the present population of 42500 in the year 1970.
Then the available data of similar cities B and C is analysed. Let it be found that city B has reached
42500 in the year 1940 then its curve is plotted beyond the year 1940 onward.

However, this curve for city B should start from point P which represents the present population of
city A. Similarly, the population of city C is plotted from the year it has reached 42500 onwards. Now
the curve for city A is carefully extended between the curves of cities B and C as shown in Fig.

Fig (Source.engineeringnotes.com) Typical comparison with larger but similar cities.

Part – 11

Prob. Population data for a typical town is given below:

Year 1961 1971 1981 1991

Population 8000 12000 17000 22500
Estimate the expected population of the town in the year 2021.

Soln.

Increase Incremental Decrease in %

Year Population % increase in decade
per decade increase increase
1961 8000 - - - -

1971 12000 4000 (4000/8000) x 100 = 50

(50 – 41.67) =
1000
8.33
(5000/12000) x 100 =
1981 17000 5000
41.67
(41.67 – 32.35)
500
= 9.32
(5500/17000) x 100 =
1991 22500 5500
32.35
Total 14500 1500 124.02 17.65
14500/3 = 1500/2 =
Average 124.02/3 = 41.34 17.65/2 = 8.825
4833 750

(a) Arithmetic progression

Year Estimation of population
2001 22500 + 4833 = 27333
2011 22500 + (2 x 4833) = 32166
2021 22500 + (3 x 4833) = 36999

(b) Geometric progression

Year Estimation of population
41.34
2001 22500 x (1 + ) = 31802
100
41.34 2
2011 22500 x (1 + ) = 44949
100

41.34 3
2021 22500 x (1 + ) = 63530
100
 (c) Incremental increase
Year Estimation of population
2001 22500 + (1 x 4833) + (1 x 2/2) x 750 = 28083
2011 22500 + (2 x 4833) + (2 x 3/2) x 750 = 34416
2021 22500 + (3 x 4833) + (3 x 4/2) x 750 = 41499

(d) Decreasing rate of increase

Year Estimation of population
(32.35−8.825) (23.525)
2001 22500 x [1 + ] = 22500 x [1 + 100 ] = 27793
100
(23.525−8.825)
2011 27793 x [1 + ] = 27793 x [1 + (14.7
100 ]
)
= 31879
100
(14.7−8.825) (5.875)
2021 31879 x [1 + ] = 31879 x [1 +
100 100 ] = 33752

Water quality (Ref1)

Common impurities in water & their effect

Impurities in water are classified into three heads:

(a) Suspended impurities

These normally remain in suspension, are microscopic & make water turbid.

(b) Dissolved impurities

These are not visible, cause bad taste, hardness & alkalinity and sometimes they are
harmful.

(c) Colloidal impurities

These are electrically charged, usually very small in size, remain in constant motion & do not
settle by their own.
 Table (Ref1). Suspended & dissolved impurities.

Type Constituents Effect

Suspended (a) Bacteria Some cause diseases
impurities (b) Algae, Protozoa Odour, colour, turbidity
(c) Silt Turbidity
Dissolved (a) Salts
impurities (i) Ca & Mg –
Bicarbonate Alkalinity
Carbonate Alkalinity, hardness
Sulphate Hardness
Chloride Hardness, corrosion

(ii) Na –
Bicarbonate Alkalinity
Carbonate Alkalinity
Sulphate Foaming in boilers
Fluoride Dental fluorosis or mottled enamel
Chloride Taste
(b) Metals &
compounds
(i) Iron oxide Taste, red colour, corrosiveness, hardness
(ii) Mn Black or brown colour
(iii) Pb Cumulative poisoning
(iv) As Toxicity, poisoning
(v) Ba Toxic effect on nerves
(vi) Cd Toxic, illness
(vii) CN Fatal
(viii) B Affect central nervous system
(ix) Se Highly toxic to animal & fish
(x) Ag Discolouration of eyes
(xi) Nitrates Blue baby condition, infant poisoning

(c) Vegetable dyes

(d) Gases
O2 Corrosiveness to metals
CO2 Acidity, corrosiveness
H2S Odour, acidity, corrosiveness

Table. Quality of source.

Source type Characteristics

Seawater Salts
Precipitation Gases, vapours, particulates, salt nuclei, radioactive fallout
Surface runoff Particulates, organic matter, nitrates, phosphates, biocides
Ground water & spring water Carbonates, chlorides & sulphates of Ca & Mg, Fe & Mn, SO2, H2S
Lake water Algae, odour, taste
Swamp water Colour, odour, taste
River water Particulates, organic matter, waste water
 Table. Influence of impoundment on water quality.

Benefits Detriments
1. Turbidity reduction 1. Less mixing & less reaeration
2. Hardness reduction 2. Algal blooms; bad taste & odour
3. Organic oxidation 3. Back up of pollutants
4. BOD reduction 4. Thermal stratification
5. Colour reduction (i) Low DO
6. Coliform reduction (ii) Fe & Mn dissolution
(iii) H2S production
(iv) Increase in CO2
(v) Reduction in pH

Thermal stratification

It is the term applied to the variation in temperature of the impounded water with depth.

Fig. Thermal stratification in an impounding reservoir.

(i) Epilimnion
This is the top zone 6 – 15m deep according to the depth of the reservoir. The water in this zone
is of good quality & having high dissolved oxygen (DO).

(ii) Mesolimnion
It is a zone, 3 – 6m deep, having rapidly changing temperature @ 10C or more per 1m change in
depth. The primary disadvantage of this zone is that DO content is depleted through microbial
activity. Since there is no opportunity of reaeration, anaerobic conditions set in with an increase
in Fe, CO2, Mn, H2S, taste & odour. All these are potentially detrimental to water quality.

(iii) Hypolimnion
This is the bottom most zone which is cold. It has practically no DO. It has very high dissolved Fe
& Mn. Anaerobic conditions exist in this zone. Also, there is an increase in CO2 & decrease in pH.
Water analysis

Examination of water is used to classify, prescribe treatment, control treatment & purification
processes & maintain public supplies of an appropriate standard of organic quality, clarity &
palatability.

Microorganisms in water

(i) Aquatic plants

(ii) Aquatic animals
(iii) Aquatic fungi, bacteria & viruses

Aquatic plants

(i) Spermophyta – water weeds.

(ii) Bryophyta – mosses etc.
(iii) Pteridophyta – ferns & horsetails.
(iv) Thallophyta – algae.

Out of these, water weeds & algae are of practical importance to a water works engineer.

Aquatic animals

(i) Vertebrata – fish & amphibians.

(ii) Mollusca – mussels, snails, slugs etc.
(iii) Arthopoda – crustacea, insects, spider etc.
(iv) Worms – aquatic earthworms, thread worms, rotifers.
(v) Metazoa – hydra, polyzoa etc.
(vi) Protozoa – Entamoeba histolytica.

Fungi

These are multicellular, non-photosynthetic plants capable of growing in low-moisture & low pH
environments. Their optimal temperature lies between 20 – 300C. they flourish over a wide range of
pH (4 – 10) & themselves modify the pH by producing organic acids & ammonia as well. Fungi are 5 -
10μ wide. Occasionally, they find conditions favourable in water mains & grow luxuriously. Fungi can
be controlled by treatment of water with chlorine or CuSO4.

Virus

These are infectious agents of both plant & animal cells. They are ultramicroscopic, obligate &
intracellular parasites that manifest their presence by destruction or impairment of host cells. They
can pass through ultramicroscopic filter & they fall in the size range of 10 – 500mμ. Out of several
forms of viruses, ‘adenoviruses’ are associated with upper respiratory infections in children.
‘Enteroviruses’ are found in gastro-intestinal tract & faeces of man & lower animals. ‘Enteric viruses’
include infectious hepatitis viruses, polio viruses etc.
Bacteria

These are single-celled microorganisms with rigid cell walls that take in soluble food & covert it to new
cells. These may be classified as follows:

(i) According to shape

(a) Round, ovoid or spherical bacteria called cocci.
(b) Straight, rod like cells with square or rounded ends called bacilli.
(c) Curved rods comma shaped (called vibrio) or helical or spiral shaped (called spirilla).

The bacteria vary in dia. from 0.5 – 1.5 μ & are less than 10 μ long.

(ii) According to activity

(a) Saprophytic – beneficial to man & obtain organic matter in solution from dead &
decaying tissues in plants & animals.
(b) Parasitic
(c) Pathogenic – capable of causing disease within the living organisms on which they
survive.
(d) Non-pathogenic bacteria.

(iii) According to oxygen need

(a) Aerobic
(b) Anaerobic
(c) Facultative

(iv) According to temperature at which they flourish

(a) Psychrophilic – surviving between 10 – 200C
(b) Mesophilic – surviving between 20 – 400C
(c) Thermophilic – surviving between 40 – 650C
(The optimum pH condition for bacteria is 6.5 – 7.5)

(v) According to origin of occurrence

(a) Natural water bacteria
(b) Bacteria from soil
(c) Bacteria from sewage & animal excrement –
(1) Coli – aerogenes group (Coliform group)
(2) Clostridium welchii – found in cultivated soil, sewage & polluted water. Intestines
are its natural habitat where it causes no harm but helps in digestion.
(3) Faecal streptococci – found in human intestines, these are capable of growing at
temperature as high as 450C & they are not as numerous as E-coli.
Part – 12

Bacteria (Contd.)

Coli – aerogenes group (Coliform group)

The intestines of men & warm-blooded animals contain certain harmless bacteria which are
excreted with faeces. They are numerous in sewage, & will be present in water which has been
contaminated by sewage or excreta. These are known as coliforms. This group includes all of the
aerobic, facultative & anaerobic, non-sporeforming, Gram – negative rod-shaped bacteria that
ferment lactose (milk sugar) with the production of gas at 350C within 48 hours. This group consists
of two important species – ‘Escherichia Coli (E – Coli)’ & aerobacteria aerogenes. The term ‘B –
Coli or Bacterium Coli’ is used to include the whole coli-aerogenes group.

It should be noted that coliform group of bacteria includes not only organisms originating in the
intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals (faecal coli, principally E-Coli) but also organisms from
soil or vegetation (principally aerobactor aerogenes). They are of advantage as indicators of water
contamination. The presence of E-Coli in a water supply indicates pollution by faecal
contamination.

Nuisance bacteria

There are some types of bacteria which when present in water may cause pitting & tuberculations in
pipes & render the water unsuitable for building purposes, air-conditioning, paper manufacture, food
& other industries. They may cause odour, taste, frothing, colour & increase in turbidity. Some of
these, which are relevant for water works are –

(i) Iron bacteria

(ii) Sulphur bacteria
(iii) Gelatin liquifying bacteria
(iv) Slime forming bacteria.

Common water borne diseases

(a) Bacterial diseases

(i) Typhoid fever – Salmonella typhi.
(ii) Paratyphoid fever – Salmonella paratyphi.
(iii) Cholera – Vibrio cholerae.
(iv) Bacillary dysentery – Shigella.

(b) Protozoal diseases

(i) Amoebiasis – Entamoeba histolytica.
(ii) Amoebic dysentery – -do-

(c) Viral diseases

(i) Enteric virus
(ii) Poliomyelitis – polio virus.
(iii) Virus of infectious hepatitis.

(d) Helminthic (worm) disease

 (i) Schistosomiasis
(ii) Swimmer’s itch.

Requirements to ensure quality for municipal water supply

For the general requirements, water supplies must possess two qualities –

(i) Wholesomeness
(ii) Palatability.

Wholesomeness

To be wholesome, water must be –

(a) Uncontaminated & thus unable to infect its user with a waterborne disease,
(b) Free from poisonous substance,
(c) Free from excessive amounts of mineral & organic matter.

(a) Waterborne diseases are caused by bacteria, virus, protozoa, worms & fungi.
Bacterial infections are – typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever (salmonellosis), bacillary dysentery
(shigellosis) & cholera.
Viral infections are – hepatitis or epidemic jaundice.

(b) Freedom from poisonous substances – four types of toxic contaminants may be encountered
in public water supplies under normal conditions –
(i) Natural contaminants in water that has come into contact with poisonous mineral
formations (these include fluorine, selenium, arsenic & boron, of which only fluorine
is often found in sufficient concentrations; excess fluoride causes mottling of teeth).
(ii) Natural contaminants in water associated with specific aquatic growths (e.g. blue
green algae).
(iii) Acquired contaminants that enter water from water-works structures, principally
metallic pipes or from water treatment practices.
Soft water carrying appreciable quantity of CO2 is highly corrosive.
Among the metals employed in water works, only lead has proven toxicity – the
resulting disease is called plumbism.
Copper, zinc. Iron are objectionable mainly because they impart a metallic taste to
water if present in significant amounts. They may also discolour the water itself (Zn &
Fe), fixtures (Cu & Fe), fabrics (Fe) of other objects which may come into contact.

(c) Freedom from excessive amounts of mineral & organic matter – highly mineralised waters,
particularly with the presence of magnesium & sulphate ions, often possess laxative property.
Highly mineralised or hard waters consume much soap. Although generally hard waters are
less corrosive than soft waters (because most of them deposit protective coatings on metallic
 pipe surfaces) the presence of acids & acid radicals – chlorides & sulphates – may render them
very corrosive.

Palatability

To be palatable, water should be –

(a) Free or significantly free from colour, turbidity, taste & odour,
(b) Of moderate temperature in summer & winter, &
(c) Aerated.

(a) Water may be discoloured due to the presence of vegetation, industrial wastes, natural
sources of Fe & Mn & the products of corrosion.
Turbidity may be due to the erosion of clay banks, discharge of industrial wastes, liberation of
products of corrosion & the growth of algae & other plankton organisms.
Tastes & odours are associated with the presence in water of the following:
(i) Decaying organic matter;
(ii) Living algae & other microscopic organisms containing (essentials) oils & other
odourous compounds;
(iii) Fe, Mn & metallic products of corrosion;
(iv) Industrial wastes, particularly phenolic substances;
(v) In connection with disinfection of water, chlorine & other related compounds.

Examination of water (& wastewater)

The examination of water (& W.W.) involves –

(i) Surveys of the conditions under which water (or, w.w.) exists or is produced;
(ii) Observations & examinations of certain attributes or properties of the water (or, w.w.) in
the field;
(iii) Laboratory determinations of specific qualities or properties of water (or, w.w.).

Physical & Chemical examination (according to Standard Methods for the Examination of Water &
Sewage)

Temperature, turbidity, colour & odour (cold & hot);

Residue: solids after evaporation (total, dissolved, suspended for each of the fixed portion & the loss
on ignition)

Solids: by electrolytic conductivity;

Hardness: by Schwarzenbach (Versenate) method & calculation from a mineral analysis;

Acidity – including mineral acids, Alkalinity (phenolphthalein & total), pH value, CO2 (free & total),
bicarbonate, carbonate & hydroxide.

Oil;
Silica;

Cu, Pb, Al, Fe, Cr, Mn & Zn.

Mg, Ca, Na & K.

Nitrogen – ammonia, albuminoid, organic, nitrite & nitrate.

Chloride, iodide & fluoride.

Phosphate, orthophosphate, pyrophosphate & metaphosphate.

Sulphate, sulphite & sulphide.

As, B, CN & Se.

Tannin & lignin.

Active chlorine (free available & combined available chlorine) & chlorine demand.

DO, H2S & CH4.

Phenols.

Biological examination

Examination & enumeration of microscopic organisms & amorphous matter.

Classification of tests

The tests that may be included in the analysis of water may be divided into four more or less
overlapping categories as follows:

1. Tests that measure the safety & wholesomeness of water:

(a) Tests for contamination as measured by the presence of members of the coliform group
of organisms, sometimes supplemented by plate counts, especially in the waters of
swimming pools;
(b) Tests for toxic quantities of As, Pb, Cr, B, Se, Ba, CN, nitrate (methemoglobinemia) &
fluoride (mottled enamel of teeth);
(c) Tests for physiologically beneficial quantities of iodide (endemic goitre) & fluoride (dental
caries);
(d) Tests for pollution as indicated by the relative amounts of organic, albuminoid, nitrite &
nitrate nitrogen present;
(e) Tests for laxative properties in the form of Mg & sulphate

2. Tests that measure the palatability or aesthetic acceptability of water:

(a) Temperature, turbidity, colour & odour – sometimes supplemented –
(b) By the microscopical examination & by tests for residues & metals, chloride, active
chlorine, hydroxide, tannin & lignin, H2S, one or the other of which may explain the origin
of the observed turbidity, colour, odour & taste.
3. Tests that measure the economic usefulness of water (substantially all the tests listed in
Standard Methods but depending for their selection upon the use to which the water is to be
put):
For ordinary municipal purposes, the following tests are important:
(a) Hardness in relation to soap consumption & use of water for heating purpose or steam
making;
(b) DO as well as pH & CO2 together with its related substances in connection with the
corrosion of metals;
(c) Fe & Mn;
(d) H2S as well as CO2 & related substances in connection with the destruction of cement &
concrete.

4. Tests that are related in particular to water treatment processes:

Examples (in addition to the pertinent tests for substances removed or destroyed, or to be
removed or destroyed) are –
(a) Tests for alkalinity, pH, CO2 & Al or Fe in connection with the use of coagulants;
(b) Tests for odour & Cu after the destruction of algae by Cu-compounds;
(c) Tests for chlorine demand, pH & active chlorine in connection with chlorination;
(d) Tests for phosphate, silicate, pH & hydroxide following treatment for corrosiveness;
(e) Tests for hydroxide, Na, K & Si in connection with water softening; &
(f) Tests for pH, CO2 & DO in connection with deferrization & demanganization.
Part – 13

Bacteriological tests

The tests for coliform group of bacteria are –

(a) 24 hr. agar plate count at 370C

(b) 48 hr. agar or gelatin plate count at 200C

The most probable number (MPN) of coliform organisms

The MPN in a sample of water is the density most likely to produce a particular (analytical) result.

100 𝑥 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝑀𝑃𝑁 =
√(𝑚𝑙. 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠) 𝑥 (𝑚𝑙. 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)
MPN are normally calculated more particularly for finished waters for which four or less of five 10-ml.
plantings are positive.

Prob. A test series is as follows:

10 ml. – 3/5; 1 ml. – 1/5; 0.1 ml. – 0/5 positive.

Find the MPN.

100 𝑥 (3+1+0=)𝟒
Soln. MPN =
√(10𝑥2+1𝑥4+0.1𝑥5=)𝟐𝟒.𝟓 𝑥 (10𝑥5+1𝑥5+0.1𝑥5 =)𝟓𝟓.𝟓

= 10.84 ≈ 11 coliform bacteria per 100ml.

Bacteriological standards

(i) Water entering the distribution system:

Coliform count in any sample of 100 ml. should be zero.

(ii) Water in the distribution system shall satisfy all the three criteria indicated below:
(a) E. Coli count in 100 ml. of any sample should be zero;
(b) Coliform organisms not more than 10 per 100 ml. shall be present in any sample;
(c) Coliform organisms should not be detectable in 100 ml. of any two consecutive
samples or more than 5% of the samples collected for the year.
Physical & chemical standards

Cause for Cause for

Characteristics Acceptable Characteristics Acceptable
rejection rejection
Turbidity (units 2.5 10 Zinc (mg/l as 5.0 15.0
on JTU scale) Zn)
Colour (units on 5.0 25 Phenolic 0.001 0.002
platinum cobalt compounds
scale) (mg/l as
Phenol)
Taste & odour unobjection Unobjectiona Mineral oil 0.01 0.3
able ble (mg/l)
pH 7.0 – 8.5 6.5 – 9.2 Toxic materials
Total dissolved 500 1500 Arsenic (mg/l 0.05 0.05
solids (mg/l) as As)
Total hardness 200 600 Cadmium 0.01 0.01
(mg/l as CaCO3) (mg/l as Cd)
Chlorides (mg/l 200 1000 Chromium 0.05 0.05
as Cl) (mg/l as
hexavalent Cr)
Sulphates (mg/l 200 400 Cyanides (mg/l 0.05 0.05
as SO4) as CN)
Fluorides (mg/l 1.0 1.5 Lead (mg/l as 0.1 0.1
as F) Pb)
Nitrates (mg/l as 45 45 Selenium (mg/l 0.01 0.01
NO3) as Se)
Calcium (mg/l as 75 200 Mercury (mg/l 0.001 0.001
Ca) as Hg)
Magnesium < 30 if there 150 Polynuclear 0.2 μg/l 0.2 μg/l
(mg/l as Mg) are 250 aromatic
mg/l of hydrocarbons
sulphates. (PAH)
Mg content
can be
increased to
a max. of
125 mg/l
with the
reduction of
sulphates @
1 unit per
2.5 units of
sulphates.
Iron (mg/l as Fe) 0.1 1.0 Radioactivity
Manganese 0.05 0.5 Gross Alpha 3 pCi/l 3 pCi/l
(mg/l as Mn) activity
Copper (mg/l as 0.05 1.5 Gross Beta 30 pCi/l 30 pCi/l
Cu) activity
Treatment of water

Methods (unit operations & unit processes):

(a) Storage
(b) Chlorination (Pre)
(c) Aeration
(d) Flocculation – rapid mixing
(e) Flocculation – slow mixing
(f) Sedimentation
(g) Slow sand filtration
(h) Rapid sand filtration
(i) Chlorination (Post)
(j) Softening
(k) Demineralisation

Typical water treatment flowsheets

Fig (Source.researchgate.net) Typical ground water treatment flowsheets.

Fig (Source.processflowsheets.blogspot.com) Typical surface water treatment flowsheet – 1.

Fig (Source.slideserve.com) Typical surface water treatment flowsheet – 2.

Fig (Source.lenntech.com) Comprehensive water treatment flowsheet.

Part – 14

Aeration

Aeration or degasification is a mechanical process of mixing water & air intimately. It serves the
following purposes:

(a) It removes tastes & odours caused by gases due to organic decomposition.
(b) It increases the DO content of the water.
(c) It removes H2S & hence odour due to this is also removed.
(d) It decreases the CO2 content of water & thus reduces its corrosiveness & raises its pH value.
(e) It converts Fe & Mn from their soluble states to their insoluble states, so that these can be
precipitated & removed.
(f) Due to agitation of water during aeration, bacteria may be killed to some extent.

Gases are absorbed or liberated from water until the concentration of the gas in water has reached
its saturation value. The concentration of gases in a liquid generally obeys Henry’s law. According to
this law, it may be stated that the concentration of each gas in water is directly proportional to the
partial pressure (product of the volume % of the gas & the total pressure of the atmosphere) or
concentration of gas in the atmosphere in contact with water. The saturation concentration of a gas
decreases with temperature & dissolved salts in water. Aeration tends to accelerate the gas exchange
process.

The rate of aeration of a gas is governed by the area of interface between the gas & the liquid, the
thickness of the interlayers, time of contact, the partial pressure of the gas in the overlying
atmosphere & the degree of undersaturation or oversaturation of the gas in the liquid.

If C denotes concentration of a gas in water, t denotes time of exposure, Cs is the saturation

concentration of the gas in water, C0 is the concentration of the gas in water at time t = 0 & Ct is the
concentration of the gas at any time t, then –
𝑑𝐶
= 𝐾𝑔 (𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝑡 ), where Kg is the constant of proportionality.
𝑑𝑡

∴ (𝐶𝑡 − 𝐶0 ) = (𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶0 )[1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝(−𝐾𝑔 𝑡)]

𝐴
𝐾𝑔 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑉
Where A is the area of interface, V is the volume of water and kg = gas transfer coefficient having
dimension per unit time.

For absorption of the gas in water, C0 < Ct < Cs & both (Ct – C0) & (Cs – C0) are positive.

For desorption of the gas from water, C0 > Ct > Cs & both (Ct – C0) & (Cs – C0) are negative.
To ensure proper aeration it is necessary:

(a) To increase the area of water in contact with the air. Thus, if the water is sprayed, the smaller
the droplets produced, the greater will be the area available. Similarly, if the water is being
made to fall as a film over packing material in a tower, the smaller the size of the packing
material, the greater will be the available area.
(b) To keep the surface of the liquid in constant agitation in order to reduce the thickness of the
liquid film which in turn governs the resistance offered to the rate of exchange of the gas.
(c) To increase the time of contact of water droplets with air or increase the time of flow. This
can be achieved by increasing the height of jet in case of spray aerators & increasing the height
of tower in the case of packed media.

Types of aerators

According to the mechanics of aeration, the two main types of aerators are:

(a) Those forming drops or thin sheets of water exposed to the atmosphere i.e. water is exposed
to come in contact with ambient air;
(b) Those forming small bubbles of air which rise in the water, i.e. air is brought in contact with
water.

Four types of aerators are in common use:

(a) Gravity aerators

(b) Spray aerators
(c) Diffusers
(d) Mechanical aerators.

Gravity aerators

These include the following –

(a) Cascades – in which the available fall is subdivided into a series of steps.
(b) Inclined planes – usually studded with riffle plates set into the planes in herringbone
fashion & breaking up the sheet of water that would otherwise form.
(c) Vertical stacks – through which droplets fall & updrafts of air ascend in counter current
flow.

Fig (Source.ques10.com). Cascade & inclined plane aerators.

Fig (Source.brainkart.com) Schematic diagram of vertical stack aerator.

Fig (Source.researchgate.net) Vertical stack aerator set up.

Spray aerators (or, Pressure aerators)

These spray droplets of water into the air from stationary or moving orifices or nozzles. A whirling
motion is imparted to the droplets that causes turbulence at the air – water interface.

Fig (Source.sciencedirect.com) Schematic diagram of spray aerator.

Air diffusers

Most air diffusers or injection aerators bubble compressed air into water through orifices or nozzles
in air piping or diffuser plates or tubes. Ascending bubbles acquire small terminal velocities than would
drops falling freely in air through the same distance. This increases the exposure time of air bubbles
but reduces turbulence at the bubble interface.

Fig (Source.slieshare.net) Set up for air diffuser.

Mechanical aerators

Of the various kinds of them, the following are of special interest –

(a) Submerged paddles

(b) Surface paddles or brushes
(c) Propeller blades
(d) Turbine blades.
 Fig (Source.web.deu.edu.tr). Surface paddle & turbine blade aerators.

Fig (Source.web.deu.edu.tr). Paddle aerator on horizontal shaft.

Design of gravity aerators

The controlling element in gravity aerators is the available head. It can be put to use in a single or in
multiple descent. At a given instant, the rate of free fall may be given as –

𝑑ℎ
= 𝑣 = 𝑔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
where h indicates the height of fall,

t indicates time,

v indicates velocity, &

g is the acceleration due to gravity.

Thus, using limits of integration –

ℎ 𝑡
∫ 𝑑ℎ = 𝑔 ∫ 𝑡𝑑𝑡
0 0
1
Or, ℎ= 𝑔𝑡 2
2
 2ℎ
It follows that in a single descent through a height h, the elapsed time is 𝑡 = √
𝑔

2ℎ 2𝑛ℎ
& that in n descents through the same vertical distance, 𝑡 = 𝑛√ =√
𝑛𝑔 𝑔

i.e. 𝑡 ∝ √𝑛

Prob. Find the time of exposure of water falling through a distance of 3m – (i) in a single descent, &
(ii) in four descents.

2𝑥3
Soln. (i) For n = 1, h = 3m; 𝑡 = √ = 0.78 sec.
9.81

(ii) For n = 4, √𝑛 = 2, t = 2 x 0.78 = 1.56 sec.

Sedimentation

In water treatment, sedimentation or the removal, by gravitational settling, of suspended particles

heavier than water is perhaps the most widely useful operation. When the impurities are separated
from the suspending fluid by the action of natural forces alone i.e. by gravitation & natural aggregation
of settling particles, the operation is called plain sedimentation. When chemical or other substances
are added to induce or hasten aggregation & settling of finely divided suspended matter, colloidal
substances & large molecules, the operation is called coagulation. When chemicals are added to
throw dissolved impurities out of solution, the operation is described as chemical precipitation.

Settling may be of four types –

(a) Discrete settling

(b) Hindered settling
(c) Zone settling
(d) Compression.

Discrete settling is gravity separation of non-flocculating discrete particles (ones that maintain their
individual characteristics) in a dilute suspension. Under such circumstances the settling is unhindered
& a function only of fluid properties & the characteristics of the particle.

In hindered settling, heavier solids having greater settling velocities overtake & coalesce with smaller,
lighter solids to form still larger floc with increasing rates of subsidence. The opportunity for contact
among the settling solids increases with depth. As a result, removal of suspended solids depends not
only on the clarification rate but also on the depth of the tank, which is an important difference
between discrete type & hindered type of settling.
Zone settling is when a suspension settles as a blanket without interparticle movement, i.e. individual
particles of all size move downward at the same velocity. The coalescence of the suspended solids
occurs during hindered settling of a sufficiently high concentration of flocculent particles.

In compression type, consolidation of sediment at the bottom of the basin is extremely time
consuming because the fluid displaced must flow through an ever – decreasing pore space between
particles. The rate of settlement decreases with time due to increased resistance to flow of the liquid.
The porosity of deposited sediment is at a maximum in the lowest portion of the sludge blanket, due
to compression resulting from the weight of supported particles above & because of the consolidation
time for this lowest portion is also the greatest.

Fig (Source.researchgate.net) Different types of settling of particles.

Settling velocity of discrete particles

A discrete particle is one that, in settling, does not alter its size, shape or weight. In falling freely
through a quiescent fluid, such a particle accelerates until the frictional resistance, or drag, of the fluid
equals the impelling force acting upon the particle. Thereafter, the particle settles at a uniform
(terminal) velocity, which is an important hydraulic characteristic of the particle.

The driving force, which is the net effect of the particle weight acting downward & the buoyant force
of the fluid acting upward, is given by –

F = g (ρs – ρ) V,

Where, F = driving force,

g = acceleration due to gravity,

ρs = density of the particle,

ρ = density of water,

V = volume of the particle.

The drag force acting on a particle is a function of the water density & viscosity, settling velocity of the
particle, & a characteristic dimension of the particle. A dimensionally derived relationship for drag
force is –

FD = CD A ρ (v2 / 2)

Where, FD = drag force,

CD = drag coefficient (Newton’s drag coefficient),

A = projected area of the particle in the direction of motion,

v = settling velocity.

When driving force equals drag force, the particle reaches the terminal velocity.

𝑣2
Thus, 𝑔(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)𝑉 = 𝐶𝐷 . 𝐴. 𝜌.
2

2𝑔(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)𝑉
Or, 𝑣 = √ --------------------- (i)
𝐶𝐷 .𝐴.𝜌
4
For a spherical particle of radius r, volume V = 𝜋𝑟 3 and surface area A = 𝜋𝑟 2
3
𝑉 4 2
Thus, = 𝑟= 𝑑 where, d = diameter of the particle.
𝐴 3 3

For Reynold’s number (R) < 0.5, i.e. for laminar flow,

CD = 24/R
 24𝜇 𝜌𝑣𝑑 𝑣𝑑 𝜇
= [as 𝑅 = = , where 𝜗 = kinematic viscosity =
𝜌𝑣𝑑 𝜇 𝜗 𝜌

24𝜗
=
𝑣𝑑

From eq. (i), we have –

2 𝑣𝑑
𝑣 = √2𝑔(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌). 𝑑.
3 24𝜗𝜌

𝑣𝑑
Or, 𝑣 2 = 𝑔(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌). 𝑑.
18𝜗𝜌

𝑔𝑑2
Or, 𝑣 = (𝑠𝑠 − 1) , where Ss = specific gravity of the particle.
18𝜗
This is known as Stoke’s law.
Part – 15

Since kinematic viscosity depends on temperature, the equation as per Stoke’s law is also expressed
in an alternative form by introducing temperature T in place of kinematic viscosity as –

3𝑇 + 70
𝑉𝑠 = 418(𝑆𝑠 − 1)𝑑2 ( )
100
Where, Vs = settling velocity of particle in mm/s;

d = diameter of particle in mm;

T = temperature of water in 0C; &

Ss = specific gravity of particle.

Prob. Find the settling velocity in water of spherical silica particles of sp. gr. = 2.65 & of 5 x 10 -3 cm in
diameter. Take kinematic viscosity = 1.010 x 10-2 cm2/sec.

Soln. From Stoke’s law –

981
𝑣= (2.65 − 1)(5 𝑥 10−3 )2 cm/s
18𝑥 1.01 𝑥 10−2

= 0.222 cm/s.

𝑣𝑑 0.222 𝑥 5 𝑥 10−3
Reynold’s number R = = = 1.1 𝑥 10−1 ; hence Stoke’s law applies.
𝜗 1.010 𝑥 10−2

Efficiency of an ideal settling basin

For convenience of discussion, a continuous flow basin can be divided into four zones:

(i) An inlet zone, in which influent flow & suspended matter disperse over the cross – section
at right angle to flow;
(ii) A settling zone, in which the suspended particles settle within the flowing water;
(iii) A bottom zone or sludge zone, in which the removed solids accumulate and from which
they are withdrawn as underflow; &
(iv) An outlet zone, in which the flow & remaining suspended particles assemble & are carried
to the effluent conduit.
 Fig (Source.semanticscholar.org) Zones in an ideal settling tank.

In order to formulate sedimentation in continuous flow basins, certain simplifying assumptions must
be introduced. These may be stated as –

(a) Within the settling zone, sedimentation takes place exactly as in a quiescent container of the
same depth;
(b) Flow is steady &, upon entering the settling zone, the concentration of suspended particles of
each size is uniform throughout the cross section at right angles to flow;
(c) Once in the sludge zone, particles ae removed from the tank.

Theoretical flow through a rectangular sedimentation tank

Fig (Source.sciencedirect.com) Settling of particle in settling zone of ideal settling tank.

Let us have a tank of length L, water depth y, breadth b & let the inflow rate be Q ( = outflow for a
continuous flow tank).

Let us take a particle entering the tank to have a vertical falling speed V.

Then speed of horizontal flow = 𝑄/(𝑏𝑦)

 𝐿 (𝑳𝒃𝒚) 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
And time of horizontal flow = = =
𝑄/(𝑏𝑦) 𝑸 𝑄

= Hydraulic retention time (HRT).

𝑦
Now, time of falling by a distance y = & for the particle to reach the bottom before the water leaves
𝑉
the tank, the time of fall must equal the time of horizontal flow.
𝑦 (𝐿𝑏𝑦)
Thus, =
𝑉 𝑄
𝑄 𝑸
Or, 𝑽 = = where A = surface area of the tank.
𝐿𝑏 𝑨

𝑄
is called the overflow velocity for the tank & it is a measure of the theoretical intention of such a
𝐴
𝑄
tank to remove all particles having a settling velocity ≥ & the rest in proportion to the ratio of their
𝐴
𝑄
settling velocity to .
𝐴

Fig (Source.slideshare.net) Sedimentation of particle in an ideal settling tank.

Now for another particle of dia. ds and settling velocity v (as shown in the above figure), h = v.t

Thus, fraction of removal of the particles having dia. ds (having settling velocity < v0) = h/H.

Then time of flow = H/v0 = h/v ,

Or, v/v0 = h/H.

 Fig (Source.engineeringenotes.com). Function of a rectangular continuous flow settling tank.

Removal efficiency of discrete suspension

If xs is the fraction of particles with a settling velocity Vs’ < the surface overflow rate, then the fraction
of particles with settling velocity Vs’ ≥ the surface overflow rate will be equal to (1 – xs) which will be
entirely removed. Further the fraction of particles with settling velocity Vs’ < the surface overflow rate,
which will be removed is obtained as –
𝑥𝑠
1
∫ 𝑉𝑠 ′ 𝑑𝑥
𝑄
[ ] 0
𝑏𝐿
The overall removal R of the discrete particles of different sizes & densities present in water as
suspended particles is then given by –
𝑥𝑠
1
𝑅 = (1 − 𝑥𝑠 ) + ∫ 𝑉𝑠 ′ 𝑑𝑥
𝑄
[ ] 0
𝑏𝐿
For determining the second term in the above equation, a curve indicating cumulative distribution of
particle settling velocity is drawn by plotting fraction of particles with less than stated settling velocity
against the settling velocity as shown in the figure below.

Fig (Source.engineeringnotes.com) Cumulative distribution of particle settling velocity.

The integration of the shaded portion of the curve then gives the value of the second term. The actual
calculations are usually performed by graphical integration by taking finite number of points on the
distribution curve as shown in the following expression –

1
𝑅 = (1 − 𝑥𝑠 ) + ∑ 𝑉𝑠 ′ ∆𝑥
𝑄/(𝑏𝐿)

Prob. Find the surface area needed in a settling tank to remove 75% of particles with sp. gr. = 2.65,
dia. = 0.015 mm & Q = 5 MLD. Given, μ = 1.009 centipoise, ρ = 0.9952 gm/cc.

[ poise = gm mass/(cm – sec). 1 stoke = 1 cm2 / sec.]

Soln. 𝜗 = μ / ρ = (1.009 x 10-2) / (0.9952) = 1.01386 x 10-2 stoke

Given dia. of particle = 0.015mm = 0.0015 cm.

981 𝑥 (0.0015)2 𝑥 (2.65−1)

From Stoke’s law, settling velocity of the particle vs = cm/s
18 𝑥 1.01386 𝑥 10−2

≈ 0.02 cm/s.

If v be the optimum settling velocity for a particle to be settled in the tank (i.e. the overflow
velocity), then –

vs / v = 0.75 (given)
0.02
∴𝑣= = 0.027𝑐𝑚/𝑠
0.75

5 𝑥 106 𝑥 103
∴ Surface area of the tank = Q / v =
24 𝑥 60 𝑥 60 𝑥 0.027
= 2143347 cm2

= 214.3347 m2.

Period of detention

For plain settling tanks, the detention time (or HRT) varies from 3 – 4 hrs. while for coagulated water
it would be 2 – 2½ hrs.

Tank dimensions

It is desirable in rectangular tanks to have the length 3 – 4 times the width & the ratio could be
increased with beneficial results particularly in larger tanks. Though lengths upto 30m is common,
larger lengths upto 100m have also been adopted.
The depth of the settling tank depends on the character of the sludge handled, storage capacity
required & cost. Depths commonly used in practice vary from 2½ - 4m.

Surface loading

The removal of particles of varying hydraulic subsidence values is a function of surface area & is
independent of the depth of the tank. For effective settling, the overflow rate should not exceed the
hydraulic subsidence value of the particles required to be removed. In horizontal flow (circular)
settling the surface loading rates usually vary from 30 – 40 m3/d/m2.

Weir loading = Q / length of the peripheral weir (at the outlet end of the tank).

Fig (Source.web.deu.edu.tr) Typical sectional elevation of a circular sedimentation tank.

Fig (Source.mrwa.com) Typical plan view of a circular sedimentation tank.

Fig (Source.friulanacostruzioni.it). Plan view of arrangement of scraper blades.

Fig (Source.cityofcamarillo.org). A circular sedimentation tank in operation.

Part – 16

Prob. Calculate the size of a rectangular tank to treat 1.8 MLD of raw water. The detention period may
be assumed as 4 hrs. & overflow rate less than 40 m3/d/m2. Also consider the following:

(a) Total depth of the tank = 4m;

(b) B : L = 1 : 4
(c) Allowance of depth for sludge deposit = 0.4m.

Soln. Volume of water to be treated daily = 1.8 x 106 lit = 1.8 x 103 m3.

1.8 𝑥 103 𝑥 4
Volume of water to be treated in the tank = = 300 m3. [ As HRT = V/Q so, V = HRT x Q
24
Allowing 0.4m for sludge deposit, effective depth = 4 – 0.4 = 3.6m

Plan area of the tank = 300 / 3.6 = 83.3 m2.

Given B/L = 1 / 4.

Thus 4B2 = 83.3

Or, B = 4.56m; then L = 4 x 4.56 = 18.24 m.

Let us provide a size of 18m x 4.5m

1.8 𝑥 103
Then overflow rate provided = = 22.22 m3/d/m2 < 40m3/d/m2 , hence ok.
18 𝑥 4.5

Prob. The maximum daily demand at a water treatment plant is estimated as 12 MLD. Design the
dimensions of a suitable sedimentation tank for the raw supplies, assuming a detention period of 4
hrs. & velocity of flow as 20cm/min. Take the overflow rate as 40 m3/d/m2 and L/B ≥ 4.

Soln. If Q be the discharge, B be the width & L be the length of the tank then –
𝑄
Overflow rate = = 40 (given)
𝐵𝐿
Q = 12 x 106 l/d = 12 x 103 m3/d

12 𝑥 103
Then BL = = 300 m2
40
Given velocity of flow = 20 cm/min = 0.2 m/min.

Then, length of the tank to be provided = 0.2 x 4 x 60 = 48 m.

∴ B = 300/48 = 6.25 m.
Required capacity of the tank = quantity of water to be treated during the HRT of 4 hrs.

12 𝑥 103 𝑥 4
= m3 = 2000 m3.
24
Depth of the tank = 2000 / (48 x 6.25) = 6.67 m.

Let us take depth = 4 m.

∴ Surface area = 2000 / 4 = 500 m2

∴ Width = 500 / 48 = 10.4 m. ∴ L/B = 48/10.4 > 4
12 𝑥 103
∴ Overflow rate = Q / (BL) = = 24 m3/d/m2 < 40 m3/d/m2; hence ok.
500

Prob. A water sample gave on analysis the following particle size distribution.

Dia. of particle % by wt. Settling velocity (cm/s)

d1 15 0.3
d2 30 0.35
d3 35 0.4
d4 20 0.45
The size of the settling basin = 3.66m x 16.46m and the flow = 20.46 MLD. Determine the efficiency of
settling in the settling tank.

Soln. Overflow rate or the settling velocity of the optimum size of particle

20.46 𝑥 106 𝑥 10−3

= = 3.93 x 10-3 m/s = 0.39 cm/s
3.66 𝑥 16.46 𝑥 24 𝑥 60 𝑥 60

Dia. of % by wt. Settling velocity Fraction removed of Total removed of

particle (cm/s) each size each size (%)
d1 15 0.3 (0.3/0.39) = 0.769 0.769 x 15 = 11.53
d2 30 0.35 (0.35/0.39) = 0.897 0.897 x 30 = 26.91
d3 35 0.4 1 35
d4 20 0.45 1 20
Total 93.44

Thus, the efficiency of the settling basin = 93.44%.

Prob. 2 MLD water is passing through a sedimentation tank which is 6m wide x 15m long & having a
water depth of 3m.

(a) Find the detention time for the tank;

(b) What is the average velocity of flow through the tank?
(c) If 60 mg/l is the concentration of suspended solids present in the raw water, how much dry
solids will be deposited per day in the tank, assuming 70% removal in the basin & average sp.
gr. of the deposit = 2.
(d) Compute the overflow rate.
Soln. (a) Capacity of the tank = 15 x 6 x 3 = 270 m3.

Discharge passing through the tank = 2 MLD = 2 x 106 l/d = 2 x 103 m3/d

= (2 x 103)/24 m3/hr.

270
∴ Detention time = volume / discharge = 2 𝑥 103
hr. = 3.24 hr.
24

(b) Average velocity of flow through the tank = Discharge / cross sectional area of entry

2 𝑥 103
24
= m/hr.
6𝑥3
= 4.6296296 m/hr

= (4.6296296 x 100) / 60 cm/min

= 7.7 cm/min.

(c) Quantity of suspended solids entering the tank per day = 2 x 106 x 60 mg

∴ Amount of dry solids to be deposited = (2 x 106 x 60 x 0.7)/ 106 kg

= 84 kg.

(d) Overflow rate = discharge / plan area

= (2 x 103) / (6 x 15)

= 22.22 m3/d/m2.

Coagulation – flocculation

Theory of coagulation

Colloidal dispersions in water consist of discrete particles held in suspension by their extremely small
size (1mµ - 1µ), state of chemical combination with water, & surface electric charge. The size of
particles is the most significant property responsible for the stability of a sol (i.e. a colloidal dispersion
in a liquid). With larger particles, the ratio of surface area to mass is low & mass effects e.g.
sedimentation due to gravity, predominate. For colloids the surface area to mass ratio is high & surface
effects e.g. electrostatic repulsion etc. become important.

There are two types of colloids – hydrophilic & hydrophobic. Hydrophilic colloids are readily dispersed
in water & their stability (i.e. lack of tendency to agglomerate) depends on a marked affinity for water
rather than on the slight charge (usually negative) that they possess. Examples of hydrophilic colloidal
materials are soaps, synthetic detergents etc.

Hydrophobic colloids possess no affinity for water & their stability is due to the electric charge they
possess. Metal oxide colloids (most of which are positively charged) are samples of hydrophobic sols,
A charge on the colloid is gained by absorbing positive ions from the water solution. Electrostatic
repulsion between the charged colloidal particles produce a stable sol.

The concept of zeta potential is derived from the diffuse double – layer theory applied to hydrophobic
colloids. A fixed covering of positive ions is attracted to the negatively charged particle by electrostatic
attraction. This stationary zone of positive ions is referred to as the stern layer, which is surrounded
by a movable, diffuse layer of counterions. The concentration of these positive ions in the diffuse zone
decreases as it extends into the surrounding bulk of electroneutral solution. Zeta potential is the
magnitude of the charge at the surface of shear. The boundary surface between the fixed ion layer &
the solution serves as a shear plane when the particle undergoes movement relative to the solution.
The zeta potential magnitude ‘ζ’ can be given by –

4𝜋𝛿𝑞
ζ=
𝐷
in which q is the charge on the particle (or the charge difference between the particle & the body of
the solution), 𝛿 is the thickness of the layer around the particle through which the charge difference
is effective, and D is the dielectric constant of the medium.

Fig (Source.analytik.co.uk). Zeta potential.

The zeta potential is thus a measure both of the charge on a colloidal particle & of the distance into
the solution to which the effect of the charge extends. Hydrophobic colloids are stable so long as the
zeta potential exceeds a critical value. If it drops below this value, coagulation tends to occur, slowly
in the immediate neighbourhood of the critical zeta potential & more rapidly the nearer it gets to zero.
Factors tending to destabilise a sol are Van der Waals’ forces of attraction & Brownian movement.
Van der Waals’ forces are the molecular cohesive forces of attraction that increase in intensity as the
particles approach each other. these forces are negligible when the particles are slightly separated but
become dominant when particles contact. Brownian movement is the random motion of colloids
caused by their collision with molecules of the dispersion medium. This movement has a destabilising
effect on a sol because aggregation may result.

Destabilisation of hydrophobic colloids can be accomplished by adding electrolytes to the solution.

Counterions of the electrolyte suppress the double layer charge of the colloids sufficiently to permit
particles to contact. As the particles meet, Van der Waals’ forces of attraction become dominant &
aggregation results.

In destabilising colloids, two basic mechanisms have been described as helping form sufficiently large
aggregates to facilitate settling from suspension. The first, referred to as coagulation, reduces the net
electrical repulsive forces at particle surfaces by electrolytes in solution. The second mechanism called
flocculation, is aggregation by chemical bridging between particles.
Part – 17

Coagulation concerns the series of chemical & mechanical operations by which coagulants are applied
& made effective. These operations are considered to consist of two distinct phases –

(i) Rapid mixing, wherein the dissolved coagulant is rapidly dispersed throughout the water
being treated, usually by violent agitation, &
(ii) Flocculation, involving agitation of the water at lower velocities for a much longer period,
during which very small particles grow & agglomerate / combine into well defined flocs of
sufficient size to settle readily.

Removal of turbidity by coagulation depends on the nature & concentration of the colloids, type &
dosage of chemical coagulant, chemical characteristics of the water e.g. pH, temperature & ionic
character. Because of the complex nature of coagulation reactions, chemical treatment of water
supplies is based primarily on empirical data derived from laboratory & field studies (Jar tests).

Fig (Source.open.edu). Schematic diagram of coagulation – flocculation tank.

Fig (Source.sciencedirect.com). Schematic diagram of clariflocculator.

Fig (Source.exportersindia.com). Typical sectional elevation of a clariflocculator (peripheral driven)

Fig (Source.thewatertreatments.com). A typical clariflocculator in operation.

Fig (Source.becbapatla.ac.in:8080). Jar test set up.

 Fig (Source.researchgate.net). Typical observation in a jar test.

Common coagulants

(i) Alum / Filter alum [ Al2(SO4)3 . 18H2O]

(ii) Ferrous sulphate (Copperas) [FeSO4 . 7H2O]
(iii) Chlorinated copperas
(iv) Sodium aluminate [NaAlO2]

(i) Alum: Effective pH range is 5.5 – 8.0.

Al2(SO4)3 . 18H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2 ------------- 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2 + 18H2O

Natural alkalinity

Al2(SO4)3 . 18H2O + 3Ca(OH)2 ------------- 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 18H2O

Al2(SO4)3 . 18H2O + 3Na2CO3 ------------- 2Al(OH)3 + 3Na2SO4 + 3CO2 + 18H2O

(ii) Copperas:

FeSO4. 7H2O + Ca(OH)2 ------------- Fe(OH)2 + CaSO4 + 7H2O

4Fe(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O ------------- 4Fe(OH)3

(iii) Chlorinated copperas:

6FeSO4 . 7H2O + 3Cl2 ------------- 2Fe2(SO4)3 + 2FeCl3 + 42H2O

Fe2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(OH)2 ------------- 3CaSO4 + 2Fe(OH)3

2FeCl3 + 3Ca(OH)2 ------------- 3CaCl2 + 2Fe(OH)3

For iron salts, pH range: 4 – 9.

Prob. Determine the quantity of alum required in order to treat 12MLD of water at a treatment plant,
where 16mg/l of alum dose is required. Also determine the amount of CO2 gas that will be released
per litre of water treated. [Take mol. wt. of Al = 27, S = 32, O = 16, H = 1, Ca = 40 & C = 12]

Soln. Weight of alum required per day = (16 x 12 x 106) / 106 = 192 kg.

Al2(SO4)3 . 18H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2 ------------- 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2 + 18H2O

Molecular weight of alum = (2 x 27) + (32 + 4x16) x 3 + (1x2 + 16) x 18 = 666.

Molecular weight of CO2 = (12 + 2x16) = 44.

From the above equation,

666 mg of alum releases (6x44) mg of CO2

∴ 16mg of alum releases (6x44x16)/666 = 6.34 mg of CO2 per lit. of water.

Prob. A water treatment plant treating 50MLD of water requires 20mg/l of filter alum. If the water
has 6mg/l of alkalinity as CaCO3, determine the quantity of filter alum & quicklime required per year.
[Take mol. wt. of Al = 27, S = 32, O = 16, H = 1, Ca = 40 & C = 12]

Soln. Alum required per day = (50 x 106 x 20) / 106 = 1000kg.

∴ Alum required per year = (1000 x 365)/1000 = 365 t.

Al2(SO4)3 . 18H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2 ------------- 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2 + 18H2O

CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 = Ca(HCO3)2

CaCO3 = CaO + CO2

Molecular wts. of –

(i) Al2(SO4)3 . 18H2O = (2x27) + (32 + 4x16)x3 + (1x2 + 16)x18 = 666.

(ii) Ca(HCO3)2 = 40 + (1 + 12 + 3x16)x2 = 162.
(iii) CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (16x3) = 100.
(iv) CaO = 40 + 16 = 56.

So, from the above equations, for every 666 parts of alum, the required natural alkalinity is (3x162)
parts & that requires (3x100) parts of alkalinity as CaCO3.

∴ Alkalinity required = (20 x 50 x 106) x (300 / 666) mg/d as CaCO3

= 450450450.5 mg/d as CaCO3

= 450 kg/d as CaCO3.

Natural alkalinity available = (6 x 50 x 106 )/106 = 300 kg/d as CaCO3

∴ Alkalinity required = (450 – 300) kg/d as CaCO3

 = 150 kg/d as CaCO3.

∴ CaO required = (56/100) x 150 = 84 kg/d

∴ Yearly requirement of CaO = 84 x 365 = 30660 kg = 30.66 t.

Prob. A coagulation sedimentation plant clarifies 50 MLD of water. The raw water has an alkalinity
equivalent to 4mg/l of CaCO3. The filter alum required at the plant is 20mg/l. Determine the filter alum
& the quick lime (containing 88% of CaO) required per year by the plant. [Take mol. wt. of Al = 27, S =
32, O = 16, H = 1, Ca = 40 & C = 12]

Soln. Alum required per day = (50 x 106 x 20) / 106 = 1000kg.

∴ Alum required per year = (1000 x 365)/1000 = 365 t.

Al2(SO4)3 . 18H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2 ------------- 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2 + 18H2O

CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 = Ca(HCO3)2

CaCO3 = CaO + CO2

Molecular wts. of –

(i) Al2(SO4)3 . 18H2O = (2x27) + (32 + 4x16)x3 + (1x2 + 16)x18 = 666.

(ii) Ca(HCO3)2 = 40 + (1 + 12 + 3x16)x2 = 162.
(iii) CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (16x3) = 100.
(iv) CaO = 40 + 16 = 56.

So, from the above equations, for every 666 parts of alum, the required natural alkalinity is (3x162)
parts & that requires (3x100) parts of alkalinity as CaCO3.

∴ Alkalinity required = 20 x (300 / 666) mg/l as CaCO3

= 9.01 mg/l as CaCO3

Natural alkalinity available = 4 mg/l as CaCO3

∴ Alkalinity required = (9.01 – 4) mg/l as CaCO3

= 5.01 mg/l as CaCO3.

∴ CaO required = (56/100) x 5.01 = 2.806 mg/l

As commercially available quick lime contains 88% of CaO, hence quick lime required = 2.806x100/88

= 3.188 mg/l.

∴ Yearly requirement of CaO = (3.188 x 50 x 106)/106] x 365 = 58181 kg ≈ 58.2 t.

Temporal mean velocity gradient

The driving forces for coagulation are –

(i) A lowering of the zeta potential;

(ii) A neutralisation of charge by oppositely charged hydrous oxide colloids formed by the
reaction of the coagulant with ions in water.

The colloids that are important for coagulation are –

(i) Those present in water (or w.w) to be treated;

(ii) Those formed by the added coagulant.

Temporal mean velocity gradient G in a shearing fluid is given by,

𝑑𝑣
𝐺= ,
𝑑𝑦

i.e. G is the difference in velocity dv in a given distance dy at right angles to the direction of flow.
1
It can be shown that 𝑁 = 𝑛′ 𝑛′′ ( 𝐺) (𝑑′ + 𝑑 ′′ )3 ,
6

Where N = the number of contacts per unit time per unit volume,

n’ & n’’ = number of particles per unit volume of water with diameters d’ & d’’ respectively.

Thus, N α G.
Part – 18

Fig. Shear forces along parallel planes of an elemental volume of a fluid.

Here let p be the intensity of pressure, τ be the intensity of shear & Δx, Δy & Δz be the dimensions of
the cube.

Then equating the forces acting on the fluid element in shear in one direction to those acting in the
opposite direction,
dτ dp
p. ∆y. ∆z + (τ + . ∆y) ∆x. ∆z = τ. ∆x. ∆z + (p + . ∆x) ∆y. ∆z
dy dx
𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝑝
or, 𝑝. ∆𝑦. ∆𝑧 + 𝜏. ∆𝑥. ∆𝑧 + . ∆𝑦. ∆𝑥. ∆𝑧 = 𝜏. ∆𝑥. ∆𝑧 + 𝑝. ∆𝑦. ∆𝑧 + . ∆𝑥. ∆𝑦. ∆𝑧
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝑝
or, =
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

Since the power P’ expended, or the rate at which work is done by the couple, equals the torque
times dv/dy,
𝑑𝑣
𝑃′ = (𝜏. ∆𝑥. ∆𝑧). ∆𝑦. ,
𝑑𝑦

where v indicates velocity.

Thus, power consumption per unit volume, P is given by –

𝑃′
𝑃=
∆𝑥. ∆𝑦. ∆𝑧
𝑑𝑣
= 𝜏.
𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣
= 𝜇. ( ) [As 𝜏 = 𝜇. by definition; µ = dynamic viscosity]
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑣
= 𝜇𝐺 2 [𝐺 = by definition; for good flocculation, G = 30 – 60 per sec;
𝑑𝑦
 GT = 30,000 – 60,000; T = 60 – 120 sec. ]

𝑃
∴ 𝐺 = √𝜇
So, no. of revolution, N α P and N α (1/μ)

Now for baffled channels of length ‘l’ & c/s area ‘a’ in which a loss of head ‘h’ is incurred by a flow
‘Q’ of water with unit weight ‘w’,

𝑄. 𝑤. ℎ
𝑃=
𝑎. 𝑙
𝑤.ℎ
= (𝑣. 𝑎). (𝑎.𝑙)
𝑣.𝑤.ℎ
=
𝑙
𝑤.ℎ 𝜌.𝑔.ℎ
= 𝑣. 𝜌. 𝑔. 𝑠 = = [ v = 0.09 – 0.9 m/s; h = 0.3 – 0.9m.
𝑡 𝑡

𝑣.𝜌.𝑔.𝑠
Or, 𝐺 = √
𝜇

𝑣. 𝑔. 𝑠
= √
𝜗
𝑔.ℎ
= √
𝜗.𝑡

Here, ρ = mass density of the fluid.

g = acceleration due to gravity,

ϑ = kinematic viscosity of fluid,

s = slope of the water surface, &

t = period of detention. [In practice, v = 0.3 – 3 fps, t = 10 – 90min, h = 1 – 3ft.

For mechanical mixers, operated by paddles, the useful power input is a function of the drag of the
paddles. If D be the drag, CD be the coefficient of drag for plates moved face – on to the fluid, A is the
area of paddles, v is the velocity of paddles relative to that of fluid & V is the volume of the flocculator,

𝑣2
𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴. 𝜌.
2
𝑣2 𝑣 𝑣3
Thus, power per unit volume, 𝑃 = (𝐶𝐷 𝐴. 𝜌. ) . = 𝐶𝐷 . 𝐴. 𝜌. = 𝜇. 𝐺 2
2 𝑉 2𝑉

𝐶𝐷 .𝐴.𝑣 3
∴ 𝐺= √
2.𝜗.𝑉
In practice, peripheral speed of paddles = 3 – 0.3 fps = 0.9 – 0.09 m/s.

Let vp = velocity of the tip of the paddles,

vw = velocity of water adjacent to the tip of the paddle,

vr = relative velocity of impeller & fluid = vp - vw

k = ratio of fluid velocity vw to paddle velocity vp,

then vr = vp – vw = vp – k.vp = (1 – k).vp

Prob. (Ref1). Design a mechanical rapid mix unit for a design flow to be treated equal to 300m3/h.
Consider the following data:

(a) Detention time = 30 sec;

(b) G = 600/sec;
(c) Rotational speed of the impeller = 125rpm;
(d) Ratio of tank height to diameter = 1.5 : 1;
(e) Ratio of impeller diameter to tank diameter = 0.4 : 1;
(f) µ = 1.0087 x 10-3 (at 200C);
(g) k = ratio of water velocity to paddle velocity = 0.25;
(h) Density of water = 998 kg/m3;
(i) CD = 1.8 (for blades);
(j) Free board = 0.2m;
(k) No. of blades = 6;
(l) Length of blade : width of blade = 1.33 : 1.

Soln. (a) Determination of dimensions of the tank

Volume of the tank = flow x detention time

300 𝑥 30
= = 2.5 m3
3600
If D be the diameter of the tank then height of the tank = 1.5D (given)
𝜋
∴ (4 𝑥𝐷2 ) . (1.5𝐷) = 2.5

3 4 𝑥 2.5
Or, D = √ = 1.285m
𝜋 𝑥 1.5

Let us provide tank dia. = 1.3m

∴ Depth of tank = 1.3 x 1.5 = 1.95m

Providing the free board (given), total depth of tank = 1.95 + 0.2 = 2.15m
(b) Computation of power requirement

Total power requirement, P = G2.µ.V

= (600)2 x 1.0087 x 10-3 x 2.5

≈ 908 watts.

(c) Determination of dimensions of flat blades & impeller

Dia. of impeller = 0.4 x tank dia. (given)

= 0.4 x 1.3 = 0.52m

If n be the speed of impeller in rpm, r is the radius of the impeller, then –

2𝑥𝜋𝑥𝑟𝑥𝑛
Velocity at the tip of impeller = m/s
60
0.52
2𝑥𝜋𝑥( )𝑥 125
2
= = 3.40 m/s
60
𝑣3
Again, 𝑃 = (𝐶𝐷 𝐴. 𝜌. )
2

Where P = total power spent;

CD = coeff. of drag = 1.8 (given);

A = area of blades;

ρ = density of water = 998 kg/m3 (given);

v = vr = (1 – k)vp = (1 – 0.25)x3.40 = 2.55m/s;

2𝑥𝑃
Then 𝐴 =
𝐶𝐷 𝑥 𝜌 𝑥 𝑣 3
2 𝑥 908
=
1.8 𝑥 998 𝑥 2.553

= 0.06097 m2
Providing 6 nos. of blades (given), area of each blade = 0.06097/6 = 0.01m2.

Let the width of blade = B

Then, 1.33xB2 = 0.01

Or, B ≈ 0.09m; then length of blade = 1.33 x 0.09 ≈ 0.12m.

So, provided 6 blades of size = 12cm x 9cm.

Filtration

This is used to separate non-settleable solids from water by passing through a porous medium.

Gravity granular media filtration

Gravity filtration through beds of granular media is the most common method of removing colloidal
impurities in water processing.

The mechanisms involved in removing suspended solids in a granular media filter are complex,
consisting of interception, straining, flocculation & sedimentation. Initially surface straining &
interstitial removal results in accumulation of deposits in the upper portion of the filter media.
Because of the reduction in pore area, the velocity of water through the remaining voids increases,
shearing off pieces of captured floc & carrying impurities deeper into the filter bed. The effective zone
of removal passes deeper & deeper into the filter. Turbulence & the resulting increased particle
contact within the pores promote flocculation, resulting in trapping of the larger floc particles.
Eventually, clean bed depth is no longer available & breakthrough occurs, carrying solids out in the
underflow & causing termination of the filter run.

Microscopic particulate matter in raw water that has not been chemically treated will pass through
the relatively larger pores of a filter bed. On the other hand, suspended solids fed to a filter with excess
coagulant carry over from chemical treatment produces clogging of the bed – pores at the surface.
Optimum filtration occurs when impurities in the water & coagulant concentration cause ‘in-depth’
filtration. The impurities neither pass through the bed nor are all strained out on the surface, but a
significant amount of flocculated solids is removed throughout the entire depth of the filter.

Filter media

Broadly speaking, filter media should have the following qualities:

(i) Coarse enough to retain large quantities of floc;

(ii) Sufficiently fine to prevent passage of suspended solids;
(iii) Deep enough to allow relatively long filter runs; &
(iv) Graded to permit backwashing.

A filter medium is defined by effective size & uniformity coefficient. The effective size is the 10 –
percentile diameter i.e. 10% by weight of the filter material is less than this diameter. The uniformity
coefficient is the ratio of the 60 – percentile dia. to the 10 – percentile dia. Thus,
𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 60% 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Uniformity coefficient = (by weight)
𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 10% 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

Backwashing

Filtration process can be stopped because of a low rate of filtration, passage of excess turbidity
through the bed, or ‘air binding’. As head loss (total head available for filtration is equal to the
difference between the elevation of the water surface above the filter media & the water level in the
clear well where filtered water is stored.) increases across the bed, the lower portion of the filter is
under a partial vacuum. This negative head permits the release of dissolved gases, which tend to fill
the pores of the filter, causing air binding & reducing the rate of filtration.

The amount of water used in backwashing varies from 2% - 4% of the filtered water. During
backwashing the bed of filter media is expanded hydraulically (about 50%) & the released impurities
are carried in the wash water.

The granular media are thoroughly mixed in the agitated, turbulent flow of an expanded bed during
backwashing. When the upward flow of wash water is stopped, the suspended grains settle down to
form a stratified bed with the finest grains on the top.

Fluidisation is defined as upward flow through a granular bed at sufficient velocity to suspend the
grains in the water. During the process of fluidisation, the upward flow overcomes the gravitational
force on the grains, & the energy loss is due to fluid motion.

Types of filter

(a) Slow sand filter

(b) Rapid sand filter – (i) Gravity type; (ii) Pressure type.

The two types of sand filters differ hydraulically & structurally –

(a) Because the filter beds are intended to be operated either at relatively low rates or at
relatively high rates, &
(b) Because penetration of suspended matter & its subsequent removal during cleaning
operations are purposely confined to the surface layer of ‘slow’ filters, whereas substantially
the full depth of ‘rapid’ filters is intended to contribute to purification.

Fig (Source.slideshare.net). Sectional elevation of a typical slow sand gravity filter.

Schmutzdecke is a hypogeal biological layer formed on the surface of a slow sand filter. The
schmutzdecke is the layer that provides the effective purification in potable water treatment, the
underlying sand providing the support medium for this biological treatment layer.
Part – 19

Fig (Source.repository.lboro.ac.uk). Schematic diagram of a typical rapid sand gravity filter.

General features of construction & operation of slow sand & rapid sand gravity filters

Item Slow sand gravity filter Rapid sand gravity filter

Rate of filtration 1 – 4 – 10 MGD (3.785x103 – 100 – 125 – 200 MGD (3.785x105 –
1.514x104 – 3.785x104 m3/d) 4.731x105 – 7.57x105 m3/d)
Size of bed Large, ½ acre (2024.16 m2) Small, 1/100 to 1/10 acre (40.483 m2
– 404.83 m2)
Depth of bed 12 in. gravel; 42 in. of sand, 18 in. of gravel, 30 in. of sand or less.
generally reduced to 24 in. by
scraping.
Size of sand Eff. Size: 0.25 – 0.3 – 0.35mm; Eff. Size: 0.45mm or higher;
Uniformity coeff: 2 – 2.5 – 3. Uniformity coeff: 1.5 & lower.
Grain size Unstratified. Stratified with smallest grains at the
distribution of top & coarsest at the bottom.
sand in filter
Underdrainage Split tile laterals laid in coarse Perforated pipe laterals discharging
system stone & discharging into a tile or into main pipe.
concrete main drain.
Loss of head 0.06m initial – 1.22 m final. 0.3m initial – 2.7m final.
Length of run 20 – 30 – 60 days. 12 – 24 – 40 hr.
between cleanings
Penetration of Superficial. Deep.
suspended matter
Method of (a) Scraping off the surface layer of Scour by mechanical means, air or
cleaning sand & washing removed sand. water & removal of dislodged
(b) Washing surface sand in place suspended matter by upward flow or
by travelling washer. backwashing which stratifies the bed.
Amount of wash 0.2 – 0.6% of water filtered. 1 – 4 – 6% of water filtered.
water used in
cleaning sand
 Preparatory Generally confined to aeration, but Flocculation & sedimentation are
treatment of water could also include flocculation & common.
sedimentation.
Supplementary In absence of flocculation, confined Chlorination & other supplementary
treatment of water to chlorination. treatment are common.
Cost of Higher Lower
construction
Cost of operation Lower Higher
Rate of filtration 100 – 150 lph/m2 80 – 100 lpm/m2
Suitability Highly efficient in removing Less efficient in removing bacteria &
bacteria & turbidity (not more than turbidity than slow sand type.
50 JTU).

Underdrainage system

Fig (Source.en.wikipedia.org). Typical sectional view of underdrainage system in rapid sand filter.

Fig (Source.patentsencyclopedia.com). Typical details of underdrainage tile block & laterals.

Design of underdrainage system

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙

(i) ≤ 20.
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙

(ii) The cross-sectional area of the manifold (main drain) should be about twice the cross-
sectional area of the lateral drains.

(iii) The total cross-sectional area of the perforations should be about 0.2% of the total filter
area.

(iv) The cross-sectional area of a lateral drain should be about 2 – 4 times the total cross-
sectional area of perforations in it.

Pressure filter

Fig (Source.thewatertreatments.com). Typical pressure filter.

This based on the same principle as rapid sand gravity filters. Here water is passed through the filter
under pressure through a cylindrical tank, usually made up of steel or cast iron where the underdrain,
gravel & sand are placed. They are compact & can be prefabricated & moved to the site. Pre-treatment
is essential for them. The tank axis may be vertical or horizontal.

Pressure filters have the following disadvantages:

(a) In case of direct supply from pressure filters, it is not possible to provide adequate contact
time for chlorine.
 (b) The water under filtration & the sand bed are out of sight & it is not possible to observe the
effectiveness of the backwash or the degree of agitation during washing process.
(c) As the water is under pressure at the delivery end, on occasions when the pressure on the
discharge main is released suddenly, the entire sand bed might be disturbed violently with
disastrous results to the filter effluent.

Due to these disadvantages, pressure filters are not generally recommended for community water
supplies. However, they may be used for industrial needs.

Operational troubles (Ref.nptel.ac.in)

Besides air binding, the other two types are –

(a) Mud ball formation

The mud from the atmosphere usually accumulates on the sand surface to form a dense mat.
During inadequate washing this mud may sink down into the sand bed and stick to the sand
grains and other arrested impurities, thereby forming mud balls.

(b) Cracking of filters

The fine sand contained in the top layers of the filter bed shrinks and causes the development
of shrinkage cracks in the sand bed. With the use of filter, the loss of head and, therefore,
pressure on the sand bed goes on increasing, which further goes on widening these cracks.

Prob. Design a set of rapid sand gravity filters for treating water required for a population of 50,000;
the average rate of supply being 180 lpcd. The filters are rated to work @ 5000 lit/hr/m2. The
maximum permissible area for a single unit is 100m2. Take peaking factor = 1.8 & L:B = 1.5.

Soln. Maximum water demand / day = 50,000 x 180 x 1.8 lpd = 1.62 x 10 7 lpd.

Then, water demand / hr. = (1.62 x 107)/24 lph.

Given rate of filtration = 5000 lit/hr/m2.

So, area of filter beds required = (1.62 x 107) / (24 x 5000) m2 = 135 m2 > 100 m2

Let us provide two beds, each having an area of (135/2) = 67.5 m2.

Given L: B = 1.5.

So, 1.5B2 = 67.5

Or, B = 6.7m; thus, L = 1.5 x 6.7 = 10.05 m ≈ 10.1 m.

Thus, B x L = 6.7 x 10.1 = 67.67 m2 > 67.5 m2; hence the design is safe.
Filter run

Suspended solids deposited during the filtration process, in & on the sand bed is equal to that lost by
the flowing water. This is represented by:

𝐴. 𝐿. 𝜎 = 𝐴. 𝑉. 𝑇𝑒 (𝑆𝑖 − 𝑆𝑒 )

Where, A = surface area of the filter in m2;

L = thickness of sand bed in m;

σ = quantity of suspended matter deposited in mg/l of sand volume;

V = approach velocity of water in m/hr;

Te = effective filter run in hr;

Si = suspended solid present in inlet, mg/l;

Se = suspended solid present in outlet, mg/l.

Then the above equation reduces to –

𝑳. 𝝈
𝑻𝒆 =
𝑽. (𝑺𝒊 − 𝑺𝒆 )

Prob. A filter with an area of 10m2 is made to filter @ 100m3/hr. Inlet & outlet suspended matter are
60 & 5 respectively in mg/l. σ = 35 mg/l of sand volume & thickness of sand bed = 0.6m. Find the
effective filter run.

Soln. From the equation –

L. σ
Te =
V. (Si − Se )

0.6 𝑥 35
= 100 = 0.038 hr.
( )(60−5)
10

Head loss in a clean filter : Carmen – Kozeny Equation (Source.site.iugaza.edu.p)

ℎ 𝑘𝜇(1− 𝜀)2 𝑉 2
= ( ) 𝑣 ………………… (i)
𝐿 𝑔𝜌𝜀3 𝐴
𝑉 6
= …………………… (ii)
𝐴 ∅.𝑑

𝑄
𝑣= …………………….(iii)
𝐴𝑠

Where, k = dimensionless coefficient, 5 for sand, 6 for anthracite;

v = filtration rate m3/m2.d, or filtration velocity m/d; (to be converted to m/s as g = 9.81m/s2)

A = the grain surface area;

As = surface area of sand filter;

V = the grain volume;

𝜀 = filter porosity: around 0.40 for sand filter;

∅ = shape factor; 1 for spherical particles, 0.70 for sand;

𝜇 = dynamic viscosity, N-s/m2;

𝜌 = water density, kg/m3;

d = particle diameter, m;

h = head loss in clean filter, m.

Prob. A dual media filter is composed of 0.30 m anthracite (mean particle size 0.20mm) that is placed
over a 0.60 m layer of sand (mean particle size 0.70mm) with a filtration rate of 9.78 m/hr. Assume
grain sphericity ∅ = 0.75 & porosity = 0.40 for both. Estimate the headloss in the clean filter. Further
assume 𝜇 = 0.00113 N-s/m2 & 𝜌 = 1000kg/m3.

Soln. From Carmen – Kozeny equation, we have the expression for head loss as –

𝐿𝑘𝜇(1 − 𝜀 )2 𝑉 2
ℎ= ( ) 𝑣
𝑔𝜌𝜀 3 𝐴
v = 9.78m/h = 9.78/(60x60) = 0.00272 m/s.

Head loss in anthracite layer

2
0.30 𝑥 6 𝑥 0.00113 𝑥 (1 − 0.40)2 6
ℎ= ( ) 𝑥 0.00272
9.81 𝑥 1000 𝑥 0.403 0.75 𝑥 0.002
= 0.0508m
Head loss in sand layer

2
0.60 𝑥 5 𝑥 0.00113 𝑥 (1 − 0.40)2 6
ℎ= ( ) 𝑥 0.00272
9.81 𝑥 1000 𝑥 0.403 0.75 𝑥 0.007
= 0.0069m
Then, total head loss = 0.0508 + 0.0069 = 0.0577m.

Disinfection

The purpose of disinfecting drinking water is to destroy organisms (mainly pathogenic bacteria) that
cause diseases in man.

For practical purpose, water disinfectants should possess the following properties:

(a) They must destroy the kinds & number of pathogens that may be introduced into municipal
water & do so within a practicable period of time, an expected range of water temperature,
& possible fluctuations in composition, concentration & conditions of the water to be treated;
(b) They must be neither toxic to man & the domestic animals, nor unpalatable or otherwise
objectionable in required concentrations;
(c) They must be available at reasonable cost, & safe and easy to store, transport, handle & use;
(d) Their strength or concentration in treated water must be easily & quickly determinable;
(e) They must persist within disinfected water in sufficient concentrations to provide reasonable
residual protection against its possible recontamination before use.
Part – 20

Water can be disinfected by using –

(i) Heat – for boiling water before use;

(ii) Light – UV light serves the purpose;
(iii) Chemicals – which comprise of – (a) Cl2, (ii) O3, (iii) KMnO4 & (iv) H2O2.

Among these Cl2 is the most widely used disinfectant.

The factors governing chemical disinfection may be described as –

(a) The nature of the organisms to be destroyed & their concentration, distribution & condition
in the water to be disinfected;
(b) The nature, distribution & concentration of the disinfecting substance & its reaction products
in the water to be disinfected: -- To be of average strength, the disinfectant must be uniformly
distributed in water – if necessary, by stirring of water.
(c) The nature & condition of the water to be disinfected: -- In chlorination of water, pH is of great
importance.
(d) The temperature of the water to be disinfected: -- The higher the temperature, the more rapid
is the kill.
(e) The time of contact: -- The longer the time, the greater is the opportunity for disinfection.

Chemistry of chlorination

Chlorine gas is soluble in water & hydrolyses rapidly to form hypochlorous acid:

Cl2 + H2O ↔ HOCl + H+ + Cl-

Hydrolysis goes virtually to completion at pH values & concentrations normally experienced in water
treatment.

HOCl ↔ H+ + OCl-

Chlorine reacts with ammonia in water (if present) to form chloramines as follows:

HOCl + NH3 → NH2Cl + H2O (monochloramine)

HOCl + NH2Cl → NHCl2 + H2O (dichloramine)

HOCl + NHCl2 → NCl3 + H2O (trichloramine)

At room temperature, monochloramine exists above pH = 8.5, dichloramine occurs at pH = 4.5 &
below pH = 4.4, trichloramine is produced.

‘Free available residual chlorine’ is that residual chlorine existing in water as HOCl & OCl- ion.

‘Combined available residual chlorine’ is that residual existing in chemical combination with NH3
(chloramines) or organic nitrogen compounds.
‘Chlorine demand’ is the difference between the amount added to a water & the quantity of free &
combined available chlorine remaining at the end of a specified contact period.

Type of chlorination

(a) Plain chlorination – only chlorine treatment & no other treatment is given to water.
(b) Pre-chlorination – applying chlorine before filtration or before coagulation sedimentation.
(c) Post-chlorination – applying chlorine at the end of all other treatment processes.
(d) Double-chlorination – combination of pre- & post-chlorination together.

Break point chlorination

If a water naturally contains NH3 (or organic matter), it has been found that the addition of Cl2 first
caused formation of chloramine until the ratio of Cl2 to NH3 reaches abut 5 : 1. At this point, the
addition of further Cl2 oxidises the chloramines.

When this reaction has been completed, the addition of further Cl2 results in the formation of free
chlorine only. The point at which this free chlorine begins to form is called the ‘breakpoint’ for the
water.

When there is no NH3 present in the water, there will be no breakpoint since free Cl2 will be available
in increasing quantities according to the increase of the applied dose.

Fig (Source.wateronline.com) Break point chlorination.

The advantage of ‘breakpoint’ chlorination i.e. by applying sufficient quantity of Cl2 to get beyond the
breakpoint – is that taste & odour production is likely to be less than if a lower dose of Cl2, below the
breakpoint, were applied. Also, the free chlorine produced will not be absorbed to form chlorine
ammonia compounds so that disinfection will be more effective & quicker.

The process requires a reasonable degree of careful control for, if the Cl2 dosage should drop at any
time below the breakpoint level, tastes & odours may suddenly be intensified.

Dosage of Cl2 in normal cases ≤ 2 mg/l.

Cl2 is applied in the form of weak solution prepared from bleaching powder & gaseous Cl2.

2Ca(OCl)Cl → 2CaOCl + Cl2

When residual chlorine is within 0.25 mg/l to 0.5 mg/l, the chance of unsatisfactory biological
condition is remote.

Trihalomethanes (Ref.water-research.net)

Trihalomethanes (THM) are a group of four chemicals that are formed along with other disinfection
by products when chlorine or other disinfectants used to control microbial contaminants in drinking
water react with naturally occurring organic & inorganic matter in water.

The trihalomethanes are chloroform (CHCl3), bromodichloromethane (CHClBr2),

dibromochloromethane (CHCl2Br), and bromoform (CHBr3). They are all by-products of chlorination.
They are Cancer Group B carcinogens (shown to cause cancer in laboratory animals).
Trichloromethane (chloroform) is by far the most common in most water systems.

Current regulations limit the concentration of these 4 chemicals added together (total trihalomethane
or TTHM levels) to 80 ug/l.

Treatment of THM

THM levels tend to increase with pH, temperature, time, and the level of "precursors" present.
Precursors are organic material which reacts with chlorine to form THM's. One way to decrease THM's
is to eliminate or reduce chlorination before the filters and to reduce precursors.

For point of use systems at homes, activated carbon filters are the most effective treatment. Reverse
osmosis units will also eliminate trihalomethanes.

Prob. A water treatment plant uses 49.0 kg/d of chlorine to treat 37850 m3/d of water. The residual
chlorine after 30 min. contact time is 0.55 mg/l. Determine the chlorine dosage & chlorine demand of
the water.

Soln. Chlorine dosage = (49.0 x 1000) / 37850 g/m3

= 1.29 x (1000/1000) mg/l

 = 1.29 mg/l.

Chlorine demand = chlorine dosage – residual chlorine

= 1.29 – 0.55 = 0.74 mg/l.

Prob. Calculate the quantity of bleaching powder required per day for disinfecting 4 MLD of water.
The dose of chlorine has to be 0.5 ppm & the bleaching powder contains 30% of available chlorine.

0.5 𝑥 4 𝑥 106
Soln. Chlorine required @ 0.5 ppm = = 2.0 kg.
106

Since the bleaching powder has 30% of chlorine, amount of bleaching powder required per day –

2 𝑥 100
= = 6.67 kg.
30

Measurement of alkalinity of water

By far the most common constituents of alkalinity are bicarbonate (HCO3- ), carbonate (CO3-2) &
hydroxide (OH-). In addition to their mineral origin, these substances can originate from CO2, a
constituent of the atmosphere & a product of microbial decomposition of organic material. These
reactions are as follows:

𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ↔ 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 (dissolved CO2 & carbonic acid)

𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 ↔ 𝐻 + + 𝐻𝐶𝑂3 − (bicarbonate)

𝐻𝐶𝑂3 − ↔ 𝐻 + + 𝐶𝑂3 2− (carbonate)

𝐶𝑂3 2− + 𝐻2 𝑂 ↔ 𝐻𝐶𝑂3 − + 𝑂𝐻 − (hydroxide)

As the reactions represented by the above equations involve hydrogen or hydroxide ions, the relative
quantities of the alkalinity species are pH dependent.

Alkalinity measurements are made by titrating the water with an acid & determining the hydrogen
equivalent. Alkalinity is then expressed as mg/l of CaCO3. If 0.02N H2SO4 is used in the titration, then
1 ml of the acid will neutralise 1 mg of alkalinity as CaCO3. Hydrogen ions from the acid react with the
alkalinity according to the following equations:

𝐻 + + 𝑂𝐻 − ↔ 𝐻2 𝑂

𝐶𝑂3 2− + 𝐻 + ↔ 𝐻𝐶𝑂3 −
𝐻𝐶𝑂3 − + 𝐻 + ↔ 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 .

If acid is slowly added to water and the pH is recorded for each addition, a titration curve similar to
that in the following figure is obtained.

Fig (Source.avesis.yildiz.edu.tr) Alkalinity measurements.

Fig (Source.socratic.org). Phenolphthalein & Methyl Orange alkalinity.

The conversion of carbonate to bicarbonate is essentially complete at pH 8.3. However, as bicarbonate

is also an alkalinity species, an equal amount of acid must be added to complete the neutralisation.
Thus, the neutralisation of carbonate is only half complete at pH 8.3. Because the conversion of
hydroxide to water is virtually complete at pH 8.3, all of the hydroxide & one-half of the carbonate
have been measured at pH 8.3. At pH 4.5 all of the bicarbonate has been converted to carbonic acid,
including the bicarbonate resulting from the reaction of the acid & carbonate. Thus, the amount of
acid required to titrate a sample to pH 4.5 is equivalent to the total alkalinity of water.
Table (Source.water.mecc.edu). Determination of types of alkalinity in water.
Part – 21

Table (Source.water.mecc.edu). Determination of types of alkalinity in water.

Prob. A 200ml. sample of water has an initial pH of 10. 30ml. of 0.02N H2SO4 is required to titrate the
sample to pH 4.5. What is the total alkalinity of the water in mg/l as CaCO3?

Soln. As each mg of 0.02N H2SO4 will neutralise 1 mg of alkalinity, so the concentration of alkalinity in
the given sample is –

30
= 𝑥 1000 = 150 mg/l.
200

Prob. Determine the species & the quantity of each specie of alkalinity in the previous problem, if the
pH 8.3 equivalence point is reached at 11 ml. of acid.

Soln. As the initial pH is 10, the initial pOH of the water is 4.

10−4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂𝐻 − 1 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣. 50,000 𝑚𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3

Then, OH concentration = 𝑥 𝑥
𝐿 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂𝐻 − 1 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣.

= 5 mg/l as CaCO3.

5 ml of acid would be required to measure the OH- in a 1 lit. sample. However, this sample is only 200
ml.; so the necessary volume of acid is = 5 x (200/1000) = 1 ml.

If 1 ml of acid measures the OH-, then (11 – 1 =) 10ml of acid measures one-half of the carbonate &
10 more will be required to measure the remaining one-half of the carbonate, leaving (30 – 10 – 10 –
1 =) 9 ml. to measure the bicarbonate. Thus, the quantity of each species is as follows:
OH- = 5 mg/l;

CO32- = 20 x (1000/200) = 100 mg/l;

HCO3- = 9 x (1000/200) = 45 mg/l;

Then, total alkalinity = 150 mg/l.

Prob. A series of 50 ml. samples of water were titrated using 0.02N H2SO4 and the results are shown
below:

Total ml. of 0.02N H2SO4 required

Sample Phenolphthalein Methyl orange end
end point point
A 5.0 7.8
B 7.2 19.3
C 4.1 4.2
D 0 6.4

Show the different forms of alkalinities in the samples.

Soln. For the given sample, alkalinity (mg/l as CaCO3) = reading x (1000/50)

Total ml. of 0.02N H2SO4 required Phenolp. Total

Alkalinity Alkalinity
Sample Phenolphthalein Methyl orange
(P), mg/l (T), mg/l
end point (P) end point (T)
as CaCO3 as CaCO3
A 5.0 7.8 100 156
B 7.2 19.3 144 386
C 4.1 4.2 82 84
D 0 6.4 0 128

Relation between Type of alkalinity, mg/l as CaCO3

Sample -
P&T OH CO32- HCO3-
2P – T = 2x100 – 2(T – P) = 2x(156 –
A P > (T/2) 0
156 = 44 100) = 112
2P = 2x144 = 288 T – 2P = 386 –
B P < (T/2) 0
(2x144) = 98
2P – T = 2x82 – 84 2(T – P) = 2x(84 –
C P > (T/2) 0
= 80 82) = 4
D P=0 0 0 T = 128
Use of alkalinity measurement : Alkalinity measurements are often included in the analysis of natural
waters to determine their buffering capacity. It is also used frequently as a process control variable in
water (& wastewater) treatment.

Softening of water (Ref1)

Water is said to be ‘hard’ when it contains relatively large amounts of bicarbonates, carbonates,
sulphates & chlorides of calcium & magnesium dissolved in it. Hard water causes the following
troubles:

(a) It causes more consumption of soap in laundry work.

(b) It leads to modification of some of the colours, & thus affects the working of dyes.
(c) It causes serious difficulties in the manufacturing process e.g. paper making, rayon industry
etc.
(d) It causes choking & clogging troubles of house plumbing due to precipitation of salts causing
hardness.
(e) It causes formation of scales on the boilers & other hot water heating systems.
(f) It makes food tasteless.

Softening of water removes all these difficulties. In addition to these, softening increases the efficiency
of filtration, aids in the removal of colour, iron & manganese, makes possible the production of non-
corrosive water, improves cooking of foods & increases the efficiency of reduction of bacteria when
filtration follows softening.

Types of hardness

Hardness is of two types: (i) temporary hardness, & (ii) permanent hardness.

The temporary hardness is the one which is deposited when water is boiled, & is usually known as
carbonate hardness. This is caused mainly due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium &
magnesium.

The permanent hardness is also known as non-carbonate hardness, & is mainly due to the presence
of sulphates, chlorides & nitrates of calcium & magnesium.

Table (Ref1). Hardness compounds.

Causing temporary hardness Causing permanent hardness

1. Ca(HCO3)2 1. CaSO4
2. Mg(HCO3)2 2. MgSO4
3. CaCl2
4. MgCl2

Removal of temporary hardness

Temporary hardness can be removed by – (i) boiling, (ii) adding lime.

Ca(HCO3)2 + Heat = CaCO3 + H2O + CO2.

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 = 2CaCO3 + 2H2O

Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 = CaCO3 + MgCO3 + 2H2O.

Removal of permanent hardness

Permanent hardness can be removed by –

(a) Lime-soda process

(b) Zeolite process
(c) Demineralisation or de-ionisation process.

Meq/l Bar Graph

The term meq/l expresses the concentration of a dissolved substance in terms of its combining weight.

meq/l = (mg/l) x (valence/atomic wt.) = (mg/l) / equivalent wt.

meq/l = (mg/l) x (electrical charge/molecular wt.) = (mg/l) / equivalent wt.

Results of a water analysis are normally expressed in mg/l & reported in tabular form. For better
visualisation of the chemical composition, these can be expressed in meq/l to permit graphical
presentation, as shown below.

Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+

CO2
CO32- HCO3- SO42- Cl-

Fig. Meq/l bar graph.

The sum of positive meq/l should equal the sum of the negative values for a water in equilibrium.
Hypothetical combinations of positive & negative ions can be written from a bar graph. These
combinations are useful for evaluating a water for lime-soda ash softening.

Prob. The results of a water analysis are:

Ca2+ = 40 mg/l, Mg2+ = 10 mg/l, Na+ = 11.7 mg/l, K+ = 7 mg/l, HCO3- = 110 mg/l, SO42- = 67.2 mg/l & Cl-
= 11 mg/l.

Express the hardness & alkalinity in units of mg/l as CaCO3.

Soln.
 Component mg/l Eq. wt. meq/l
Cations
Ca2+ 40 20 2.00
Mg2+ 10 12.2 0.82
Na+ 11.7 23 0.51
K+ 7 39.1 0.18
Total 3.51
Anions
HCO3- 110 61 1.8
SO42- 67.2 48 1.4
Cl- 11 35.5 0.31
Total 3.51

Hardness – sum of Ca2+ & Mg2+ concentrations expressed in mg/l as CaCO3 , and

alkalinity equals the bicarbonate content.

Thus, hardness = 2.82 x 50 = 141 mg/l;

alkalinity = 1.80 x 50 = 90 mg/l.

Total hardness = Ca – hardness + Mg – hardness.

Bicarbonate + Carbonate = carbonate hardness (CH)

Alkalinity < total hardness, CH = alkalinity (mg/l)

Alkalinity ≥ total hardness, CH (mg/l) = total hardness (mg/l)

Non-carbonate hardness (NCH) = total hardness – CH.

Part – 22

Lime – soda ash process of water softening

This process uses lime [ Ca(OH)2 ] and soda ash [ Na2CO3 ] to precipitate hardness from solution. CO2
& carbonate hardness [ Ca(HCO3)2 & Mg(HCO3)2 ] are complexed by lime. Non-carbonate hardness [
Ca & Mg – sulphates & chlorides] requires the addition of soda-ash for precipitation.

Chemical reactions in the lime – soda process are –

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 = CaCO3 + H2O ------------------------------------------ (i)

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 = 2CaCO3 + 2H2O ------------------------------------------(ii)

Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 = CaCO3 + MgCO3 + 2H2O -----------------------------------------(iii)

MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2 = Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3 -----------------------------------------(iv)

MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 = Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4 -----------------------------------------(v)

CaSO4 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 + Na2SO4 -----------------------------------------(vi)

The CO2 in eq. (i) is not hardness as such, but it consumes lime & must therefore be considered in
calculating the amount required.

Eq. (ii) – (iv) demonstrate removal of carbonate hardness by lime. It may be noted that 1 mole of lime
is needed for each mole of Ca – alkalinity whereas 2 moles are required for each mole of Mg - alkalinity
[ eq. (iii) & (iv) ].

Eq. (v) shows the removal of Mg – NCH by lime. No softening results from this because 1 mole of Ca –
NCH is formed for each mole of Mg – salt present.

Eq. (vi) is for removal of CaSO4 originally present in water & also that formed as stated in eq. (v).

Precipitation softening cannot produce a water completely free of hardness because of the solubility
of CaCO3 & Mg(OH)2. Further, the completion of the chemical reactions is limited by physical
considerations, e.g. adequate mixing & limited HRT in settling basins. Thus, the minimum practical
limits of precipitation softening are 30 mg/l of CaCO3 & 10 mg/l of Mg(OH)2 expressed as CaCO3.
Hardness levels of 80 – 100 mg/l are generally considered acceptable for a public water supply, but
the Mg – content should not exceed 40 mg/l as CaCO3 in a softened municipal water.

The most obvious advantage of lime softening is that the total dissolved solids may be significantly
reduced, hardness is taken out of solution & the lime added is also removed. Though from soda-ash
addition, Na-ions remain in finished water, NCH requiring addition of soda-ash is generally a small part
of total hardness.
Process variations in lime – soda ash softening: Excess lime treatment

Carbonate hardness associated with Ca2+ can be effectively removed to the practical limit of CaCO3
solubility by eq. (Ii). Precipitation of Mg2+ [ eq. (iv) & (v) ] calls for a surplus of approximately 35 mg/l
of CaO (1.25 meq/l) above stoichiometric requirements. The practice of excess-lime treatment
reduces the total hardness to about 40 mg/l (i.e. 30 mg/l of CaCO3 & 10 mg/l of Mg2+ hardness).

After excess lime treatment, the water is scale forming & must be neutralised to remove caustic
alkalinity. Recarbonation & soda ash are regularly used to stabilise the water. CO2 neutralises excess
lime as follows:

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 = CaCO3 + H2O.

This reaction precipitates CaCO3 & reduces the pH from 11 to 10.2. Further recarbonation of the
clarified water converts a portion of the remaining carbonate ions to bicarbonate by the reaction –

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O = Ca(HCO3)2.

The final pH is 9.5 – 8.5, depending on the desired carbonate – to – bicarbonate ratio.

Fig. Schematic flow diagram for a two-stage excess lime softening plant.

A 2 – stage system is preferred for excess lime treatment. Lime is applied in 1 st stage mixing &
sedimentation to precipitate both Ca2+ & Mg2+. Then CO2 is applied to neutralise the excess lime &
soda ash is added to reduce NCH. Solids formed in these reactions are removed by secondary settling
& subsequent filtration. Recarbonation immediately ahead of filters may be used to prevent scaling
of the media.
Prob. The results of a water analysis are:

Ca2+ = 40.0 mg/l, Mg2+ = 10.0 mg/l, Na+ = 11.7 mg/l, K+ = 7.0 mg/l, (HCO3)- = 110 mg/l, SO42- = 67.2 mg/l
& Cl- = 11.0 mg/l.

Draw a meq/l bar graph & list the hypothetical combinations. Express the hardness & alkalinity in units
of mg/l as CaCO3.

Soln.

Component mg/l Eq. wt. meq/l

2+
Ca 40.0 40/2 = 20 2.00
Mg2+ 10.0 24.3/2 = 12.15 0.82
Na+ 11.7 23/1 = 23 0.51
K+ 7.0 39/1 = 39 0.18
Total cations 3.51
(HCO3)- 110.0 (1+12+3x16)/1 = 61 1.80
SO42- 67.2 (32 + 4x16)/2 = 48 1.40
Cl- 11.0 35.5/1 = 35.5 0.31
Total anions 3.51

Using the meq/l bar graph, the hypothetical combinations are –

A -- Ca(HCO3)2 -- 1.80 meq/l

B -- CaSO4 -- 0.20 meq/l

C -- MgSO4 -- 0.82 meq/l

D -- Na2SO4 -- 0.38 meq/l

E -- NaCl -- 0.13 meq/l

F -- KCl -- 0.18 meq/l

Hardness is the sum of Ca2+ & Mg2+ concentrations as mg/l as CaCO3 & is equal to –

= (2 + 0.82) x 50 = 141 mg/l as CaCO3.

Alkalinity equals the bicarbonate content & is equal to –

= 1.80 x 50 = 90 mg/l as CaCO3.

Prob. Water defined by the following analysis is to be softened by excess lime treatment:

CO2 = 8.8 mg/l as CO2 Alkalinity (HCO3-) = 115 mg/l as CaCO3

Ca2+ = 70 mg/l SO42- = 96 mg/l

Mg2+ = 9.7 mg/l Cl- = 10.6 mg/l.

Na+ = 6.9 mg/l

Sketch a meq/l bar graph & list the hypothetical combinations of chemical compounds in raw water.
Calculate the quantities of softening chemicals required in kg per million litres of water treated.

Soln.

Component mg/l Eq. wt. meq/l

CO2 8.8 (12 + 2x16)/2 = 22 0.40

Ca2+ 70 40/2 = 20 3.50

Mg2+ 9.7 24.3/2 = 12.2 0.80
Na+ 6.9 23/1 = 23 0.30
Total cations 4.60
(HCO3)- 115.0 (40+12+3x16)/2 = 50 2.30
SO42- 96.0 (32 + 4x16)/2 = 48 2.00
Cl- 10.6 35.5/1 = 35.5 0.30
Total anions 4.60
Using the meq/l bar graph, the hypothetical combinations are –

A -- CO2 -- 0.40 meq/l

B -- Ca(HCO3)2 -- 2.3 meq/l

C -- CaSO4 -- 1.2 meq/l

D -- MgSO4 -- 0. 8 meq/l

E -- NaCl -- 0.3 meq/l

Component meq/l Lime Soda ash

CO2 0.4 0.4 0
Ca(HCO3)2 2.3 2.3 0
CaSO4 1.2 0 1.2
MgSO4 0.8 0.8 0.8
Total 3.5 2.0

Lime required = stoichiometric quantity + excess lime

= 3.5 x [(40 + 16)/2} + 35 mg/l [As excess of 35 mg/l of lime is to be added

= 3.5 x 28 + 35 mg/l for Mg2+ removal ]

= 133 mg/l of CaO

= 133 kg CaO/million lit. of water.

Soda ash required = 2 x [(2x23 + 12 + 3x16)/2]

= 2 x 53 mg/l

= 106 mg/l of Na2CO3

= 106 kg Na2CO3 /million lit. of water.

Distribution system

A distribution system is needed for carrying water from the treatment plant to individual house
connections in a methodical way.

Layouts of distribution networks –

(i) Dead end system

(ii) Grid iron system
(iii) Ring system
(iv) Radial system.

Fig (Source.nptel.ac.in) Dead end system.

Fig (Source.nptel.ac.in) Grid iron system.

Part – 23

Fig (Source.nptel.ac.in) Ring system.

Fig (Source.nptel.ac.in) Radial system.

Methods of distribution of water –

(i) By gravitational system

(ii) By pumping system
(iii) By combined gravity & pumping system.
System of supply of water –

(i) Intermittent
(ii) Continuous.

Hardy Cross method for analysing closed pipe networks

The two conditions to be satisfied are –

(a) The algebraic sum of head loss in a closed loop = 0.

(b) The flow entering a junction must be equal to the flow leaving the junction.

The head loss in a pipe can be expressed as –

ℎ = 𝐾𝑄 𝑥
where, Q = actual discharge through the pipe,

K = a constant depending on the characteristics of te pipe, &

x = another constant, which is = 1.85 in Hazen – Williams’ formula.

Now, let Qa = assumed flow through a pipe, &

Q = the actual flow through the pipe.

If Δ be the required correction to the assumed flow, then –

Δ = Q – Qa

Or, Q = Qa + Δ

∴ Head loss in a pipe = 𝐾(𝑄𝑎 + ∆)𝑥

∴ Around a closed loop, algebraic sum of head loss = 0 implies that –

∑ 𝐾(𝑄𝑎 + ∆)𝑥 = 0

Or, ∑ 𝐾(𝑄𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑥∆𝑄𝑎 𝑥−1 ) = 0 [Neglecting higher powers of ∆

𝑥
Or, ∑ 𝐾𝑄𝑎 = − ∆ ∑ 𝑥𝐾𝑄𝑎 𝑥−1 [ As Δ is constant for all pipes in a loop

∑ 𝐾𝑄𝑎 𝑥
Or, ∆ = − ∑ 𝑥𝐾𝑄𝑎 𝑥−1

∑ℎ
= − ℎ [ As x is a constant
𝑥 ∑𝑄
𝑎
So, the steps for analysing the flow in a closed pipe network are –

(i) To assume the magnitude & direction of flow in each pipe & then head loss in a pipe for
the given diameter & assumed flow is to be determined from the nomograph.
ℎ
(ii) To find out ∑ ℎ with regard to sign & 𝑥 ∑ without regard to sign.
𝑄
(iii) To find out correction of flow, ∆ from the relation.

Nomograph – based on Hazen Williams’ formula –

𝑣 = 0.849 𝐶 𝑟 0.63 𝑠 0.54

Where, v = velocity of flow, m/s;

r = hydraulic radius, m;

s = hydraulic gradient.

The standard nomograph is based on C = 100.

For C other than 100 –

100 1.85
𝑆𝑐 = 𝑠100 ( )
𝐶

100 0.38
𝑑𝑐 = 𝑑100 ( )
𝐶

𝐶
𝑄𝑐 = 𝑄100 ( )
100
Fig (Source.chegg.com) Hazen Williams’ nomograph (C = 100)
Prob. The pipe network is as shown below with the associated flow data at different pipe junctions:

14.4 m3/min 3 m3/min 6 m3/min

1 200m 2 300 m 3

300mm ɸ 250mm ɸ

300m 200mm ɸ 300m 200mm ɸ 300m 150mm ɸ

200m 300m

6 150mm ɸ 5 150mm ɸ 4

2.4 m3/min 1.2 m3/min 1.8 m3/min

Soln.

We first of all split the flow at each junction given as per the problem above, into the different
branches of pipe meeting at that junction. The assumed values of split flow may depend
on personal choice. But we have to satisfy the basic assumption made in connection
with Hardy Cross method, i.e. at any junction, sum of flow entering the junction = sum
of flow leaving the junction.

We also consider the two circuits enclosed by the pipes as A & B (as shown in the figure). In each
circuit we maintain the sign convention of flow by considering clockwise direction of
flow as “+ive”. The flow values in each of the branch of pipe will henceforth be assigned
proper sign on this basis (will be seen in the calculation table below).

14.4 3 6

12 8.4

1 2 3

2.4 0.6 2.4

A + B +

6 5 4

0 0.6

2.4 1.2 1.8

Circuit A

Line Assumed Dia. Length Head h h/Q ∆ First corrected

Flow mm m loss in value of flow
(m3/min) m/ (Qa + ∆),
Qa 1000m m3/min
1–2 12 300 200 40 8 0.67 -0.586 11.414
2–5 0.6 200 300 1.25 0.375 0.625 -0.586 1.53 (= -0.586 +
+ 1.516 1.516 + 0.6)
5–6 0 150 200 0 0 - -0.586 -0.586
6-1 -2.4 200 300 -4.8 -4.8 2 -0.586 -2.986
∑ 3.575 3.295

The correction factor in Hardy Cross method of analysis is calculated as ---

∆ = - (∑h)/ [x . ∑ (h / Q)]

= - 3.575 / (1.85 x 3.295)

= - 0.586.

[Here, the head loss in m/1000m for a combination of given flow and dia. of pipe is available from
the standard nomograph discussed in the class. For exam purpose, either the
complete nomograph or suitable extracted portions will be supplied.]

After analysing Circuit B, we get a correction factor = 1.516 for the branch 2 – 5, which is the common
branch of the two circuits. In Circuit B, the correction factor is determined as = -1.516,
which indicates a flow direction from 2 to 5. Now, this direction is in clockwise
direction when the branch 2 – 5 is considered as a part of Circuit A. So, in Circuit A,
the same correction factor is going to be considered with a “+” sign i.e. +1.516.

Similar consideration is applicable for applying the correction factor for the common branch of any
two circuits as shown in the given problem.

Circuit B

Line Assumed Dia. Length Head loss h h/Q ∆ First corrected

Flow mm m in value of flow
(m3/min) m/ (Qa + ∆),
Qa 1000m m3/min
2–3 8.4 250 300 50 15 1.785 - 1.516 6.884
3–4 2.4 150 300 55 16.5 6.875 - 1.516 0.884
4–5 0.6 150 300 5 1.5 2.5 - 1.516 - 0.916
5–2 -0.6 200 300 1 -0.3 0.5 - 1.516 - 1.53 (= -0.6 –
+0.586 1.516 + 0.586)
∑ 32.7 11.66
The correction factor in Hardy Cross method of analysis is calculated as ---

∆ = - (∑h)/ [x . ∑ (h / Q)]

= - 32.7 / (1.85 x 11.66)

= - 1.516.

As 2 – 5 is the common branch of the two circuits A & B, so both the correction factors, determined
separately from the two circuits, will be applied to calculate the flow in this branch. We can see that
after analysing both the circuits, the value of flow determined for the branch 2 – 5 has been identical
numerically, which is quite logical as the same branch of pipe cannot have two different values of flow
associated with it. Although the flow value has two different signs under the two circuits but they
show the same direction of flow i.e. from 2 to 5. [This is in fact a cross check on the accuracy of the
calculation made in solving the flow in circuits.]

As we have considered the first cycle of operation in both the circuits, so the flow thus determined
is identified in the last column of the tables as “First Corrected value of flow” [ which is expected in
case of exams].

In actual case, the cycles of analysing circuits have to be repeated till ∆ is less or equal to 0.2, or, ∑h
≈ 0 [or within ±0.15m].
Part – 24

Equivalent pipe system

It gives the same discharge & loss of head in the complex system.

Equivalent pipes –

(i) Pipes in series – head loss is additive;

(ii) Pipes in parallel – same head loss for each pipe connected in parallel.

Prob. Given the pipe layout shown, determine the length of an equivalent pipe of 450mm dia.

Given extract from nomograph:

Q = 10 m3/min
Pipe Diameter, mm Head loss, m/1000m
600 0.9
350 13
300 30
450 4

Soln. From nomograph, for AB –

Q = 10 m3/min, D = 600 mm, L = 1200 m, head loss = 0.9 m/1000m;

Thus, hAB = (0.9/1000) x 1200 = 1.08 m.

For BC –

Q = 10 m3/min, D = 350 mm, L = 550 m, head loss = 13 m/1000m;

Thus, hBC = (13/1000) x 550 = 7.15 m.

For CD –

Q = 10 m3/min, D = 300 mm, L = 600 m, head loss = 30 m/1000m;

Thus, hBC = (30/1000) x 600 = 18 m.

Then, total head loss in the pipe system = 1.08 + 7.15 + 18 = 26.23 m.

Let us provide an equivalent pipe A’D’ of 450 mm dia.

From nomograph, for equivalent pipe A’D’ –

Q = 10 m3/min, D = 450 mm, head loss = 4 m/1000m;

Thus, length of the equivalent pipe = (26.23/4) x 1000 = 6557 m.

Prob.

A system of pipes as shown in the figure carries a total flow of 10m3/min. Find the total head loss in
the system between A & E. Take C = 100.

Given extracts from the nomograph:

Q = 2 m3/min
Pipe Diameter, mm Head loss, m/1000m
250 3.75
200 12.0
215 8.25

hL = 8 m/1000m
Pipe Diameter, mm Flow, m3/min
200 1.75
215 2.0

Q = 3.75 m3/min
Pipe Diameter, mm Head loss, m/1000m
350 2.2

Q = 10m3/min
Pipe Diameter, mm Head loss, m/1000m
350 12.0
400 7.0

Soln.

Assumed flow through BC & CD = 2m3/min.

Then, hBC = (3.75/1000) x 600 = 2.25m

 HCD = (12/1000) x 500 = 6m.

∴ Total head loss in BCD = 6 + 2.25 = 8.25m

Let us assume an equivalent pipe for BCD with a length of 1000m. Then head loss in the equivalent
pipe = 8.25 m/1000m.

For a flow of 2m3/min, from nomograph, for a head loss of 8.25m/1000m, diameter of pipe =
215mm.

Assumed head loss between B & D = 8m.

Head loss in BD = 8m/1000m, dia. = 200mm; then Q1 = 1.75 m3/min.

Head loss in BCD = 8m/1000m, dia. = 215mm; then Q2 = 2.0 m3/min.

∴ Total flow through the loop = 1.75 + 2 = 3.75 m3/min.

Assumed an equivalent pipe of dia. = 350mm for the loop BD & BCD.

∴ Head loss in the equivalent pipe = 2.2m/1000m

∴ Length of the equivalent pipe = (8/2.2) x 1000 = 3636m.

hAB = (7/1000) x 900 = 6.3 m

hBCD = (12/1000) x 3636 = 43.6 m

hDE = (12/1000) x 1200 = 14.4 m

∴ Head loss between A & E = 6.3 + 43.6 + 14.4 = 64.3 m.

[ For C other than 100:

(a) Multiply given value of Q or v by (100/C) to find s = h/L;

(b) Multiply determined values of Q or v by (C/100) for given s.]

Detection & prevention of waste

The objectives of detection & prevention of waste in water distribution system pipelines are –
 (i) Preservation of hygienic quality of water in the distribution mains, &
(ii) Providing conditions for adequate flow through pipelines.

Design information of water pumping system

The total lift or the total dynamic head (TDH) against which the pump is to operate is given by ---

TDH = H = HST + HL +HV

Where, HST => total static head (or, lift) i.e. the elevation difference between the pumping source &
the point of delivery;

HL = > total head loss (including losses through valves, bends & other fittings, through the
suction & delivery pipe);

HV => velocity head, (v2/2g) at the discharge head. It is sometimes neglected in computing
power requirements of pumps.

HL = Hf (i.e. friction loss)

= f.L.v2/(2gd), where, f = 4f’ , f’ = Darcy’s coefficient of friction;

Velocity of flow, v = Q/A = Q/(π x d2/4), where Q = > discharge , A = > area of flow i.e. pipe c/s area &
L => length of pipe.

Thus, Hf = 4 x f’ x L x [4Q/(π x d2)]2 x 1/[2gd]

= f’ x L x Q2 / (3.025 x d5)

= f x L x Q2 / (12.1 x d5).

Where, L = > length of pipe (m),

d => dia. of pipe (m),

f’ = > coeff. of friction (Darcy’s),

f = friction factor [ i.e. = 4f’],

Q => flow in pipe, m3/s.

If W kg is the weight of water lifted by H m. in 1 sec , then work done by the pump ---

= W x H kg-m/sec

= Q x w x H kg-m/sec, where Q => flow in m3/s & w = unit wt. of water, in kg/m3.

Then, water horse power (H.P.) = (Q x w x H) /75, where 1 metric HP = 75 kg-m/sec.

Then Brake Horse Power (B.H.P.) = (Q x w x H) / (75 x ղp), where ղ p = efficiency of pump.
If the pump is driven by electric motors, then electric horse power (E.H.P) is ---

E.H.P = B.H.P. / motor efficiency

= B. H. P. /(ղ e . ղ p)

= (Q x w x H) / (75 x ղ e x ղ p)

= (Q x w x H)/(75.ղ)

Where, ղ = overall efficiency =( ղ e . ղ p)

Since 1 metric H.P. = 736 W = 0.736 KW,

No. of KW = E.H.P. x 0.736

= 0.736 x [(Q x w x H)/(75.ղ) ]

= 9.81 x 10-3 x [(Q x w x H)/ղ ]

Taking w = 1000 kg/m3, KW = 9.81 x [(Q x H)/ղ ]

Problems on determination of capacity of pumps for lifting water

Prob. A city has a population of 150,000. Water is to be supplied @ 160 lpcd. If the static lift of the
pump is 40 m. , calculate the E.H.P. of the motor. The rising main (i.e. the pipe through which water is
sent from the source, through a pump, to a reservoir usually located at a higher R.L. than the source)
is 300m long & has a dia. = 50cm. Assume that motor efficiency = 85%, pump efficiency = 60%, f = 0.04
(almost a standard value) & peak hour demand = 1.5 times the average demand.

Soln.

Average demand = 150,000 x 160 / 1000 = 24000 m3/d = 0.278 m3/s.

Then peak hourly (i.e during the peak time or, simply the peak value) demand = 1.5 x 0.278 m3/s

= 0.417 m3/s.

HST = 40m (given);

Hf = f x L x Q2 /(12.1 x d5)

= 0.04 x 300 x (0.417)2 / [12.1 x (0.5)5]

= 5.52m.

Velocity of flow = Q/[π x d2/4]

= 0.417 x 4 / [π x (0.5)2]

= 2.12 m/s.

Then HV = v2/2g
 = 2.122 / (2 x 9.81)

= 0.23m.

Then, H = HST + HL + HV

= 40 + 5.52 + 0.23

= 45.75m

Overall efficiency = 0.85 x 0.6 = 0.51.

Then E.H.P. = Q x w x H /(75 x ղ)

= 0.417 x 1000 x 45.75 / (75 x 0.51)

= 498.76 H.P.

Prob. Water is to be lifted from a tube well to an overhead tank. Find the E.H.P. of pumping units for
the following data:

Discharge from tube well = 60 lps;

R.L. of ground = 201.50m;

R.L. of water in tube well = 180.00m;

Depression head during pumping = 4m; [ this is sort of water level in the sump, that is to be
considered in calculating the total head

R.L. of bottom of the overhead tank = 220.50m; [ please draw a sketch of R.L. values for better
understanding of the level differences

Depth of water in tank = 3.50m;

Length of rising main = 100m;

Coeff. of friction = 0.04;

Combined efficiency of pump & motor = 70%;

Velocity of water in rising main = 2 m/s.

Soln.

Q = 60 lps = 0.06 m3/s.

If d is the dia. of the rising main, v = Q/(π x d2/4)

Or, d = √[(4 x Q)/(v x π)

= 0.195m ≈ 20cm.

Then, HST = (201.5 – 180) + (220.5 – 201.5 + 3.5) + 4 m

 = 21.5 + 22.5 + 4

= 48m.

Hf = f x L x Q2 /(12.1 x d5)

= 0.04 x 100 x (0.06)2 / [12.1 x (0.2)5]

= 3.72m.

HV = v2/2g = (2)2/(2 x 9.81)

= 0.20m.

Then, H = 48 + 3.72 + 0.20 = 51.92m.

Then EHP = Q x w x H / (75 x ղ)

= (0.06 x 1000 x 51.92) / (75 x 0.7)

= 59.34.

Thus, adopt 3 units @ 20 HP with an extra 20 HP unit as standby [This is a typical idea of field
provision. This may not be important from exam point of view.]
Part – 25

Problem on determination of capacity of overhead reservoir for water supply

Calculate the storage required to supply the demand shown in the following table if the inflow of
water to the reservoir is maintained at a uniform rate throughout 24 hours.

Time
00 - 04 04 - 08 08 - 12 12 - 16 16 - 20 20 – 24
(hrs. of the day)
Demand (in
0.48 0.87 1.33 1.00 0.82 0.54
million litres)

Soln.

Total demand during the day = 5.04 ML (obtained by adding all demand values)

Supply during the day will also be = 5.04 ML

Then constant hourly supply = 5.04 /24

= 0.21 ML

Thus, water supply for the 4 hourly slots = 0.21 x 4 = 0.84 ML

Hours Demand (ML) Supply (ML) Deficit (ML)

00 – 04 0.48 0.84 0
04 – 08 0.87 0.84 0.03
08 – 12 1.33 0.84 0.49
12 – 16 1.00 0.84 0.16
16 – 20 0.82 0.84 0
20 – 24 0.54 0.84 0

Then, maximum cumulative deficit = 0.03 + 0.49 + 0.16 = 0.68 ML

Thus, storage capacity of the overhead reservoir = 0.68 ML.

[this is similar to the determination of impounding reservoir capacity that was done much earlier in
class]

Conveyance of water

Common Pipe materials:

(i) Cast iron (C.I.)

(ii) Steel

(iii) Galvanised iron (G.I.)

(iv) Cement concrete

(v) Asbestos cement

 (vi) Plastic /PVC

(ii) Copper

Common Joints in C.I. pipes: (i) Spigot & socket (ii) Flanged

Fig (Source.joykrishnaengineering.com) Spigot & socket joint in C.I. pipe.

Fig (Source.encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com) Flanged joint.

Stresses in pipes:

(i) Internal water pressure

(ii) External pressure due to overburden etc.

(iii) Temperature stress

(iv) Water hammer

(v) Longitudinal stress due to flow around bends

(vi) Stresses due to foundation reaction

Water Hammer

Fig (Source.twinlightshomeinspection.com). Water hammer effect.

This is produced when the velocity of water in the pipe is checked suddenly by sudden closure of a
valve. There will be a sudden rise in pressure due to the closure of the valve with the momentum of
the moving water being destroyed. The rise in pressure in some cases may be so large that the pipe
may even burst.

The maximum water hammer pressure, Ph, max is given by ---

Ph, max = (w/g).UP.V0 --------------------- (i)

Where, UP = velocity of pressure wave generated

= VS / √[1 + {(Kw / EP).(d/t)}] ----------------------------- (ii)

Where,

VS = √(Kw/ρ) ------------------------ (iii)

= velocity of sound wave in water ≈ 1433 m/s.

Ρ = (w/g);

Kw = bulk modulus of water (2.07 x 108 kg/m2);

EP = modulus of elasticity of pipe material (kg/m2);

d = diameter of pipe (m);

t = thickness of pipe (m);

V0 = normal velocity of flow in the pipe line (m/s), before sudden closure.

Thus, from (i), (ii) & (iii),

Ph, max = (w/g).UP.V0

= (w/g).[ VS / √[1 + {(Kw / EP).(d/t)}] ].V0

= (1000/9.81) x [1433/√[1 + {(Kw / EP).(d/t)}] x V0

= 14.6 x 104 x V0 /√[1 + {(Kw / EP).(d/t)}] kg/m2.

If elasticity of the pipe is neglected,

UP = √(Kw/ρ)

= VS = 1433 m/s.

Then Ph, max = (w/g) . {√(Kw/ρ)}.V0

= (1000/9.81) x 1433 x V0

= 14.6 x 104 x V0 kg/m2.

If the actual time of closure (T) is greater than the critical time TC , the water hammer pressure (Ph) Is
reduced in the proportion of (TC/T).

If L be the distance of the valve from the reservoir, TC (i.e. time taken by the wave in going to the
reservoir & coming back to the valve) is given by,

TC = 2L/UP

Ph = Ph, max . (TC/T)

In small pipes, a water hammer pressure of 7kg/cm2 may be assumed.

Prob. Water is delivered through a 90 cm dia. steel pipe, with a flow velocity = 1.8 m/s. The pipe line
contains a valve which is situated at 1600m from the reservoir. Compute the water hammer pressure
developed by the closure of the above valve, if –

(a) the time of closure is 2 sec.

(b) the time of closure is 4 sec.

The thickness of the pipe shell is 22mm.

Take --- Kw = 2.07 x 108 kg/m2 , & EP = 2.10 x 1010 kg/m2 ,

Soln.

V0 = 1.8 m/s (given);

Ph, max = (w/g).UP.V0 , where –

UP = VS / √[1 + {(Kw / EP).(d/t)}]

Here,

Kw = 2.07 x 108 kg/m2 (given),

EP = 2.10 x 1010 kg/m2 (given),

d = 0.9m,

t = 0.022m,

VS = 1433 m/s. (standard value)

Then,

UP = 1433 / √ [ 1 + {(2.07 x 108)/(2.10 x 1010)}.(0.9/0.022)]

= 1209.7 m/s.

So, Ph, max = (1000/9.81) x 1209.7 x 1.8

= 22.19 x 104 kg/m2 ≈ 22.2 kg/cm2.

Actual value of water hammer pressure = Ph, max . (TC/T),

Where, TC = 2L/UP

= (2 x 1600)/1209.7

= 2.65 sec.

(a) when actual time of closure, T = 2 sec. [i.e. T < TC},

Ph = Ph, max = 22.2 kg/cm2

(b) when actual time of closure is 4 sec,

Ph = 22.2 x (2.65/4)

= 14.7 kg/cm2.

Corrosion in pipes

When a metal immersed in water or in an electrolyte, goes into solution, the action is known as
corrosion. The pipe corrosion may be internal (due to flowing water) or external (due to surrounding
media) & may lead to disintegration of metal. Corrosion is an electrochemical process, with iron ions
tending o go into water & replace hydrogen ions, the iron acting as anode & the hydrogen forming at
cathode points.
Factors contributing to pipe corrosion are:

(i) pH of flowing water;

(ii) presence of water in surrounding soil & its pH;

(iii) composition of pipe material;

(iv) temperature;

(v) oxygen , &

(vi) soil bacteria.

Hypothesis put forward to explain corrosion – mostly bimetallic corrosion.

Prevention of pipe corrosion:

(i) Cathodic protection;

(ii) Providing protective lining & coatings (Galvanising);

(iii) Proper selection of material;

(iv) Treatment of water.

Cathodic protection is done by connecting the metal in an electric circuit to the ‘- ive’ pole of a DC
generator, with the ‘+ive’ poles being connected to anodes buried in ground. As current flows from
the surrounding to the pipe, the anodes buried in the ground get corroded & have to be replaced.

Treatment of water: Methods employed are –

(i) pH adjustment;

(ii) control of CaCO3;

(iii) removal of DO;

(iv) removal of CO2.

Names of major pipe appurtenances in main supply line:

(i) Gate valve;

(ii) Air valve;

(iii) Reflux valve;

(iv) Relief valve, etc.

Fig (Source.hardhatengineer.com) Gate valve.

Fig (Source.valvemagazine.com) Air valve.

Fig (Source.armas.com.tr) Air valve.

 Fig (Source.gharpedia.com) Reflux valve operation.

Fig (Source.indiamart.com) Reflux valve.

Fig (Source.validyne.com) Sectional view of Relief valve.

 Fig (Source.indiamart.com) Relief valve.

Distribution of water

Systems are: (i) Gravity system;

(ii) Pumping system;

(iii) Combined system (most commonly adopted where, water is supplied to the base of overhead
reservoirs (may be by pumping) & then water is lifted to the overhead reservoir by pumping. Then
water is supplied to the local users from the reservoir by gravity.)

Pressure in the distribution main depends on:

(a) the height to which water is to be supplied;

(b) fire-fighting requirements;

(c) whether the supply is metered or not (more pressure is necessary for installation of meters);

(d) availability of funds.

Pressures suggested:

(a) Residential districts:

Level Pressure in kg/cm2

Upto 3 storeys 2
3 – 6 storeys 2–4
6 – 10 storeys 4 – 5.5
Above 10 storeys 5.5 – 7

(b) Commercial districts: => 5 kg/cm2.

Minimum velocity of flow = 0.6 m/s to be maintained.

Pipe dia. (cm) 10 15 25 40

Velocity (m/s) 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8
According to the Manual on Water Supply & Treatment (Ministry of Urban Development), the
following minimum residual pressures are recommended at ferrule points (i.e. at the entry point of
water connection to a household):

Type of building Head of water (m)

Single storey bldg. 7
Two storey bldg. 12
Three storey bldg. 17

Pipes are not designed ordinarily for residual pressures more than 22m.

Minimum pipe sizes:

Towns with population upto 50,000 => 100mm ɸ

Towns with population above 50,000 => 150mm ɸ

For dead ends, ɸ < 100mm can be considered.

Pipe hydraulics

(i) Darcy – Weisbach Formula:

hf = f.L.Q2/(12.1 x D5),

where, hf = head loss due to friction, (m);

f = Coeff. of friction;

L = length of pipe (m);

D = internal dia. (m);

Q = flow in pipe, m3/s.

f = 0.02 ----- for new smooth pipes;

= 0.075 ---- for old rough pipes.

Economic diameter:

D = a.√Q,

Where, D = dia. of pipe (m);

Q = discharge to be pumped (m3/s);

a = 0.97 – 1.22.

(ii) Hazen – Williams Formula:

V = 0.849 x C x R0.63 x S0.54

= 0.354 x C x D0.63 x S0.54

Q = 0.278 x C x D2.63 x S0.54.

Where,

V = mean velocity of flow in pipe (m/s);

R = hydraulic radius (m);

S = hydraulic gradient;

C = coeff. of roughness of pipe;

D = diameter of the pipe (m);

Q = flow in pipe (m3/s).

Type of pipe Condition C

10cm ɸ 30 cm ɸ 60 cm ɸ & more
Cast iron Smooth & new 125 130 135
Ordinary 95 105 115
Old 70 80 90
Very rough 55 65 75

Local losses:

In addition to friction head loss (hf), other losses are -----

(i) entry loss [≈ 0.5 . v2/(2g)]

(ii) velocity head loss [≈ v2/(2g)]

(iii) head loss due to valves, pipe line transitions etc.

These losses are known as minor losses (hm)& can be expressed as -----

hm = K.v2/(2g),

where, v => velocity of flow (m/s); g = 9.81 m/s2.

Type of fitting Value of K

Sudden contractions 0.3 – 0.5
Entrance (shape well rounded) 0.5
Elbow: (i) 900 0.5 – 1.0
(ii) 1450 0.4 – 0.75
(iii) 220 0.25 – 0.50
Tee: (i) 900 1.5
(ii) straight run 0.3
(iii) coupling 0.3
Gate valve (open) 0.3 – 0.4
With reducer & increaser 0.5
Globe valve 10.0
Angle 5.0
Fig (Source.slideshare.net) Water connection to a household.
Part – 26

Problem on design of water supply pipe diameter

Prob. A storage reservoir is situated at a distance of 6km from a city of 3 lakh population. The total
loss of head from the source to the city is not to exceed 20m. Taking the daily demand of 200 lpcd, &
pumping is to be done for 12 hours only, determine the size of supply main by---

(a) Darcy – Weisbach Formula, taking coeff. of friction = 0.015;

(b) Hazen – Williams Formula, taking C = 130.

Assume minor losses equal to 10.v2/(2g).

Soln.

Maximum demand = 3 x 105 x 200 = 6 x 107 lpd.

As pumping is to be done for 12 hrs/day so rate of pumping = 6 x 107 /(12 x 60 x 60)

= 1388.9 lps

= 1.389 m3/s.

L = 6000m; HL is not to exceed 20m (both are given)

(a) Darcy – Weisbach Formula

hf = f.L.Q2/(12.1 x D5),

Neglecting minor losses, hL =20m.

Then, 20 = (0.015 x 6000 x 1.3892)/(12.1 x D5)

Or, D = [ (0.015 x 6000 x 1.3892)/(12.1 x 20) ]1/5

= 0.936m.

Then, V = (4 x Q)/(π x D2)

= (4 x 1.389)/(π x 0.9362)

= 2.02 m/s.

Then minor losses = 10.v2/(2g)

= 10 x 2.022/(2 x 9.81) = 2.08m.

Thus, hf = HL - hm

= 20 – 2.08

= 17.92m

Thus, 17.92 = [(0.015 x 6000 x 1.3892)/(12.1 x D5)]

Or, D = [(0.015 x 6000 x 1.3892)/(12.1 x 17.92)]1/5

= 0.96m.
Thus, adopted the nearest standard value of pipe dia. = 1 m.

(b) Hazen – Williams Formula

V = 0.849 x C x R0.63 x S0.54

Q = 0.278 x C x D2.63 x (hf/L)0.54

Neglecting minor losses, hf = HL = 20m.

Thus, 1.389 = 0.278 x 130 x D2.63 x (20/6000)0.54

Or, D = 0.934 m.

V = (4 x 1.389)/(π x 0.9342)

= 2.027 m/s.

hm = 10 x (2.027)2 / (2 x 9.81)

= 2.09 m.

hf = 20 – 2.09 = 17.91 m.

Thus, 1.389 = 0.278 x 130 x D2.63 x (17.91/6000)0.54

Or, D = 0.96m.

Thus, adopted the nearest standard pipe dia. = 1 m.

[This shows that both the relations are equally useful in determining the pipe dia. & any one can be
used to get the result]

Prob. A service reservoir receives water from an impounding reservoir, distant 40km. The difference
in levels between the water levels of these reservoirs is 120m. the two reservoirs were originally
connected by a single pipe line designed to carry a maximum daily requirement of 18 MLD. It is now
desired to increase the supply to 25 MLD, by laying another pipe line of the same diameter alongside
the first one, in a certain required length and cross-connecting the two. Using Hazen – Williams (C
=120), determine (a) the diameter of the pipes, & (b) the length of second pipe required to be laid.

18 𝑥 106 𝑥 10−3
Soln. Initial Q = = 0.2083 m3/s
24 𝑥 60 𝑥 60
 25 𝑥 106 𝑥 10−3
New Q = = 0.2894 m3/s
24 𝑥 60 𝑥 60
From Hazen – Williams Eqn. Q = 0.278 . C . D2.63 . S0.54

𝑄 1.852 𝐿
Or, hf = 10.70 𝑥 ( ) 𝑥
𝐶 𝐷4.87
Initially, Q = 0.2083 m3/s, hf = 120m;

0.2083 1.852 40000

∴ 120 = 10.70 𝑥 ( ) 𝑥
120 𝐷4.87

Or, D = 0.478m.
In the new system, total head loss = HL-AB (for Q = 0.2894) + HL-BC or HL-BD (for Q/2)

0.2894 1.852 (40−𝑙)𝑥 1000

∴ 120 = 10.70 𝑥 ( ) 𝑥 (0.478)4.87
+
120

0.1447 1.852 𝑙 𝑥 1000

10.70 𝑥 ( ) 𝑥
120 (0.478)4.87
Or, 120 = 5.5286 (40 – l) + 1.5315 x l

Or, (5.5286 – 1.5315) x l = (5.5286 x 40) – 120

Or, l = 25.304 km.

[ 𝑄 = 0.278 𝐶 . 𝐷2.63 . 𝑆 0.54

0.54 𝑄 1 1
Or, 𝑆 = . .
𝐶 𝐷2.63 0.278

ℎ 0.54 1 𝑄 1
Or, ( ) = 𝑥 𝑥
𝐿 0.278 𝐶 𝐷2.63
1 1 1
1 0.54 𝑄 0.54 1 0.54
Or, ℎ = ( ) 𝑥 ( ) 𝑥 ( ) 𝑥𝐿
0.278 𝐶 𝐷2.63

𝑄 1.852 𝐿
Or, ℎ = 10.70 𝑥 ( ) 𝑥 ]
𝐶 𝐷4.87
Wastewater

It is generated when raw or fresh water loses its freshness, which gets reflected in the change of
characteristics compared to its fresh state.

Wastewater – Types

(Based on source) : (a) Domestic (from households) (b) Industrial (from industries)
(c) Municipal (from a municipality area comprising of different types of residents

& users of facilities)

Here we are concerned with municipal type of wastewater, which is mostly coming from domestic or
comparable sources).

(Based on characteristics) : (a)sewage (containing human excreta, coming from toilets etc.)

(b) sullage (not containing human excreta, e.g. various wash water etc.)

Collection system of wastewater

Through house plumbing systems of the following types:

(i) One pipe system (uses a common wastewater pipe & an accompanying vent pipe for the entire
bulding)

(ii) Two pipe system (uses separate sets of pairs of wastewater & vent pipes for sewage and sullage
generated in different floors of the entire building; costlier than one pipe system due to increased
length of pipes used for the two types of flow)

(iii) Single stack system (uses a common pipe to drain out the wastewater generated from all floors of
a building without any provision of the vent pipe; not suitable for big multi-storey set-ups)
Fig (Source.dailycivil.com). One pipe system of plumbing.

Fig (Source.civiljungle.com). Two pipe system of plumbing.

 Fig (Source.ques10.com). Single stack system of house plumbing.

Conduits for drainage of sewage – known as sewer pipes or sewers. Usually laid underground within
house premises as house sewers. When laid underground usually by the sides of road alignments and
collect sewage released from individual households, these are known as municipal sewers.

Household sewers may be built up of (i) Asbestos-cement, (ii) PVC, (iii) Glazed Stoneware pipes. Types
(i) & (ii) are not to be used underground for their lower strength (mostly used as rainwater pipes,
vertical sewer pipes hanging from the walls etc.). Type (iii) is relatively stronger and usually used
underground.

Municipal sewers are mostly constructed of R.C.C. because of the strength factor. Old brick sewers are
also found.

Cross-section of sewers (a) Circular (mostly used); (b) Box type (usually for brick sewer); (c)
Egg-shaped sewer (oval type of cross section with upper part being wider compared to the lower ).

Fig (Source.civilcrews.com) Typical circular sewer.

 Fig (Source.ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in). Typical box type sewer section.

Fig (Source.civilcrews.com) Typical egg-shaped sewer.

Types of municipal wastewater

(a) Sanitary --- generated from all types of user in the municipal area (mostly non-industrial; contains
human excreta in it).

(b) Stormwater runoff --- generated from the run off resulting from rainfalls and flowing over the
ground surface.

Types of municipal sewerage systems

(i) Separate -- when separate sewer pipes are used to drain out sanitary & stormwater runoff.

(ii) Combined – when the same sewer pipe is used for both sanitary & stormwater runoff.
Part – 27

Estimation of quantity of sewage

(i) Sanitary sewage – it is considered as 80% of the water supplied to the community. Thus for a
standard water supply rate of 135lpcd, average value of sanitary sewage = 0.8 x 135 x (no. of
population in the municipal area).

(ii) Stormwater run-off --- Here the relation used for its computation is known as Rational Formula and
is given by –

Q = (1/36) . C. I. A,

Where, Q = > stormwater run off in m3/s,

I = > intensity of rainfall in cm / hr.,

A = > tributary drainage area in Hectare (or ha; 1 ha = 10,000m2)

[This is an empirical formula, so care should be taken about the units]

C => Coefficient of run off = (Runoff / rainfall) ; For a municipal area having segments measuring A 1,
A2, …. with respective values of coeff. of run off as C1, C2, ….. the average value of C for the entire
tributary area will be considered as –

Cav = [∑ Ci Ai / ∑Ai], i = 1,2, … n.

Empirical relations may be used for calculation of I, as shown below:

I ( in mm / hr) = 25.4 . a / (t + b)
t (min.) a b
Where, t => duration of storm in min.,
5 – 20 30 10
And a,b => constants. 20 – 100 40 20

[Information about I should be supplied in the question, so relation need not be memorised]

Design of sewer cross-section

Self-cleansing velocity => The velocity that should be maintained at the minimum to maintain
unobstructed flow in sewer during low flow situation (usually not below 0.3m/s).

Velocity of flow to be considered => For average flow in sewer

Usually adopted value of average flow velocity = 0.75 m/s.

Velocity of low should not exceed the scouring velocity, which will erode the sewer material & damage
it.

Manning’s formula is used for design of sewer cross section. It is given by,

v = (1/N) . R(2/3) . S(1/2),

where, v = velocity of flow in sewer, m3/s;

N = Manning’s coefficient of roughness (to be provided in question);

R = hydraulic radius [ i.e. (cross sectional area) / (wetted perimeter)]

S = hydraulic gradient [ (head loss) / (length of flow path), & so, unitless; also taken as the slope of
the sewer line]

Usually the dia. of sewer is first calculated on the basis of sewer flowing full and then it is cross checked
for the actual flow situation (when the sewer may not actually be flowing full, and we have to see that
the minimum flow velocity is maintained in order to avoid blocking of sewage; this is known as partial
flow situation & data related to this will be usually provided in the question; this can also be found in
textbook in tables containing values of parameters like q/Q, d/D etc.).

Problem on use of Rational Formula

The drainage area of one sector of s town is 20 ha. The classification of the surface of this area is as
follows:

% of total surface area Type of surface Runoff coeff.

25 Hard pavement 0.85
25 Roof surface 0.80
15 Unpaved street 0.30
25 Gardens & lawns 0.15
10 Wooded area 0.10
If the time of concentration for the area is 30 min., find the maximum runoff. Use the following
formula for intensity of rainfall:

R = 900/( t + 60), R=> in mm/hr., t = > time of concentration (or duration of rainfall) in min.

Solution

Let A be the area of the catchment / drainage area.

C1 x A1 = 0.85 x 0.25 A = 0.2125 A

C2 x A2 = 0.80 x 0.25 A = 0.2000 A

C3 x A3 = 0.30 x 0.15 A = 0.0450 A

C4 x A4 = 0.15 x 0.25 A = 0.0375 A

C5 x A5 = 0.10 x 0.10 A = 0.0100 A

∑ = 0.5050 A

Cav = [∑ Ci Ai / ∑Ai] = (0.5050 A) / A = 0.5050

R = 900/( t + 60)

= 900/( 30 + 60)

= 10 mm/hr.

By Rational Formula, Q = (1/36) . C. I. A,

Here, C = Cav = 0.5050;

I = R = 10 mm/hr = 1 cm/hr;

A = 20 ha.

So, Q = (1/36) x 0.5050 x 1 x 20 = 0.2806 m3/s.

Problem on design of sewer cross section

Calculate the velocity of flow & discharge in a sewer of circular cross-section having dia. of 1 m, laid
at a gradient of 1 in 500. Use Manning’s formula , taking N = 0.012. Assume that the sewer is running
half full.

Solution

Let d be the depth of flow in the sewer having diameter D;

Θ be the angle subtended at the centre of the sewer by the two ends of the water surface inside the
sewer.

For the sewer flowing half full, d/D = ½ and Θ = 1800.

Thus area of flow => a = (1/2) x (π D2/4) = π D2/8.

Thus wetted perimeter => p = (π D)/2.

[For any general case of d/D, the wetted perimeter can be found as below:

Wetted perimeter = πD . (Θ/360).

Thus for half full sewer, Θ = 1800 and wetted perimeter = πD . (180/360) = πD /2. ]

Thus Hydraulic radius => r = a/p = (π. D2/8) / (π D/2) = D/4

= ¼ m = 0.25m.

From the question, hydraulic gradient = > s = (1/500).

So, using Manning’s formula, velocity of flow in sewer, v = (1/0.012) x (0.25)2/3 x (1/500)1/2

= 1.479 m/s. [should lie between 0.75 m/s &

3.0m/s (which is the usual scouring velocity)]

Discharge q = a x v = (π/8) x (1)2 x 1.479 = 0.581 m3/s.

Sewer appurtenances: Manhole, drop manhole.

Fig (Source.oas.org). Typical sectional elevation of a manhole.

Fig (Source.boulderlibrary.net). Typical sectional view of drop manhole.

Joints in sewer pipes: Spigot & socket joint, Bandage joint.

Fig (Source.slideshare.net). Spigot & socket joint (Rigid & semi-flexible types)

Fig (Source.theconstructor.org) Sectional details of a collar joint.

Important Parameters for characterisation of Wastewater

Solids – (i) Total (ii) Suspended (iii) Settleable (iv) Dissolved

Total solids & Suspended solids (also written as SS & mostly used in design calculations in problems)
are both expressed in mg/l. Settleable solid is expressed in ml/l.

Dissolved solids measure the presence of solids in dissolved form (ionic state) & usually measured by
correlation of conductivity test results. Expressed in mg/l.
Solids can also be organic (or volatile – i.e. evaporates on heating) & inorganic (or fixed) types.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.)

It represents the amount of oxygen needed by bacteria present in wastewater to consume the organic
matter present in it. It is proportional with the presence of organic matter in wastewater.

Standard B.O.D. Test (also known as Dilution method)

Fig (Source.laboratorysales.com). Standard BOD bottle.

Fig (Source.medseavillefranche2013.wordpress.com). BOD bottles used in the test.

Part – 28

Standard B.O.D. Test (also known as Dilution method)

Fig (Source.hmgindia.com). BOD incubator.

Uses a standard sample of aerated (upto saturation level) distilled water mixed with selected
chemicals like phosphate buffer (to neutralise pH), ferric chloride etc. (as nutrients) each mixed @
1ml/l of the dilution water. Samples of wastewater are mixed in this dilution water & kept in standard
BOD bottles (300ml. standard capacity) at constant temperature (in equipment known as incubator)
for a standard duration (known as incubation period). Dissolved Oxygen (D.O.) content of the sample
is measured before and after incubation, & their difference gives a measure of BOD of the wastewater
sample.

If D1 = DO in sample mixture, 15 min. after preparation, in mg/l,

D2 = DO in sample mixture, at the end of incubation period, in mg/l,

B1 = DO in seed dilution (or, seed blank), 15 min. after preparation, in mg/l,

B2 = DO in seed dilution, at the end of incubation period, in mg/l,

P = % mixture of the sample (i.e. ml. test sample per 100ml of mixture),

𝑚𝑙.𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑑/𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑓= [ Dilution factor = 100 / % mixture ]
𝑚𝑙.𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑑/𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Then, where seeding is necessary & done,

[(𝐷1 − 𝐷2 )− (𝐵1 − 𝐵2 )𝑓]

𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑚𝑔/𝑙 = 𝑥 100
𝑃
Where seeding is not necessary,
100
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑚𝑔/𝑙 = (𝐷1 − 𝐷2 ) 𝑥
𝑃
BOD5 – 200C => It represents the standard BOD test result conducted for 5 days at a constant
temperature of 200C. Also known as first stage BOD (when oxygen is consumed exclusively for
carbonaceous components of wastewater)

BOD results are expressed in mg/l.

Fig (Source.slideshare.net). Oxygen demand curve.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (C.O.D.)

It represents the amount of oxygen needed for chemical oxidation of solids in wastewater. Thus, in
general, it includes the demand of oxygen for organic (represented by BOD) & inorganic matters. So,
COD is greater or equal to BOD.

COD results are also expressed in mg/l.

Presence of Nitrogen & Phosphorus is also crucial for biodegradability of wastewater. For a
wastewater to be biodegradable by aerobic bacteria, BOD5 : N : P = 100 : 5 : 1.

Relations concerned with progression of BOD

 Fig (Source.slieshare.net). BOD progression curve.

If L0 => initial BOD present in wastewater, in mg/l, (also equal to the ultimate first stage BOD).

Lt => BOD present at time t from the start of BOD consumption, in mg/l,

Yt => (L0 – Lt ) => First stage BOD exerted in time t, in mg/l,

t => time in days,

then, the progression of 1st stage BOD follows first order kinetics given by –

dL/dt = - K’L

or, dL/L = - K’dt

𝐿 𝑑𝐿 𝑡
or, ∫𝐿 𝑡 = −𝐾 ′ ∫0 𝑑𝑡
0 𝐿
𝐿
or, 𝑙𝑛 𝐿 𝑡 = −𝐾′𝑡
𝑜

𝐿
or, 𝐿 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑘′𝑡
0

or, Lt = L0 . 10-kt,
& Yt = L0 (1 – 10-kt),

Where k is known as BOD rate constant, base 10, expressed in ‘per day’.

Temperature modifications for k:

KT = K20 (1.047)( T – 20) ,

Where, KT = BOD rate constant at T0C,

K20 = BOD rate constant at 200C, [ generally K20 (base 10) = 0.1 / day ]

T = temperature of the sample in 0C,

Temperature conversion factor (often represented by θ ) = 1.047.

Temperature modifications for L:

L0 (T) = L0 (20) [ 1 + 0.02 (T – 20)],

Where, L0 (T) = Ultimate first stage BOD at T0C,

& L0 (20) = Ultimate first stage BOD at 200C,

Problems on progression of BOD

Prob. Find the rate constant at 300C if its value at 200C is 0.12/day. Take the temperature conversion
factor as 1.047.

Soln.

K30 = K20 (1.047)( 30 – 20)

= 0.12 x 1.04710

= 0.19 / day.

Prob. A sample of wastewater has 4-day 200C BOD value of 75% of the final. Find the rate constant
(base 10, per day).

Soln.

Y4 = 0.75 x L0 (as given in the problem)

We know, Yt = L0 (1 – 10-kt)

Thus, 0.75 x L0 = L0 (1 – 10-k . 4)

Or, 10-4k = ( 1 – 0.75)

Or, -4k = log 0.25

Or, k = (log 0.25) / (-4)

= 0.15051 /day.

Prob. The BOD of a wastewater incubated for 1 day at 300C = 100mg/l. What will be BOD5 – 200C ?
Assume k = 0.12 / day at 200C & θ = 1.047.

Soln.

KT = K20 . θ( T – 20)

K30 = K20 (1.047)( 30 – 20 ) = 0.12 x 1.04710 = 0.19 /day.

Now, Yt (30) = L0 ( 1 – 10-k.t)

So, Y1 (30) = L0 ( 1 – 10- 0.19 x 1)

Or, L0 = 100 / ( 1 – 10- 0.19)

= 282.21 mg/l.

Thus, Y5 (20) = L0 ( 1 – 10 - 0.12 x 5)

= 282.21 x ( 1 – 10- 0.6 )

= 211.32 mg/l.

Prob. The BOD5 of a wastewater = 500 mg/l. If the rate constant (if nothing is mentioned, consider the
value as base 10) = 0.113 / day, what is the ultimate BOD of the waste? What proportion of BOD would
remain unoxidised after 20 days?

Soln.

We know that Yt = L0 ( 1 – 10 – k.t )

Now, BOD5 = Y5 = L0 ( 1 – 10-5.k)

Or, 500 = L0 ( 1 – 10 – 5 x 0.113 )

Or, L0 = 687.07 mg/l.

Now, Y20 = L0 ( 1 – 10 – 20 x k )

= L0 ( 1 – 10 -20 x 0.113 )

= 0.9945 x L0

Thus, unoxidised proportion of BOD = 100 – 99.45 = 0.55%.

Disposal of municipal wastewater

The most common way to do this is to drain out the sewage from a municipality into a flowing water
body (e.g. a river). This does not allow the accumulation of sewage components or pollutants at the
disposal point into the river but takes them away downstream & in the process helps in dilution of the
effect of mixing sewage into the water body. This is known as the process of self- purification of
streams.

When the wastewater is injected into the river at its disposal point, initially with the entry of the
pollutants in water, their biodegradation starts by aerobic bacteria. This process is similar to
progression of BOD and is characterised by the deoxygenation rate constant (which is similar to BOD
rate constant). This leads to lowering of dissolved oxygen (D.O.) in the river water. But as the river
water is going to get aerated by natural process as its surface is exposed to atmosphere, the level of
D.O. gets replenished by this natural process of reaeration & is characterised by another rate constant,
known as reaeration rate constant. Thus, if we try to plot the D.O. present in river water downstream
of the point of wastewater in it, the curve initially dips showing gradual decrease in D.O. due to
deoxygenation, but when the injected waste is mostly consumed by bacteria thus reducing the
balance amount of waste in the river water, the rate of reaeration dominates over the rate of
deoxygenation. As a result, the plot of D.O. curve rises again and usually proceeds to meet the original
level of D.O. present in the river before injection of the wastewater in it.
Part – 29

But an important condition is that once a wastewater stream is injected in a river, no further entry of
wastewater flow will be allowed in the river till it recovers to reach the original level of D.O. existing
in the river just before the first point of injection of wastewater into the river.

The resultant development of the ‘U’ shaped cuve is known as ‘D.O. Sag Curve’. The level by which
this actually available level of D.O. varies from the saturation level of D.O. (the maximum level of D.O.
possible at the given temperature) is known as the ‘D.O. deficit’ & is often used in the associated
numericals. The equation that governs the development of D.O. Sag Curve is known as ‘Streeter –
Phelps Equation’.

Fig (Source.slideplayer.com) Stream pollution – different zones.

Incidentally, in the recent past during the lockdown process & due to closure of all industries situated
along the rivers as well as the grossly reduced municipal activities generating wastes, the net load of
wastes getting discharged in rivers significantly decreased. As a result, we were getting reports that
erstwhile polluted sections of major rivers like Ganges, Jamuna etc. were looking clear, purified and
having upgraded water quality. Even fishes were returning in many such stretches of rivers, for which
the minimum level of D.O. to be sustained in river water is 4 mg/l as per the provisions of the Pollution
Control Boards.
 Fig (Source.researchgate.net). D.O. sag curve.

Streeter Phelps Equation (Derivation not required)

Dt = [KL0/(R – K)].[10- K.t – 10- R.t] + D0. 10- R.t

Where, Dt = D.O. deficit after time ‘t’ from the point of mixing wastewater into fresh river water;

L0 = initial / ultimate BOD (at t = 0) immediately after mixing of the wastewater with the river water;

K = deoxygenation rate constant (usually base 10, per day);

R = reoxygenation rate constant (usually base 10, per day);

D0 = Initial D.O. deficit, i.e. at t = 0;

t = time under consideration.

tc = [1/(R – K)].log [(R/K).{ 1 - D0(R – K)/(KL0)}]

where tc = critical time from the point of mixing wastewater into river when the D.O. deficit is
maximum.

Problem on self-purification of streams (application of Streeter – Phelps Equation)

Prob. A stream saturated with D.O., has a flow of 1.2m3/s, BOD of 4mg/l & rate constant of 0.3/day.
It receives an effluent discharge of 0.25 m3/s having BOD = 20mg/l, D.O. = 5 mg/l & rate constant =
0.13/day. The average velocity of flow of the steam is 0.18 m/s. Calculate the D.O. deficit at points
20km & 40km downstream. Assume that the temperature is 200C throughout & BOD is measured at 5
days. Take saturation D.O. at 200C = 9.17 mg/l.
Soln.

Let Y5 = BOD of the mix

So, Y5 = [(1.2 x 4) + (0.25 x 20)] / (1.2 + 0.25)

= 6.759 mg/l.

Y5 = L0 ( 1 – 10- k. t)

Or, 6.759 = L0 ( 1 – 10- 0.13 x 5)

Or, L0 = 8.71 mg/l.

Again, DOmix = [(9.17 x 1.2) + (5 x 0.25)] / (1.2 + 0.25)

= 8.45 mg/l.

Thus, initial DO deficit = > D0 = 9.17 – 8.45 = 0.72 mg/l.

(a) DO deficit at a point 20km downstream

Time for the river flow to reach the point, t = (20 x 1000)/(0.18 x 60 x 60 x 24) = 1.286 days.

Thus, Dt = [KL0/(R – K)].[10- K.t – 10- R.t] + D0. 10- R.t

= [(0.13 x 8.71)/(0.3 – 0.13)].[ 10- 0.13 x 1.286 – 10- 0.3 x 1.286 ] + 0.72 x 10- 0.3 x 1.286

= 2.089 mg/l.

(b) DO deficit at a point 40km downstream

Time for the river flow to reach the point, t = (40 x 1000)/(0.18 x 60 x 60 x 24) = 2.572 days.

Thus, Dt = [KL0/(R – K)].[10- K.t – 10- R.t] + D0. 10- R.t

= [(0.13 x 8.71)/(0.3 – 0.13)].[ 10- 0.13 x 2.572 – 10- 0.3 x 2.572 ] + 0.72 x 10- 0.3 x 2.572

= 2.079 mg/l.

[This also shows that the river is in the mode of recovering the degraded water quality by the time it
reaches 40 km downstream as the DO deficit value is decreasing from that at the point 20km
downstream]

Prob. (a) The existing DO deficit of 1.0mg/l is observed in a river with a linear flow velocity of 0.18
m/s. After discharge of a waste effluent into this river, Ymixed = 5.0 mg/l, K = 0.15 /day & R = 0.33
/day. Calculate the DO deficit, D , after 2 days.

(b) If the DO concentration initially was 8.5 mg/l, what is the DO concentration 2 days after
discharge?

(c) What is the critical time at which the largest deficit occurs?

(d) What is the resulting deficit at critical time?

(e) If the state regulations required a residual DO concentration of 4.0 mg/l at the critical time after
discharge, would a discharge permit be issued for the effluent?

(f) Knowing the linear flow velocity from the problem, how far downstream will the critical deficit
occur?

Soln.

(a) D0 = 1.0 mg/l; Ymixed (i.e. L0) = 5.0 mg/l; K = 0.15/day; R = 0.33/day; t = 2 days.

So, D = [KL0/(R – K)].[10- K.t – 10- R.t] + D0. 10- R.t

= [(0.15 x 5)/(0.33 – 0.15)].[ 10- 0.15 x 2 – 10- 0.33 x 2] + 1 x 10- 0.33 x 2

= 1.395 ≈ 1.4 mg/l.

(b) DO concentration after 2 days = 8.5 – 1.4

= 7.1 mg/l.

(c) tc = [1/(R – K)].log [(R/K).{ 1 - D0(R – K)/(KL0)}]

= [1/(0.33 – 0.15)].log[ (0.33 / 0.15).{ 1 – ( 1 x (0.33 – 0.15)/(0.15 x 5))}]

= 1.24 ≈ 1.2 days.

(d) By putting t = tc, we get –

Dc = [KL0/(R – K)].[10- K.t – 10- R.t] + D0. 10- R.t

= [(0.15 x 5) /(0.33 – 0.15)].[10- 0.15 x 1.2 – 10-0.33x1.2] + 1 x 10- 0.33 x 1.2

= 1.48 ≈ 1.5 mg/l.

(e) At the critical time after discharge, the residual DO concentration = 8.5 – 1.5

= 7.0 mg/l > 4.0 mg/l, as set by

the regulations.

Hence, a discharge permit can be issued for the effluent.

(f) The distance along downstream, where the critical deficit occurs = tc x v (i.e. vel. of flow)

= (1.2 x 24 x 60 x 60) x 0.18/1000 km

= 18.66 km from the start.

Part – 30

Treatment of municipal wastewater

Classification of treatment processes

(I) Unit Operation: Those involving only physical processes.

Unit Process: Those involving chemical & other processes also.

(II) Primary Treatment: Which treats only the raw sewage as influent

Secondary Treatment: Here, the effluent from primary treatment units is taken up for treatment.

Tertiary Treatment: Here, the effluent from secondary treatment units is treated further.

(II) Physical Treatment Units: Screen, Grit chamber, Settling tanks (Primary & Secondary)

Chemical Treatment Units: Chlorination

Biological Treatment Units: Trickling filter, Activated sludge process, Oxidation pond, Septic tank

Anaerobic sludge digester etc.

(i) Aerobic: where aerobic bacteria is active, e.g. Trickling filter, Activated sludge,

Aerobic oxidation / stabilisation pond etc.

(ii) Anaerobic: where anaerobic bacteria is active, e.g. Anaerobic sludge digester,

Anaerobic lagoon etc.

(iii) Facultative: where facultative bacteria is active, e.g. Facultative stabilisation pond

etc.

Table: Efficiency of common wastewater treatment systems

Method % removal
BOD5 SS Bacteria
Plain settling (Primary treatment) 25 - 40 40 - 70 25 – 75
Chlorination of raw sewage 15 - 30 - 90 – 95
Trickling Filter, preceded & followed by plain settling 80 - 95 70 - 92 90 – 95
Activated Sludge, preceded & followed by plain settling 85 - 95 85 - 95 90 - 98

Typical flow sheets of wastewater treatment are given below (3 nos.)

Problems on BOD test & parameter as population equivalent (P.E.)

Prob. 5 ml. of raw sewage was diluted by dilution water in a 300 ml. capacity BOD bottle. The DO
concentration of the diluted sample at the beginning of the test was 9 mg/l & 6 mg/l after 5 – days
incubation at 200C. Find the BOD of the raw sewage.

Soln.

Dilution factor = 300 / 5 = 60;

Loss of DO = 9 – 6 = 3mg/l;

Thus, BOD5 = 3 x 60 = 180 mg/l.

Prob. A 1% solution of sewage sample is incubated for 5 days at 200C. The depletion of oxygen was
found to be 3 ppm (for water, mg/l = ppm, i.e. parts per million). Determine the BOD of raw sewage.

Soln.

Dilution factor =100 / (% of solution mixture) = 100/1 = 100.

Thus, BOD5 = 3 x 100 = 300 ppm.

Prob. If the per capita contribution of SS (i.e. suspended solids) & BOD is 100gm & 60gm respectively,
find the population equivalents of –

(a) a combined system serving 12000 persons having 80 gm/capita/day of BOD, and

(b) 200,000 lit/day of industrial wastewater containing 1500 mg/l of SS.

Soln.

(a) Total BOD load = 12000 x 80 = 96 x 104 gm/day;

Standard BOD per capita = 60 gm (given)

Thus, P.E. = (96 x 104 )/ 60 = 16000.

(b) Total daily load of SS = 200,000 x 1500 x 10-3 gm

= 300,000 gm;

Standard SS per capita = 100gm (given)

Thus, P.E. = 300,000 /100 = 3000.

Design of Primary Wastewater Treatment units

(i) Screen

Screens comprise of vertical or inclined bars spaced at close & equal intervals across a channel through
which sewage flows & these are used to arrest coarse solids in suspension & prevent them from
entering the main tank units. This is placed at the entrance of the sewage treatment plant (or STP, the
term that we will use for the rest of our discussion on units of wastewater treatment plant).

Classification of screen:

Type of screen Clear spacing between flats / bars

Coarse screen 50mm & above
Medium screen 20 mm – 50 mm
Fine screen Less than 20mm

Based on Type of cleaning Sewage flow

Manually (hand) cleaned Ave. flow is not more than 400 m3/hr
Mechanically cleaned Ave. flow is more than 400 m3/hr

Fig (Source.slideshare.net). Bar screen set up.

Recommendation of velocity:

Velocity through the screen should be 0.6 – 1.2 m/s. Usual approach velocity = 0.8 m/s so that the
velocity through the screen does not exceed 0.9 m/s.

Effective area of the screen:

For screen using inclined bars, it is the sum of the vertical projected areas of the screen openings from
invert (i.e. bottom) to the flow line (i.e. upper level of sewage).

Head loss through screen:

It is given by = > H = 0.0729 (V2 – v2), [ to be remembered for solving problems]

Where, V = velocity through the screen, m/s;

v = approach velocity, m/s;

H = head loss in m.

Item Manually / Hand cleaned screen Mechanically cleaned screen

Bar size : Width (mm) 5 - 15 5 – 15
Depth (mm) 25 - 75 25 – 75
Clear spacing between bars 25 - 50 15 – 75
(mm)
Angle with the horizontal 450 - 600 600 - 900
Allowable head loss (mm) for 150 150
completely cleaned screen
(to be remembered)

Problem on design of screen

Prob. Design a bar screen for peak flow of 40MLD

Take : Bar size = 9mm x 50mm (deep) [ i.e. the bar is actually having a rectangular cross section &

thus also called flats]

Angle of inclination with the vertical = 450

Clear spacing of bars = 36 mm

Velocity through screen = 0.8 m/s at peak flow.

Soln.

Maximum flow = (40 x 106 x 10-3) / (24 x 60 x 60) = 0.4630 m3/s.

Thus, net area of screen = 0.4630 / 0.8 = 0.5787 m2.

Gross area of screen = 0.5787 x[ (36 + 9) / 36] = 0.7234 m2.

Considering angle of inclination of bars, gross area of screen needed = (0.7234 / Sin 450) = 1.023 m2.

Velocity of approach = 0.8 x [36 / (36 + 9)] = 0.64 m/s.

Thus, head loss = 0.0729 (V2 – v2)

= 0.0729 [ 0.82 – 0.642 ]

= 0.017 m = 1.7 cm.

[If the screen is half clogged, V = 2 x 0.8 = 1.6 m/s;

Then, head loss = 0.0729 (1.62 – 0.642)

= 0.157 m = 15.7 cm. ]

(ii) Grit chamber

It is a long rectangular chamber, used to settle out sand, ash, cinder etc. that may be present in
sewage. Nature of inorganic particles settled here is:

(a) Sp. Gr. = 2.4 – 2.65

(b) Size = 0.15 mm & more.

The velocity in grit chamber is maintained at a constant value of 0.3 m/s.

The usual flow through time = 30 – 60 sec.

The common velocity control devices are – Proportional flow weir & Parshall Flume (designs not
needed).

Size in mm Sp. Gr. Overflow rate at 100C, m3/d/m2

0.20 2.65 1700
0.18 1600
0.15 1300
Temperature correction factor (to be used to multiply the given overflow rate in the table) = >

(3T + 70)/100 , where T is the temperature in 0C.

Like the screen, grit chamber is also designed for peak flow. All other treatment units that follow the
grit chamber are designed for average flow conditions.

Fig (Source.slideshare.net). Grit chamber.

Problem on the design of a grit chamber

Prob. Design a grit chamber for a maximum sewage flow = 8000 m 3/d to remove particles below
0.2mm & having sp.gr. = 2.65. The settling velocity of these particles is found to range from 0.018 –
0.022 m/s. Maintain a constant flow through velocity = 0.3 m/s through a proportional flow weir. Take
depth = 1m.

Soln.

Flow, Q = 8000 / (24 x 60 x 60) = 0.0926 m3/s.

Thus, vertical cross sectional area = 0.0926 / 0.3 = 0.3086 m2.

With the depth = 1m (given), width = 0.3086 / 1 = 0.3086 m => 0.35 m (provided)

Taking average settling velocity = 0.02 m/s,

HRT = Depth of chamber / settling velocity = 1/0.02 = 50 sec.

Thus, length of the tank = flow through velocity x HRT

= 0.3 x 50 = 15m.

So, dimensions of the grit chamber are ---

L = 15m, B = 0.35m & D = 1m.

(iii) Primary Settling Tank

This, as well as, secondary settling tank (which is a secondary treatment unit) are same as the circular
settling tanks that we designed while discussing the raw water treatment units. Here only the design
ranges of values for the conventional parameters like surface loading rate, HRT etc. will be different
i.e. as applicable for sewage.

So, no separate discussion about design of these settling tanks will be made this time.

Secondary treatment of wastewater – Trickling Filter

This is a biological process of treatment where aerobic bacteria is used.

Please refer to the flowsheet given in earlier parts that involved the use of trickling filter as the main
biological unit.

A trickling filter is a circular tank, with a central riser pipe to bring in the primary treated sewage as
effluent from the primary settling tank, & then distribute the sewage over the treatment media
through a rotary distributor, typically comprising of four arms. The tank is filled with inert media (i.e.
crushed stones, inert debris etc.) and the media is supported on an underdrainage system (quite
similar with the underdrainage layer used in gravity filters used for raw water treatment, as discussed
earlier in the class). There is a central main drain under the underdrainage layer, through which the
treated wastewater is drained out from the trickling filter & it is guided to the succeeding unit of a
secondary settling tank. There is no provision of separating any sludge in a trickling filter.

Fig (Source.researchgate.net). Sectional view of a trickling filter.

Fig (Source.civildigital.com). A trickling filter in operation.

Part – 31

After construction of a new trickling filter, untreated wastewater is poured over the media for a period
of acclimatisation so that a slime layer is grown on the surface of the inert filter media. This slime layer
contains the active element known as Zooglea which absorbs oxygen from atmosphere, uses it to
degrade the organics in wastewater & releases CO2 back to the atmosphere. A trickling filter is actually
not a filter as no real process of filtration is carried out in this unit. As the active slime layer sticks to
the surface of the inert media, so the trickling filter is also an example of “attached growth system” of
wastewater treatment.

Table: Design information about T.F.

Item Standard or low rate T.F. High rate T.F.

BOD5 loading 0.05 – 0.32 kg / d / m of filter 0.5 –1. 0 kg / d / m3 (excluding
3

media recirculation BOD5)

Should not exceed 1.8 kg/d/m3,
including recirculation.
3 2
Hydraulic loading 1–4m /d/m 10 – 30 m3/d/m2 (including
(no recirculation flow) recirculation)
Depth of filter media 1.8 – 2 m 1 – 1.5 m
Recirculation Generally, not used Compulsory for high rate T.F.

Hydraulic loading = Q / surface area or plan area of the tank ; this is already known to you.

BOD5 loading = Amount of BOD5 applied per unit volume of the tank

= (Q x Concn. of BOD in mg/l) / (volume of the T.F.)

BOD5 loading is also referred as Organic Loading rate.

Recirculation

It is the returning of a part of the T.F. effluent back through the filter by mixing the recirculated flow
with the influent sewage flow. (Please refer to the flowsheet of T.F. given in earlier part)

Recirculation ratio, R = (Volume of recirculated flow) / (volume of influent sewage flow)

For municipal STP, R = 0.5 – 3.0.

Purposes of recirculation

(i) It dilutes strong sewage & prevents septicity in the Primary settling tank

(ii) It increases the effective contact time of the organic matter with the biological slime in the filter
bed & thus improves the performance of T.F.

(iii) It seeds the influent sewage with already acclimatised micro-organisms which improves the
performance of the system,

(iv) It helps in lowering the fluctuations in wastewater volume & BOD5.

 Recirculation Flow (RQ, ) with BOD = Le

P.S.T. A B T.F. S.S.T C

Design of a single – stage (i.e. when only one T.F. is used) high rate (i.e. with recirculation) T.F.

As per the recommendation of the Ten – state standards, for single stage high rate T.F., the BOD5 of
the influent to the filter, recirculation included, shall not exceed 3 times the BOD5 of the settled &
treated effluent It may be noted that the effluent BOD5 of single stage T.F. cannot be below 30 mg/l
& thus, if BOD5 of the effluent less than 30 mg/l is desired, two stage T.F. (i.e. two T.F. with an
intermediate settling tank in the following sequence is to be provided:

P.S.T ------ T.F.-1 -------- Intermediate Settling Tank (I.S.T) ------- T.F.-2 --------F.S.T (Final settling tank)

Now, if we refer to the abovementioned sketch, then for an original flow of sewage =Q with the value
of BOD after primary treatment being La, (at point A), and the BOD of the final treated effluent being
Le (at point C), then by considering mass balance about the point B,

Q x La + RQ x Le = Q x (R + 1) x 3Le (the R.H.S. refers to the stage on the right of point B, following

recommendations of the Ten-state standards)

or, La = Le (3R + 3 – R)

or, Le = La /(2R + 3). (may be used to determine the value of R)

For any general treatment unit, if Li = influent BOD & Le = effluent BOD, then –

BOD removal efficiency = [(Li - Le) / Li ] x 100%

Determination of BOD removal efficiency of T.F. by NRC Formula

Efficiency of removal of BOD, E (%) = 100 / [1 + 0.44x √U ],

Where, U = organic loading in Kg / m3 /d (also called unit hydraulic loading for this formula).

Problem on the design of single stage T.F. unit

Prob. A sewage flows from a primary settling tank to a standard rate T.F. @ 5 MLD having a BOD 5 =
150 mg/l. Determine the depth & the volume of the filter. Also determine the efficiency of the unit
using NRC formula. Take surface loading = 2500 l / m2/d and organic loading = 165 gm /m3/d.
Soln.

Total BOD5 per day = 5 x 106 x 150 x 10-3 gm / d

= 750000 gm/d.

Volume of T.F. required = Total BOD / Organic loading

= 750000 / 165

= 4545.5 m3.

Required surface area = Total flow / surface loading

= (5 x 106) / 2500

= 2000 m2.

So, depth of filter bed = 4545.5 / 2000

= 2.273 m ≈ 2.3 m.

Thus, filter diameter =√ [(2000 x 4) / π]

= 50.5 m ≈ 50 m.

Thus, actual surface area = π x 502 / 4

= 1963.5 m2.

Actual volume = 1963.5 x 2.3

= 4516 m3.

Actual organic loading, U = 750000 / 4516

= 166.1 gm / m3 /d

= 0.1661 kg /m3 /d

Thus, using NRC formula, efficiency = 100 / [1 + 0.44√0.1661] = 84.8 %.

Secondary treatment of wastewater – Activated Sludge Process

(Please refer to the flowsheet given earlier in this regard.)

In this system, the biological unit consists of an aeration tank which is supplied with air from air-
compressor. The tank holds primary settled liquid waste in which suitable aerobic bacteria is grown
during the initial period of acclimatisation. After the process starts, it gets mixed with the return
activated sludge. Now this treatment medium is known as ‘Mixed Liquor’. The suspended solids
contained in this mixed liquor is known as ‘Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS)’. The organic or
volatile fraction of this SS is known as ‘Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids (MLVSS)’. This MLVSS
is important as the organic food material available for the bacteria to decompose.

As the bacteria lives in suspension in the tank medium, without getting attached to any other medium
on fixed basis (as was the case of Zooglea in T.F., discussed earlier) so such a process is known as
‘Suspended Growth Process’.
Now, the constituents of MLSS are of three types:

I => Active biomass

II => Non-living organic matter

III = > Inorganic matter

Thus, MLSS = I + II + III, & MLVSS = I + II (i.e. because of their organic origin)

For conventional Activated Sludge (A.S.) process, MLSS = 1500 – 3000 mg/l,

& MLVSS = 0.8 – 0.9 MLSS.

MLSS = S mg/l

Settled sewage Treated effluent

Q Aeration Tank S.S.T. Q

Q (R + 1)

Return Activated Sludge, flow = RQ, SS = Sr mg/l Valve

Excess A.S. for A.S.D

Referring to the diagram given above,

Neglecting SS in settled sewage,

Sr = SS in return sludge, mg/l, & S = MLSS, mg/l,

Taking mass balance about the point of mixing return activated sludge with the settled sewage,

Q x 0 + RQ x Sr = Q (R + 1) x S

Or, R = S / (Sr – S) [ This is useful to find the recirculation ratio, R for A.S. process ]
 Fig (Source.aboutcivil.org). Aeration tank in activated sludge process.

Organic food IN (expressed as BOD5)

Air aerobic respiration CO2, H2O etc.

Aeration Tank

Aerobic Energy

Micro-organisms synthesis New cells

BOD5 OUT C5H7O2N

Fig. Removal process of BOD in A.S. process

Important parameters in design of A.S. unit

Sludge Volume Index (SVI) = > Volume occupied in ml. by one gm of solids in the mixed liquor after

settling for 30 min. (determined experimentally)

Sr = 106 / SVI, mg/l. SVI = 50 – 100.

HRT, hrs. = (V / Q) x 24, where, V => volume of aeration tank in m3 & Q = > influent sewage, m3/d.

HRT = 4 – 8 hrs.

Organic loading rate [also known as Food to Microorganism ratio (i.e. F/M) in aeration tank]

= (kg BOD5 applied in aeration tank per day excluding recirculation load) /(kg VSS in aeration tank)

F/M = 0.2 – 0.4 kg BOD5 / day / kg VSS.

Volumetric loading rate = (kg BOD5 applied in aeration tank per day excluding recirculation load) /

(vol. of aeration tank, m3)

= 0.5 – 0.7 kg BOD5 /d/m3.

Air requirement (for capacity of the air compressor) = 40 – 100 m3 / kg BOD5.

Problem on the design of activated sludge unit

Prob. A conventional activated sludge plant is used to treat domestic sewage for the following data:

(i) Population = 1,20,000;

(ii) Sewage contribution = 160 lpcd;

(iii) Settled sewage BOD5 = 200 mg/l;

(iv) Effluent BOD5 required = 15 mg/l;

(v) F/M = 0.2;

(vi) MLSS = 3000 mg/l (may be taken as standard value)

(vii) SVI = 100 (may be taken as standard value)

Find the following:

(a) Efficiency required for the unit (i.e. for BOD5 removal)

(b) Volume of aeration tank

(c) HRT

(d) Volumetric loading

(e) Return sludge ratio (i.e.R)

Soln.

Average flow = 120,000 x 160 = 19.2 x 106 lpd

= 19200 m3/d. = 19.2 x 1000 m3/d.

(a) Efficiency required = [(200 – 15) / 200] x 100

= 92.5%.

(b) (F/M) = (Q. La) / [(V/1000) x Xt]

This relation may be used, where,

Q = influent sewage flow, expressed in thousands of m3/d.

La = BOD of primary settled sewage,

V = volume of aeration tank, m3,

Xt = MLSS, mg/l.

In this case,

0.2 = (19.2 x 200 x 1000) / (V x 3000)

Or, V = 6400 m3.

(c) HRT = (V/Q) x 24 hrs.

= (6400/19200) x 24

= 8 hrs.

(d) Volumetric loading = Q. La / V

= (19.2 x 106 x 200 x 10-6 )/ 6400 [ Q =19.2 x 106 lpd,

La = 200 mg/l = 200 x 10-6 kg/l

= 0.6 kg BOD5 / d/m3

(e) Standard relation to be used for return sludge ratio is:

(Qr/ Q) = xt / [(106/SVI) – Xt]

Thus, (Qr/ Q) = 3000 /[(106 / 100) – 3000]

= 0.429.

So, R = 42.9%.
Secondary treatment of wastewater – Oxidation Pond or Waste Stabilisation Pond

[You may consider a replacement of the secondary treatment section in any of the flowsheets given
earlier by a single zone consisting of ponds arranged in parallel, and you get an idea of the layout of
the treatment units in this system.]

An oxidation pond is a waterbody which acts on the principle of availability of DO in it, that will be
used by aerobic bacteria while they degrade the organic constituents of the sewage inflow entering
it. If the pond is shallow, then sunlight will be able to penetrate it to the bottom, and due to action of
photosynthesis, oxygen will be liberated in the water, thus maintaining DO in it. It is entirely
dependent on the natural rate of functioning, governed by the availability of sunlight, clear depth of
the water body to allow penetration by sunlight etc. & thus requires a large plan area for the pond to
act in a perfectly aerobic manner. If we want to reduce the plan area by increasing the depth, then
we have to gradually shift towards facultative type (i.e. active in both aerobic & anaerobic conditions)
and totally anaerobic conditions (when the depth is so much that sunlight cannot reach the bottom of
the pond & thus anaerobic conditions prevail over the entire pond). Here, we will be concerned with
the aerobic oxidation / stabilisation ponds.

Fig (Source.hitachi.com). Oxidation ponds.

Design information for aerobic type oxidation / stabilisation ponds

Yield of photosynthetic O2 & recommended BOD loading

Latitude (0N) Yield of photosynthetic O2 Areal BOD5 loading

(kg/ha/d) (kg/ha/d)
36 150 150
32 175 175
28 200 200
24 225 225
20 250 250
 16 275 275
12 300 300
8 325 325

The BOD5 loading values may be modified for elevation above MSL by a factor [1 + (0.003 x El)], where
El = elevation of the pond site above MSL, in hundred metres.

Further correction in pond volume has to be made when the sky is clear for <75% of the days of a year
@ 3% for a fall of every 10%.

Lt = L0 [ 1 – 10- PT. t ]

Or, t = (1/PT). log10 [ La / (La – Lr)]

= (1/PT). log10 (La / Le)

PT = P20 . (1.047)( T – 20)

Where, La = influent BOD;

Lr = BOD removed (i.e. 90% - 95% of La);

Le = BOD remaining in the effluent;

PT = BOD removal rate constant (base 10) at T0C;

t = HRT, days.

Sludge accumulation rate @ 0.05 – 0.1 m3/capita/yr.

Depth of pond : Aerobic pond – 0.5 – 1m; Facultative pond – 1 – 1.5m; Anaerobic --> 1.5m .
Part – 32

Problem on the design of oxidation pond

Prob. Design an oxidation pond for the following data:

(i) Location : 240N latitude.

(ii) Elevation : 900m above MSL.

(iii) Mean monthly temperature : 300C Max. & 100C Min.

(iv) Population to be served : 8000.

(v) Sewage flow : 160 lpcd.

(vi) Influent BOD5 : 300 mg/l.

(vii) Desired effluent BOD5 : 30 mg/l.

(viii) Pond removal constant ta 200C : 0.1/day.

(ix) Sky clearance factor : 60% (i.e. for 60% days of the year, the sky remains clear).

(x) For ponds, adopt L/B = 2.5.

Soln.

1. Total BOD Load

BOD/capita/day = (160 x 300) x 10-6 kg/d = 0.048 kg/d.

So, total BOD load = 8000 x 0.048 = 384 kg/d.

2. Permissible areal BOD loading

Areal BOD loading at 240N latitude = 225 kg/ha/d (from the given table; this value will be supplied in

exam)

Correction factor for elevation = 1 + [0.003 x (900/100)] = 1.027.

Correction factor for sky clearance = 100 / [100 + {3 x (15/10)}] = 100 / 104.5.

Thus, corrected areal BOD loading = (225 / 1.027) x (100 / 104.5) = 210 kg/ha/d.

3. Pond area

Pond area = Total applied BOD5 / Areal BOD loading

= 384 / 210
 = 1.83 ha = 1.83 x 104 m2.

4. HRT

Pond removal constant at 100C => P10 = 0.1.(1.047)(10 – 20)

= 0.06317.

So, HRT = (1/PT). log10 (La / Le)

= (1/0.06317) x log10 (300 / 30)

= 15.85 d ≈ 16d.

5. Pond volume & depth

Total inflow of sewage = 160 x 8000 = 1280 x 103 lpd = 1280 m3/d.

So, pond volume = flow x HRT = 1280 x 16 = 20480 m3.

Thus, depth = 20480 / (1.83 x 104) = 1.12m.

Provide a depth of 1.2m & free board = 0.6m.

6. Pond system

Total pond area = 1.83 ha.

Let us adopt a system of 6 ponds with 4 primary ponds & 2 secondary ponds.

Area of each pond = 1.83 / 6 = 0.305 ha = 3050 m2.

Thus, B x (2.5B) = 3050

Or, B = 35m.

Then, L = 35 x 2.5 = 87.5 m.

Primary pond 1

Secondary pond 1

Primary treated Primary pond 2

effluent Secondary effluent

Primary pond 3

Secondary pond 2

Primary pond 4

Fig. Layout of ponds

Secondary treatment of wastewater in household scale – Septic Tank

This is a sewage treatment unit that uses anaerobic process. This is suitable only for household
operations and for supporting small colonies & that also only in areas where no sewer network is
existing.

A septic tank consists of an underground rectangular tank that receives inflow of sewage from the
household. The sewage is settled for deposition of SS in the first chamber & thereafter passed on to a
second chamber (please refer to typical sketch from the study material supplied earlier). The sludge
deposited in the tank is cleared periodically through a sludge outlet. The effluent from the septic tank
consists of anaerobic bacteria in it & thus is not allowed for disposal in open atmosphere. This effluent
is guided for slow dispersion in soil under the ground surface, usually using a soak pit or dispersion
trenches. Because CH4 gas will be generated in the tank due to anaerobic process so a vent pipe is
used to release the gas in the atmosphere.

A soak pit is a common effluent disposal system used for a septic tank. It comprises of a hole of fairly
large diameter dug into the ground. The bottom of this pit is kept sealed so that no dispersion of the
effluent takes place vertically downward through it. Effluent dispersion takes place only through the
side walls of the pit. The pit is also sealed at the top with a cover.

It is to be seen earlier if the ground water table is too close to the ground level. In that case, the soak
pit may be in direct contact with the ground water table & there will be actually no dispersion of
effluent possible. Instead, there will be a chance of the ground water table coming in direct contact
with the effluent & thus getting polluted. This can never be allowed. In that case, alternative methods
like laying of sewer pipe network for the locality has to be explored.

Design information for septic tank

No. of users No. of No. of fixture Probable peak discharge (based on 60%
households units F.U. discharging simultaneously), lpm
100 20 40 240
150 30 60 360
200 40 80 480
300 60 120 720

Space requirement inside septic tank (fixed as per IS, has to be memorised)

Sedimentation : Surface area @ 0.92 m2/ 10 lpm peak flow rate.

Minimum depth = 25 – 30 cm.

Sludge digestion : 0.032 m3 / capita

Sludge storage : 7.30 m3 / 100 persons.

HRT = 24 – 48 hrs.

Sludge withdrawal = once in 2 – 3 years.

 Fig (Source.helid.digicollection.org). Sectional elevation with typical dimensions of a septic tank.

Fig (Source.sswm.info). Schematic diagram of a septic tank.

Design information for soak pit

Soil absorption system, Q = 130 / √t,

Where, Q = > maximum rate of effluent application in lpd/m2 of leaching surface (i.e. the surface
through which the effluent is dispersed in soil; for the cylindrical hole of soak pit, this
will be the surface area of the vertical wall of the cylinder)

t => standard percolation rate for soil in minutes / cm (<= please be careful about this unit)
 Fig (Source.slideplayer.com). Sectional elevation of a soak pit.

Problem on the design of a septic tank

Prob. Design a septic tank for a hostel housing 125 persons. Also design the soil absorption system for
the disposal of the septic tank effluent, assuming the percolation rate = 20 min/cm.

Take – (a) estimated peak discharge for 125 persons = 300 lpm;

(b) Sludge withdrawal = once / yr.;

(c) Free board = 0.3 m;

(d) L/B = 2.5;

(e) Depth of sedimentation = 0.3 m ;

(f) Water supply =180 lpcd.

Soln.

Surface area of the tank @ 0.92 m2/10 lpm = (0.92 / 10) x 300 = 27.6 m2.

Total volume of the tank will be as follows:

(i) For sedimentation = 27.6 x 0.3 = 8.28 m3.

(ii) For digestion = 0.032 x 125 = 4.00 m3.

(iii) For sludge storage = (7.3 / 100) x 125 = 9.125 m3.

(iv) Free board = 27.6 x 0.3 = 8.28 m2.

-----------------

Total = 29.685 m3.

So, total depth of the tank = 29.685 / 27.6 = 1.076 ≈ 1.1 m.

L/B = 2.5 (given)

So, 2.5 B x B = 27.6

Or, B = 3.32 ≈ 3.4 m

Thus, L = 8.3 m.

So, the tank dimensions are : 8.3m x 3.4m x 1.1m.

Design of soak pit

Q = 130 / √t

= 130 / √20

= 29.07 lpd/m2.

Total flow /day = 125 x (180 x 0.8) = 18000 lpd. (i.e. if we do not consider any separation of sewage

& sullage from the household)

Thus, total dispersion area required = 18000 / 29.07 = 619.2 m2.

Now, if r be the radius of the soak pit & h be the depth of it below ground level, then –

2 π r h = 619.2

Thus, for h =2m, r = 49.3m &

for h = 3m, r = 32.86 m.

[These values of r appear impractical, because we did not separate sullage from the sewage. If we can
properly assess the exact fraction of wastewater coming out from the toilet, then the effective value
of flow will be much less and subsequently, the dimensions of soak pit will be more realistic. However,
for exam purpose, adoption of the proper method, as shown in the problem above, will only be
assessed.]

Handling of sludge generated from treatment units

This is mostly used for computation of volume of sludge at different stages. Volume of sludge is a
major constraint to handle in disposal of sludge.

Major relations considered in this respect are:

(i) Ms / (Ss . ρ) = [ Mf /( Sf . ρ)] + [ Mv / (Sv . ρ)]

Or, Ms / (Ss) = [ Mf /( Sf)] + [ Mv / (Sv)] [this relation is mostly used for determination of
sludge properties e.g. sp.gr. etc.]

Where, Ms = mass of sludge solids,

Mf = mass of fixed solids,

 Mv = mass of volatile solids,

Ss = sp. gr. of sludge solids,

Sf = sp. gr. of fixed solids,

Sv = sp. gr. of volatile solids,

Ρ = density of water.

(ii) V = Ms / (ρw . Ssl . Ps ), [this relation is used for computation of volume

of sludge]

Where, V = volume of sludge,

Ms = mass of sludge,

ρw = density of water = 1000 kg/m3,

Ssl = specific gravity of sludge,

Ps = percent solids (expressed in decimal)

Problem on handling of sludge

Prob. Determine the liquid volume before & after digestion and the % reduction for 500 kg (dry
basis) of primary sludge with the following characteristics:

Sludge characteristics Primary Digested

Solids, % 5 10
Volatile matter, % 60 60 (destroyed)
Sp. Gr. of fixed solids 2.5 2.5
Sp. Gr. of volatile solids ≈ 1.0 ≈ 1.0

Soln.

Using Ms / (Ss) = [ Mf /( Sf)] + [ Mv / (Sv)],

Average sp. gr. of all the solids in the primary sludge =>

1/Ss = (0.4/2.5) + (0.6/1.0) [As 60% volatile matter with sp. gr. ≈ 1.0

Or, Ss = 1.315 ≈ 1.32 [Primary solids

Sp. gr. of primary sludge =>

1/Ssl = (0.05 / 1.32) + (0.95 / 1.0) [As 5% solids in primary sludge with Ss = 1.32

Or, Ssl = 1.01.

Using V = Ms / (ρw . Ssl . Ps ), volume of primary sludge = 500 /(1000 x 1.01 x 0.05)
 = 9.9 m3.

% volatile matter after digestion = [{0.4 x (0.6 x 500)} / {200 + 0.4x(0.6 x 500)}] x 100

= 37.5. [ As before digestion, volatile matter = 0.6 x 500 kg;

[ As before digestion, fixed solids = 0.4 x 500 = 200kg;

Thus average sp. gr. of all the solids in the digested sludge =>

1 / Ss = (0.625 / 2.5) + (0.375 / 1.0)

Or, Ss = 1.6 [for digested solids

Thus, sp. gr. of digested sludge =>

1/Ssl = (0.1 / 1.6) + (0.9 / 1.0)

Or, Ssl = 1.0389 ≈ 1.04.

Thus, volume of the digested sludge = [{200 + 0.4x (0.6 x 500)} / (1000 x 1.04 x 0.1)]

= 3.076 m3 ≈ 3.1 m3.

So, % reduction in volume of sludge after digestion = [(9.9 – 3.1)/9.9] x 100

= 68.7.

Anaerobic Sludge Digestion

Anaerobic bacteria degrade the organics present in wastewater sludge in two stages:

First stage: The organics are converted to organic (or volatile) acids by the first group of bacteria,
known as acid formers.

Second stage: The volatile acids are further degraded into the final end products of anaerobic process,
i.e. CH4 & CO2. This group of bacteria are known as methane formers.

As the rate of acid formation is relatively faster than formation of methane from the acids, so care
should be taken to maintain proper pH (i.e near neutral pH) in the reactor (i.e sludge digester).
Otherwise, due to excessive accumulation of acids in the digester, the methane formers will die & the
process will be disrupted. The performance of anaerobic bacteria also depends on proper temperature
inside the digester (which is suitable for them) & the level of mixing of the digester contents. So
anaerobic process requires high level of supervision, which is not a major requirement in aerobic
processes of treatment.

Thus, conditions to be satisfied for proper functioning of anaerobic process are:

(i) pH = 6.6 – 7.6 &, in no case, less than 6.2;

(ii) Alkalinity = 1000 – 5000 mg/l (for preventing formation of excessive acids in digester);

(iii) Volatile acids = to be maintained at less than 250 mg/l;

(iv) Temperature = 300C – 380C.

Sludge gas composition => 60% – 70% -→ Methane, and 25% - 35% -→CO2.

Design information for anaerobic sludge digester

Gas line

Gas zone

Scum zone

Supernatant Supernatant zone Sludge inlet

liquid draw off

Digesting sludge zone

Digested sludge zone Fig. Stratification in Conventional

Digester

Sludge draw off

Fixed Cover Floating cover

Digester gas outlet

Gas storage Gas storage

Sludge outlet Scum layer Super-

Sludge natant

inlet Sludge inlet Supernatant layer outlet

Sludge Digested sludge Sludge

Heater outlet

Mixer paddle

First Stage (completely mixed) Second Stage (stratified)

Fig. High Rate Anaerobic Digester

Fig (Source.oti.cc). Anaerobic digester with floating cover.

Fig (Source.sereco.it). Two stage anaerobic digester.

Conventional Digester

V = [ Vf – (2/3).(Vf – Vd)].T1 + Vd.T2

Where, V => volume of the digester;

Vf => volume of fresh sludge added per day;

Vd => volume of digested sludge withdrawn per day;

T1 = > digestion time in days;

T2 => monsoon storage in days.

Per capita capacity ---

(a) Primary sludge => 0.05 – 0.075 m3.

(b) Combined sludge => 0.1 – 0.15 m3.

Loading factor ---

(Primary / combined sludge) = > 0.3 – 0.75 kg/m3/d.

High Rate Anaerobic Digester

Capacities for high rate digester may be determined by the following:

V1 = Vf.Th

V2 = [ Vf – (2/3).(Vf – Vd)].T + Vd.T2

Where,

V1 = volume of 1st stage digester;

V2 = volume of 2nd stage digester;

Th = detention time in high rate digester, days;

T = detention time in 2nd stage digester, days; (it is of the order of 10 days)

T2 => monsoon storage in days.

Table1: Variation of digestion with temperature [not for memorising]

Temp. in Mesophilic Thermophilic

0
C 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Digestion
period 75 56 42 33 27 24 25 23 16 14 18
(days)
Table 2(a): Solids in sludges from raw sewage [not for memorising]

Item Total Volatile Fixed Sp. gr. of % solids in

(gm) (gm) (gm) dry solids wet sludge
Total solids 90 63 27 1.22 -
Settleable solids (60%) 54 38 16 1.22 -
Non-settleable Solids (40%) 36 25 11 1.22 -

Table 2(b): Solids in sludges from Activated Sludge (per capita per day) [not for memorising]

Item Total Volatile Fixed Sp. gr. of % solids in

(gm) (gm) (gm) dry solids wet sludge
Non-settleable solids affected 36 25 11 1.22 -
Solids digested during activation - -2.5 +0.5 -
(10%)
Solids to be removed 34 22.5 11.5 -
Solids removed as fresh activated 31 20 11 1.25 -
sludge (90%)
Combined primary (I) & 54 + 31 = 38 + 20 = 16 + 11 = 1.22 2.5 – 4
secondary excess A.S. (II) 85 58 27
Solids digested - -38 +10 -
Solids remaining in digested 57 20 37 1.65 6–7
combined primary & excess A.S.

Problem on the design of anaerobic sludge digester

Prob. Design a digester for 200,000 persons for digesting mixed raw & activated sludge.

[please refer to the Table 2(a) & 2(b) , given earlier, for different standard values used in the solution
below]

Soln.

1. Volume of mixed raw primary plus activated sludge

% volatile matter in raw mixed sludge = (58/85) x 100 = 68.24 %

% of non-volatile (i.e. fixed) matter in sludge = (27/85) x 100 = 31.76%

So, sp. gr. of dry solids in mixed raw sludge is ---

(100/Sd) = (68.24/1) + (31.76/2.5) [Assuming, sp. gr. of volatile solids = 1 & sp.
gr. of fixed solids = 2.5]

Or, Sd = 1.235.

Taking % solids = 4%, sp. gr. of wet sludge (mixed primary plus A.S.) is given by ---

100/Ssl = (96/1) + (4/1.235)

Or, Ssl = 1.0077.

Thus, volume of mixed sludge is ---

Vsl = [Ws /(ρw . Ssl. Ps)]

 = (85 x 200,000 x 10-3) /(1000 x 1.0077 x 0.04)

= 421.8 m3/d.

2. Volume of mixed digested primary plus A.S.

From Tables 2(a) & 2(b),

% volatile matter in digested sludge = (20/57) x 100 = 35.09%

% of non-volatile matter in digested sludge = (37/57) x 100 = 64.91%

So, (100/Sd’) = (35.09/1) + (64.91/2.5)

Or, Sd’ = 1.638.

Taking % solids in digested sludge = 7%, sp. gr. of wet digested sludge is given by ---

(100/Sd’) = (93/1) + (7/1.638)

Or, Sd’ = 1.028.

Thus, volume of digested mixed sludge ---

Vsl’ = (57 x 200,000 x 10-3) / (1000 x 1.028 x 0.07)

= 158.4 m3/d.

Volume of digester

Let us take average working temperature = 27.50C .

Then from Table 1, digestion period = 30 days (calculated by interpolation).

Let us take 60 days storage in monsoon.

Thus, the capacity of the digester is given by ---

V = [Vf – (2/3).(Vf – Vd)].T1 + Vd.T2

= [421.8 – (2/3).(421.8 – 158.4)]x 30 + (158.4 x 60)

= 7386 + 9504

= 16890 m3 [within 0.08 – 1.5 m3/cap of combined

sludge

Loading factor

Total loading of volatile solids = 58 x 200,000 x 10-3

= 11600 kg/d.

So, volatile solids loading factor = 11600 / 16890

= 0.687 kg/d/m3. [within the prescribed range of 0.3 – 0.75

kg/d/m3.
Dimensions of the digester

For a cylindrical digester, taking average gas production = 0.9 m3/kg of volatile matter destroyed.

From Table 2(b), volatile matter destroyed during digestion of combined sludge = 38 gm/capita.

So, total volatile matter destroyed = (38 x 10-3) x 200,000 = 7600 kg.

Then, gas produced = 0.9 x 7600 = 6840 m3.

To avoid foaming, it is taken that the rate of gas consumption is not more than (9/2) m3/m2 of tank
area.

Thus, minimum area required for the digester = 6840/(9/2) = 1520 m2.

So, depth of digester = 16890/1520 = 11.11m. But depth cannot exceed 9m (standard value)

So, providing 2 digesters, volume of each tank = 16890/2 = 8445 m3.

Taking a depth of 8m in each tank,

Diameter of each tank = √[(8445 x 4)/(π x 8)]

= 36.7 m. ≈ 37m.

For floating cover, provide a free board = 0.6m.

Therefore, adopted 2 nos. of digester tanks @ 37m dia. and 8.6m height.

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