Toseph Goiththe Student Name: Josep 229) THE UNIVERSITY 2 S43 7 Student ID No: 433. OF AUCKLAND STRAT CIVIL 313: 2011 STRUCTURES AND DESIGN 3 STRUCTURAL STEEL NOTES JUNE 2013 Principally written and arranged by G Charles Clifton Sources of Materi + new material written for course ‘+ notes from AP Dr John Butterworth on compression, tension, shear, bending ‘+ material from Dr Les Megget Civil 313: 2007 notes + material from HERA Reports R4-92 and R4-101 and SCNZ Connect Notes cover the following topics: 1. convention for signs of bending, shear and axial load 2. review of structural steel properties, connectors, design and analysis 3. members subject to tension 4, members subject to compression 5, members subject to bending 6. members subject to shear 7. members subject to combined a 8. introduction to torsion 9. local effects on webs 10. connections Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering The University of Auckland Charles Clifton, June 2013 with thanks especially to John Butterworth and Les Megge: for material suppliedSECTION 1: CONVENTION FOR SIGNS OF BENDING, SHEAR AND AXIAL LOADSECTION 1: CONVENTION for SIGNS OF BENDING, SHEAR and AXIAL LOAD ‘As taught by Charles Clifton atthe University of Auckland — ive load Uniformly] Distributed End A End B enac 1a f$ | ——4-—_ 1 + Two Span x Continuous Beam y | Bending | Moment wl Diagram vt ‘Shear Force! = Diagram | M Ww | Moment. XAG", ve N4 Shear Pit xr Direction of Axes and Applied Load The ct ilong the emer, with ove» eis mend Ato cod B. The veil as ithe aint postive is downwards being 1 90 cockie reno forme On bea hs makes gravy alin oie ‘Texans perpen tthe plac of he paper, with he pase ton tomate views, Foe dplacoments 08 dese daplcementie the yan dationsisi ads are ened by anal Noe that samp rogram we den ats and postive dectns Convention for Bending Moment Ina tending momen iprm, moment ae plod onthe easton sid of thine. “Te dition of arowssybotsing moment abot he ods fre bay ina member i tate awed pins © Ahecompresion ie ie ora beam, rowed fr postive moment oi psa. Forextomlly applied momeet a poi anaes postive, Convention for Shear Force ‘ving define postive y deo and osive retin ten posite shes faces atin the pose» dreton on the plive focal face of te member coe section. Anoter way of vsasng this io place our side he ee ‘dy oh member lokng ine postive #diecion owas the bck athe erber which denotes tend oF Ha fe by, Which way wil the face yo long an fe acet re boy move elie You? If he answers Inte psdve 9 Grin, thn the shea force is psi. Far example i he above Apu imapine sanding jst ine fhe mb tthe foe bay which incorpo nd A, loking lobar endB. The pose local face Foot of you, Whee the merbor cu atthe tod ofthis ve body the face of te adjaceat fe Dds wll move Alownwai telaive to your Tiss inthe+y des bene the shar is postive. I sanding inde the ie ce ‘dy of meer AB sl loki toads en B, he fare of he ee aly icopacing the sopra wll move ‘wad elie 3, ei th eto, bende nega set Another way of ciing the sgn of he seri ake free Boy ofa porn of beam which Just clas a ‘spp and lok at wck det he shear ce acting one side ofthe ie body avy fom he supper caus he fr by rte in elie to herp Cleckvise postive Foe eaps he ee body incorpoatng he PP {tend A isroaedclaskvo by shear tiga he end aby fom he suppor. hence he deco hs afore 8 ostve- Thee ty ncmoratng he supp a end oud amlckite by sear acting one ex a om the support ease sis epnve shew ‘Shea ao defined athe rate of change of tending moment the slope of he Bending moment dig. Ione ‘huss the ope ofthe beading momen apa nao othe merter sts shown teresa of postive mt (nd Abeta soa ti spun ends up nga approsching end B fom end A. Tis ives poste shear face Sten A and pepe st end for mene A aod an ara way of eenunng he ih of he she force lng the member tom that ven above When ring te sear fore diagram, poste sis pote othe oppose sik of eine a ose momen ts thown inh hove igus, However ise nots erie ands Boer abel ea fa shar ce diagram ith ors avoting an conftson. Convention for Axial Force “The general conveton fr sl foros, N,v ail ts, tha the fore ost is pov when actingavay from ‘eure in question. Ths means that son piv nd compession negate In cue fetal apie ani flores det selive othe global ates éetemines the inSECTION 2: REVIEW OF STRUCTURAL STEEL PROPERTIES, CONNECTORS, DESIGN AND ANALYSISCIVIL 315: 2013 Steet properties, design, analysis, Section? Page 1 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis Manufacture of Steel Stage Production of Pig Iron ib ye" v + ton ancon mised 40% 5 Rtn acon erp n= Feo, +4co— is 3F, + 4C0, 200, +26 sm C0 ig ron contain upto carbon and othe elements Slagresdue usd in oad making, eporegate, et, Excess CO; boted for induce ecricty cogenerated from ion and steel making procs: 60M of total used for HZ Steal Manufacture of Steel Stage Production of Steel ‘+ Oxygen is pushed through pig iron to remove most of. the farbon, then ‘+ Excess oxygen Is removed by adding aluminium and silicon + ‘Killed steets = all oxygen removed 7 ~ test grain structure and good toughness Molten steel then rolled nto final shape = continuous casting/contole ling used in modem plants + Conall roling ~ reduces grin ze eeases impact togtnes duct, ough hoes oe Beca aas Section? Page 2 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis Principal Elements of Steel + Principal two elements are iron and carbon ‘+ Carson content for structural steels < 0.8% ‘+ maximum carbon content for any steel < 3% Carbon content strongly influences behaviour Additional Trace Elements to Iron: Inclusions Effect of Trace Elements and Inclusions ‘Some added, some naturally present Percentage by weight < 0.1% ‘Aim to enhance benefits and reduce detriments by controlling the mix of these trace elements ‘Trapped oxides of silicon, aluminium, manganese For spheroidal or lamellar inclusions Latter can give rise to lamellar tearing in adverse circumstances Section? Page 3. of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis Ena Carbon Equivalent + Suma demetshre amet , Sel hardness strength ond gai as rereasing the carbon content s3 ‘+ Thisis expressed through the carbon oo Chuva ermal _jtin, CreMosV , Niecy eS i cormore simply ce=c MP Basic Properties of Steel: 1 oalied Stress-Strain Curvo for Structural Stee! Section? Page 4 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis cae Basic Properties of Steel: 2 For stresses up to f, + Steel behaves elastically For stresses in excess of f, + Steel deforms plastically + Yield plateau followed by strain hardening Strain rate effects on f, * fy increases with increasing strain rate + For blast, impact loading up to 100% increase + For earthquake loading slight increase (< 10%) rachel Steck Stes a Basic Properties of Steel: 3 ata serene ear) : 480W = high A an strengt, low alloy * Seer i Zt SS moa=aencesars tl neh asa eo sarang ene a Roscoe Sees ne ‘hart Types ste! baste Section? Page 5 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, desig, analysis Residual Stresses: 1 Al steel members are subject to resduol stresses ‘These are caused by, for example: + Uneven cooling of hot rolled sections + cutting of evges + Welding of pieces together YA —[- Residual sresses are nat very important in desian for the Tollowing reasons: 1, They ae aways in internal equim 2. Thelrnfuence on fracture ination is sight in static Conditions and is lowed for in fetigue desgn 3. Their influence on design capacity is allowed for inthe desion tf members for compression and bending 4, They donot show up in the Pistorcal record as causing probiens Se Residual Stresses: 2 )\" “he pater and nature of x Caduslamesenvenes (ORY QPS ae mame CSeatdeabiy. ik para iS 2 gains once are? + Hot rotea section . residual testes come from coving snd Subsequent straightening SS fd actargeh indeperdent ofthe yield Sree vines les + Weng introduces Sein {Seen Fesldual tensile stresses fu Besa Inte neat aftectes zone So Seer Seual tothe vei tess Pabin ‘etbaton ofthe parent metal Section? Page 6 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis, Residual Plastic Strain in Hot Rolled Section Webs |* Hot rolled beams have plestic strains in the web of up to_ | 4% * This found by UofA researchers following the Christchurch ‘earthquakes Explains web yielding patterns seen in earthquakes Shows there are still ew fincings to me made in this area a Coyces 9 near equal Inelasti oading 9 tenson and compression For inelastic strains up fa around 3% the net effect ef one cycle is Close to zero after some intial damage, for many cycles of loading Largely independent of the inebstic loading history Damage model under evelopment | a Garages resstonce to furter Slipping. Typical earthquake strains ieberween the bottom ne an the Imi ne, closer tote botom tne Section 2 Page 7 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Stee properties, design, analysis Strain Ageing ety name 7 Raber vil ent and ewer eae * Bebe eaves SeiAg nine * Spun tanger, Sassi , % vase sates, Simp Sesser Brittle Failure at Low Temperatures ‘+ Ocaurs in susceptible metals when these metals are below the transition temperature Beam-column joint above transition temperature after simulted severe seismic loading to failure Column below tansition temperature after simulated severe seismic loading fe Section2 Page 8 of 45 CriCIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis ftecture due topaor ‘eaiing fracture in par ue to few cheroy Trmpoct cesy eee ber emperoture “at which’ the ae facture behaviour "changes a from duce to brite 27 Joules + Within the transition zone, you get 50% duce, 50% brite fecure a “The test used ls the Charpy tinct test Stee P= Section 2 Page 9 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis The Charpy Impact test 1A rotched specimen is Broken by 8 ewnging Bendsum Toughness san amen ot energy Fequres to" beak the Speainen Structural Steel Mechanical Properties For New Zealand, Australian, UK/European ‘Steels: ‘+ chemical composition remains same for given grade of steel, therefore: + design yield stress, f,, varies with element thickness ‘+ design tensile strength Is constant for grade + see next slide for details of Australasian Steels Section? Page 10 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis sm Kete = [=| Teelel=| momen [ome [om | atte | | ow See more detild information in NZS 3404 Table C22. + tn tension and compression + In bending = Uses for the Ranges In major axis shear 7 is Is cried bythe wed, so + In minor axis shear 7 ts cared by the anges, = the forthe flanges enges contol esctlon moment capacty, £0 + Howav, fog this curse cap us constant wale as Sppoprste forthe grede of tee le f=300 for G For I-sections, which f, to use in design? gensertvely use the Manges es wil be equal oor lower ~ or calculate weighted average value for lange and webs rade WS ged ithe alo Section? Page 11 of 45CIVIL.313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis Structural Bolts Two common strength: + 4.6 = mild steel = f, =240 MPa, f, = 400 MPa + 8.8'= high strength structural ‘= Latter most common in steel to steel connections + Both used in steel to concrete hold down connections Bolt Modes for Structural Bolts For property class 4.6 ‘= Snug tight mode, designated /S ‘lows bolts to alip nto bearing In sorvice ~ rotation can occur in service bo none For property dass 8.8" ‘+ Snug tight mode, designated /S + Fully tensioned rede, designated 7 tht astcty secede hed Tey hace ire dF Sere Stet operating condons Section? Page 12 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis Fully Tensioned Bolts pot 3 + Fist al bots smug fightened to pl plates ab Gree copie + Thenmit postion marked | {Then nit tore turned by wena raaee «Ths pasbealy stretches Tet: generating? minicom force «Heavy uty tnoning cGabrentis reured ae anim of tre fr sae Sones >30008 Design modes for shear transfer through fully tensioned bolts In the serviceability limit state: = /T8= tension bearing mode ~ jont wl very likely remain rig ‘+ /TF = tension friction mode ~ fot guaranteed to remain raid In the ultimate limit state: ‘* /TB= tension bearing mode ~ jont likely to remain riald under aesign loading ~ may sip if overloaded eg by severe earthquake YO ot Lect HI Ap oy Section 2 Page 13 of 45 poet both po bers.CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis Labe AU Types of Welds + Filet wela + Incomplete penetration bute wele + Complete penetration but wale + typlal electrode strengths are ~ f= 410 MPa oF = = 480 Na Fillet Welds ‘+ Simple equation for design strength of lt clas caren + Based on ultimate shear failure trough bie OT "+ Welds can be weaker than members Conrecies + cheapest weld to produce 1 Irdouble sided then performs well in Static and eartnquake Tosding| ‘+ not so good in fatigue toading 1 Welding process can influence design Section? Page 14 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, Incomplete Penetration Butt Weld + Design as for Fillet 7) im Pen be + Is elways weaker than a wt plates being connected Ww + Poor performance in yw fatigue a No ductility capability Complete Penetration Butt Weld ‘+ Most expensive weld to make ‘+ Develops full strength of the weakest member i being connected ‘© Gocd for static and 2 earthquake loading + Best weld type for fatigue loading K Section? Page 15 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis + Can be property lass 4.6 or 8.8 (AISI 4140 bar) ‘= Car be partially tensioned where clamping force against uplift or rotation is required ‘= Size ranges from 16mm up to > 100 mr Section? Page 16 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Stel properties, design, analys What is ‘+ explicit design for two general limit states ‘= limit state = point at which failure to fulfil a specified function is reached ‘+ two general limit states are: 2, ultimate 21 serviceability Defi ns from the NZBC are: we 1.For the Ultimate Limit State (Clause B1.3.1) ~~ Buildings, bulling elements and site work shall have & low ‘probability of rupturing, becoming unstable, losing quilium or collapsing during construction or alteration 4nd throughout thelr lives 2. For the Serviceabilty Limit State (Clause B1.3.2) Builéngs, building elements and site work shall have @ low ‘probability of causing loss of amenity through undue ‘deformation, vibratory response, degradation or other ‘bhyseal characteristics throughout thelr ves, or during onavruction or alteration when the building isn use Section? Page 17 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis ina in for the Ultimate Limit State LUrsmate limit tate conditions cover: showion fave a 1 ensuring structural stably against sng, overturning or ‘classe * " " + efomation control aly to prevent cals or materia fire * ctty fr earthquake or re loading Select of ultimate imi stat loses * based promt of exceesence of « 58 over structure feagn ie for wera! loads and 210% over tusture decgn fe for literal laos * + fortind and earthquae typialy 500 year return period 1 forty developed re sinar probably ULS earthquake 1 loadtator = 1.0 Ultimate Limit State: Clause 3.3 General Requirements 1. Naminal— Ld Design sacar! Oasgn (eretecs) "S (oreteasy Sf 2 Minimum —clusse Nominal stengn Design pected sine capacly eso capacty Voss Sunda ofmonber eco of Spaced me (A) —mamber powraters fon 3 stan, 4 = ae gienio Tee 3301) f= sateyinaox Section? Page 18 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Stel properties design, analysis ity Limit State Design for the Serviceal Serviceabilty limit state conditions include: + comrrol of deflection (short and long term) + con:rol of in-service vibration * protection from corrosion Selection of serviceability loads + based on return period of 20 years (approx) + shot term (peak) and long term (average) imposed, snow, wind, earthquake loads sperified + load factor < 1.0 Serviceability Li General Requirements o Covet by ABINEE 1170 se end NEE 3404 Detecten units £hs/n25-1170.0 Append. Sect 2:4 of Hea Report R40 {Hema Report R4-107 for compost floors Inservie Boor Vibration +” Sten Constroston New Zealand guidonce {HERA Report nente2 ogmnes 2313 and 1 eit Repore 133 wth both used in producing {NZS 3408-1 2009 Par 1 Materials, Febrition and Construction State: Clause 3.4 Section? Page 19 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis ‘Sway syster + Depends an bending stiess and benaing srength of beams and alr Foss ater fds or ‘enectone + Lateral aspiacement at ees ot olurns snt prevented Braced system: Site nd tengo bass and elumns to resist ater loads or efecto. «Lateral placement at ends of cols Beteavely prevented senso Section? Page 20. of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Stee properties, design, analysis NZS 3404 recognises three forms of construction: {rigid canstruction (rigid or braced systems) FS) = fgets eee ig up to marina capac of = Se or sen omer raed emicrestog sytens + semi construction ld o braced systems). ramen etl cepnaai, now dee of exe! cy tes inder de son | ~ conan weaker thn wstest meer + Ste tor cetn moment redo bse rad sac ‘ste sane + simpe constuction (brace systems ony) ~"tpuscton lon ate between meters tot erage moments sen om canoe aster of \Y ‘shear or axial force = Site ore a traced tamed lantern tee Connection Characteristics [Simple (rotate under design actions without moment) [Semi-rigid (carry moment but weaker than beams) Rigid (no rotation under design actions) Moment-Rotation Curves for Different "Types of Connections: Section? Page 21. of 45 PCIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis {Illustration of connection in simple construction {Illustrations of connections in semi-rigi construction Cored 8 odvoh— er" Section? Page 22 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis Illustration of connections in rigid construction Section? Page 23. of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis Se 2 Dimensional and 3 Dimensional Analysi ‘+ regular building structures may be analysed as a series of parallel two dimensional frames ‘= analysis carried out in each dimension «+ for seismic and wind loading must consider response of overall structure Design Actions in Beams Multi-Storey Buildings Floor by floor analysis of rigidly connected floor beams under vertical loading may be Undertaken in: * braced frames * rectangular sway frames with uniform loading Model used showing variable imposed loading requirement on continuous beams Seotion2 Page 24 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Stee properties, design, analysis, Arrangements of Imposed (Live) Loads for Buildings + Covered by AS/NZS 1170.1 Clause 3.3 + For continuous beams see previous slide * For columns see next slide; this invokes ‘general requirement which is: ~ Imposed load is applied or not applied whichever {dvs the most critial actions on any structural dement Arrangements of Imposed Loads Columns: NZS 3404 Part 2 He cali ce os ee, — ee ay pee Piet = i Section 2 Page 25 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis * agin he dacanas carve to See ease cet + Sapien nae Sramiomeret aus enueine ue + Epica note Suramar ase for earthquake loading ‘here design shear fore at end of beam = depth of column inn + for a flexural member the span length isthe distance centre to Centre ofthe supports + for rigid and semi-rigid Structural systems can take the = design moment as ecting atte MY = Macon flume face + this wil reduce the column Sesign mament for columns with a high mament gradient ible is ef Benet for arthquale loading Maemnane™ momenta the Beam centrelne 12» design shear force in column = depth of bear Section? Page 26 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis Simple Construction 1 of 2 ‘+ end of members fre to rotate + pinnad ended for triangular Structures eg trusses ‘+ beam reaction acts eccentric to column, generating a design ‘moment, M. Eocentrity glven by: rax (100mm or centre of bearing) ‘erlosaa into sige of colin ~ tee of cau for toads ita top of ‘+ M* coes not need to be magnified to Mea ‘count for second order effects ‘Simple Construction: 2 of 2 For a continuous column, M* from eccentricity of loading at, any floor shall be taken a cy a) Divided above and below by (exer wey 'b) Having no effect at the floor levals above and below ©) No increase required for second order effects Section 2 Page 27. of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis Sign Convention Ce ne CS ee Se PS Moments for MD are: cen oon + + If clockwise in application (eg Maq at joint B above) + = if anticlockwise in application (eg Mac at joint B above) This Is different from normal convention ‘© What sign is Mcs? eaanta be Uk enveton an pe toe Neate Section 2 Page 28 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Stee properties, design, analysis Leche #4 rs LokSer! Beam AB of constant cross section: + fixed in position and rotation at A + fixed in position but not rotation at B ‘+ when Mga is applied at B, Myg is induced at A Mya = 1 Max z 1 and My = 46 tan0 2 = 460 (for small values of 0) ‘beam AB of constant cross section: * fixed in position but not rotation at A ++ fixed in position but not rotation at B ‘+ when Mga is applied at 8 r Mag = 36tanoZ 0! rsa vaio Mag = 0(nomoment possible at A) Section? Page 29 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis Principle 3 Beam AB of constant cross section: * fixed in rotation and position at A * fixed in rotation at B but moved upwards distance d ‘= when Mg Is applied at B, Myg is Induced at A Summary of Moment and Rotational Stiffnesses | ASD) Section? Page 30 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis Example alia tinh i ima a re net eo ee ‘Summary of Key Points Relating to Continuous Beams {Se end spon as bcing Simply supported tots oer eh ‘nement and no carryover Cdrosson asthe Fes end coma rota that stage, the momen a he suport ae in ‘aula 1. angleyar ends: Moment at supports xed by te cntlever 2, Simsly supported end spans: Beam free to rotate therefore 3 Fined ends: Momants must be cared over to the fixed end ffom the adlgcent interior suport but mot inthe opposite 4, Distibuton tle: ar each aston draw 2 tne to show '5. Completion: Interior support - fish with lng of tribution fed ended support = fish wih eary-over 6. Accuracy: stop wren moments being distributes oe dbout Seer the anginal eed ended moments Section? Page 31 of 45 LiKe Cera , fe MING,CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis ling: 1 Of 2 gy meuversine orate Yan = stems sory shear force at level 2 Sor pptes Stra wad tom me tap "ot {he aust (lee) own to and nrg evel ‘tcond moment of ae colurn x ‘Sinatsocond moments fafa of eluen at ene ev fiom of appioe. ntal loa. fom te top of the ‘Sue evel) downto and nauang ve Section? Page 32 of 48CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, desig, analysis Arf 27 SFhowh CoLmmw, weak KAMe Section? Page 33 of 45‘CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis NZS 3404 Permits Three Methods ‘Elastic analysis (Clause 4.4) * Elastic analysis with moment or shear redistribution (Clause 4.5) * Plastic analysis (Clause 4.6) Elastic Analysis (Clause 4.5) 1 of 2 + Individual members assumed to remain elastic, for anslysis + Second order effe be consider + Member can develop design plastic moment, city where appropriate ‘+ can be used for serviceability limit state design and for ultimate limit state design Section2 Page 34 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Stee properties, design, analysis, Elastic Analysis 2 of 2 + anatyais may be static or dynamic + secand order effects must be considered by 2) compliance with exclusion clauses (applies to very stiff ‘Srudurat ys) or ') festonder structural anolyis with magnifistion of Scars saccur <)secondvrder analy (Append to NZS 3404) + secind order effects relate to a loss of elastic stifness ‘restractrat system dus sppied compression foacing on the members of that system + covered below Plastic Analy (Clause 4.6) 1 of 2 + collapse mechanism formed for structures involving minimum number of plastic hinges + members develop full plastic capacity at the plastic hinge locations * elsewhere member remains elastic + for sitimate limit state design conditions only caniot calculate expected deflections from }-C" plate snaysis Section? Page 35. of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis Plastic Analysis 2 of 2 ‘+ members forming plastic hinges must not be limited in strength by local or lateral buckling (or materials failure ‘= second order effects must be considered by: 2) frst order plastic analysis with magnification of tending moments for Sipe 10 by) second order plastic analysis for ie < 5 ‘c= elastic buckling load factor covered next tople Elastic Analysis With Redistribution (Clause 4.5) ‘= Commence with elastic analysis ‘= Peak moments can be reduced by redistribution, but: ~ limited by te plastic rotation capacity of the ‘rember at the points where design moment Is less than the elastic moment ~ may not require ful plastic hinge development = equilorium between internal and extemal forces required = members must not be limited in strength by local or lateral buckling where moment is reduced = for utimate limit state design considerations only Section? Page 36 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Stee properties, design, analysis, Elastic and Plastic Analysis Philosophies od Paste ale ene eS ane ca] ae pp Example for Propped Cantilever mol | Dee [al | Neca |y ESO Section? Page 37 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis guseuy Background to Second Order Effects Why must they be considered + Loadings Standard requires reduced resistance anc increased deformation of the structure resulting from lateral deflection of members to be considered What are they? ‘= Second order effects relate to a loss of stifiness of a structural system due to applied compression loading on the members of that system Section? Page 38 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Stee properties, design, analysis Two Forms of Second Order Effect * Pea effect: lateral Lae displacement of the Joints of a structural system “depends on system response’ ‘Ps effect: member ayant gay deflection away from af), straight line between Ne a- cain seseremn the member's ends rot renee = depends on individual ‘rember response a ‘ig= elastic buckling load factor 2.N* = elastic buckling load set for the system ical Parameter Involved In words: the elastic buckling load is the set of applied compression loads that would cause the structural system to become elastically uns.able even if all members had f, = = Section? Page 39 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, desig, analysis Elastic Buckling Load Factor for Braced System + caleulated on a column by eslumn basis + determined for the pee em cng at bse Sn SEaapeme tele etna Foe Awe Kama statraote tui oc Elastic Buckling Load Factor for a Sway BK ee. ‘System ooey 4 comes Trabue atanad S| gt) | = TE — Ens semi barat tres A189 MO Read Ine are dg ee ee ay Fy setting ae ae eet 12 Setnanalonmenn cate mar bree Section? Page 40. of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis ae Significance of Second Order Effects ‘eeu au nreaeindefernaton therfore aneeasein st ner casper : + Gaal poarter Bi 2, SeSielmnontcmagucatinreures LO D ‘ics hn nea l= em tem ©) nes 4 for gras etm Sora sway eat the a secon (SR Se anaes 4S caress a = 14 when y= 1.0 (fom mame) 53° Seon tt = 13 Ne 388 reds 204 cris 9 recy Second Order Effects in Real Structures Most structures exhibit combination of both P-5 and P-A effects: see example below ye Seotion2 Page 41 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, desig, analysis ‘Second-Order Effect Implementation: See Flowchart in Student Standard Notes 1. Seoond onder effects are appliod:0 members carrying compression 2, Second order multiplier> 1.0 53. Fora cantilever column, sway ‘multiplier may be > 1.0, braced maltiplier =1.0 Second-Order Analysis Software + most elastic analysis programs now Include a second order option * this accounts for elastic P- effects fe it doesn’t always account for elastic P- effects « if ithas inelastic analysis options and large displacement option is used then it accounts for inelastic effects Section? Page 42 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Stee properties, design, analysis puaaag Elements of Composite Floors Section? Page 43 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis Composites - Benefits ny use composite? + Utlise benefit properties of each + Uatver weight + Improved vibration and fire resistance Section? Page 44 of 45CIVIL 313: 2013 Steel properties, design, analysis [Types of Light Steel Floor System Available In New = Zealand First and last span ‘ato primary beams, simply supported ate, Tae iat Middle wo span onto secondary teams, 2 or z 3 spans continuous . ‘Stage 1: Steel Frame Erection and Placement of Decking + selfweight of steel and deck and construction loads * restrant only at ends of secondary beams and at points of attachment of primary beams until eckirg in place Stage 2: Pouring of Concrete + wet concrete and construction loads + bare steel strength only ‘+ deckirg provides restraint for secondary beams Stage 3: Composite Action * full dead and imposed loading + full strength of composite section obtained + continuous lateral restraint to top flange of beams Section? Page 45 of 45[This side is blank]SECTION 3: MEMBERS SUBJECT TO TENSIONi Lecmme HH 85h SECTION 3: DESIGN OF STEEL TENSION MEMBERS (Refs: NZS 3404:1997 Steel Structures Standard Chapters 7 and 9: Trheit, NS. and Bradford, MA ‘The Behaviour and Design of Stel Structures o AS 4100, 3d, Spon, 1998, HERA Limit State Design Guides Volume 1, 1996, Section 3, clifton .C. Notes written by John Bu-erworth, 2008, with additions from Charles Clifton, 2009, 2011, 2012, “Dmooucr20N Tension members erie most conmanly s menbers of trusses as bracingmanbers used te stblise framed structures. Mare spectacular examples includ suspension cables used in long spon bridges or os camponents in cable-stayed bridges and other structures, STEEL GRADES: t | Cebles are made from veryhigh strength steel (ultimate stress typically 1600 to 1800 MP) and their use willbe considered briefly tr in these notes, However, the pritipl facus ofthese notes ison the more ‘sual tension members consisting of standard hot rolled sections made from structural grade steal. Flot Bors and Sections Miva yl stress, fa i ee ners tnieat EE Sea ore a a a 70 ee ee eee eee 1 rez inn yl ers, vines yg SESE Mi re te ito eo : ——__ eset tai ase oem a or Grode 80 360380840 450 Connon noLieD STEEL SEcTION sures “The figure tothe right shows some af the different shopes of steel members that are vse for carrying Version loos. ‘Slid round bars and flat strips witha rectangular cross- ection are algo ured. Manufacturers publish tbls iting ‘the poperties ofthe sections they produce. BolAvzOUR AND MODES OF FARE UNIFORM STRESS ‘Tersion members ore anangt the simplest steel components ‘te design as they are largely governed by material strength [ secon 3.2012 on note soins‘end ore not prone to bucking (in contrast to compression members and beams). They tend te have uniform ‘xia stress ond consequently ther load-extension behaviour clesely matches the stress-strain plot of sStrvctoal steel ina tensile est, ‘The stress-strain eltionhipis intially linear and defined bys =Ez or f = Ec (using # for stress) But since o=N/A ond «= e/L it follows that © = NE, showing the expected linear relationship. ‘The liner relationship corrinues until the yield stress f of the ste! is reached atthe tensile yield load IN, =Afy. There f then a period of plastic yielding ring which the elongetion increases rapidly without «corresponding increage in lad. This continues until the onset of sran-hordening at on extension of ey, when the lod begins to rise gradually, reaching a peak value N, = Af, (fs the ultimate tensile stress) Elongction continues to increase greatly during the etrin-hardenng phase. Beyond the maximum pint necking wll occur at cross-section somewhere along the member andthe laa wll decrease until fracture eccure. The behaviour of the member is described ar cctilein that it can reach dl sustain the all tensile yield ood, N, while significant extension eccurs.N, wil often be the nominal tensile capacity of the menber. RESIDUAL STRESS EFFECTS Rolled steel sections often have high levels of residucl stress coused by their manufacturing recess os shown in the I-beam at right. {tension member with residual stress i eae it will normaly Yyeld locally at some pent before the ful tesile yield lod is reached elcing the range of line behaviour, but Ny wil stil be reached as ‘he stresses redatribute Residual sresees ozo couse localised early Ztrain hardening, further reducing the plate range. The mam behaviour is stil regarded as ductile. This process is lastrated below fora simple flat strip tension member [LW omneomors nN ; Dresryts ase OD svemresteten Dry nenyAREA REDUCTION DUE TO HOLES = > => Tension members have tote connected to their parent structure at each end and this frequently invalves bolts or other fixings that poss through hoes inthe member. The hoes eause local reductions in the crose-ectonal area and ely yielding around the holes. The effect on behavieur depends onthe anaunt of area reduction Minor reduction in area (few, or small holes) In this cote localised yield occurs na small volume of material around the holes causing deviation from ‘the ideal linear elastic path. Stain hardening then occurs inthe vicinity of the holes allowing the lad to increage ond achieve the ful tensile yield valve N, ~ Af (Ay 15 the gross area of the erass-secton), [Necking wil eventually inate inthe net area around the holes leading to fracture at lod less thon the ideal N, Subetontil elongation will eccur prior to fracture ard the behaviour still regarded as ductile ‘Significant reduction in area (more or larger holes) ‘With more e larger holes the member may fracture ata hole before full tensile yield ofthe gross eross- section can be achieved. Te fale load wil be given by NL = Af with litle elongation occurring prior to fracture. The beheviour is lassified as low- ductile, with litle warning of impending failure. ‘al ad N ay A —— Norates —— Siglicanthotes “| Insignicanthaies—“U Ribena oD THREADED BARS @ “Threads are normally formed by machining the gross section. The eppropriate reduced or'stres¢ eren for ‘typical threads is shown nthe foble below. = ta | [ou] ou || | | 0| | |] | | Tensile stress | | ‘area mm?) |64.3|115|197| 192) 245] 303] 353 | 450| set] 694] 617 | 976) 1123 306) 1473 “ot Pista Tanciond mae‘STRESS CONCENTRATIONS ‘Stress concentrations in tension members cccur at holes at the ends of the member, where there are ‘changes of local reduction the eros section and ct points where concentrated forces act. The effects ‘of e hale ina tension member are shown by the uppermost curve below, which isa plot of the variation of the stress concentration fector with the rtio ofthe hole rads, , tothe net width, by The Maxim tress approaches three tines the nominal sress withthe plate width it very large i proportion to the hold dlameter, See oo the stress concentration effects of chenge in element width, Aidpriesof Sroe Cnet a Tsn amb Orom [12 For estentilly static or eathquske loading in grode 300 or 350 steels, which have high ductility, these ‘stress concentrations are cf ra significance; the most they will dois generate localised yelling which wil reistribute the stresees, However for fatigue design they are very signficant and must be then nto ‘count, This isa topic for next year ‘Stress concentrations als arse from eccentric transfer of forces ino the ends of tension members ct connections. These can mit the lad carrying capacity of the member and are considered below. ECCENTRIC CONNECTIONS. For convenience in construction a N fersion menbers" are often Commactadeccentrcal for ong ‘an angle section connected through a, one leg. The effect fo fnredeypgssed by) Sending stresses int the member ine othe normal dled stresses There ore dao, ed Concenvtions of stress in the Wit ofthe comecore els welds) These concentration tend foewn oat to a afer tres Girton with toes from the oe eg wale tnd. The effect my be aloed for by etsirng an ares rection factor othe endef the member (ich the same os hovig holes Here), See Tale 73.2 ltr n these note. 2 most uniform ‘hose, NA ress eocentaledin coneced og ‘The figure below from theNZSS 3404 Commentary shows the disturbance to uniform stress listribution for some sample end comectins scion 9.201 eon te Posen anaaotaiL = gee €13-Mtos d atcnt [STEEL STRUCTURES STANDARD, NZS 3404:1997 Design of tension menbersis covered by Chapter 7 and pat of Chapter 9 of NZS 3404, The relevant pages are inchded in thezenetes, Objective To ensure that N AAD eo qn 11600 = 2228 = 1248? Ay =200%8 = 1600 in daa ne ros vied comcty NAG = Yeo 3200 om) iain x (Net section fracture ° 8 Rerreraren ond he = 0 (esmectsdtrbted ver whole mnber) 1, =0.85%1.011248% 430 = 45610 not section [Net section fracture govems, Ny = 456K Design load N’ should not exceed #N, 19456 = 410% BME 2- flat strip member, staggered bolt holes “The bolts are rearrenged in the previous compl shown of ight. Re-aeuoe he £0 5, 95, 0, rial pac. in 4 200) 100) = As before 1 = 200%8 = 1600? "Zamm damete es For section fale line (ton staggered)AAS 1600-1228 = 424? For section fale line 2 (staggered) at non ders 9088 =1600-242215+ 08 110mm Choose the minimum of the two possible net section. Tn this case the staggered line. ‘Gros veld capacity IN =5IZKN (ro change) Net section fracture Ny = 085 hog Ace fend hye = 10 (ra chonge) Ny 0.85x1.0614105430N =515HN Con see that staggering the bolt hles has inereased the net section area and asa result the fracture lood has increased suffciextly to allow gros yield to occur first (but ely just). Design lad N” should not exceed dh ~0.9x512461KN 1 Biawoiz 3 wneqal ange comected Through one leg ony -juuq 7 « What she tensile design pci fe arade 380 unequal angle, 75x80 8 UA, cmmected through its shorter leg at each end? Asume afl welded comection Yo the shorter le Design capacity AN aid ABI AL ata, & = 360 Pa 120 MPa from property tables) (70 area reduction with welded comecton) sk, =078 (Table 732) AN = min(0.9» 921 360, 09«0.850.75%921> AB0)N rin(298, 253KN) 25301 ‘SON should not exceed 253 KN, and failure mode willbe fracture adjacent to the end conection,‘Examrct 4 Splice in a universal column section tension member ~ae ices gb at hols Zon diameter seriom \? eens G oo00 N mt 09 | 000 N < ‘i o> wf208 | c00 teo0g 0000 Determine the design axl tension cepaity af a 31OUCISS grade 300 member which has been spliced os shown inthe sketch above nat ta scale). It may be assumed thatthe belts and spice plates are sufficient to cary the desan axil tension ‘A 310UC188 has «gross ore of 20,100 Flange thickness ie 25mm. [Net ree by inspection willbe ine wth 4 holes an 2 staggers. Check the other pessiblities te convince youreef of this. dee oneal areenenrd veld stress of 2800Pa and ultimate stress of 440 MPa 4x60 (deaverions doubled as hoes in top & bottom flanges) 169601 AN =n OBB HAL From clause 7.3.2 we btn ky = 085 4%, = min(0.9 20100280, 09085 «0.85% 16:960% 440)N = min(SO65KN, 48524N) 452k Low ductile filre mode scion 32012 nln et poseina aeRODS AND BARS Tam and Economy ssl epplication fr rod end bars isn bracing systems of portal Fromes nd ight industrial structures, ‘Typically they ore arranged inthe form of crossed dagorals with each bor designed for tension ony and with thelr compression copcty Taken as zero, Becouse slackness in this tpe of tension braced system can lead to rocking ofthe structure, the braces are pretensioned This is realy accomplished with threaded reds and Vightenig of ruts, Se some etal below ‘This need for pretensionng rises the following issues 1 What isthe minimum level of pretension force required to reduce the slack sufficiently te eold undue sack in the cod? ‘What level of pretensen is achieved in practice through normal on-site cnstruction ‘What isthe effect ofthis pretension on the design capacity of the member and performance of the systen? 4. What are the strength requirements for design ofthe end connections ‘Answers teach ofthese cuestons is given in section 3.3 of HERA Report R460 and sunmarised below Level of pretensonng required Long rods behave lke cables whose seit weight is crvied by tension lone, withthe tension being Inversely proportional to the sg. For smal Sogn oof bracing the Tene stress, f, versus midspn sag, cis independent ofthe red diameter and given by: { saono'(2) woo f= 9.23 Inwhich Zand y are bth im, ‘This equation is shown grophicoly below and shows that, to achiev asap of L/100 whichis the lint for undue visual deflection sress of only 20 MPa is required fer a20 metre long cable.@ Lert of pretenning echoed postin Sues hae been udertalen in Ausra on ths, aig rode of Tm to 2mm dante nd ths of upto am. Tec roe mere serpin ald alan titre a nora terse wa and {ha he on dtm donee os re itened clr ofc fern deg capaci nde 20 Inn ncter rds train 0% ofthe design capo, Ths meas tet exes apt a problen Inve ighened oma protic <3) What is the effect of this pretension on the member and system performance? 1 thera or sghty vr rtesned hen he ce elon gv ay id der the teevceily intel Hover tis il spire sone of fhe jretason chan Start space or rode S00 30 rts roel the conactos s fah ‘Th comactn mus be denied depencbly ahve he elites of fren the menber nd 1h soe fel ecsomontion Bon, 2) What ee the strength eqranants fr the end cmecins? These regen nNZs 344 use 9141) (i) which reqs ht fr headed red tng oa recy ncnbr the mtiman en fre for he omen sn Sl ea othe menbe ein (ren) ety. ‘Wee carefree 300 rodeo eh lancer nd becones era crertve fr Ia ger meter ede For hea ae he cowestng sabe ss Tore te mmm Ges fern acon om tn dig ps RN Use of tension diagonal brocing in earthquake resisting structures. “These willbe covered in yexr 4, but the principal point with regard tered bracing is that it must have the blity to stretch without Ereaking in the red ar connections. Devices like turrbuekles must be designed ‘to develop the yielding loa ofthe rad without fracture; this requires specialist devices sch os the Ried “bracing system which hasbeen tested to ensure this cope i achievedNZS 3404:Part 1:1997 7 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO AXIAL TENSION 7A DESIGN FOR AXIAL TENSION Armember subject oan aal tension force (W*) shal sats: wos om ¢ = he svengthreucton fcr sc tle 33) 1M = the nosinal seton eapaty in terson determined in accordance with 72 7.2 NOMINAL SECTION CAPACITY ‘Te min! acon apy fester hab ten ae se ™ Agha. 4.720) N= 085A (4.722) shore Ag = the gross area othe cross section the minmumvakeofyeldsvessfrom21.1forany element oratematively weighted average vale fo al element of te ss secion| 4 fig = the conection fdr fr esbibuton of forces detrminedin accordance with 7.3 ‘Ay = thenetareaotthecross secton obtainedby deducting fromthe grossareathe sectional ‘fea of af penerations and holes, including fastener holes. The deduction fra {astenerhols shllbe made naccotdance ith .110. For hreadedrods, tenet area halle taken ashe tensile sres area he treadedporien, as defined in AS 1275 f= the tena strength from 2.1.2. 722 Ferveldnarepionsoftenonmenbersinsesmicresisingor associated struturalsystems, the Falcofne! areas the crs sectonta gloss areal he cose secon shall comply with 12042, 7.3 DISTRIBUTION OF FORCES 7.3.1 End connections providing uniform force distribution \Vinerefor design purposes asumestnatthe ers orceisistibuedunfomly toa tension ‘member, the end eannectons shal eat the folowing (a) Tho connections salle made to each part he member andshal be syrmeticaly paced bout he certoidal aso the member, and (©) Each pat of the connecton sha be proportioned transmit atleast the maximum design force cared by the cannected part ofthe member. For members subject to design loads Inclaing eathauake lads, the oversrength force shall be used a required fom 128.42 Fer connections salen hese requirements, the value fk shal be taken as 1.0NZS 3404:Part 1:1997 7.32 End connections providing non-uniform force distribution Ite end connections of tension member do not sats the requirements of 73.1, then the ‘member shale designedte comply wih section 8 using Kg = 1.0, except hal 7.2 maybe Used for be folowing members (2) Ecconricaty-conected angles, channels and tees Ecoenticaly connected angles, channels and tees may be designedin accordance wih? 2, ‘sing the appropriate vale oven nadie 7.3.2 For ying repens ofeategry 1,201 ‘Smembersinseamsoresitng or aesociated sivtiral ystems, only connection Stash ‘2 correction factor (h,)not ess than 085 shall be used “Table 72.2 Correction factor (ke) [ casemamber | __ contgwaton ave onreton factory) , On Soca be ea = acca 2 I j 085 2 aso 4 — 10 . =e> " 7 _— o7s | NOTE ~The plat to when We members connected is shown hana. 0 clon 2012 nen rink 92 mtnNZS 3404:Part 1:1997 (0) Psectons or channels connected by bat anges ony ‘Asymmetiea aed erbultap member f sold -ecton or chanel section conected by both langs oly maybe designed in accordance wh 72using ave y equate O85, provided that (0) Telengh betvees te fist anos rows of fastener inthe connecton of, when he members weledhe length tlenptusna velproesto each side fhe connected anges shal be rele than he depth of he member; and (8) Esch tang connestin shallbe propotoned to ans at east half of the maximum design fre caries by the conneced member. Fr mambers subject to design bade Including eartquate ads, the design actons shall be determined fom 120.12, 9.19 Connection components e194 CConnecton components (eats, gusset plates, brackets, ec ther than connectors shallhave theiccapaciiesassesseungtheprovisiens sections, 6,7, Bandthe appropiate provisions of secon 12 (especialy 1287) as appcable. 9192 Wien using setons 6 and7 fr design ef connection components, take ay =0.5 and determine the net area (Ay by means of aratonal design procedure wich accounts forthe dstibsion of ‘ta foes into he component 110 Deductions for fastener holes 9.4.40: Hote area In calla te deductions to be made for holes fr fasteners (cluding countersunk oles), the goss areas of he hos inthe plane of thei axes shal be used. 94.102 Holes not staggered For hoes that ar net staggered the areato be deducted shale the maximum sum fhe areas cofthohoiesinany eros econ alight angles tothe drectonofthedesign aceninthemember. 2.1.10. staggered notes Vien holes ae staggered the area to be deducted shal be the geste (2) Te dedection for nonstaggered holes; oF (©) The sum ofthe areas of al holes in any 2-209 ine extending progressively across the member or part ofthe rember, ss (5.21145) foreach gauge space inthe chain of les. here {sp = staggered ith the distance measured paral othe rection ofthe design action inthemember.centreto-enieotholesinconseutv ines, see figue 9.1 10:3(1)) f= thickness of the holed materi 2uge, the distance measured at right angles to the rection ofthe design action Inthemembercente-tocenteotholesinconsecutvelnes, (se igure 81.10.31) ‘clon 3012 wast i ee 9,3NZS 3404:Part 1:1997 Zla-z0 tno TON Se Figure 94.10.31) ~ Staggered holes For sections such as anges with holes in both eg, the gauge shale akan asthe sum ofthe back marist each hol, less the leg thickness (see igure 9.1.10:32). + fF Figure9..10.32)— Angles with holes in both logs 9.1.11 Hollow section connections \Winen design loads or effec om one member are appledto a hoow section ata connection, consideration shall be given to the lozal eects en the hallow section 9.2 DEFINITIONS For the purpose of hs secon, the detnitons below appl BEARING-TYPE CONNECTION. Connection elected using elter snug toh bos, or high strength bots tightened to indice a specie minima bal tension, inwhi the desi load or ‘fects transfered by shea inthe bits and bearing onthe connecied parts athe utmatelimit stale, FRICTION-TYPE CONNECTION. Connacton elected using high-stengh bolts tightened to lndvce a specited minimun bot tension such tha he resultant clamping acon trance the 12Worksheet 3 ~ Design of steel tension members 1 Calculate the tease design section capacity ofa member witha rectangular cross-section measuring 100, ‘om x 10 mm and made fom grade 380 stl. Assume end connections are welded, providing concent, tnitorm force dsibton, (gn, = 3244 dct faite) 2 Repeat the calculation in Qt for te same member connected at each end by a single MI? bot [ie = 316K, low dei faire) 3. A tension member made from 310 UC ‘7 grade 30 sections spliced by means oo splice pes bolted to the flanges as shown i he gure Assuming the spice pes and bolts are ‘ulficen to take the design ail tecsion, what she desig section capacity ofthe belie UC section? Dats ‘A, =12400mm',t, =154mm, t, =9.9:m [ae = 2998 4 ow duct failure] 4. Amys is febricated fom grad 300 equal angle wed members, each connected by one lg to he T- ‘ction chor members shown inthe join detail below. The angle te blted othe web ofthe Tseton by single ine of MIG bolts pasing trough 18 mm diameter holes. The design axa tension inthe sloping member is N'=400KN Select the ightst equal angle section required to carry this load. State the design tensile capt ofthe section selected [90x 90% IDEA, 4, = 4118] vow5. Thesdatch below shovs a simplified suspension bridge employing two sel suspension cables. Loading consists of I20kN/m uifonniy distiuied along the deck (ba teach cable plus the weight a the ables (hich may be ssumed to be uniformly distebuted aeros the span i. dng tthe 1204NMm) "The ses inthe cable isnot to exceed 400MPa, The specific weight of steel is T7RNIn. 48) Calelae the requiredeross sectional area of each cable. [0.0%m +) It the cable pases ove fitonles pulley athe top ofeach ower, calculate the side cable eason the ‘horizontal force apled othe top of tower and the required weight ofan anchor block, [B6MN, 16MIN, 25 SNN} ©) Calculate the same things as in () fr the case when the cable itched to a saddle esting 0 oles ‘on the top ofthe tow, [7AMN, 0,33. 5MN) fee ~ a a atop oftower Bias: ‘The cable tension i staal determinate i, canbe determined by consideration of equilibrium onl: Fist show (by considering half f the main span cable fee body) that the horizontal component of cable tensions "Lis he main sn Amst ah a Wit hth ol er horizontal metre (deck lon ps cable sleigh), Deduce that his must equal the cable teasion at mid span, ‘Ten show that he maximum cable tension carat each end of the min spun andi given by my [uy 2) ‘(ar ‘Ava fit guous take the weight ofa single cable as Sk cto 2012 nse ence rt econ 3 ine 2012SECTION 4: MEMBERS SUBJECT TO COMPRESSIONLette 4 contd SECTION 4: BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS [Reading ~ Megson T, Ch 18; Megson TT, Ch 21, HERA Lint State Design Guides Volune 1, 1994, Section 4, Clifton, 6.) [Notes written by John Buterwocth, 2008, with changes from Charles Clifton, latest in 2013, ‘SCOPE OF NOTES ‘These notes for this sectin comprise two parts, ‘The First ofthese are these written notes, which give the background to compression member design, ‘Tis covers the bulling of apn-ended elastic colin, then goes onto introduce the effect of eiferent ipport conditions, nil carature, eccentric loading, material yielding, ‘Tiss followed by the beciground tothe column design curves in NZ‘ 3404 and introduction tothe esign of compression menbers to NZS 3404, covering section compression capecity and menber ‘eampreston capacity, savy sytem ofa lthaoey bung Swing ncctag, team and old mn spice Tis tection of ate covers the design ofthe ‘olan member ‘his column shape is ped wo at igh ‘nperson ad ith ‘all eombined 0 tis Bening Following these notes are sides covering further aspects of effective length restraints ar the design of engls in compression end columns with large voids, ‘The notes includ some excnpes: more will be provided during the course.PIN-ENDED ELASTIC COLUMN, AXIAL LOAD “This case, often referred ts Euler buckling, (ter Leonhard Euler who first derived i) is presented in ‘Megson (idegeonZ, 18 1: Megson IT, 211), Ecition IE uses a cifferent coordinate system from Edition T, ‘nd the derivation below iin the coordinate system of Edition I (the diference is sight -a nuisance ‘that we wll have olive with, Consider aight, straight, lender, uniform, pi-ended coun of length L with a eoss-section property T ‘nd elastic module E. Anata ood Pi grad increased until the column i on the pant of buclng, We argue thatthe column in its critical equiorum state can be in ealibrium in an edjacent (slighty placed) state Matz “Substitting inthe monent- curvature reltonhip, M(z) EI Nev (ooversng equation) N Divide through by Ex ond et BE virote0 ‘This diterential equation (near, 2% erder,homagenecus, constant cefficients) has the solution (can ‘check by differentiating) [Wa=AsinazBeosaa) ‘The solution is completed by imposing the boundory conditions: WO=0> 8-0 Thus wa)=Asinez, “showing thatthe deflected shape (buckling mode) is sine curve. w=0 Asinal=0 Either A=0 = v6) OF sinal =O meaning that al.» O,n2n3rete Tus al =n, 1902.3: 0 -ie, the cok remains straight (but OK this is a possible solution), and since &ree — oe Aefining the critical or bucling loads ofthe column ‘The least value of NCO) a 0 ving the lowest critical oad as EEE) she exten on Euler load [Note that athough we know the shape is a half sine wave, we haven informetion about the amplitude. A bit like the bal onthe leve surface, me heve merely estoblished that we can clsplce it from its oiginl equlibcum psiton and i wil stil be in equlibcium, HcHeR modes For other values of n we obtain increasing ales of Px andthe associated (higher) mode " Na Mode we 0 indeterminate wa)=0 “1 [eee wa)=Asinez/L 2 farere va)=Asindsa/L 3 owe O_o | via) Ainge ‘However, bicKing Toads > entical load, 171", can nat be achieved uless The calunn is physically cestrained against lateral displacement at the necessary number of places. Otherwise the column simpy buckles at its first opportunity - the lowest critical lead “Thus a column that was restrained at its mid-point would not buckle until the leed reached 4n*EE/L? From the sketch it canbe seen that there isn infleson point (zero OM) at mid-pan, 30 thatthe sl behaves ina similar woy to two pivended calurns of length L/2, “The bucking load of apne column of length L/2 is E1__ Aver Neo Cra ‘nd the arial ona (lrgth L, with mid-pon restraint i nid ta have an effective enothofLI2 ‘OTHER SUPPORT CONDITIONS By oplyng a sinilor analysis to that en p.2to columns with other end support conditions, itis possible te derive their buckling loads Detale canbe found in Megeen The table below summarizes the more common - (Nd oF LECTHEE #*Lecce # ben_1x* Sept "5 N Fe ra zomexer | aver Per 1 c a “e e C Effective R L Es on. ost. L EFFECTIVE LENGTH For any column, the effective length is defined asthe length ofa pin-ended column with the same critical load (and same ED), For example, in the case ofa propped cantilever of length L: Critica tad of acta aks a = 200g Critical load of pin-ended eslurmn: Nes E ex HEE _20460€r mes Ge Andso lay 2 O7L “The concept of effective length is widely used in design as it allows Formulas, etc, developed for the ‘standard pinended case te be applied to. wide range of other coses. 129, (camehat trivial) oexculate the critical load of a proped eantlever Stondend formule Nas TE (the fom forthe mended case) se 02 v= 208g Hence only one formula to remenber (out stil ned to know effective length for other cases), Note also that the effective lengths concept relates toon elastic column, not toa column which falls in ar inelastic manner. This is especilly inportent when determining effective lengths for members in sway frames, as the effective length far elastic stability of the frame andthe effective length for indvidua member design ore not the some. This is covered in NZS 3404 Clause 48.3, Effective lengths greater than 1 are required for elastic stebility and second-order effect considerations ery, while for individu member design, the effect ve length i ways «the member length ‘The effective length given for isolated columns above assume perfect support conditions (either perfectly pinned or perfectly fixed), In practice fixed supports are never 100% fied and ths affects the effective length values fora but the first example above. This i accounted for in NZS 3404 Figure 1483.2 which gives design offectve lengths to use foreach of the above cases Benoit sndegnct ote anon 41 JW Baer, a 208 Chat ion, ne 203BEHAVIOUR OF IMPERFECT COLUMNS ‘So far the cases we have considered have been rather idealised, evereoking a number of important features or imperfections that wil be present in most prectical columns, suchas + Inia lack of straightness + material that is not perfectly nearly elastic 1+ non-slender cases (1, short, thick columns) INITIALLY CURVED COLUAN, natural shape N _/, before loading y after loading Note that the initial deflection (end associated curvature coresponds to zero bm throughout its only the extra deflection (\) and associated curvature that causes bm. For equilibrium EIV N= ‘To proceed we need throu (oessune) v2). Could assume e Fewer series, va) ~ Sa, sin, (as Megson does) and get more genera result, but here we assume vy sin (the natural bucked shape of pinended eolumr, By doing this we make if as tough as pessible for the column. ence EIN = Naan o 7 0°v=-atasin = aaer & ve : ee ve Amnars eat my bein ond abtiute a epation() ‘This leads to 24 ad the complete solution, o- CF + PLis thus v(z) = Asinaz +Bcosaz +- Le ‘Applying boundary conditions:Tf Az0, aL. giving Solitons ata set of discrete N values only (the critica leads ofthe straight FEL v6 tr colume), Ny ete Vows tne hg tr 2EE tw the other possibilty and let A =O, 50 that the soliton becomes o total deflection, ‘A plot of mid-spon deflection howe deflection increasing steadily with N and then increasing rapidly as N->N,. The ntl mi-span deflection, ois "*magitid’ by the factor gz N, ‘SOUTHWELL PLOT leds to revealing linear relationship between (9/N) and Knoan as the Southwell Plt, it permis the experimental determination of buckling lbods from a series of lead and corresponding deflection measurements ot loos less than the buckling load. Thus the buckling lad con be determined without aN ctuclly buckling the clu (and probably damaging it). ‘The Sauthwel plot canbe use fore wide range of buckling problems, not Just clus, The main requirement is that the ‘measured quantity, 8 sould exhibit a frst order (major) change with the primary buckling mode. fe meu an dosnt eos osectins ———J Bawa, gu 208 Cnt ian, ne 213ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMN ‘The behaviour ofan ecentrically loaded column i sila to that ofan initially curved column, For equilibrium ine sightly displaced position Ev =-Wa)=-Ne+y) leading to vsaty=ate. Solving, (cosa + 208A sing 1) inal. aL | 1-cosul ah Mid-span deflection, eleos th $-e0ttl ith -9, simplifying to Se elsec%t 2 » on sa daeeg [ 1) 2 iN “Inboth cases deflection starts to increase immediately any lad i plied Consequently there ino dint instant of buckling, merely a rapid increase in rate of deflection as Ne is epproached Simultaneously the br a mi-height wil be inereasng proportionately with ikeoed ‘thatthe material at that lection il ye or fain some way, ntting complete fare ofthe column [MATERIAL STRENGTH LIMITATIONS. Considering the case ofa pn-ended column acin, the critical eer lood i given by o cewa ‘Axial stress ot Ny, Ne. SEC/A) ut ie syraton se i Uris known os the “slendemess rato" onda plot of ow ogsinstL/ will appear ° 1s shown, This suggests thet as L/r gets smeler the crtial(uekling) stress increases without iit. Havever, ll rel materials wll yield or falas their stress increases Fore sinple elaste plastic material (such as mild steal) the stress-strain ‘behaviour is eppreximatelys shown tothe right. ‘Hence, in our diagram shoving buckling stress we should place a cut-off at a araine stress of oy chev and ces ceaumne Preecendt J ates hugs 20%; Chasen Jina 219|Colunre witha sufficiently small slenderness ratio (L/r) wil fll by ‘squashing! (Vildng), whereas mere slender clu wl fal (a least intial) by elastic bucking “The dividing line between‘char ond Yong’ columns depends on yield stress and elastic modulus For example, if. = S00MPa ord E = 200,000!Po, the twe curves wll intersect where. we “The transition from short iilding) columns to lng (bucking) ones is not sharply defined in practic. “There iso transition zone which failure inclvesamix of bucking and yielsing. For exonple, a sight ‘tendeney te buckle may cats yielding and further deflection. Sinlarly buckling may be precipitated by ‘he firt hint of yielding ok one side of colar ‘Actual failure lads (or the carrespenng stresses) if potted wil follow pattern as shown inthe next Faure ‘The ctrve followed will defend on factors such a intl imperfection (ack of straightness), residual tresses resulting from manufacture ond construction processes, ete Different curves are used for different classes of column and a considerable voriety of these coun desig curves have evelec. However, before going ont thi we need to look atthe effects ofthe column material yielding on the conn buckling behaviour ofa clunn which i to long to develop its Full squash Toad bit foo shart Yo buckle in fully elastic manner. MATERIALS WITH NONLINEAR STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS ~ TANGENT MODULUS THEORY “Mony mterils exhibit nolinear stress-strain behaviour but with no clear yield point. A steel colin isa good exanple, due to the effects of residual stresses across the cross section, Engesser showed thet for such material buckling occurs (theoretically when bias and sect turns seein JW Bate, gut 208; Che ion, ne 213,here E; is the tangent modulusat the critical stress (ie. the slope ofthe tangent to the stress-strain curve) However, experiment generally revealed higher buckling lad than that given by the tengentmdulus ‘theory honey singe more accrate thesrticel mode showed that abetter prediction is gien by the rechced sodas double mec x ; ex gol eprteke SAFE earl {is the reduced moduli (ora rectangular cross-section al ‘Therein er the diferet est eta bling conmences, strain on the cncve se ofthe ‘chem nrees ith corresponding stress chege teed by E, wheres onthe cone sie train Slohtly nd srt lows the wrlasng carve govern by Hence the ee Ye bth ‘Measured buckling lade texto lie between cloner bound given bythe tongent mods load and on upper bound given by the reduced modulus load (The simple Euler bucligloed wil of course be higher than both) Since the reduced madulue lead ers onthe ungafe side ite mare common to use the tengent ‘modulus lod which i also smpler to coleulte BUCKING BEHVIOUR OF REAL COLUMNS [Now we con consider the bucing of isolated real tee columns, which have initial curvature, esil stresses and material which hes yield limit, The general behaieu of such column is shown below Elastic buckling o—~_ Curve A-eauivalont inal curvature ‘neous stone sect 41 10. Stroh git 208 Chr Cin, 282013STEEL STRUCTURES STANDARD, NZS 3404:1997 ‘The strength limit stot design criterion fora stel column requires that it satisfy both NT <4, and 2 Ah - Nt eey ere Nis maxima design ail force inthe menber du othe action of the fctored ods, isthe nominal section exl free copecty, isthe nominal nember axial force capacity, nd Js the strength reduction factor (03). NOMINAL SECTION CAPACITY, No [Ns the axa force capcty ofa length of column sufficiently short that overall buckling hasino effect (eit is more or less identical tothe syuash oad N,) is defined as Noo WAS, here isthe form factor(s 1) that reduces the cross-sectional area of the column if | its shop is prone olocalbucklng, ond ‘Avis the net area f the cross section (gress area minus any holes, etc). \ fis veld stress (se minimum or weighted average for component plates) For rolled sections and welded columns ky is usualy clese to 10, but there isa significant ‘range of columns composed slender plate elements, and these wil buckle lal before the squash oe is reached, This is why the squash lad (A¥,) is modified bythe local bekling form factor (ky) L ‘Section capacity wl govern the design of very short columns or columns with closely spaced restraints EFFECTIVE AREA A, ANDFORM FACTOR ky ‘The following nates on local buckling and the effective width concept are an abridged form of the rates fon Plate Bucking providec for background reading (downlad from Cecil if interested). | EFFECTIVE WIDTH CONCEPT. ‘Theoretical aleulotion of plate fllre lads is difficult. Consequently we intreducea simplified approcch based on the concept of effective width. Assuming that a colunn con be regarded as an assembly of thi, fiat plates such ofthe flnges and web ofan T-secion er the four faces of a hallow box section, we‘pproach the problem of determining the onset of local bucking by considering a single, flat plate “supported ereund its edgesand leaded in compression poral! tothe longitudinal exis of the parent ‘olann se diagram above, \on Kerman proposed that he nonlinear stress distribution acrss a plate at failure (previous dagram and left diagram below) be replace by o uniform stress distributed aver two reduced strips adjacent tothe “supported edges, with the central buckled region ignored = ee As ona T 4, - ico oe He further proposed that the strip be considered together asa rectangular plate of width by, and that failure occurs when the critical buckling stress ofthe equivalent plate reaches 6; “ 1 fellows that (Jus b, 49 we need treduce b such that b,/#< 49 (the maximum valve for which yield stress can be reached without buen) yreLp LITT Thera sown he posers rat nthe tna fom tele Todas yl al cae aed any sng oy nope) cand rearranging to obtain PLATE SUPPORTED ON BOTH EDGES For example, the web of ent-section or any face of @bax-secion ‘Substituting K=4, E=200,000, 6300 an 3 gives PLATE SUPPORTED ON ONE EDGE AND FREE ON THE OTHER For example, the flange of an T-section (Other support conditions ae taken into account by using the appropriate bucHling coefficient, K (cee Plate buckling notes for deta) For one edge supported andthe other fre, K:0.5(opproxinately- this is fer an aspect ratio a/b=8) (Other dotais the same as previous case and gives Chase" “DETERMINATION OF EFFECTIVE AREA |, effective area ofa stel column A. the sm ofthe effective crea, but ofeach flat pat element composing the cross-sectien - yl init 8 ~ IMPLEMENTATION IN THE STEEL STRUCTURES STANDARD, NZS: PLATE ELEMENT SLENDERNESS RATIO, 1NZ53404 uses the symbol forthe plate slerderness rato and brits ina correction term for yield stress (symbel other thon 25000: don 44 ute An 20% Cato Cen, e203‘ieula hallow sections Lo there dis the eutside daneter of the CHS. PLATE ELEMENT YIELD 5.ENDERNESS LIMIT, he Limiting vlues based on eqstion (16) and including mtifications for residual stresses are tabulated in “Tble 624, reproduced below. zs s4o4art 11007 Tle 624 Vatu of ptm yd ners coe) Pa Tegan | Renal | ned ember | emeat type | soe Seeaea | lenderess Stopones | feenctes | tot) tarmac an, * otro Webs of I-beams are regarded as plates supported on two edges (le, atthe junctions with the flanges), whereas the flanges are regarded as plates supported enone edge (by the web) ond free on the other. ‘The diagram below provides further explanation. ErreCTIVEWID TL Fer ope eles uh gested end wes nafs} errecriveoLANeTER For cinculr hollow section the effective diometer shouldbe the lesser of &, | Y Sl abe and‘ection description | Petraled | Heavy welded | Col formed 8, ue ox ons Lay Ba 7 ® Plate element widths ls a h Flange outstand by % “ Flange bs spported along beth edges * ° Web d supported along beth edges * * ° Diameter dy 8 “Table of yield limit values, Dy, from NZS3404. 1b, =b, (br alredy less thanb,s0 no reduction of flange width needed) Effective ores AoA, 63x55 3734nn? Fae ne flee rose scton fo aod 0 rn at 20; Ct Con, Ane 20133734 noe Say O98 Note ‘The orea of web tht is deducted is token from the centre leaving en effective cross-section with a ‘63mm ‘gop! as shown nthe sketch above. 2. Effective aren and frm factor of « 320 700 welded 8 eon, =a ‘Assume section i hesly welded, Webs 4 [E29 5 scan, on ron a $80 (850 toes, 5 from Tol) we od 68038 rf me 07 lage outst: 8 [E156 8 (E156 50 a7, 14 fromrobie ue we ob tote I 67m Effective wes: E A= 2167 2+ 8)+10 29338-6694 cence sen factor The eq lengths of 117mm ore coincidental lg 94 igo NOMINAL MEMBER CAPACITY, Ne Wie now focus on the overi/behavour of the member, especially its everll (Euler) bucking, rather than ‘the local behaviour of it eass-ection aera very short length ero ne cal ures piSeecion 41, Btwn Aug 20; Chas Cen, Je 213For loge, more ender las the trent ble wl mara dont nd determine the rember opel Ne a 134 ae ero sy neces med Iember senernessraton pees ne rest ae roger an 2) tng he ee Sore ges col aesgncrver ch reverysnir othe ps of LIN sed on he Poy Robern top. bth teflon efinenet (steer itera na neni ierer clon descr re prod fr err ype or coum Tas recast ffs of estas oso ruetchng proceso geoetnc perfecto va Rather then Rove efferent carves fer ferent elunn yield stresses «modified senders roti, replaces the simple Sh amen Ur previous use is defined os = Je ais (ale is dominated by the Ler component) “The 250 appears becaute the standard structural steel grade ot the tine NZS3404 was written was 2501, The design cures are tabulated for thie value an the correction term i oly required for Yield stress vies othe" thon 250MPA, The standard grade is naw SOOMPa andi is pessible thet the ‘ebulated vlues wil be changed to reflect this inthe next revision of the Stondord, The yield stress coercion, [7250 reflects the fact that steels wth higher yield stress wll be more likely o buckle before they reech their yield stress since their resistance to buckling does not increase clong with the ld etre, being governed by elastic mace E “The form factor k else appears in the medified slenderness rai effective area due Yo lea bull toking account of reduced ~ MEMBER SLENDERNESS REDUCTION FACTOR, ‘oc defines the reduction inaxial section capacity due to overall buckling effects. le. Nea, ‘The actual formulas used f obtain ae shown inthe box below. — ron atesunne Senin 434 Bane ag 208 Cafe ion, ne 2013il ey (0) samnhnaze 2106, 135) EBs, 2080 ln =the eppropict enter section constant from Tele 6.3.31 Figure 2 shows the NZS3404 calurn design curves (witha couple of Perey Robertson curves superimposed for comparison plotted using the equtios onthe previous page. The strong similarity between the older Perry-Rebertson curves ard the more recent curves shouldbe noted ene cena i dopey abe Ne Me oe Figure 2 Column design curves from NZS3408 ‘oble 63.3(2) of NZS3404, reproduced on poges 20 ond 21, tebulates Seta cana nasa eee id (@= -1,-05,0,1,0.5, 1) against a range of modified slenderness ratis. { COMPRESSION MEMBER SECTION CONSTANT, 0. “The value of this conston ares according to themenber type asroted the a Iie nig eapeac nodes eine ee aa oe Adsuited tothe particular ype of column being designed (hot rlled,cld-formed, welded, etc). Table (63.30) on p19 sets out the varius member types andthe co 1a section constants TAL STRESS PATTERNS “The figure shows typical ptterns of residual stress due to manufacturing, With hot elled sections, _shrinkng ofthe late-ooling regions induces residual compressive stress inthe eary-celing regions, ond ‘theae are balanced by equlbrating tensile stresses inthe late-coolng resins. Ina hot-relled T-section the flange-web junctions ere the slowest cacling and So acquire residual tensile stress, whilst the more exposed flange Tip are recins of residual compressive stress. The presence of residual stress is of most gnificance in intermete length columns (longer columns ter ¥o buckle elastically at lw stress, shor? columns achieve fll plastity regerdless of initial stress) retain terns ident 4M tarot Ant 20; hare Ct, Je 2018NZS 3404:Part 1:1997 Table 6.8:(1) ~ Values of compression member section constant Form | Compression Section type factor | member section | constant (cm) UB and UC sections, hot-oled (ange thickness upto 40 mm) Ky = 1.0 ° Box sections, wolded {UB and UC sodtons,hotoled (lang thickness over 40mm)| Kj= 1.0] 1.0 —wpast RHS and CHS, hotformed Ste jl» Hues | gato 0 AR RHS and CHS, cold formed (stress relieved) 855 > 552000 90541300 “Tey 1BOUCRO: A, =1860nm, r= 67.50, F, = 38m, 12000 [300- > 2800 Ee 350 «198 « hy \* ay = 195 ie eee a, | e —_ 4? 99.0.333%300 ” 784" Try 200UCHS: A, = 762mm, =89.7Mn, F, = 5.7mm. 12000 [500 "G97 Vas 465 ng = $008 (500 sor St 250 2 = 65 Now iis very clase to our guessed value © ‘Check effective area (nate that assuming kl implies fully effective oreo) For 200UC89: Flange: T= 142mm by= 97.85 Web: $= 93nm Pte slendermess ratios: 97.85 [300 1 fromtble Flange: hg 9788 (900 7.55 <16 (he fromtables.24) 1818 [520 re Web: iy = BLE FRED 224 < 45 0 from table 624) ra ne ctl s2tezcon4) 4, ut Aug 20%; hate 2019‘Since neither plate senderness exceeds the yield lit slnderness, oe! bucking will no occur before yielding and na reduction in width ie required = te effective width = actual width zo that Wes tond A, 9. Section Capacity 10. Member Copacty ie (0465-145) (050-145) a, 031 (31-293) ~ 0.306 (interpolating, Table #4 =4o.N, ~ 03062057 - 62984) (> BSEKN ©) ‘The reliable strength of 629KN is significntly higher than the design moment of SBSKN. This is imply consequence ofthe avalable column sizes. The next size down weud tun eut to be too weak, he air 250 ‘See the following sides for summary details on opplication of the NZS 3404 provisions for compression members ereouranscoal ares 2Seeion 413. Btw st 208 Cs Can, ne 208[This side is blank}CIVILS13: 2013 Members Subject to Compression 150 the effect of the eucantrie end moment can be ignored and design Based on compression load alone. Slendemess ratio to use depends on end connection detal ands gen by Table 6.6 For members with slendemess ratio L/r = 150, the effects [ffont end moment must be determined and design for Combined moment and compression undertaken Section42 Page 11 of 16yy) | tobe effective in changing buckled shape Lv" ) CIVIL313: 2013 Members Subject to Compression Restraints to Compression Members Restraints are added to increase #V.by changing the buckling mode | ‘4 REFEPP FT ERE £ rt Stiffness of Restraining Elements Bracing elements must have minimum stiffness Y ‘dy = 16x2I/L? is expression for critical stiffness Section42 Page 12 of 16CCIVIL313: 2013 Members Subject to Compression NZS 3404 Requirements for an Individual Restraint Each restraint must carry 2.5% of the maximum design axial compression force in the member at the position of the restraint This force must be carried back to points of anchorage Proviced all components in the load path are made of steel and designed to resist the restraint forces, no explicit stiffness criterion must be met, More Restraints than Necessary? The restraint force can be shared One [Three restraint intermediate atthe | restraints at centre is |the quarter needed | points are for ye, | provided: ON. 2N-, | restraint force but“ "|can be shared between the 3 restraints Section42. Page 13 of 16(CIVIL 313: 2013 Members Subject to Compression Parallel Restrained Compression Members Ate of retans Compression members iparalel must be sebigned foran Ineraasa restraint Importance of Brace Connection Detail to Compression Member Entire cross section will move laterally when buckling under compression loading, as chown below for an I-section. Both ‘langes of the I-section must be effectively braced. | ie th ee Section42 Page 14 of 16,CIVIL 313: 2013 Members Subject 10 Compression Method of Bracing: Direct Bracing to Both Flanges + Most direct method of restraining the flanges + Axial bracing member to both flanges + Strength requirements of NZS 3404 to restrain 2.5% of N* are applied to both flanges + This shown is below Bracing to the Centre Line onl Flange Bracing) + As shown opposite + Broce designed for 2.596N" and Stops cross section from lateral movement - + but doesnot prevent twisting of the cross section + il charge compression buckling Faire ito torsional bucking fale unless Noe > Ay, where hg = te torsional bucking tn Ny = minor ax elastic cSthresion buckling ood Section 42 Page 15. of 16CIVIL313: 2013 Members Subject to Compression Combined Lateral and Flexural Bracing Dire restraint to one flange Flexural restraint to the other flange Fiy-brace or stiffener to inside flange (Cumulative axial restrain and moment restraint for ‘member directly connected to girt provisions Fe Bracing to One Flange Only + Outside scope of NZS 3404 + Prosiione in HERA Design Guldes Volume 1: exe example in Section 4.5.3 + Effetive length encompasses multiple distances between restraints along length of colurmn oo Section42 Page 16 of 16