Applied Thermal Engineering 196 (2021) 117318

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

One-dimensional optimisation design and off-design operation strategy of

centrifugal compressor for supercritical carbon dioxide Brayton cycle
Yadong Du, Ce Yang *, Haimei Wang, Chenxing Hu
The Turbomachinery Institute, School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The advanced supercritical carbon dioxide Brayton cycle has received significant attention in the field of
Supercritical carbon dioxide Brayton cycle renewable energy. However, the commonly used modeling method of a constant-efficiency compressor cannot
One-dimensional optimisation design of predict the unknown off-design behavior of the system caused by the compressor inlet temperature change,
centrifugal compressor
which makes the one-dimensional design and analysis of the compressor necessary. In this study, the accuracy of
Off-design performance
Operating strategy
the developed one-dimensional design and analysis model was verified against the performance experimental
data of two types of centrifugal compressors. After discussing the geometric sensitivity of the compressor, the
optimisation design of the centrifugal compressor in the supercritical carbon dioxide Brayton cycle was con­
ducted using a genetic algorithm. Moreover, the off-design behaviour of the system induced by climate change
was assessed, and countermeasures for its low performance were proposed. The comparison shows that the
deviation of the one-dimensional design model is within 10%, and the analysis model with a deviation of less
than 5% can effectively capture the trend of the compressor performance curve. The parameter analysis discovers
that the compressor optimal head coefficient of 0.53 corresponds to the maximal cycle efficiency of 24.40%. The
system off-design efficiency of 27.35% at the compressor inlet temperature of 304.15 K is higher than 18.88% at
310.15 K, which suggests that the operating time of the supercritical carbon dioxide Brayton cycle should be
longer in winter than in summer. Meanwhile, increasing the compressor inlet pressure and raising the speed are
two strategies to improve the poor system performance of the summer by more than 25%, and the first strategy
also broadens the high-efficiency range of the compressor inlet temperature to 4 K. This study can provide
guidance for improving the off-design behaviour of the supercritical carbon dioxide Brayton cycle resulting from
changes in ambient temperature.

most advanced and with higher potential energy conversion

technologies.
1. Introduction
In recent years, many advanced sCO2-BC layouts have been proposed
to make full use of the input heat energy, including the recompression
Exploring cleaner and more efficient energy conversion technologies
cycle, pre-compression cycle, intercooling, and reheating [11]. After
is one of the goals of a sustainable development strategy. For this pur­
comparing the performance of six Brayton cycles, Luo and Huang [12]
pose, researchers worldwide have focused on the supercritical carbon
found that the recompression cycle with an intercooler had the highest
dioxide Brayton cycle (sCO2-BC) proposed by Feher in 1967 [1]. In
thermo-economic performance. Based on the recompression configura­
addition to reaching the critical state more easily, CO2 as the working
tion, Clementoni et al. [13], Lewis et al. [14], and Wang et al. [15]
fluid of the Brayton cycle is superior to helium, nitrogen, hydrogen, etc.
analysed the effects of key system design parameters on the sCO2-BC
By virtue of the high density and low compression factor of CO2 near the
performance. Scholars such as Sun et al. [9], Wang et al. [16], and Pan
critical point, the sCO2-BC reduces the turbomachinery by 10 times
et al. [17] optimised the system performance using different approaches.
compared with the traditional steam Rankine cycle, resulting in a 4
All the above-mentioned studies were performed with a given constant
times reduction in the overall system size [2]. Furthermore, as CO2 is
compressor efficiency. This zero-dimensional (0D) method seems to be
stable, non-toxic, environmentally friendly, and economical, the sCO2-
only useful for predicting the system performance under the design
BC can be used in fields such as nuclear power [3,4], coal power [5,6],
conditions. When evaluating off-design performance under variable
solar energy [7,8], and industrial waste heat [9,10], making it one of the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: yangce@bit.edu.cn (C. Yang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2021.117318
Received 11 April 2021; Received in revised form 21 June 2021; Accepted 1 July 2021
Available online 9 July 2021
1359-4311/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Du et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 196 (2021) 117318

Nomenclature Z number of blades

Abbreviations Greek letters

OD zero-dimensional α absolute flow angle, ◦
1D one-dimensional β relative flow angle, ◦
AR area ratio βk blade angle, ◦
C compressor γ specific heat ratio
Cal calculation ε recuperator effectiveness
Dev deviation ζ clearance, m
Exp experiment ƞ efficiency
LE leading edge θ tangential
PR pressure ratio ν kinematic viscosity, cm2/s
sCO2-BC supercritical CO2 Brayton cycle πtt total-to-total pressure ratio
sCO2-CC supercritical CO2 centrifugal compressor ρ density (kg/m3)
TE trailing edge σ slip factor
T turbine τ shear stress, Pa
ϕ flow coefficient ϕ = m/(ρ01 U2 D22 )
Symbols ψ head coefficient
A area, m2 ω rotation speed, rad/s
b blade height, m
c absolute total pressure loss coefficient Subscripts
cf friction factor a axial
C absolute speed, m/s b blade
Cs spouting speed, m/s c compressor/cold
D turbomachinery diameter, mm cor corrected
Df diffuser factor d disk/design
ds specific diameter eff effective
Evd vaned diffuser parameter ext external
h enthalpy, kJ/kg fb full blade
KB blockage factor h hub/hot
L impeller axial length, m H hydraulic
Lb impeller full blade length, m i different loss model
LH impeller passage length, m int internal
m mass flow rate, kg/s L leakage
Ma Mach number lmt limit value
N rotation speed, rpm m mean/meridian
ns specific speed od off-design
p pressure, MPa r radial
P power, MW rel relative
r radius, m s isentropy
Re Reynolds number sb splitter blade
s entropy, kJ/(kg∙K) t tip
t blade thickness, m th thermal
T temperature, K ts total-to-static
U peripheral speed, m/s tt total-to-total
UA conductance of recuperator, W/K vd vaned diffuser
V volume flow rate, m3/s vl vaneless space
w relative total pressure loss coefficient 0 total condition
W relative speed, m/s 1, 2, 3… compressor meridian stations
z compression factor a, b, c… cycle state points

working conditions, the theory-based one-dimensional (1D) compressor
design method is particularly important.
As the only pressurised component in the system, the performance of
the compressor directly determines the efficiency of the entire cycle. A
large number of studies have demonstrated the existence of an optimal
pressure ratio (PR) for the recompression cycle [4,18,19]. A 2% change
in compressor efficiency would cause a synchronous change in the cycle
efficiency of 0.5% [20]. In addition, compared with an axial compressor,
a centrifugal compressor has a wide operating range and can achieve a
higher PR [21]. Considering that the real gas behaviour of CO2 near the
critical point is different from that of a perfect gas, it is recommended to
design the sCO2 centrifugal compressor (sCO2-CC) using the 1D mean
line method according to the conservation of mass, energy, and mo­
mentum [22]. Researchers such as Luo et al. [23], Zhou et al. [24], and
Liu et al. [25] used a 1D method to realise the geometric design of the
sCO2-CC and analysed the local flow field characteristics using compu­
tational fluid dynamics (CFD). Gong et al. [26] designed a 300 MW
single-stage sCO2-CC using a Balje diagram. Considering the limitations
of the constant compressor efficiency, Yao and Zou [27], Wang et al.
[28], and Zhang et al. [29] coupled the 1D compressor design to the
sCO2-BC and analysed the overall performance. It is recommended to
use the 1D design model from the outset to model the system and pre­
pare the off-design analysis.
During the preliminary design of the compressor, the sensitive

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Y. Du et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 196 (2021) 117318

850 d
Saturated liquid line
C G T Saturated vapour line
Critical point
e
Cycle positions
a g d 650 Compression
Endothermic c
pre-cooler

T (K)
Heating

heater
water renewable Expansion
energy 450 Exothermic
Cooling
b f
h recuperator
f e 250
a

b c 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2

s (kJ/(kg*K))
(a) (b)
Fig. 1. Cycle configuration (a) and T–s diagram (b) of the simple sCO2-BC.

CC are heavily dependent on certain key geometric structures, a pre­

Design liminary design combined with optimisation is one of the most suitable
options.
In addition, the prediction of the compressor performance, that is,
Input: Ta, pa, PRC, Td, C, , Pheater the change in efficiency and PR with the speed and flow rate, plays a key
role in evaluating the off-design state of the system. Lee et al. [33]
Pressure of cycle developed a design and performance prediction code based on enthalpy
Output: pb-pf and entropy, but there is still a lack of experimental data to further verify
the accuracy of the code. Institutions such as the Sandia National Lab­
oratory (SNL) and Barber-Nichols in the United States, KAIST and Korea
Guess md Update Atomic Energy Research Institute in Korea, and Tokyo Institute of
Technology (TIT) in Japan have completed sCO2-CC tests [34-36].
Compressor Among them, the SNL published the most detailed sCO2-CC experi­
Output: ha, hb, Tb, DC, N, C, PC mental data [37]. The 1D performance prediction model of Meroni et al.
[38] compared the experimental data of the SNL with a maximum error
of 25%. Monje [39] reported that the maximum error between his
Turbine prediction model and the SNL experimental results under certain con­
Output: Te, he, pe, DT, T, PT ditions was only 5.54%. Dyreby [40] fitted the experimental data of the
SNL to a fourth-order polynomial in his doctoral thesis, which was
Recuperator subsequently used by many scholars to predict the off-design perfor­
mance of the sCO2-CC [41,42]. This method is undoubtedly accurate
Output: Tc, hc, Tf, hf, P when applied to the SNL compressors. Nevertheless, for centrifugal
compressors other than those of the SNL, it is more reasonable to employ
No
md converge? the 1D analysis model to predict the efficiency and PR under variable
working conditions.
Yes The off-design behavior of the components inevitably drives the
Output: Thermal efficiency system to the off-design state. Besides, targeted control strategies need
to be proposed for sCO2-BC to deal with poor off-design performance. Li
Complete the design et al. [43] analysed the off-design performance of the sCO2 power sys­
tem under different loads and concluded that the inventory strategy was
Fig. 2. Design cycle model for sCO2-BC. the most appropriate for achieving cleaner production. Coupling the
reactor directly with the Brayton cycle, Guo et al. [44] studied the in­
geometric parameters caused by the complex structure pose challenges fluence of turbine flow rate variation on off-design power output and
to the design. The air centrifugal compressor pursues a larger backsweep developed the corresponding control strategies. These policies can cope
angle, which is usually restricted to − 50◦ owing to material limitations well with the off-design behaviour of the system under different loads
[30]. However, the variation in thermodynamic properties near the but may not be applicable to off-design situations caused by changes in
critical point of CO2 makes the design of the sCO2-CC different from the ambient temperature. As the physical properties of CO2 at the critical
traditional design concept. Cho et al. [31] believed that the backsweep point are particularly sensitive to temperature, the off-design behaviour
impeller had a wide operating range and found that the optimal blade of the sCO2-BC due to climate change is worth of attention. After
backsweep angle made the compressor the most efficient. To increase studying the off-design behavior of the system caused by the increase in
the design efficiency of the compressor for the studied model, Tang et al. the inlet temperature of the main compressor in sCO2-BC due to seasonal
[32] proposed to reduce the number of blades and blade inlet angle and changes, Floyd et al. [21] recommended that the compressor perfor­
increase the blade outlet angle. Given that the design results of the sCO2- mance must have a degree-of-freedom. Ehsan et al. [45] implemented
the effect of seasonal variation on the performance of the 25 MW dry-

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Y. Du et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 196 (2021) 117318

Volute

Diffuser throat Diffuser

3
Vaneless space
b2
2
d
Impeller throat r

r4
Splitter
a 1
blade r3
r2
Full
b1 blade
r1s
r1m Impeller
r1h Lz

Fig. 3. Meridian diagram of centrifugal compressor.

ΔW2θ W2
W2θ
1 C2m
W W
W 2∞

∞
1 2 C2
2

C1
C
2

2
2,k
U2
C2
C2θ
U1

(a) Inlet (b) Outlet

Fig. 4. Impeller inlet and outlet velocity triangle.

cooled sCO2 recompression cycle, and found that the year-round mean
net power generation was 24.66 MW, of which the mean net power
generation in summer and winter were 22.9 MW and 26.4 MW,
respectively.
From the aforementioned studies, it can be found that a constant-
efficiency compressor is often used in sCO2-BC modelling, which is not
conducive to evaluating the off-design performance of the system, so it is
necessary to develop a 1D design and analysis method for sCO2-CC. At
the same time, although there are some sensitive geometric parameters,
sCO2-CC optimization design work is rarely done. Furthermore, there
are few reports on predicting system performance and providing solu­
tions under sCO2-BC off-design conditions resulting from changes in
ambient temperature.
In this paper, the 1D design and analysis models of sCO2-CC are
developed based on sCO2-BC with 5 MW heating power. The influence of
the compressor inlet temperature change on the off-design performance
of the system is predicted and the control strategies are proposed. The
arrangements to achieve the above work are as follows: (1) development
of an in-house design code to obtain the geometric structure of the sCO2-
CC; (2) use of the test data of the impeller and diffuser outlet of two

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Y. Du et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 196 (2021) 117318

Design start

Input: T01, p01, PRc, c, P, m, D2, N

Guess r3 Adjust
Calculate r1h, Z
Set tb, Guess cvaneless Update
a, r, d

Output: N, D2 Calculate α3

Adjust Guess r1s Calculate 3 state parameters

velocity triangle at 1 Calculate vaneless loss

Static parameters at 1 No
cvaneless converge?
No
Ma1r = Mamin? Yes

Yes
Guess r4, Evd Adjust
Output: r1h, r1s, β1,k Update Guess cvd
Adjust Guess α2
Calculate α4
Update Guess β2,k
Calculate 4 state parameters
velocity triangle at 2
Calculate vane loss
No
β2,k converge ?
No
Yes
cvd converge?
Guess wimpeller Update Yes
No
Calculate 2 state parameters PRc = πtt ?
Calculate impeller loss Yes

No c = tt ?
No
wimpeller converge? Yes

Yes
Output: b3, b4, r3, r4, β3,k, β4,k
Output: b2, β2,k
Design end

Fig. 5. 1D design flow diagram for sCO2-CC.

experimental cases to verify the accuracy of the analysis code; (3)
analysis of the effect of the compressor head coefficient on the thermal
efficiency of the sCO2-BC and discussion about the influence of
compressor geometric parameters on the design results; (4) design of a
sCO2-CC for the sCO2-BC combined with a genetic algorithm (GA) and
prediction of the compressor performance map; (5) assessment of the
off-design performance of the sCO2-BC due to climate change and pro­
posal of countermeasures.
2. Calculation methods and models
2.1. Mathematical model of sCO2-BC
Almost all of the advanced sCO2-BCs proposed so far are based on the
simple sCO2-BC, which consists of a compressor, turbine, recuperator,
pre-cooler, and heater. The cycle configuration is shown in Fig. 1(a).
During operation, CO2 slightly above the critical point is compressed to a
low-temperature and high-pressure state by the compressor (C). At the
same time, the high-temperature and high-pressure CO2 from the heater
reaches the high-temperature and low-pressure state after expansion in
the turbine (T). The CO2 in the above two states undergoes a heat re­
covery process in the recuperator; then, the cold fluid flows into the pre-
cooler and the hot side fluid enters the heater. The T–s diagram of the
entire cycle is shown in Fig. 1(b).
To simplify the simulation, the following assumptions were made in
the calculation process:
(i) The cycle maintains a steady-state operation.
(ii) The heat transfer between the system and the environment is
ignored.
(iii) The performance of the recuperator is described by effectiveness.
(iv) The pressure drop of the fluid in the recuperator depends on the
pressure drop coefficient of the hot and cold sides [43].
After modelling the turbomachinery and recuperator, the thermal
process of the whole cycle could be determined according to the con­
servation of mass and energy. The specific speed ns and specific diameter
ds shown in Eqs. (1)–(2) were used to design the turbomachinery.
√̅̅̅̅
ns = ω V /Δh0.75
s (1)
√̅̅̅̅
ds = DΔh0.25
s / V (2)
where D represents the diameter of the impeller, Δhs represents the
isentropic enthalpy change, ω represents the angular velocity, and V
represents the volumetric flow at the inlet of the compressor and the
outlet of the turbine. Given a reasonable head coefficient ψ , the design
parameters were obtained by iterating ds in Eq. (3). The maximum

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Y. Du et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 196 (2021) 117318

Analysis start

Input: T01, p01, m, N, Geometric parameters

velocity triangle at 1
Guess wimpeller
Guess ρ2 Update
Calculate 2 state parameters Calculate vaneless loss
velocity triangle at 2
Update No
cvaneless converge?
Conservation of mass
Yes

No
Calculate α4
ρ2 converge?
Guess cvd Update
Yes
Calculate impeller loss Update Guess C4m
No Calculate 4 state parameters
wimpeller converge?
Yes
Conservation of mass
Calculate α3
No
C4m converge?
Update Guess cvaneless
Yes
Update Guess C3m Calculate vane loss
Calculate 3 state parameters No
cvd converge?
Conservation of mass
Yes

No Yes
Output: π, s
C3m converge?
Analysis end
Fig. 6. 1D performance prediction flow diagram for sCO2-CC.

design efficiency and ds under the design condition were used as a
function of ns in the Balje contour, which was fitted into a polynomial, as
described in Appendix A [46].
2
ns = √̅̅̅̅ (3)
ds ψ
Because the heat capacity of the hot side of the recuperator was
lower than that of the cold side, the effectiveness ε was expressed as Eq.
(4). Finally, the entire cycle is integrated into Fig. 2, where the physical
properties of CO2 are directly called the NIST REFPROP [47].
ε = (Th,in − Th,out )/(Th,in − Tc,in ) (4)
2.2. Geometric design model of sCO2-CC
To obtain the geometric parameters of the compressor and predict its
performance, the 1D mean line method is regarded as one of the most
effective approaches. Fig. 3 presents the meridian diagram of the
unshrouded centrifugal compressor, including the impeller, vaneless
space, vaned diffuser, and volute.
At impeller axial inlet position 1, the hub radius r1h and the tip radius
r1t were solved by the mechanical integrity based on Eq. (5) and the Min-
Relative-Tip-Mach method. The core idea of this method was to find the
optimal hub-to-tip radius ratio to minimise the relative Mach number of
the tip.
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
1 3 16mΔhs
r1h = (5)
2 ωπτlmt
where m represents the mass flow rate and τlmt represents the shear
stress limit. Then, the inlet velocity triangle shown in Fig. 4(a) could be
established, and the inlet blade angle β1,k was set equal to the relative
inflow angle β1, which was calculated using Eq. (6) for the purpose of
zero incidence.
β1 = tan− 1 (U1,k /C1 ) (6)
where U and C respectively represent the tangential speed and absolute
speed.
With the known tangential speed U2, the tangential component C2θ of
the absolute velocity C2 at radial outlet station 2 of the impeller was
determined by the Euler equation expressed in Eq. (7).

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Y. Du et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 196 (2021) 117318

Table 1 model proposed by Wiesner [48]. In addition, the numbers of blades of

Loss correlations for centrifugal compressor 1D mean-line design. the impeller with splitter blades Zimpeller and effective blades Zeff were
Loss mechanism Loss model determined using Eq. (10) and Eq. (11), respectively.
Impeller incidence
Δhinc =
W21 winc,h + 10winc,m + winc,t Zimpeller = int( − 4.527e1.865/πtt +32.22) (10)
[22,39] 2 12
( )2 ( )2
C1m Zeff t1b
winc = 0.8 1 − + Zeff = Zfb + Zsb Lsb /Lb (11)
W1 cosβ1,k 2πr1 cosβ1,k
Impeller blade loading Δhbl = 0.05D2f U22 where Lsb is the splitter blade length, which accounts for 65% of the
[51]
entire blade length Lb. Moreover, the relative total enthalpy h02,rel of the
W2 Δh /U2
Df = 1 − + [ ( 0 2) ] outlet in Eq. (12), derived from the Euler equation, is a constant.
W1 W1t Zeff r1t r1t
1− +2
W2 π r2 r2
C22 W22 U2
(12)
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Impeller clearance [52] ζ 4π(r21t − r21h )C2θ C1m h02,rel = h02 − + = h01 + 2
Δhcl = 0.6 C2θ ζ = (ζa + ζr )/ 2 2 2
b2 b2 Zeff (r2 − r1t )(1 + ρ2 /ρ1 )
2 The relative total pressure p02,rel was calculated based on the esti­
mated relative total pressure loss coefficient wi, as given by Eq. (13).
Impeller blade friction
Then, the total and static conditions of the outlet were obtained by
LH 2
Δhsf = 2cf W W = (C1m + C2 + W1t + 2W1h + 3W2 )/8
[53,54] Dh
π iterating wi to converge.
LH = (2r2 − (r1t + r1h )− b2 + 2La )
8 p02,rel ∑
(
2
)
p02,rel = p02s − (p − p 1 ) wi (13)
(cosβ1h +cosβ1t )/2+cosβ2
p01,rel 01,rel 1→2
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
La = 2r2 0.28(Ma1t,rel + 0.8)(1 − r1 /r2 )((r1t − r1h )/2) The rotor outlet height b2 was determined using the mass conser­
4π(r21t − r21h ) vation shown in Eq. (14), considering the blockage factor, KB2.
DH =
4πr1 + 2Zeff (r1t − r1h )
Impeller wake mixing Δhwm = b2 = m/((2πr2 ρ2 C2θ )(1 − KB2 )) (14)
[38,55] 1 C22 ( λ )2
0.93λ2 + 0.07λ = 0.15 Based on the rotor outlet conditions, the stator, including the vane­
2 1 + tan2 (α2 ) 1 − λ
less space and the vaned diffuser, was designed from the inlet to the
Impeller disc friction (ρ + ρ2 )r22 U32
[56]
Δhdf = cf 1 outlet. Note that in this stage (2 → 4), the total enthalpy of the working
8m
fluid is unchanged. In addition, the contours of the hub and shroud were
⎧
⎨ 3.7(ζ /b )0.1 Re− 0.5 (Re ⩽3 × 105 ) U2 r2
d 2 2 2
cf = Re =
⎩ 3.7(ζd /b2 )0.1 Re− 0.5 (Re2 > 3 × 105 ) 2 ν2 considered to be parallel, so the diffuser width b4 was consistent with b2.
2
Impeller recirculation Δhrc = 8 × 10− 5 sinh(3.5α32 )Df U22
2 The absolute flow angle α3 at the outlet of the vaneless zone was
[57] computed using Eq. (15) according to its radius ratio r3/r2, which was
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Impeller leakage [39]
Δhlk =
mL UL U2
mL = ζρ2 UL La Zeff UL = (1 − ζL )
ΔpL usually within 1.06–1.12 [49]. Then, Eq. (16) was used to iterate the
2m ρ2 total pressure loss coefficient ci of the process (2 → 3) to solve the total
ζL = 0.5(ζa /(b1 + ζa ) + ζr /(b2 + ζr ))
4mr2 C2θ and static conditions at station 3.
ΔpL =
Zeff (r2 + r1t )(b2 + b1 )La
Δhsf,vl = 2cf LH /DH (C22 + C23 )/2 r3 (90 − α3 ) Ma22
= 1+ + (15)
LH = (r3 − r2 )/cos((α3 + α2 )/2) r2 360 15
DH = (b3 + b2 )/cos((α3 + α2 )/2)
∑
Vaneless space diffusor Δhdf,vl = C2 (1 − E)(C2 − C3ideal )/ρ2 p03 = p02 − (p02 − p2 ) ci (16)
[22,39] 2→3
Vaned diffuser Δhinc,vd = 0.5C23 × 0.6sin2 (α3 − β3,k )
incidence [58] For the vaned diffuser whose number of blades Zvd was specified as
Vaned diffuser friction
Δhsf,vd = (C23 +C24 )cf
LH LH
(5.142cf )− 0.25 (1.0–1.3) × Zimpeller, its inlet blade angle β3,k was set equal to α3 for the
[39,58] DH DH
purpose of zero incidence. To calculate the exit blade angle β4,k, the
LH = (r4 − r3 )/cos((β3,k + β4,k )/2)
design parameter Evd with a recommended value of 1.5–1.7 was intro­
DH = o3 b3 /(o3 + b3 ) +o4 b4 /(o4 + b4 ) o =
2πr/Zvd cosβk − tvd duced by Aungier [22]. As given by Eq. (17), the area ratio ARvd was
Vaned diffuser mixing readily determined when the radius ratio r4/r3 was specified, and β4,k
Δhwm,vd = 0.5(C4m,wake − C4m,mix )2 C4m,wake =
[22,59] √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ was obtained successively using Eq. (18). After solving the absolute flow
C2sep − C24θ angle α4 using Eq. (19) (details are available in [22,39]), the total and
C4m,mix = (C4m A4 )/(2πr4 b4 ) static conditions at station 4 were obtained by applying the ci of the
Volute loss [50] Δhvolute = C24m /2 process (3 → 4) to a method similar to that of the vaneless zone. For the
volute, the kinetic energy involved in the surface friction loss is rather
low, and thus it cannot significantly affect the compressor performance
W21 − W22 C22 − C21 U22 − U21 [50]. Therefore, the dissipation of the meridian component of the vane
U2 C2θ = h02 − h01 = − − (7)
2 2 2 diffuser outlet velocity can be used to account for volute loss [50].
Finally, the 1D design process of the sCO2-CC is presented step-by-step in
where W represents the relative speed. After initialising the absolute
Fig. 5.
flow angle α2, which was usually in the range of 65◦ –75◦ [27], the ve­
locity triangle shown in Fig. 4(b) was readily established. The blade (r4 /r3 )2 (AR2vd − 1)
Evd = (17)
angle β2,k could be solved iteratively by applying Eqs. (8)–(9). AR2vd ((r4 /r3 )2 − 1)
β2,k = tan− 1 (W2θ∞ /W2m ) = tan− 1 ((W2θ − ΔW2θ )/C2m ) (8)
ARvd = (r4 cosβ4,k )/(r3 cosβ3,k ) (18)
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
ΔW2θ cosβ2,k
σ = 1− = 1− 0.7
(9) α4 = β4,k − δ* −
∂δ
(β − α3 ) (19)
U2 Zeff ∂i 3,k
where ΔW2θ was the slip amount and was evaluated based on the slip

7
Y. Du et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 196 (2021) 117318

Off-design
Input off-design conditions Calculate UAod of the recuperator
Adjust Guess mod Guess Tf Adjust
Compressor off-design Calculate Tc, Precuperator
Output: ha, hb, Tb, pb, C, PC
Discrete sub-recuperator
Calculate pod Output: UAsub
Pressure of cycle No
Output: pc-pf ∑UAsub = UAod?
Yes
Turbine off-design
Calculate Ppre-cooler, Pheater, Pnet
Output: Te, he, T, PT, mod
Output: Thermal efficiency
No Yes
mod matches?
End
Fig. 7. Off-design cycle model of sCO2-BC.

[ ( )√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ]
Table 2 r1 /r2 − (r1 /r2 )lim
9− 0.1β2,k

Model validation results for the sCO2-BC. σ cor = σ 1 − (21)

1 − (r1 /r2 )lim
System parameter Li H et al. Wang et al. Luo and Huang
(2020) (2020) (2020) The loss models adopted in the compressor design and analysis are
Ta (K) 823.15 673.15 673.15
presented in Table 1. These empirical models were selected because they
Td (K) 305.15 305.15 305.15 were verified in relevant references. However, what needs to be
pd (MPa) 25 14.5 20 distinguished is that the compressor rotor loss includes internal loss and
ηc 0.89 0.8125 0.89 external loss (parasitic loss). The former, representing the aerodynamic
0.93 0.8257 0.90
ηT
loss in the total pressure, has an impact on both the PR and efficiency,
ε 0.95 0.86 0.86
ηth of Ref (%) 40.28 19.47 28.60 while the latter, consisting of the disk friction loss, leakage loss, and
ηth of this work 40.28 19.50 28.62 recirculation loss, only affects the efficiency as it represents wasted
(%) energy. As a result, the isentropic total enthalpy h02s and the actual total
Dev (%) 0 0.15 0.07 enthalpy h02 of the rotor exit can be expressed as Eq. (22) and Eq. (23),
respectively.
∑
2.3. Performance evaluation model of sCO2-CC h02s = h01 + U2 C2θ − hloss,int (22)
1→2
With the known boundary conditions, the compressor performance ∑ ∑
was predicted based on well-established loss models. The mass conti­ h02 = h02s + hloss,int + hloss,ext (23)
nuity, energy conservation, and loss equations were applied to solve the 1→2 1→2

velocity triangle and thermodynamic parameters at each station.

Relying on iterative thinking, the performance prediction model of the
2.4. Off-design condition model of sCO2-BC
study is integrated into Fig. 6. Additionally, Aungier [22] proposed an
improved slip model for the compressor performance analysis process.
After the compressor performance prediction is completed, the off-
When the radius ratio r1/r2 exceeds the limited value calculated using
design behaviour of sCO2-BC can be evaluated by combining the off-
Eq. (20), the modified slip factor, shown in Eq. (21) should be adopted.
design performance of the turbine and the recuperator. Because the
( )
r1 σ − sin(37 − 0.2β2,k ) CO2 property far from the critical point is relatively stable, the perfor­
= (20)
r2 lim 1 − sin(37 − 0.2β2,k ) mance prediction model of the radial turbine proposed by Japikse and
Baines [60] was adopted. The mass flow rate through a radial turbine
depends to a large extent on the inlet conditions, outlet pressure, and
nozzle design, and it is weakly dependent on the shaft speed. As shown

Table 3
Comparison of the sCO2-CC outlet thermodynamic parameters.
m N T01 p01 T4 p4 Δh4s P

kg/s rpm K MPa K MPa kJ/kg kW

SNL [37] 3.53 75,000 305.3 7.69 324.66 13.984 9.911 52.70
Cal 324.61 13.981 9.906 52.68

8
Y. Du et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 196 (2021) 117318

Table 4 3. Model validation

Comparison of the sCO2-CC structure design.
SNL [37] Zhang et al. Dev Cal Dev 3.1. Verification of compressor geometric design
[29] (%) (%)

Tip radius of 0.009372 0.009686 3.35 0.009935 6.06 The sCO2-BC design is the foundation for implementing the sCO2-CC
impeller inlet design, so it is necessary to ensure the accuracy of the system thermo­
(m) dynamic model. Generally, the thermodynamic model of the sCO2-BC is
Impeller tip 0.000254 0.000350 37.80 0.000275 8.27 a 0D model that relies on mass continuity and energy conservation. The
clearance (m)
Impeller radius 0.01868 0.01976 5.78 0.01992 6.64
model verification results of sCO2-BC after comparison are displayed in
(m) Table 2. It can be noted that the result deviations between this paper and
Impeller outlet − 50.00 – – − 45.99 − 8.02 the references does not exceed 0.15%, which shows that the accuracy of
blade angle (◦ ) the current model is sufficient to continue the follow-up research.
Impeller outlet 0.00171 0.00114 − 33.33 0.00156 − 8.77
blade height (m)
Diffuser outlet 0.0018 – – 0.0019 5.56 3.2. Verification of compressor geometric design
blade height (m)
Diffuser radius 0.0260 – 0.0283 8.85
(m)
The prediction of the compressor off-design performance is based on
the structural design, which indicates the necessity of verifying the
design method. Owing to the lack of experimental conditions, the sCO2-
in Eq. (24), the turbine was modelled as a constant-area unchoked CC and its experimental data from the SNL have become the basis for
nozzle. many research institutions. With the known design conditions, the outlet
thermodynamic parameters and geometric structure of the compressor
m = Cs Anozzle ρ (24)
generated by the in-house design code are listed in Tables 3 and 4,
where ρ is the fluid density at the turbine outlet, and Anozzle is the respectively. During the design, other geometric parameters not
effective nozzle area. The spouting velocity Cs, as in Eq. (25), is the included in Table 4, such as hub radius and blade thickness, are set equal
velocity that would be achieved when the fluid is expanded isentropi­ to those of the SNL compressor [37]. The geometric design deviation of
cally to the outlet pressure in an ideal nozzle. no more than 10% is lower than the design deviation of Zhang et al.
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ [29], which provides strong evidence for the feasibility of the 1D design
Cs = 2Δhs (25) method of the sCO2-CC in this study.

As a result, the turbine efficiency under off-design conditions can be

expressed by Eq. (26). 3.3. Verification of compressor performance prediction
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
U U
ηT = ηd,T 2 rotor 1 − ( rotor )2 (26) Predicting the compressor performance plays a crucial role in eval­
Cs Cs uating the operating status of the sCO2-BC under off-design conditions.
Considering that the compressor includes two parts, rotor work and
where ηd,T is the turbine design efficiency. To predict the off-design stator diffusion, a recommended method is to verify the fluid state of the
performance of the system, the off-design pressure drops and conduc­ rotor outlet and the diffuser outlet, respectively. Moreover, to confirm
tance UA of the heat exchanger, as in Eq. (27) and Eq. (28), were scaled
the robustness and accuracy of the in-house design code, the experi­
according to the method described by Dyreby et al. [40]. mental data published by TIT [36] and SNL [39] were used to complete
( )1.75
mod the verification work. After inputting the impeller-B geometry designed
Δpod = Δpd (27) by TIT [36], Table 5 lists the calculation results and deviations of the
md
static temperature and static pressure at the impeller outlet under each
(
mod
)0.8 operating condition. Among them, the pressure reaches a maximum
UAod = UAd (28) deviation of 3.69% at 12000 rpm, and the temperature reaches a
md
maximum deviation of 0.48% at 14310 rpm. The results of the verifi­
With the known conductance, the effectiveness-NTU method can solve cation with SNL experimental data are presented in Appendix B. After
the heat transfer process in the form of a discrete recuperator [4]. As a comparing the experimental and calculated values, such as the rotor
result, the off-design cycle model of sCO2-BC is integrated into Fig. 7. outlet static pressure and vaned diffuser outlet total pressure, only a
maximum deviation of − 2.67% was found.
In addition to the above verification method, the performance map of

Table 5
Comparison of experimental and calculated results at the rotor outlet.
N m p1 T1 p2 (MPa) T2 (K)

rpm kg/s MPa K Exp Cal Dev (%) Exp Cal Dev (%)

8298 2.24 7.608 308.5 7.810 7.732 − 0.99 310.1 309.6 − 0.17
10,104 2.73 7.743 309.9 8.039 7.928 − 1.38 312.3 311.5 − 0.26
10,704 2.89 7.763 310.1 8.094 7.971 − 1.51 312.7 311.9 − 0.26
11,298 3.06 7.798 310.4 8.168 8.031 − 1.67 313.3 312.4 − 0.29
11,904 3.22 7.791 310.4 8.201 8.050 − 1.85 313.7 312.6 − 0.35
12,000 4.01 8.271 308.5 9.134 8.797 − 3.69 311.5 310.8 − 0.23
12,498 3.39 7.774 310.2 8.225 8.060 − 2.01 313.9 312.6 − 0.40
13,103 3.74 7.621 308.3 8.141 7.939 − 2.48 312.3 311.0 − 0.42
13,111 3.55 7.786 310.4 8.281 8.100 − 2.19 314.4 313.1 − 0.42
13,704 3.92 7.706 309.2 8.276 8.053 − 2.69 313.5 312.1 − 0.44
13,710 3.72 7.797 310.6 8.338 8.139 − 2.39 314.9 313.5 − 0.44
14,310 3.88 7.588 308.6 8.175 7.957 − 2.66 313.3 311.8 − 0.48

9
Y. Du et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 196 (2021) 117318

0.8 3.0
Exp Exp
CFD 2.5 CFD
0.7 1D 1D

h s (BTU/lbm)
2.0

0.6 1.5
ts

1.0
0.5
0.5

0.4 0.0
0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07

(a) 45 krpm
0.8 3.0
Exp Exp
CFD 2.5 CFD
0.7 1D 1D
h s (BTU/lbm) 2.0

0.6 1.5
ts

1.0
0.5
0.5

0.4 0.0
0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07

(b) 50 krpm
0.8 3.0
Exp
CFD 2.5
0.7 1D
h s (BTU/lbm)

2.0

0.6 1.5
ts

1.0
0.5 Exp
0.5 CFD
1D
0.4 0.0
0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07

(c) 55 krpm
Fig. 8. Comparison between the experimental and the predicted isentropic total enthalpy rise Δh0s and isentropic total-to-static efficiency ƞts as a function of flow
coefficient ϕ.

the SNL compressor under different rotating speeds is verified in this
study. Note that although the design speed of the SNL compressor is
70,000 rpm, the experiment eventually reaches a speed of 55,000 rpm
owing to the limited motor power. Consequently, compressor perfor­
mances under 45, 50, and 55 krpm were selected for verification.
Furthermore, the CFD code represents the current state-of-the-art
compressor numerical research method, and therefore the CFD results
of Rinaldi et al. [61] were also used for comparison. As shown in Fig. 8,
as a function of the flow coefficient, the variation trend of the isentropic
total-to-static efficiency ƞts and isentropic total enthalpy rise Δh0s of the

10
Y. Du et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 196 (2021) 117318

1D model are more consistent with the experimental results. Although a Table 7
maximum efficiency deviation of approximately 12% appears at a flow Thermodynamic parameters of each state point.
coefficient of 0.05, at 55 krpm, the performance of the sCO2-CC can be State point T (K) p (MPa) h (kJ/kg) m (kg/s)
captured well, laying a foundation for evaluating the off-design behav­
a 306.15 7.7 345.78 18.03
iour of the sCO2-BC. b 338.98 15.4 363.27 18.03
c 593.79 15.32 761.62 18.03
4. Results and discussion d 823.15 14.91 1038.9 18.03
e 746.89 7.94 953.76 18.03
f 400.17 7.82 555.41 18.03
4.1. Influence of compressor head coefficient g 293.15 0.10 84.08 33.49
h 320.15 0.10 196.88 33.49
In the traditional sCO2-BC design, a constant isentropic efficiency of
the compressor is often set. However, the compressor design efficiency
varies with the design parameters. Owing to the coaxial configuration, Table 8
the performance of the turbine will inevitably be affected, resulting in a Turbomachinery design parameters.
change in the net power of the system. Therefore, based on the operating Compressor Impeller diameter (mm) 63.72
parameters in Table 6, the influence of the compressor head coefficient Head coefficient 0.53
on the simple sCO2-BC was analysed. Flow coefficient 0.062
Specific speed 0.80
Specific diameter 3.45
Rotation speed (rpm) 50,000
Table 6 Pressure ratio 2.0
Operating parameters of the simple sCO2-BC. Isentropic efficiency (%) 86.51
Parameter Value Power (kW) 315.37
Turbine Impeller diameter (mm) 108.9
Compressor inlet temperature (K) 306.15 Specific speed 0.56
Compressor inlet pressure (MPa) 7.7 Specific diameter 3.36
Compressor head coefficient 0.45–0.65 Rotation speed (rpm) 50,000
Compressor outlet pressure (MPa) 15.4 Isentropic efficiency (%) 90.45
*Turbine inlet temperature (K) 823.15 Effective nozzle area (cm2) 7.43
Effectiveness 0.85 Velocity ratio 0.67
Heater power (kW) 5000 Power (kW) 1535.5
Cooling water inlet temperature (K) 293.15
Cooling water outlet temperature (K) 320.15

88
88 1.0 85 65 r3/r2 = 1.08
Evd = 1.6
87 0.9
ns 75 55 86
N (krpm)

86 0.8
D (mm)
c (%)

ns

c
85 0.7 D
tt

65 45
N r4/r3 = 1.65
84 0.6 84
r4/r3 = 1.60
83 0.5 55 35
0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 r4/r3 = 1.55
c 82
65 67 69 71 73 75
Fig. 9. Influence of compressor head coefficient ψ c on compressor design
information. 2

Fig. 11. Compressor efficiency ƞtt as a function of impeller outlet flow angle α2
25.0 1230 and vaned diffuser radius ratio r4/r3.

th
As shown in Fig. 9, when the compressor head coefficient increases
24.5 Pnet from 0.45 to 0.65, the compressor design speed decreases and the design
1210 diameter increases. Because the isentropic enthalpy rise remains un­
Pnet (kW)
th (%)

changed, the specific speed shown in Eq. (1) decreases from about 1.0 to
24.0 0.5, which leads to a decrease in the design efficiency, according to
Fig. A.1 in Appendix A. Simultaneously, the changes in the system
1190 thermal efficiency and net power with the compressor design efficiency
23.5 are depicted in Fig. 10. An obvious phenomenon is that the net power
and thermal efficiency reach a maximum under a compressor isentropic
efficiency of 86.5%. This means that there is an optimal compressor
23.0 1170 head coefficient that maximises the thermal efficiency of the system,
83 84 85 86 87 88 which is 0.53 here. The thermodynamic state of each position of the
c (%) system with the highest thermal efficiency is presented in Table 7. The
net output power is 1220.14 kW, corresponding to a cycle efficiency of
Fig. 10. Effect of compressor efficiency ƞc on system thermal efficiency ƞth and 24.40%. The design parameters of the turbomachinery are listed in
net power Pnet.

11
Y. Du et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 196 (2021) 117318

86.5 90 4.2. 1D optimisation design for sCO2-CC

Evd = 1.50 Evd = 1.55
Owing to the complex structure, the sCO2-CC design results are
sensitive to certain geometric parameters. From the 1D mean line design
86.0
shown in Fig. 6, it can be found that the design goal depends on the
70 absolute flow angle of the impeller outlet α2, the radius ratio of the
vaneless space r3/r2, the vaned diffuser parameter Evd, and the radius

4,k
85.5 ratio of the vaned diffuser r4/r3. When α2 is increased from 65◦ to 75◦
tt

and r4/r3 is increased from 1.55 to 1.65, the design results of the
50 compressor total-to-total efficiency ƞtt is presented in Fig. 11, where r3/
85.0 r2 and Evd are respectively equal to 1.08 and 1.6. The increase in the
radius ratio of the vaned diffuser from 1.55 to 1.65 improves the
r3/r2 = 1.08 2 = 72° compressor design efficiency by approximately 2%. Because the
84.5 30 augmentation of the vaned diffuser radius does not affect the design
1.54 1.57 1.60 1.63 1.66 results of the impeller stage, an observable phenomenon is that α2 at the
peak efficiency is always 72◦ .
r4/r3
When α2 and r3/r2 are respectively equal to 72◦ and 1.08, the change
Fig. 12. Compressor efficiency ƞtt and vaned diffuser outlet blade angle β4,k as in ƞtt and vaned diffuser outlet blade angle β4,k with Evd and r4/r3 is
a function of vaned diffuser parameter Evd and radius ratio r4/r3. shown in Fig. 12. As r4/r3 increases from 1.55 to 1.65, the slope of ƞtt
gradually increases, which is more significant at an Evd value of 1.55.
Meanwhile, a conspicuous decrease in β4,k appears, such as a 20◦
Table 8.
maximum difference that occurs when Evd only increases by 0.05. In

Start

Set the range of decision variables

and the optimization parameters

Initialize population and i = 0

Evaluate individual fitness

according to Fig. 6

Select genetic operations

based on probability

Select the largest Select two individuals Select an individual

individual for crossover for mutation

Obtain the next generation population

i=i+1
no

i < Maximum yes Achieve the

iteration number ? function tolerance ?

no yes
Output the optimal solution

End
Fig. 13. Flowchart of genetic algorithm.

12
Y. Du et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 196 (2021) 117318

Table 9 Table 10
Genetic algorithm parameter setting for sCO2-CC optimisation Compressor geometric parameters.
design. Impeller Number of full blades 10
Parameter Value Number of splitter blades 10
Inlet hub radius (mm) 8.45
Number of populations 50 Inlet mean radius (mm) 17.01
Maximum number of iterations 300 Inlet tip radius (mm) 22.53
Crossover probability 0.8 Tip relative mach number 0.85
Mutation probability 0.2 LE blade angle at hub ( )
◦
49.50
Function tolerance 10-6 LE blade angle at mean radius ( )
◦
67.02
LE blade angle at tip ( ) 72.24
◦

LE blade thickness (mm) 0.704

0.88 LE tip clearance (mm) 0.282
Outlet radius (mm) 31.86
Outlet blade height (mm) 4.99
Ma1t,rel TE blade angle (◦ ) − 47.92 (backward)
TE blade thickness (mm) 0.704
0.86 TE tip clearance (mm) 0.282
Backspace clearance (mm) 0.282
Full blade length (mm) 45.72
Ma1t,rel

Splitter blade length (mm) 29.72

0.84 Axial length of the impeller (mm) 19.52
Vaneless space Inlet radius (mm) 31.86
Outlet radius (mm) 34.37
Outlet height (mm) 4.99
Vane diffuser Number of blades 26
0.82 Blade height (mm) 4.99
Inlet radius (mm) 34.37
LE blade angle (◦ ) 66.19
LE blade thickness (mm) 0.704
0.80 Outlet radius (mm) 53.23
22 23 24 25 26 TE blade angle (◦ ) 44.57
TE blade thickness (mm) 0.704
r1t (mm)
Fig. 14. Variation of tip relative Mach number Ma1t,rel with tip radius r1t at 5 Design point
impeller inlet.
20krpm
30krpm 65
view of these sensitive geometric parameters, a genetic algorithm (GA) 4 40krpm
46
is employed to minimise design errors. The calculation process for the 50krpm 60 75
GA to obtain the optimal solution is depicted in Fig. 13, and the 60krpm 85
parameter settings of the algorithm are listed in Table 9. 3 70krpm 86
80krpm 50
tt

Because the rise in total enthalpy depends on the compressor power, 80

which is known at the design stage, the pressure ratio PRc can be
regarded as the only optimisation target. Then, the optimisation design 2 55 70 65
75
of the sCO2-CC is described in Eq. (29). The ranges of the decision var­
iables and additional constraints are set in Eq. (30). Additionally, some 83 70 60 55
parameters were fixed during the optimisation design. The shear stress 1 Contour (%)
limit of conventional metal materials, τlmt = 55 × 106 Pa, was adopted.
tt

The axial clearance ζa, radial clearance ζr, and disc clearance ζd values of 0 10 20 30 40
the impeller were normalised by the inlet blade height, with a value of
0.02. Similarly, the dimensionless value of the blade thickness of the m (kg/s)
impeller and diffuser is 0.05.
Fig. 15. Compressor performance map.
Minimise f = |π tt (α2 , r3 /r2 , Evd , r4 /r3 ) − PRc |/PRc (29)
Decision variable 1.5488. The result from the min-Relative-Tip-Mach method is shown in
Fig. 14, confirming the existence of the optimal tip diameter at the
65◦ ≤ α2 ≤ 75◦ impeller inlet. The detailed geometric parameters of the compressor
1.06 ≤ r3/r2 ≤ 1.12 from the impeller inlet to the diffuser outlet are presented in Table 10,
1.5 ≤ r4/r3 ≤ 1.75 which provides geometric information for the blade profile analysis and
1.5 ≤ Evd ≤ 1.7 mechanical design. Subsequently, based on the designed geometric
model, the performance map of the compressor predicted by the 1D
Subject to analysis model is shown in Fig. 15. This provides a basis for evaluating
the off-design performance of the compressor, thereby helping to predict
0 < Ma1t,rel ≤ 0.9 the operating status of the sCO2-BC under different loads.
− 50◦ ≤ β2,k ≤ 0◦ (backward)
65◦ ≤ β3,k ≤ 75◦ 4.3. Impact of climate change on system off-design performance
(30)
◦ ◦
40 ≤ β4,k ≤ 60
Benefiting from the advantages of physical properties, the design of
After reaching the convergence criterion, the optimal set of decision the sCO2-BC usually ensures that the compressor inlet conditions are
variables is α2 = 69.7708◦ , r3/r2 = 1.0788, Evd = 1.6775, and r4/r3 = near the critical point of CO2. However, the nature of CO2 at this time is

13
Y. Du et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 196 (2021) 117318

z 2.6
308 0.49 7.4MPa
21
7.7MPa
0.43 8.0MPa 2.3
307

mod (kg/s)
18

PRc
0.38 2.0
T (K)

306
0.32
15 1.7
305
0.26

12 1.4
304 0.20 303 305 307 309 311
7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 8.0
Ta (K)
p (MPa)
Fig. 18. Off-design mass flow rate mod and pressure ratio PRc of system as a
Fig. 16. Compression factor z of CO2 variation near the critical point. function of inlet temperature and pressure of the compressor (N = 50000 rpm).

90 30
28 22
mod
2.6 87 High-performance boundary
26 th
2.3 25
19 PRC 86
88
mod (kg/s)

24
th (%)

c (%)

C 7.4MPa
PRc

2.0

th (%)
c (%)

22 7.7MPa
16 85 20
1.7 8.0MPa
20
86
18 13 1.4 84 15
303 305 307 309 311

Ta (K)
Fig. 17. Off-design performance of the compressor and system as a function of
compressor inlet temperature Ta (pa = 7.7 MPa, N = 50000 rpm).
sensitive to changes in temperature, such as the change in compression
factor z in Fig. 16, which makes it necessary to pay attention to the off-
design behaviour of the system induced by climate change.
Owing to the role of the pre-cooler, compared to the design point, the
compressor inlet temperature may be lower in cold weather and higher
in hot weather. The off-design performance of the compressor and sys­
tem varies with the inlet temperature Ta of the compressor, as shown in
Fig. 17, where the inlet pressure pa and rotational speed N of the
compressor are both in the design state. As Ta increases from 304.15 to
310.15 K, the off-design mass flow rate of the system mod decreases,
which keeps the compressor in an efficient state all the time. However,
the reduction of the pressure ratio PRc from 2.48 to 1.57 results in a
decrease of 8.5% in the system thermal efficiency ηth. For the compressor
inlet temperature of 304.15 K, the off-design efficiency of the system is
27.35%, 2.95% higher than the design point, but only 18.88% at 310.15
K, 5.52% lower than the design point. It can be concluded with certainty
that the performance of the sCO2-BC operating in winter is higher than
that in summer, which means that the operating time of the sCO2-BC in
winter can be appropriately increased.
Fig. 18 depicts the off-design mass flow rate mod and pressure ratio
PRc of the system as a function of the compressor inlet conditions. The
increase in compressor inlet pressure augments the flow rate and PR of
the system at the same time, which appropriately compensates for the
undesirable phenomenon caused by the rise in compressor inlet tem­
perature. Therefore, a feasible way to solve the poor system performance
in summer is to increase the intake pressure of the compressor. Fig. 19
presents the off-design efficiency of compressor ηc and system ηth as a
function of compressor inlet temperature Ta and pressure pa. The high
84 10
303 305 307 309 311
Ta (K)
Fig. 19. Off-design efficiency of the compressor ηc and system ηth as a function
of inlet temperature and pressure of the compressor (N = 50000 rpm).
performance is defined as ηc and ηth higher than 86% and 25%,
respectively. Under the inlet pressure of 7.4 MPa, the Ta range corre­
sponding to the high ηc and high ηth is less than 0.5 K. Meanwhile, ηth
drops rapidly with the rise in Ta. With the implementation of a
compressor inlet pressure of 7.7 MPa, the Ta range of the high
compressor performance is increased to 1.5 K, simultaneously
improving the system overall performance and the Ta range for the high
ηth. The advantage obtained by increasing pa is more obvious at 8.0 MPa.
Compared with pa of 7.4 MPa, the maximum ηth improvement is 6.7%
and the high-performance Ta range is expanded to 4 K under the 8.0 MPa
working condition. Therefore, the increase in pa not only is conducive to
the improvement in the low performance of the sCO2-BC in summer but
also can expand the Ta range of high-performance operation of the
compressor and system.
Another approach to handle the poor system performance in summer
is to increase the compressor speed. This is because an increase in the
speed can enhance the compressor power, thereby increasing the cycle
PR and mass flow rate. When the compressor inlet pressure is main­
tained at 7.7 MPa, Fig. 20 plots the off-design efficiency of the
compressor ηc and system ηth as a function of the compressor inlet
temperature Ta and speed. During the increase in rotation speed from 50
to 60 krpm, the system performance corresponding to each inlet tem­
perature of the compressor steadily improved by approximately 4%.
Additionally, the high-performance area of the system was widened,

14
Y. Du et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 196 (2021) 117318

87.6 34 Comparing the geometric parameters of the sCO2-CC in the experi­

High-performance boundary ment, the deviation of the 1D design model was within 10%. Combining
50krpm the specific operating conditions of the two experimental cases, the
55krpm calculation error of the 1D analysis model at the impeller and diffuser
29
60krpm outlet was less than 5%. In addition, the 1D model can better capture the
86.7 trend of the experimental results and the maximal error does not exceed

(%)
(%)

12%. The verification suggests that the 1D model can be employed to

24 simulate the compressor performance of different geometric structures

th
c

with sufficient accuracy.

85.8
19
84.9 14
303 305 307 309 311
Ta (K)
Fig. 20. Off-design efficiency of the compressor ηc and system ηth as a function
of compressor speed (pa = 7.7 MPa).
while that of the compressor was narrowed.
In practice, however, when encountering some off-design phenom­
ena such as compressor inlet temperature and pressure fluctuations, it
may be necessary to adjust multiple parameters simultaneously. The
research results in this section can lay the foundation for actual opera­
tions. Moreover, owing to the properties of the closed-loop structure,
these strategies can help to improve the off-design behaviour of the sCO2
cycle used with various renewable energy sources.
5. Conclusions
This paper developed a set of 1D design and analysis models for the
sCO2-CC to help modelling compressors in the sCO2-BC and predicting
the system off-design performance. Aiming at the key geometric pa­
rameters, the optimisation design of the compressor was implemented in
combination with a GA. Moreover, the off-design performance of the
sCO2-BC resulting from climate change was evaluated, and appropriate
measures were proposed for the poor system performance.
The maximal system thermal efficiency of 24.40% was achieved
when the compressor isentropic efficiency was 86.5% with a head co­
efficient of 0.53. Hence, the sCO2-BC modelling method for a given
compressor isentropic efficiency, which ignores the influence of the
head coefficient, is not conducive to the preliminary design of the
compressor. Additionally, the system off-design efficiency of 27.35% at
the compressor inlet temperature of 304.15 K is higher than 18.88% at
310.15 K, which suggests that the operating time of the sCO2-BC should
be longer in winter than in summer. Two strategies can improve the poor
system performance of the summer by more than 25%: increasing the
compressor inlet pressure and increasing the speed. The former method
can also widen the high-efficiency range of the compressor inlet tem­
perature to 4 K. Taking into account the flexibility and operability of the
system, future research work can consider adjusting the turbine inlet
parameters, etc. to achieve a specific off-design state.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the National Natural Science Founda­
tion of China (Grant Nos. 51736001 and 52006010) and was undertaken
at the Turbomachinery Institute of Beijing Institute of Technology,
China.

Appendix A

The design point efficiency of turbomachinery as a function of the specific speed ns and specific diameter ds was compiled by Balje and used to
generate contour plots [62]. To make the calculation more efficient, an equation-based efficiency expressed as a function of the specific speed and
specific diameter was presented [46]. The function created for the single-stage centrifugal compressor and radial turbine is given by Eq. (A.1).
[ ]
(log10 ds − log10 dsc (ns ))2
η(ds , ns ) = ηmax (ns )exp − 2
(A.1)
ϑds (ns )
Note that the parameters corresponding to the logarithm of the specific diameter log10dsc, the height of the curve peak ηmax, and the width of the
curve ϑds are all functions of the specific speed. These three functions are piecewise functions and are expressed by Eqs. (A.2), (A.3), and (A.4) for a
single-stage compressor. Using a piecewise function not only ensures the high precision of the peak contour, but also guarantees a realistic value
outside of the contour range. The term x in all equations is log10(ns). The resulting efficiency contours of the centrifugal compressor based on the
specific speed and specific diameter are shown in Fig. A.1.
⎧
⎪ − 0.6433x + 0.7068, x < − 0.79
⎨
0.4890 − 0.4264x + 0.6387x2 − 0.6370x3
log10 dsc (ns ) = , − 0.79 < x < 1.4 (A.2)
⎪
⎩ − 0.2498x4 + 0.5800x5 − 0.1965x6
0.0764, x > 1.4
⎧
⎪ 1.289(3.265)x , x < − 0.68
⎨
0.8709 + 0.0146x − 0.3817x2 + 0.6176x3
ηmax (ns ) = , − 0.68 < x < 1.4 (A.3)
⎪
⎩ +0.1131x4 − 0.5645x5 + 0.2843x6
x
1.745(0.4144) , x > 1.4

15
Y. Du et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 196 (2021) 117318

10 = 0.85
= 0.8

ds
1 = 0.7
= 0.6
= 0.5

0.1
0.1 1 10
ns
Fig. A1. ns ds diagram for single-stage compressor.

= 0.8
10 = 0.9

= 0.6
ds

= 0.7

1
0.1 1
ns
Fig. A2. ns ds diagram for radial inflow turbine.

⎧
⎪ 0.1341, x < − 0.85
⎨
0.2516 + 0.3178x + 0.1485x2 − 0.5626x3
ϑds (ns ) = , − 0.85 < x < 1.2 (A.4)
⎪
⎩ − 0.1301x4 + 0.4288x5 − 0.1443x6
0.3306, x > 1.2
The process was repeated for the turbine. Eqs. (A.5), (A.6), and (A.7), and the resulting efficiency contours are shown in Fig. A.2.
⎧
⎪ − 0.6256x + 0.4760, x < − 1
⎨
0.3691 − 0.6296x − 0.3820x2 − 1.7349x3
log10 dsc (ns ) = , − 1 < x < 0.065 (A.5)
⎪
⎩ − 0.9919x4 + 1.0715x5 + 0.8134x6
− 0.7022x + 0.3718, x > 0.065
⎧
⎪ 1.436(2.349)x , x < − 0.8392
⎨
0.6955 − 1.4752x + 0.0529x2 + 21.3801x3
ηmax (ns ) = , − 0.8392 < x < 0.06 (A.6)
⎪ +56.9767x4 + 58.1086x5 + 20.8809x6
⎩
0.6865(0.1497)x , x > 0.06
⎧
⎪ 0.2299, x < − 0.85
⎨
0.1652 − 0.3987x − 4.9396x2 − 26.6755x3
ϑds (ns ) = 4 5 6 , − 0.85 < x < 1.2 (A.7)
⎩ − 58.8628x − 56.5442x − 19.7513x
⎪
0.1754, x > 1.2

Appendix B

Comparing the experimental data of the SNL sCO2-CC impeller and vaned diffuser outlet [39], the results and deviations (%) of the 1D model are
listed in Table B.1. Note that the experimental data of the outlet temperature of the impeller and part of the diffuser are not found, but the calculation
results of the 1D model are still given.

16
Y. Du et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 196 (2021) 117318

Table B1
Comparison of experimental and calculated results at the outlet of rotor and stator.
N m p01 T01 p2 (MPa) T2 (K) p04 (MPa) T04 (K)

rpm kg/s MPa K Exp Cal Dev Cal Exp Cal Dev Exp Cal Dev

10,000 0.454 7.676 305.5 7.676 7.730 0.70 305.74 7.979 7.759 − 2.76 – 305.87 –
20,000 0.711 7.676 305.5 7.854 7.929 0.95 306.62 8.069 8.067 − 0.02 – 307.21 –
28,000 1.134 7.676 305.5 8.211 8.141 − 0.85 307.52 8.533 8.410 − 1.44 – 308.62 –
39,000 1.451 7.711 305.6 8.568 8.679 1.30 309.54 9.282 9.257 − 0.27 – 311.67 –
49,000 1.816 7.854 306.3 9.425 9.373 − 0.55 312.31 10.639 10.323 − 2.97 – 315.58 –
55,000 2.043 7.890 306.4 9.996 9.825 − 1.71 313.73 11.353 11.074 − 2.46 – 317.75 –
56,000 2.088 7.926 306.6 10.104 9.915 − 1.87 314.18 11.496 11.208 − 2.51 – 318.35 –
60,000 2.225 7.997 306.9 10.211 10.292 0.79 315.44 12.139 11.812 − 2.69 – 320.16 –
64,900 2.406 8.211 307.9 10.853 10.878 0.23 317.06 12.924 12.687 − 1.83 – 323.09 –
64,384 2.860 8.286 308.71 10.670 10.460 − 1.97 317.73 11.940 11.965 0.21 323.82 322.91 − 0.28
29,888 1.315 7.920 306.78 8.264 8.400 1.65 308.92 8.568 8.676 1.26 310.09 310.08 0.00
59,584 2.609 8.224 308.33 10.260 10.136 − 1.21 316.22 112.28 114.29 1.79 321.64 320.73 − 0.28

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