Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:236

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7416-4

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Hydraulic parameters in the Neoproterozoic aquifer of Yaounde,

Cameroon
Jorelle Larissa Meli’i1 · Victoire Kouamegni Fangang1 · Béatrice Lengue Fobissie2 · William Teikeu Assatse1 ·
Zakari Arétouyap1 · Shey Jones Yembe3 · Philippe Njandjock Nouck1

Received: 13 August 2017 / Accepted: 12 March 2018

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract
In this paper, hydrological properties generally needed to improve all over the world the policy and then the sustainability of
groundwater resources are also presented in the Neoproterozoic terrane of Yaoundé Cameroon. For this purpose, data col‑
lected from 150 boreholes realized in the study area were analysed statistically. The transmissivity (T) and the specific flow
(Q/S) have been deduced from the pumping tests interpretation using the Jacob recovery method. The average transmissivity
is equal to 2.9 × 10−5 m2/s, and the specific flow is equal to 0.26 m2/s. Wells depth (D) in general ranges from 41 to 80 m
with an average of 57 m. The empirical relationship between T and Q/S is T = 0.0158(Q/S)1.01 with the determination coef‑
ficient R2 = 0.64. The weathered layer has a thickness (H) ranged from 2.6 to 63.3 m with an average of 16.8 m. Compared to
other areas of the crystalline basement, although in the middle of the equatorial forest, the mean specific flow and the mean
transmissivity in the Neoproterozoic terrane of Yaoundé represent barely half values. Those parameters are of paramount
importance in the groundwater management policy.

Keywords Groundwater · Neoproterozoic · Hydraulic properties · Transmissivity · Specific flow

Introduction hydrology and meteorology (Tanawa et al. 2002). In par‑

ticular, transmissivity and specific flow are among key
Because of its abundance in terms of freshwater, ground‑ parameters required in a groundwater management plan‑
water is the main source used for many households, busi‑ ning (De Marsily 1994; Gingerich 1999; Meier et al. 1999;
nesses, agricultural firms and drinking water in Yaoundé Jordan 2013). Hence, both parameters are mostly inves‑
area (Tanawa et al. 2002; Teikeu Assatse et al. 2012). In tigated and linked through an empirical relationship in
addition to this probable abundance and its better spa‑ Africa and elsewhere. Using the pumping test technique
tial distribution, this resource also has the advantage of and the Jacob’s method, different empirical relationships
being of relatively better quality and less sensitive to the between T and Q/S have been proposed in fractured aqui‑
impacts of climate change (Dewandel et al. 2006; BGR fers. In the broken crystalline and metamorphic aquifers
2008; Kouadio et al. 2010; Arétouyap et al. 2014; Teikeu of the Man–Danane region in the west of Côte d’Ivoire,
Assatse et al. 2015). The exploitation of this resource is Razack and Lasm (2006) proposed for 118 pairs of param‑
particularly widespread in developing countries, with eters (T and Q/S), T = 0.89 (Q/S)1.30 with a determination
regional proportions mainly depending on local geology, coefficient of R2 = 0.88. In the Afram plains in the south
of the volta basin in Ghana, Acheampong and Hess (1998)
using 28 pairs of transmissivity and specific throughput
* Philippe Njandjock Nouck data found T = 20 (Q/S) 1.02 with R 2 = 0.69. In the same
pnnouck@yahoo.com region, Yidana et al. (2007) obtained T = 0.769 (Q/S)1.075
1 with R2 = 0.83. Blessy (2013) in the Charlevoix region of
Department of Physics, University of Yaounde I,
Ngoa‑Ekelle, P.O. Box 812, Yaounde, Cameroon Quebec, using 103 data pairs of T and Q/S established
2 that T = 1.3858 (Q/S)1.0676. These different empirical rela‑
Department of Geography, University of Dschang, Dschang,
Cameroon tionships vary for different hydrogeological parameters. It
3 can also be seen that those expressions are also different
Department of Geotechnics, Labogénie, Yaounde, Cameroon

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236 Page 2 of 9
in similar geological environments. Anything indicating
that they are actually site specific (Biémi 1992; Razack
and Lasm 2006). The geological context of the Neoprote‑
rozoic is primarily concerned. It extends from Africa to
Latin America, covering more than 90 countries with a
population of more than 800 million. It is therefore very
important to develop an effective and sustainable manage‑
ment policy for Neoproterozoic aquifer in order to improve
the accuracy in their detection, productivity and longevity
of their exploitation. This policy requires the mastery of
the hydrodynamic properties of these underground reser‑
voirs, namely transmissivity and permeability. Those two
parameters are essential to characterize an aquifer. The
third important parameter is the specific flow, which has
the advantage of being measured easily. The main objec‑
tive of this study is organized as follows:
• to evaluate the properties of the hydraulic parameters of
the Neoproterozoic aquifer of Yaoundé from the pumping
tests interpretation using the Jacob recovery method;
• to establish a significant empirical relationship between
T and Q/S.
This operation will provide the basis for future model‑
ling of this aquifer for optimal management.
Fig. 1  Geological map of the study area (Champetier De Ribes and Aubargue 1956)
13
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:236
Material and methodology
Study area
Yaounde is located in the centre of Cameroon, between lati‑
tudes 3° and 5°N and longitudes 11° and 13°E (Figs. 1, 2).
It covers about 800 km2 on a Neoproterozoic basement. The
main geological formations observed in this Neoproterozoic
terrane are gneisses and migmatites (Champetier De Ribes
and Aubargue 1956; Nzenti and Tchoua 1996). Dark rich
garnet and pyroxene meta-plutonic rocks are also present
in the region. Nzenti et al. (1988) conducted the structural
survey and then suggested that the study area has undergone
three phases of ductile deformation, mainly corresponding to
E–W to NW–SE compressions (D1 and D3) alternating with
a N–S to NE–SW extensive phase (D2). Figures 1, 3, 4 and 6
show that the Yaoundé zone is made up of flat valleys and low
swampy in a granito-gneissic and migmatitic zone, bounded
by the mountainous massifs to the east, at west, in the north
with an outlet to the south. Its hydrographic network is arbo‑
rescent as shown in Fig. 3. The aquifer usually consists of two
superimposed reservoirs: one in the superficial weathered and
the other in the less deep fractures of the granito-gneissic and
migmatitic formations. The two superimposed reservoirs are
generally separated by a very resistant layer sometimes made
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:236
Fig. 2  Location map of the 150 wells in Yaoundé area (Teikeu Assatse et al. 2016, modified)
up of clays or by the fresh granito-gneissic and migmatitic for‑
mations (Djeuda-Chapnga 1999, Teikeu Assatse et al. 2012,
2016). In addition, these works show that the second reservoir
unconformly lies on a fresh granito-gneissic and migmatitic
basement. On this basis, it is reasonable to assume that the
studied aquifer is confined. The local climate is Guinean and
made of two rainy and two dry seasons as summarized in
Fig. 5, presenting trend of mean annual rainfall (R), tempera‑
ture (Tp) and evaporation (ETP) within the study area. The
groundwater potential of the area is important (Figs. 3, 6) due
to the lineaments extent observed (Teikeu Assatse et al. 2016).
Data
The database used in the present work was collected during
the hydrogeophysical campaign carried out in the region of
Yaounde between May and November 2014. It consists of 150
measurement points (electrical sounding, well with pumping
test) whose location is presented in Fig. 2. All boreholes have
diameters between 20 and 40 cm, equipped on all the depth
drilled with pipes in vinyl polychloride. The total depth of
Page 3 of 9 236
the boreholes was determined by electrical sounding and by
drilling. In both cases, the depth of the last water inlet was
sought in the vicinity of the impermeable basement. By drill‑
ing, the total depth of the boreholes corresponds to the depth
at which the last water intake was detected. In some cases,
the boreholes were continued 200 m lower in the basement
rock after the last water intake was detected. The aim of this
practice was not only to increase the volume of the reservoir
but also to test the possibility of detecting other water intakes.
By electrical sounding, the substratum was considered to be a
very deep and resistive layer, whose resistivity increases con‑
tinuously with depth. The combination of the two approaches
made it possible to determine the substratum as well as the
total depth of the aquifer. Even if some of them have depths of
360 m, all those boreholes, in general, are 41–80 m deep with
almost total penetration into the aquifer. After completion of
the well, the pumping tests are carried out by three chained
bearings lasting 5 h. The ascent data are used, monitored for
1 h. Withdrawn measurements are conducted directly from
pumping tests. In addition, all pumping tests were assembled
and properly interpreted.
13
236 Page 4 of 9 Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:236

Fig. 3  Drainage network of

Yaoundé area (Teikeu Assatse
et al. 2016, modified)

Fig. 4  Elevation map of

Yaoundé area (Teikeu Assatse
et al. 2016, modified)

13
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:236 Page 5 of 9 236

P (mm) the hydraulic parameters of aquifer, especially transmissiv‑

ETP (mm) P (mm) ETP (mm) Tp (°C) Tp (°C)
ity and specific flow. The transmissivity of the aquifer can be
300 26
assessed both by drawdown and upwelling data. In the first
250
case, the water level is disturbed at the level of the strainers.
25 The value of transmissivity would be tainted by errors due to
200 uncertainties in measurements caused by quadratic pressure
drops (Lasm 2000). In other words, during the drawdown, the
150 24
dynamic level in the well represents poorly the charge in the
100
water table in the vicinity of the well. In this case, the trans‑
23 missivity values obtained are overestimated or underestimated.
50 In the second case, all these phenomena are cancelled, and
one really observes the level of the well, which allows a good
0 22
interpretation. The obtained T value is much more reliable
Month (uninfluenced regime). Therefore, we used the upwelling data
to determine this parameter. This approach has been recom‑
Fig. 5  Trend of mean annual [rainfall (P), temperature (Tp) and evap‑ mended by different authors in such circumstances (Detay
oration (ETP)] within the Yaoundé area. (Teikeu Assatse et al. 2016, 1993; De Marsily 1994; Lasm 2000; Razack and Lasm 2006;
modified) Soro et al. 2010), because it reduces the effect of pressure
drops. The values of the hydraulic parameters are often deter‑
mined during pumping test, in particular in the context of agri‑
Pumping test cultural drilling or intended for the supply of drinking water.
In this study, the calculation of the transmissivity T and the
The interpretation of these pumping tests is based on the tran‑ storage coefficient S0 is based on the logarithmic approxima‑
sient hydrodynamic expressions of Theis (1935) and Jacob tion equation of Jacob (1947). The drawdown S is expressed
(1947). The purpose of this interpretation is to determine as a function of time t (Eq. 1). In this equation, a and b are the

Fig. 6  Lineament and hydro‑

geological map of Yaoundé area
(Teikeu Assatse et al. 2016)

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236 Page 6 of 9 Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:236

constants and x, the distance between the pumping well and
the observation piezometer expressed in Eqs. (2) and (3). T is
deduced from the slope of the graph (Eq. 2) and S0 from Eq. 3
(Kruseman et al. 1974; Kruseman and De Ridder 1991).
S = a(Lnt + Lnb) (1)
0.183 Q
With a = (2)
T
2.25 T
and b =
x 2 S0 (3)
Chi‑square test
The Chi-square conformity test is a statistical test to verify
the adequacy between a series of data and a family of prob‑
ability laws or to test the independence between two random
variables. It aims to evaluate the discrepancies between theo‑
retical and empirical values on precise observations. In the
present work, this test is used to compare the frequencies
of transmissivities and specific flows in order to establish a
relationship between those two parameters. It was also used
to determine whether the distribution of data is consistent.
In this study, the data were analysed using the XLSTAT,
Microsoft Excel softwares and some old hand methods.
Results and discussion
This section presents the different results from the process‑
ing and analysis of drilling parameters. These are the water
inflow depth (d), weathered thickness (H), static level (the
piezometric level not subjected to pumping SL), total depth
(D) of the local borehole, the flow Q, the transmissivity T,
the storage ­S0 and the specific flow rate Q/S. The section also
analyses the spatial distribution of these parameters and their
influence on local aquifer. Table 1 shows that the thickness
of the weathered (H) varies from 2.6 to 63.3 m, the depth
of first water inflow from 1 m to 61 m, the total depth (D)
of aquifer between 41 and 80 m, the static level (SL) from
0.5 to 30.8 m. Also, Q varies between 0.2 and 12.0 m3/h, T
between 4.83 × 10−7 to 4.70 × 10−4 m2/s and Q/S between
0.02 m2/h to 2.03 m2/h. Table 2 shows that, in this Neo‑
proterozoic zone, the transmissivity (T) can be divided into
three weak classes, respectively, varying from 1­ 0−7 to ­10−5
in 93 wells, ­10−5 to ­10−4 in 54 wells and more than ­10−4 in
only 3 wells. Using the Chi-square conformity test, the result
of Table 3 shows that the adjustment to the lognormal law
satisfies the significance level of 5%. The degree of free‑
dom (Dof) found is 17. This value indicates the number of
random variables that cannot be determined or fixed by an
equation. The raw values of the transmissivity and the spe‑
cific flow rate were transformed into Log. The p values are
greater than 5%. They reflect the risk of making a mistake
by declaring that there is a significant difference between the
transmissivity and the specific flow rates. In Fig. 7, the val‑
ues of transmissivity (T) and specific flow rate (Q/S), using
the logarithmic approximation formula of Jacob in which the
drawdown is plotted as a function of time, are presented. The
field operation is conducted with a flow Q = 1.6 m3/h located
5 m from a piezometer. According to Eqs. (4), (5), (6), (7),
(8) and from the graph of Fig. 8,
the slope a = 112.6 (4)
and a ∗ Ln(b) = −492.8 (5)
Assuming that x = 5 m, the average transmissivity T, the stor‑
age coefficient S0 and the specific rate (Q/S) are deduced
from Eqs. 4 and 5, and expressed, respectively, by Eqs. (6),
(7) and (8) as follows:
T = 2.9 × 10−5 m2 s (6)
/
S0 = 0.02% (7)
Q∕ S = 0.26 m2 h (8)
/
This relatively high value of the specific flow and the uni‑
formity of the aquifer on such a huge area can be explained
mainly by the tectonic background of the region. In fact,
Teikeu Assatse et al. (2016) highlighted the presence of a

Table 1  Statistics of drilling Parameters Min Max Average Standard deviation Coefficient of
parameters variation (%)

H (m) 2.6 63.3 16.8 15.9 94.8

d (m) 1 61 32 12 38
D (m) 41 360 57 14 25
Static level (SL:m) 0.5 30.8 13.4 6.5 48.2
S (m) 1.4 350 11.6 10.1 87.0
Q ­(m3/h) 0.2 12.0 1.6 1.9 122.3
T ­(m2/s) 4.83 × 10−7 4.70 × 10−4 2.89 × 10−5 7.02 × 10−5 243.43
Q/S ­(m2/h) 0.02 2.03 0.26 0.44 166.26

13
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:236 Page 7 of 9 236

Table 2  Classification of Class of t ­(m2/s) Number of Minimum Maximum Mean Standard deviation
transmissivities (T) in the city wells
of Yaoundé
10−7 ≤ T ≤ 10−5 93 4.83 × 10−7 7.58 × 10−6 4.24 × 10−6 2.26 × 10−6
10−5 < T ≤ 10−4 54 1.11 × 10−5 1.86 × 10−5 3.01 × 10−5 2.04 × 10−5
T > 10−4 3 1.1 × 10−4 4.7 × 10−4 3.01 × 10−4 2.55 × 10−4

Table 3  Chi-square test results Law of distribution Parameters C2 (computed) C2 (theoretical) Dof Threshold ɑ p value

Lognormal Log (Q/S) 42.51 27.59 17 0.05 0.07

Lognormal Log T 49.63 27.5 17 0.05 0.69

Fig. 7  The graph of drawdown

versus time (hour) used to deter‑
mine transmissivity and specific
flow

very dense lineaments network in the region (Fig. 6). From in ­m2/s, the specific flow rate has not been corrected from
Fig. 8, the empirical relationship between T and Q/S is the pressure losses, A = 0.0158, and Z = 1.01. The coefficient
T = A(Q/S)Z = 0.0158(Q/S)1.01 with the determination coef‑ of determination means that 64% of the transmissivity val‑
ficient R2 = 0.64. In this equation, T and Q/S are expressed ues in the study area are related to specific flow rates. The
relationship between T and Q/S in this study differs consid‑
0 erably from those obtained by Razack and Lasm (2006),
R² = 0,6444 Blessy (2013). All of which confirms that the relationships
-1 between T and Q/S vary from site to site and are therefore
site specific. The regression parameter obtained in this study
-2
is A = 0.0158. It does not belong to the range 0.9–1.52 of
Log T (m2/s)

-3 the theoretical values (Soro et al. 2010). This relatively low

value of A can be specific to the study area and confirms
-4
that in the whole sector, the transmissivity is generally
-5
low. The regression slope of the power relationship found
(Z = 1.01) is very close to that of the discontinuous aquifers
-6 of the Volta basin in Ghana (Z = 1.075) (Yidana et al. 2008),
crystalline and metamorphic aquifers fractured (Z = 1.30)
-7
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 (Razack and Lasm 2006) and fractured rock aquifers in Que‑
Log(Q/S) (m2/s) bec (Z = 1.067). This could reflect similarities in the behav‑
iour of these aquifers. On the other hand, it is higher than
Fig. 8  The graph of LogT versus Log(Q/S) those of the volcanic aquifers of the Republic of Djibouti

13
236 Page 8 of 9
(Z = 0.938) and the volcanic aquifers of Jeju Island in South
Korea (Z = 0.89) (Jalludin and Razack 2004; Hamm et al.
2005). Compared to other areas of the crystalline basement
(Soro et al. 2010), although in the middle of the equatorial
forest (with precipitation varying between 17 and 275 mm
per year according to Fig. 5), water flows and mean trans‑
missivities in the Neoproterozoic terrane of Yaoundé rep‑
resent barely half values. It is proved that low or different
slopes of the unit could be due to the correlation between
Q/S and well field.
Conclusion
The study of 150 boreholes in the Neoproterozoic terrane
of the Yaoundé region has led to various results. The total
drilling depth varies in general from 41 to 80 m with an
average of 57.2 m. The thickness of the weathered layer
is between 2.6 and 63.3 m with an average of 16.8 m. The
water inflow corresponding to the hydraulically active
depths has an average of 32.44 m, with extremes ranging
from 1 to 61 m. The static level in the boreholes varies
from 0.5 to 30.8 m with an average of 13.4 m. The loga‑
rithmic approximation formula of Jacob is used with a flow
Q = 1.6 m3/h located 5 m from a piezometer in order to
determine the average transmissivity T and the specific
rate. The average transmissivity is equal to 2.9 × 10−5 m2/s,
while the specific flow is equal to 0.26 m2/h. Compared
to other areas of the crystalline basement, although in
the middle of the equatorial forest, water flows and mean
transmissivity in the Neoproterozoic terrane of Yaoundé
represent barely half values. The empirical relationship
between T and Q/S is T = 0.0158(Q/S)1.01 with the deter‑
mination coefficient R2 = 0.64. If the value of Z = 1.01 is
close to those generally known elsewhere, this is not the
case for that of A = 0.0158 which seems specific to the
study area. Those parameters may enhance groundwater
management policy in the Neoproterozoic terrane.
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