Modern Physics

VI
MODERN PHYSICS
10 Dual Nature of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
10.1 Young’s Double Slit Experiment
10.2 Black Body Radiation
10.3 It’s all Connected!
10.4 Rise of the Quanta!
10.5 De Broglie Hypothesis: The Wave-Particle Duality
11 Atomic Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

11.1 Unveiling the Subatomic Universe: Atoms
11.2 The Early Atomic Models
11.3 The Groundbreaking α Particle Scattering Experi-
ment
11.4 Bohr’s Model of the Atom and His Postulates
12 The Atomic Nuclei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443

12.1 Nuclear Properties
12.2 Radioactivity and Radioactive Decay
12.3 Law of Radioactivity
13 Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
13.1 Introduction to Semiconductors
13.2 Semiconductors
13.3 The Enchanting Dance of the Silicon Crystal
13.4 Intrinsic Semiconductors
13.5 Extrinsic Semiconductors
13.6 Diodes
13.7 Unbiased Diode
13.8 Biasing of p-n Junction Diode
13.9 Barrier Potential and Temperature
13.10 Diode Breakdown
13.11 Current through a Diode
13.12 Transistors
13.13 Optoelectronic Devices
14 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
14.1 Exercise: Microspocic Physics
14.2 Exercises: Semiconductors
14.3 Previous Year Questions
10. Dual Nature of Matter
Quantum mechanics, a cornerstone of modern physics, emerged from the study of the minuscule
and the exploration of light’s wave-particle duality. At the turn of the 20th century, classical physics
seemed complete, explaining mechanics, thermodynamics and electrodynamics. However, new
experimental results brought forth questions that classical physics couldn’t answer, leading to the
birth of quantum mechanics.
The long-standing debate over the wave and particle nature of light was resolved with the concept
of wave-particle duality, suggesting that particles like electrons and photons could display both
wave-like and particle-like behaviors. This idea was supported by experiments such as the double-slit
experiment, which showed interference patterns with particles, challenging classical concepts.
Quantum mechanics took a leap forward with Max Planck’s introduction of quantization of energy
in 1900. He proposed that energy is emitted or absorbed in discrete units called quanta, introducing
the fundamental constant, Planck’s constant, to describe black-body radiation.
Albert Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect in 1905 further solidified the quantum
nature of light. He introduced the concept of photons, discrete packets of energy, which successfully
explained the ejection of electrons from materials when struck by light.
412 Chapter 10. Dual Nature of Matter
In 1927, Werner Heisenberg formulated the uncertainty principle, which states that we cannot
precisely know both the position and momentum of a particle simultaneously. This principle
introduced fundamental limitations to our ability to measure and predict the behavior of particles at
the quantum level.
Quantum mechanics revolutionized our understanding of the microscopic world, challenging classi-
cal determinism and opening up new frontiers in science and technology. It remains a fascinating
and active area of research, offering exciting possibilities for future discoveries and advancements.
10.1 Young’s Double Slit Experiment
Young’s Double Slit Experiment played a crucial role in unveiling the wave-particle duality of
light, challenging the traditional understanding of light as a purely particle-like entity. When light
passes through two closely spaced slits, it creates an interference pattern on a screen behind the
slits, indicating its wave-like behavior. This phenomenon cannot be explained by classical particle
dynamics.
When light passes through a single slit, it forms a diffraction pattern, which suggests its wave-like
nature. However, when two slits are open, the resulting interference pattern occurs, indicating that
light waves can interfere with each other constructively or destructively.
This behavior can be easily understood using Huygens’s wave principle, which explains the con-
structive and destructive addition of waves with different phases. The interference pattern arises
from the superposition of waves emanating from the two slits.
The experiment played a significant role in the development of quantum mechanics and helped
establish that light, as well as other particles like electrons, could exhibit both wave-like and
particle-like characteristics, depending on the experimental setup. It laid the groundwork for further
exploration of the quantum realm and challenged the classical deterministic view of the universe.
A
10.2 Black Body Radiation 413
y
3
m“`
2
m “ `1
1
m“`
2
xIy
1
m“´
2
m “ ´1
3
m“´
2
P
r1
r1
y
r2
a a r2
a sin θ
a sin θ 1
L
10.2 Black Body Radiation

Black body radiation is a fundamental concept in physics that refers to the emission and absorption
of electromagnetic radiation by an idealized object known as a black body. A black body is a
theoretical object that absorbs all incident radiation and emits radiation at all wavelengths when at
thermal equilibrium. It serves as a useful model for understanding the behavior of real objects, even
though perfect black bodies do not exist in nature.
In the 19th century, scientists Balfour Stewart and Gustav Kirchhoff independently studied the
emission and absorption of radiation by different types of bodies. They discovered that black bodies
are perfect absorbers and emitters of radiation, maintaining thermal equilibrium. When they heated
diluted gases to high temperatures, they observed characteristic spectral lines in the emitted radiation,
similar to the absorption lines seen in the Hydrogen spectrum. This led them to speculate that any
object emits radiation at the same frequencies it absorbs.
Color of the metal versus the temperature
As an example, consider a metal box in a dark room. Even at room temperature, it continuously
emits infrared radiation, which is not visible to the human eye. However, as the temperature of
the metal box increases, the frequency of the emitted radiation rises. At higher temperatures, the
radiation begins to enter the visible spectrum, first as red light, then progressing through shades of
orange and yellow as the temperature further increases.
The concept of black body radiation simplifies when the energy spectra at various temperatures
are plotted. Researchers found that black body radiation is solely dependent on the temperature,
regardless of the shape or materials of the cavity. This observation led to the development of Wien’s
displacement law, which states that the product of the peak wavelength of black body radiation
and its temperature is a constant value, approximately equal to 2.898 ˆ 10´3 . This law provides
valuable insights into the behavior of black body radiation and its temperature dependence.
Find the Formula!
After analyzing the spectrum of black body radiation, Wilhelm Wien attempted to derive an empirical
relation for the energy density versus the frequency of light absorbed or emitted. The equation
ν
´β
proposed by him was of the form upν, T q “ αν e 3 T , where α and β are constants. While this
equation accurately described the short-wavelength (high-frequency) spectrum of thermal emission
from objects, it failed to fit the experimental data for long wavelengths (low frequency) emission.
12
10
0
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20
x
´
Graph of x3 e 2 , similar to the relation between Energy density and Frequency in Wein’s Energy
Distribution formula
Further developments by Lord Rayleigh and Sir James Jeans introduced an important concept from
Classical Mechanics called standing waves into the analysis. They focused on finding the number of
nodes on a small frequency range, between ν and ν ` ∆ν, in a standing wave. The number of nodes,
denoted by N, was found to be given by:
8πν 2
N“
c3
where c is the speed of light in vacuum.

Although their approach to find the number of nodes was accurate, their mistake came in calculating
the average energy density of each node, which they estimated to be Uavg “ kT , with k as the
Boltzmann constant. This led to the formulation of the Rayleigh-Jeans law:
8πν 2 kT
Upν, T q “
c3
where U represents the spectral emissive energy between frequencies ν and ν ` ∆ν per unit area, for
a given temperature T . The Boltzmann constant k and the speed of light in vacuum c play important
roles in this equation.
However, it is crucial to note that the Rayleigh-Jeans law accurately describes the long-wavelength
region of the black body spectrum, but it fails to match experimental data for short wavelengths. This
discrepancy between theory and observation at shorter wavelengths became known as the ultraviolet
catastrophe. A more accurate description of black body radiation required the development of
quantum mechanics, which ultimately led to Max Planck’s revolutionary concept of quantization
and the birth of quantum theory.
12
10
0
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20
Graph of x2 {20, similar to the relation between

Energy density and Frequency in Rayleigh Jean’s law
A Catastrophe!
According to the Rayleigh-Jeans Law, the energy density of an ideal black body at thermal equi-
librium was expected to be proportional to the square of the frequency, suggesting that it would
emit radiation in all frequency ranges, with higher frequencies contributing more energy. However,
this seemingly reasonable prediction led to a serious problem. When the total amount of radiated
energy was calculated by summing up emissions in all frequency ranges, the result turned out to be
an infinite value! This was quite alarming and earned the name Ultraviolet catastrophe as it diverged
significantly from empirical observations at higher frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum,
particularly in the ultraviolet region.
Planck to the Rescue!

Enter Max Planck, a brilliant physicist with a deep understanding of thermodynamics and a keen
mind for problem-solving. While some accounts portray Planck’s work as a response to a failure of
classical physics, the truth is more fascinating. It all began when Wien’s empirical formula, Wien’s
law, was proposed to explain the observed black-body radiation spectrum. Though successful at
lower frequencies, it lacked a solid theoretical foundation, making it unsatisfactory to Planck.
Drawing inspiration from Boltzmann’s kinetic theory of gases, Planck set out to derive a theoretical
proof for Wien’s law, but he had to make some unconventional assumptions. In his approach, he
introduced the revolutionary notion of energy quanta, a fundamental concept in the birth of quantum
theory. Rather than relying solely on mechanics or electrodynamics, Planck introduced the idea of
energy being quantized at the elementary level, an insight that proved to be the key to unlocking the
mystery of black-body radiation.
T “ 3000rKs
T “ 4000rKs
T “ 5000rKs
Energy Density
T “ 6000rKs
Frequency
Family of energy density distribution curves versus frequency for different temperatures of
black-body radiation described by Planck’s Law
To find the average energy of each oscillator, Planck realized that energy could not be continuously
exchanged but had to occur in discrete elements. This principle became one of the foundational
pillars of quantum mechanics. Planck cleverly combined the heuristic formulas proposed by Wien
and Rayleigh and Jeans for short and long wavelengths, respectively. The result of his inspired work
was a stunning expression for the average energy of a mode of frequency ν:
hν
Uavg “
ehν{kT ´1
Multiplying this by the number of nodes of vibration of the harmonic oscillator, Planck arrived at
the Planck distribution in terms of the energy density of radiation per unit frequency interval:
8πhν 3 1
Upν, T q “
c3 ehν{kT ´ 1
where Upν, T q represents the energy density of radiation contained in a small frequency interval
between ν and ν ` △ν, for a temperature T . Here, h denotes Planck’s constant, with a value
of 6.626 ˆ 10´34 J/Hz, c is the speed of light in vacuum and k is the Boltzmann constant. This
expression, known as Planck’s Law, precisely describes the spectral energy distribution of black-
body radiation and effectively resolved the Ultraviolet catastrophe.
10.3 It’s all Connected!
Back to Wien’s and Rayleigh-Jean’s Law
As we dive deeper into the fascinating world of black-body radiation, we find that the laws proposed
by Wien and Rayleigh-Jeans are intimately connected with Planck’s Law, which emerged as the
ultimate solution to the long-standing problem of the black-body spectrum.
At very high frequencies, corresponding to extremely hot temperatures, the exponential term in
Planck’s Law dominates and we can approximate ehν{kT " 1. This simplification leads to
ehν{kT ´ 1 « ehν{kT
giving us an insightful result for the average energy distribution:
8πhν 3 ´hν{kT
Uavg « e “ αν 3 e´β ν
c3
On the other hand, for lower frequencies, or in the case of lower temperatures, we can expand the
10.3 It’s all Connected! 419
hν
exponential term in Planck’s Law for small values of . This expansion allows us to approximate
kT
hν
ehν{kT « 1 `
kT
and subsequently,
hν
ehν{kT ´ 1 «
kT
Consequently, the average energy distribution becomes:
hν hν
Uavg « « “ kT
ehν{kT ´1 hν
kT
Remarkably, in this classical limit, we retrieve the familiar expression for the average energy of
a harmonic oscillator in thermal equilibrium, which is simply Uavg “ kT . Thus, the total energy
density, obtained by integrating over all frequencies, matches precisely with the Rayleigh-Jeans Law
and results in
8πν 2 kT
Utotal “
c3
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
In the realm of empirical observations, the Stefan-Boltzmann Law arises, stating that the intensity
of radiant energy emitted per unit area by a hot body is directly proportional to the fourth power of
its temperature, mathematically expressed as I “ σ T 4 . Now, let us explore how this law emerges
from the quantum theory of black-body radiation.
By integrating Planck’s spectrum over all wavelengths, we can ascertain the dependence of the total
energy density of radiation on temperature:
8πhν 3 1
Upν, T q “
c3 ehν{kT ´ 1
To determine the intensity, we integrate Upν, T q over all frequencies:
ν3
ż8 ż8
8πh
I9 Upν, T q Bν “ Bν
0 c3 0 ehν{kT ´ 1
hν h
Let us perform a change of variables to simplify the integral. We set x “ and Bx “ Bν. The
kT kT
integral now takes the form:
8πh kT 4 8 x3
ˆ ˙ ż
I9 3 x
Bx
c h 0 e ´1
The integral term on the right-hand side is a constant, denoted as σ , known as the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant. It holds a value of
2π 5 k4
σ“ « 5.67 ˆ 10´8 W/m2 K4
15c2 h3
Consequently, we find that the intensity is proportional to T 4 , which precisely aligns with the
Stefan-Boltzmann Law. This elegant connection further provides us with a derivation of the value of
the Stefan-Boltzmann constant in terms of fundamental constants: σ “ 5.67 ˆ 10´8 W/m2 K4 .
10.4 Rise of the Quanta!
The groundbreaking work of Max Planck in 1900 revolutionized our understanding of light emis-
sion. He proposed that light with frequency ν is emitted in discrete packets of energy known as
quanta. Each quantum carries an amount of energy given by E “ hν, where h is Planck’s constant.
Initially, Planck believed that this quantization was solely related to the emission process and not
an inherent property of light itself. However, it was Albert Einstein, in 1905, who recognized that
the quantization was indeed a fundamental characteristic of light. These quantized packets of light
energy were later referred to as photons, paving the way for the development of quantum mechanics.
The understanding of this quantization arose from Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect, a
phenomenon where light waves incident on a metal surface cause the emission of electrons. This
effect was observed to be dependent on the wavelength of light, leading Einstein to link it to Planck’s
idea of energy quanta. He postulated that light delivers its energy to an absorber in discrete quanta
with energy hν. Consequently, if it requires an amount of threshold energy φ to liberate an electron
from the surface, the residual kinetic energy K of the ejected electron is given by K “ hν ´ φ .
The photoelectric effect’s critical observation was the correlation between the cutoff voltage and
the light’s wavelength. Albert Einstein, then working as a patent examiner at the Swiss Patent
Office in 1905, connected this effect to Planck’s notion of energy quanta. He suggested that light
indeed imparts its energy in discrete packets, now known as photons, to the material. If the photon’s
10.4 Rise of the Quanta! 421
Light Source
Light
´ P
C
´
I
Photocell
In the photoelectric effect, light waves hitting a metal surface cause electrons to be ejected.
energy exceeds the material’s threshold energy φ , an electron is released with residual kinetic energy
K “ hν ´ φ .
The discovery of photons and the comprehension of light’s quantized behavior marked a pivotal
moment in the development of quantum mechanics. This realization challenged classical notions of
continuous wave behavior and laid the foundation for a new era in physics, fundamentally altering
our understanding of the nature of light and matter.
Photocurrent
In the fascinating realm of the photoelectric effect, a crucial experimental setup involves a vacuum
tube housing two metal plates: the cathode and the anode. The cathode, also known as the emitter,
plays a pivotal role. When illuminated by light rays from a source, the cathode emits electrons,
which liberate themselves from the surface of this metal plate and travel towards the anode (plate A).
The process of electron emission leads to the establishment of a current in the circuit, aptly named
the photoelectric current.
However, one intriguing aspect arises during this journey of electrons. As they traverse from the
cathode to the anode, they create a charge within the vacuum of the tube known as the space charge.
Experimental setup for the photoelectric effect.
This space charge, in turn, exerts a repulsive force on the electrons emanating from the cathode,
which poses a unique challenge. To address this quandary, a potential difference is applied to
the anode plate, making it positively charged. This positively charged anode assists the escaping
electrons from the cathode, allowing them to overcome the repulsive force of the space charge.
Consequently, the photocurrent increases. By varying the potential applied to the anode, we can
observe the variation of photocurrent, which can be depicted as follows:
As the potential on the anode continues to increase, a fascinating phenomenon emerges. At a
particular point, the effects of the space charge become negligible and any electron released from
the cathode can effortlessly reach the anode. This condition marks the onset of saturation current,
characterized by a constant current. The segment labeled bc in the plot above represents the region
of the saturation current. A remarkable interplay of physical forces indeed!
Stopping Potential
As we investigate the behavior of photoelectrons emitted from a metal surface, we observe a

remarkable phenomenon known as the stopping potential. When the anode plate’s potential is made
negative, it repels the electrons departing from the cathode plate. As we gradually increase this
negative potential, there comes a point where the electrons can no longer reach the anode plate A.
At this critical potential, the photocurrent becomes zero and we identify it as the stopping potential.
Variation of photocurrent with respect to the potential applied to the anode.
Let’s consider the situation when the fastest electron just fails to reach the anode plate, which
corresponds to the minimum potential of the anode plate. At this moment, the kinetic energy of the
emitted electrons becomes zero. According to the Work-Energy theorem, we can express this as:
KEmax “ Welectron
Since W “ q∆V , we can write:

KEmax “ eV˝
Here, V˝ represents the stopping potential. Combining this with Einstein’s photoelectric equation,
we obtain:
hc
KEmax “ eV˝ “ ´φ
λ
Rearranging the equation, we find:

ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
hc 1 φ
V˝ “ ´
e λ e
It’s important to note that the stopping potential depends on both the frequency of incident light and
the work function of the metal. However, regardless of the light’s intensity incident on the metal,
the stopping potential remains constant for a given metal and wavelength of light. The graph below
illustrates the relationship between the stopping potential and the frequency of light incident on a
metal’s surface:
As evident from the graph, the stopping potential V˝ and consequently the maximum photoelectron
energy, varies with the frequency of the incident light. When the retarding potential is V “ 0, the
photoelectron current remains the same for light of a given intensity, regardless of its frequency. To
further visualize this relationship, consider the following graph:
The stopping potential V˝ and hence the maximum photoelectron energy, depends on the frequency of the light. When the
retarding potential is V “ 0, the photoelectron current is the same for light of a given intensity regardless of its frequency.
As depicted, the photoelectron current is proportional to the light intensity I for all retarding
voltages. Remarkably, the stopping potential V˝ , which corresponds to the maximum photoelectron
energy, remains constant for all intensities of light having the same frequency f . To understand this
phenomenon better, consider the graph below:
The reason for the constant stopping potential is that a larger number of photons strike the metal
surface when the light intensity I is increased. Consequently, there are more photon-electron
collisions per unit area and unit time on the metal surface.
Hence, the stopping potential and photoelectron energy are uniquely determined by the frequency of
incident light, while the light intensity plays a secondary role in the phenomenon. This profound
relationship between frequency, stopping potential and photoelectron energy was a crucial discovery
in the understanding of the photoelectric effect and laid the foundation for the development of quan-
tum mechanics. The photoelectric effect not only provided a compelling case for the quantization of
energy but also paved the way for further exploration into the nature of light and matter, leading to
revolutionary developments in modern physics.
10.5 De Broglie Hypothesis: The Wave-Particle Duality

As the early 20th century unfolded, the world of physics was thrown into a state of perplexity and
awe with the emergence of quantum mechanics. While scientists were grappling with the enigmatic
behavior of light, a young French physicist named Louis de Broglie put forth a daring hypothesis
that would forever change our understanding of matter. De Broglie proposed that not only does light
exhibit both wave-like and particle-like characteristics, but particles like electrons, protons and even
massive objects could also demonstrate this peculiar duality. This audacious idea, known as the De
Broglie hypothesis, marked a pivotal moment in the history of physics.
At the heart of De Broglie’s hypothesis lies the notion that particles, typically thought of as localized
entities, can also possess wave-like properties with associated wavelengths. This wave-particle
duality suggested that particles, despite their seemingly classical behavior, could exhibit wave-like
interference patterns, akin to the interference observed in light waves. The key to understanding this
unification of seemingly disparate properties lay in De Broglie’s introduction of what is now known
as the De Broglie wavelength, symbolized by the Greek letter lambda (λ ).
The De Broglie Wavelength

The De Broglie wavelength of a particle is defined as the ratio of Planck’s constant (h) to the
particle’s momentum (p). Mathematically, it can be expressed as follows:
h
λ“
p
where:
λ - De Broglie wavelength,
h - Planck’s constant (6.626 ˆ 10´34 J ¨ s),
p - momentum of the particle.
This seemingly innocuous relation turned out to have profound implications. It meant that the
wave nature of a particle is most pronounced when its momentum is small, such as in the case
of slow-moving particles. On the other hand, for particles with large momentum, the wavelength
becomes negligible and the particle behaves classically, appearing as a well-defined localized entity.
10.5 De Broglie Hypothesis: The Wave-Particle Duality 427
Wave Nature of Electrons
The De Broglie hypothesis was most famously confirmed through experiments involving electrons.
In 1927, Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer conducted a landmark experiment, demonstrating the
diffraction of electrons by a crystalline nickel target. The pattern of scattered electrons observed on
a screen displayed a distinct interference pattern, just like the pattern observed when light waves
pass through a diffraction grating.
Wave Packet and Uncertainty Principle
The wave-like behavior of particles, however, does not imply that particles exist as continuous
waves. De Broglie introduced the concept of a wave packet, which describes the localized behavior
of a particle in space. A wave packet is a superposition of waves with slightly different wavelengths,
resulting in a confined and localized entity in space.
The De Broglie hypothesis also played a crucial role in the formulation of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
Principle. Werner Heisenberg, a pioneer in quantum mechanics, established that the more precisely
we determine a particle’s position, the less accurately we can determine its momentum (and
vice versa). This fundamental uncertainty arises due to the wave-like nature of particles and is
encapsulated in the De Broglie wavelength.
Applications and Legacy
The De Broglie hypothesis fundamentally altered the trajectory of modern physics. It provided
a unifying framework that reconciled the wave and particle properties of both light and matter.
As quantum mechanics unfolded, this wave-particle duality became a cornerstone of the theory,
essential for understanding the behavior of subatomic particles and their interactions.
The De Broglie wavelength is not only of theoretical significance but has practical applications as
well. For instance, in electron microscopy, the De Broglie wavelength of electrons is used to resolve
atomic structures with unprecedented precision.
Louis de Broglie’s audacious hypothesis and subsequent experimental confirmations revolutionized
our understanding of the physical world. It challenged classical notions and laid the groundwork for
the development of quantum mechanics—a theory that has since underpinned countless technological
advancements and continues to intrigue and inspire scientists to this day. The wave-particle duality,
proposed by De Broglie, serves as a reminder of the mysterious and profound nature of the quantum
realm, where particles, in their wave-like splendor, dance to the rhythm of a cosmic symphony.
Mathematical Relations
h h h h
λ“ “ “a “ (10.1)
p mv 2mpK.E.q 2mq∆V
where:
λ - De Broglie wavelength,
h - Planck’s constant (6.626 ˆ 10´34 J ¨ s),
p - momentum of the particle,
m - mass of the particle,
K.E. - kinetic energy of the particle,
q - charge,
∆V - potenial difference.
h̄
∆x ¨ ∆p ě (10.2)
2
where:
∆x - uncertainty in position,
∆p - uncertainty in momentum,
h
h̄ - reduced Planck’s constant ( ).
2π
11. Atomic Structure
11.1 Unveiling the Subatomic Universe: Atoms
The study of atoms—the building blocks of matter—ushered in a new era of scientific discovery
that forever altered our perception of the universe. Once thought to be indivisible, these enigmatic
entities turned out to be intricately composed of even smaller particles, unveiling a captivating realm
of subatomic mysteries. With each revelation, the tapestry of physics grew richer and more complex
and the quest to unravel the secrets of the atom became a relentless pursuit of knowledge.
A Historical Odyssey
The journey to comprehend the structure of atoms is an epic tale of scientific ingenuity and
intellectual curiosity. It began in the early 19th century with the pioneering work of John Dalton, who
proposed the atomic theory, suggesting that matter consists of indivisible particles known as atoms.
Little did Dalton know that his bold conjecture would ignite a chain reaction of groundbreaking
experiments and theories that would reshape our understanding of reality.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a series of extraordinary experiments conducted by
luminaries such as J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr unraveled the atom’s intricate
430 Chapter 11. Atomic Structure
structure. Thomson’s discovery of electrons challenged the notion of atoms as solid spheres, while
Rutherford’s ingenious gold foil experiment revealed the presence of a tiny, dense nucleus at the
heart of the atom. Bohr, building on these foundations, introduced a revolutionary model of the atom,
incorporating quantized energy levels and fundamentally altering the course of atomic physics.
Quantum Mechanics and Subatomic Phenomena

As the 20th century unfolded, quantum mechanics emerged as a powerful framework to comprehend
the behavior of subatomic particles. The pioneers of quantum theory, including Max Planck, Albert
Einstein, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger, bestowed upon us a profound understanding of
the atom’s enigmatic dance. Quantum mechanics revealed that particles possess both wave-like and
particle-like characteristics, defying classical intuitions and giving rise to a wave-particle duality
that mystified and captivated physicists.
With quantum mechanics, scientists delved into the quantum realm, discovering an astonishing array
of phenomena. From the quantization of energy levels to the probabilistic nature of particles, the
microscopic world proved to be a domain of surprises and unforeseen complexities.
The Subatomic Symphony: Particles and Forces

The atom’s inner sanctum teemed with an orchestra of subatomic particles, each playing a unique role
in the symphony of fundamental forces. Electrons, protons and neutrons swirled in intricate orbits,
while mesons, quarks and leptons charmed with their elusive dance. These particles exchanged
forces, giving rise to electromagnetic interactions, strong nuclear forces and the captivating realm of
weak interactions—the stuff that fuels the stars and shapes the cosmos.
Modern Discoveries and Technological Marvels

The exploration of atoms and subatomic particles is far from complete. With each passing year,
technological advancements and innovative experiments reveal new vistas into the mysterious
world of the infinitesimally small. Particle accelerators, scanning tunneling microscopes and other
cutting-edge tools continue to open windows into uncharted territories, unraveling the mysteries that
lie hidden within the heart of matter.
As we venture deeper into the realm of subatomic wonders, we are gifted with a treasure trove of
knowledge that not only enriches our understanding of the universe but also fuels groundbreaking
innovations. From transistors to quantum computing, the exploration of atoms has become the
11.2 The Early Atomic Models 431
foundation of a technological revolution that touches every aspect of modern life.

In this awe-inspiring journey through the subatomic universe, we invite you to delve into the heart
of matter, where particles and forces dance in harmonious discord and the mysteries of existence
await those with the courage to explore the unknown. So, let us embark together on this odyssey, as
we unravel the wondrous secrets of atoms—the elegant building blocks of creation.
11.2 The Early Atomic Models

Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model
In 1898, J.J. Thomson proposed an atomic model known as the Plum Pudding Model. According
to this model, the atom is envisioned as a positively charged solid sphere and numerous electrons
are embedded within it to maintain overall charge neutrality. This model drew a resemblance to
a plum cake studded with dry fruits. Surprisingly, this elementary model successfully explained
various observations made around that time. For instance, it elucidated why only negative charges
are emitted when a metal plate is heated. Additionally, it provided insights into the formation of
ions and ionic compounds in experimental chemistry.
The Plum Pudding Model of the atom.
Rutherford’s Model of the Atom

Despite the advantages of Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model, it had its flaws. One significant
drawback was its inability to explain the stability of the atom. The model treated the positive charge
as immobile, akin to fruits fixed on a cake, which posed problems. Lenard’s observation that cathode
rays could pass through materials with minimal deviation, raised further doubts. If the electrons were
indeed embedded in the sphere, how could they move like continuous rays through the cathode?
In the years spanning from 1906 to 1911, Rutherford’s groundbreaking experiments involving alpha
particles and gold foils revealed a crucial insight into the atom’s structure. By using alpha particles
to probe the atom, he uncovered the presence of a tiny, heavy, positively charged center at the atom’s
core, known as the nucleus. This experiment was already aware of the atom’s positive and negative
components, but two contrasting models described how these components might combine.
The ’planetary’ model assumed that negatively charged electrons orbited a massive, positively
charged nucleus. However, this model encountered a major problem: the electrons would con-
tinuously accelerate, releasing electromagnetic waves and causing the atom to collapse. On the
other hand, Thomson’s model proposed that electrons were embedded and free to move within a
positively charged region spanning the entire volume of the atom. While this model prevented the
atom from collapsing, Thomson faced difficulties in explaining the discrete wavelengths observed
in light spectra emitted by excited atoms.
Rutherford’s experimental breakthrough revealed that when alpha particles passed through thin
gold foils, some experienced significant deflections, even approaching 180 degrees. Such large-
angle deflections could not be explained merely by the cumulative effect of numerous small-angle
deflections. Rutherford concluded that the alpha particles must have encountered a minuscule, yet
densely charged entity occupying less than 1{1000th of the atom’s size. He postulated the existence
of a small, heavy, positively charged center called the nucleus, surrounded by orbiting electrons that
occupied the vast majority of the atom’s volume.
Rutherford’s Model of the atom showing the nucleus and orbiting electrons.
11.3 The Groundbreaking α Particle Scattering Experiment
The α particle scattering experiment conducted by Ernest Rutherford, also known as the Geiger-
Marsden experiment, was a pivotal investigation that revolutionized our understanding of atomic
structure. The experimental setup, as depicted in Figure 1, involved directing a beam of positively
charged α particles emitted by Radon towards a thin metal foil, typically gold. According to the
prevailing plum-pudding model, it was anticipated that the lightweight electrons in the atoms would
11.3 The Groundbreaking α Particle Scattering Experiment 433
hardly affect the much heavier α particles, leading to minimal deflection.
Experimental setup for the α particle scattering experiment, as described by Hans Geiger in 1908. The apparatus was
limited to measuring deflections of a few degrees
To their astonishment, Rutherford and his team discovered that most of the α particles passed
through the metal foil with hardly any deviation, as if the foil were primarily composed of empty
space. However, the most perplexing observation was that a few α particles were scattered at
surprisingly large angles, even back towards the source, as shown in the figure. These unexpected
results challenged the existing atomic models and led Rutherford to draw revolutionary conclusions.
Experimental setup for Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering experiment, also known as the Geiger-Marsden experiment
Rutherford’s Key Conclusions:
1. The majority of an atom is almost empty, as 99.86 percent of α particles passed undeviated
through the foil.
2. There is a concentrated positive charge at the center of the atom, which he termed the nucleus.
3. The number of α particles scattered at specific angles varies with different metal foils.
4. The electrons are attracted by the nucleus but do not revolve radially towards it.
Plot representing the observations of the alpha particle scattering experiment, showing Npθ q as the number of alpha
particles per unit area that reach the screen at a scattering angle of θ ; Np180˝ q represents this number for backward
scattering
Determining the Distance of Closest Approach
To understand the distance of closest approach (r˝ ) for the α particles, consider the scenario where
the α particles approach the nucleus, as shown in Figure 4. For α particles coming from a distant
source (comparatively infinite distance compared to the size of the alpha particles), we can apply
the conservation of mechanical energy:
KEi Ùi “ KE f Ù f
As the potential energy at infinite distance is zero, the initial kinetic energy (KEi ) represents the
required quantity to find the distance of closest approach. At this point, the final kinetic energy
(KE f ) is zero, given that the positively charged nucleus repels the alpha particles, bringing their
kinetic energy to zero at r˝ .
Hence, we have:
Kq1 q2
KEi “
ro
where q1 represents the charge on the alpha particle and q2 represents the charge on the nucleus
of the metal foil used in the experiment. Therefore:
k p2eq pzeq
KEi “
ro
11.3 The Groundbreaking α Particle Scattering Experiment 435
Solving for ro , we obtain:

2ze2
ro “
4πεo KEi
Here, ro denotes the distance of closest approach. We can further define the impact parameter as the
perpendicular distance between the initial velocity vector of the alpha particle and the center of the
nucleus, as shown in Figure 5.
Illustration of impact parameter (b) and scattering angle (θ )
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model

A tiny, massive, positively charged nucleus is surrounded at a relatively vast distance by enough
electrons to make the entire atom electrically neutral, according to the Rutherford model of the atom,
which has been strongly confirmed by experiment. The electrons are unable.
Since there is nothing in this scenario that may prevent the electric force from luring them toward
the nucleus, all particles must be immobile. However, if the electrons move, dynamically stable
orbits similar to those of the planets around the sun are feasible. The model proposed by Ernst
Rutherford cannot explain the stability of the atom, as the electron revolves around the nucleus and
emits radiation. The important is why the electron does not hit the proton due to Coulomb attraction.
In Rutherford’s model, we assume that the electron revolves round the proton and the Coulomb force
provides the necessary centripetal force to keep it moving in circular orbit. And since the electron
emits radiation it should therefore, always emit radiation at all temperatures and if the radiation is
continuously emitted, the energy is spent and the radius of the circle should gradually decrease and
the electron should finally fall into the proton. This contradicts the actual observations. His model
also could not explain the discrete spectrum of the Hydrogen atom.
Hydrogen Spectra
A successful theory of the atom must take into account more than just atomic stability. Another
significant aspect of the atom that is not covered by classical physics is the existence of spectral
lines. Hydrogen is the simplest atom, it has only one electron orbiting its nucleus. It also has the
simplest spectrum. The spectrum of most atoms shows little apparent regularity. But the spacing
between lines in the hydrogen spectrum decreases in a regular way.
When hydrogen gas enclosed in a sealed tube is heated to high temperatures, it emits radiation and
when this radiation is passed through a prism, different components of wavelength are deviated by
different amounts and what we obtain is the emission hydrogen spectrum.
The bizarre observation is that, only sharply defined and discrete wavelengths are obtained in the
emission radiation. The wavelengths obtained fit in the equation
The four visible hydrogen emission spectrum lines in the Balmer series. H-alpha is the red line at the right.
Balmer lines are historically referred to as H-alpha, H-beta, H-gamma and so on, where H is the element hydrogen
ˆ ˙
1 1 1
“R 2 ´ 2
λ n m
where R “ 1.09 ˆ 107 m´1 is the Rydberg constant and n and m are integers with m greater than n.
Here n takes on integer values from 1 to 8 indicating the Lyman(ultraviolet region) series, the
Balmer(visible region) series, the Pashen(infrared region) series and so on. They are shown below.
The spectral series of hydrogen. The wavelengths in each series are related by simple formula as given above.
A more convenient form of the equation above was derived by John Jacob Balmer, who was just
playing around with the numbers in the spectrum. He came up with
364.56m2
λ“ ,
m2 ´ 4
where m “ 3, 4, 5, 6. Turns out, that this equation is more convenient than the one given by Rydberg.
11.4 Bohr’s Model of the Atom and His Postulates 437
11.4 Bohr’s Model of the Atom and His Postulates

In the year 1913, a groundbreaking hypothesis about the atom was proposed by Niels Bohr, which
marked a significant advancement in the field. This theory followed a logical path from the concept
of matter waves, as proposed by de Broglie. It is fascinating to note that even though de Broglie’s
work came a decade later, Bohr’s approach was distinct, yet it led to identical outcomes. It speaks
volumes about Bohr’s brilliance and originality.
Having spent several months in Rutherford’s laboratory in 1912, Bohr was convinced that Ruther-
ford’s model of the atom held merit. However, he recognized that the newly developing quantum
theory must somehow be integrated into it to make it work. The groundbreaking works of Planck
and Einstein had revealed that in heated solids, oscillating electric charges could only change their
energy in discrete steps, emitting a quantum of light. Bohr speculated that perhaps electrons in an
atom also experienced energy changes in quantum jumps.
Over the course of the following year, Bohr worked diligently on his model and he postulated
that electrons move around the atom’s nucleus in circular orbits, albeit with a crucial constraint –
only certain orbits are allowed. Furthermore, he suggested that an electron in each of these orbits
possesses a definite energy and moves without radiating energy, even though this contradicted
classical ideas where accelerating electric charges were expected to emit electromagnetic waves.
Bohr termed these special orbits as stationary orbits.
His postulates can be summarized as follows:
1. The electron revolves around the nucleus of an atom in circular orbits, but only specific orbits
are permissible.
2. In these special orbits, the electron does not radiate any energy.
3. The atom’s energy assumes a definite value in a given stationary orbit and the electron can
jump from one stationary orbit to another. When the electron moves from an orbit of higher
energy E2 to an orbit of lower energy E1 , it emits a photon of radiation. The energy of
the photon is given by E2 ´ E1 and the wavelength of the emitted radiation is related to the
Einstein-Planck equation as:
hc
E2 ´ E1 “ hν “
λ
This equation implies that the electron can also absorb radiation and jump from an orbit of
lower energy to higher energy.
4. In the stationary orbits, the angular momentum L of the electron about the nucleus is an
integral multiple of Planck’s constant h divided by 2π. This quantization rule is now famously
known as Bohr’s quantization rule:
h
L“n
2π
The figure below illustrates why fractional numbers of wavelengths cannot endure due to destructive
interference.
Fractional numbers of wavelengths cannot endure due to destructive interference.
As you delve further into the study of atoms at a higher level, you will encounter a more sophisticated
proof of Bohr’s quantization rule.
Bohr’s model of the atom was a significant step forward, but it was not without its limitations.
Several improvements were proposed, notably the Sommerfeld or Bohr-Sommerfeld models, which
suggested that electrons orbit nuclei in elliptical orbits rather than perfect circles. This model
introduced an additional radial quantization condition, complementing Bohr’s quantized angular
momentum condition. Such refinements paved the way for further progress in our understanding of
the atomic world.
Energy of a Hydrogen Atom using Bohr’s Quantization Rule

Now that we have developed our theoretical model of black-body radiation, it is essential to put it to
the test through experimentation. The observation of line spectra for both emission and absorption
in atoms is particularly intriguing. The question arises: Do these spectra align with our model?
The answer comes from the distinct energy levels of hydrogen atoms. Consider an excited electron
transitioning to a lower state and releasing a single photon of light as the lost energy. According to
our theory, electrons can only occupy specific energy levels within an atom. Hence, it is reasonable
for an electron to make a sudden jump from one energy level to another, releasing the energy
difference between the levels instantaneously as a photon.
The theory proposed by Niels Bohr is applicable to hydrogen atoms and ions with only one electron,
such as He` , Li2` , Be3` and others.
Assuming a positive charge Ze for the nucleus (with Z protons in it), we can consider an electron
moving at a constant speed v along a circular orbit of radius r centered at the nucleus. The Coulombic
attraction between the electron and nucleus creates a force given by:
Ze2
F“
4πε0 r2
v2
The centripetal acceleration of the electron has a magnitude of . Taking the rest mass of the
r
electron as me , we find that:
Ze2 me v2
“
4πε0 r2 r
which leads to:
Ze2
r“ p1q
4πε0 me v2
Using Bohr’s quantization rule, we connect the angular momentum l to the reduced Planck’s constant
as:
h
me vr “ n p2q
2π
where n is a positive integer.
Combining equations p1q and p2q, we can derive expressions for v and r:
Ze2
v“ p3q
2ε0 hn
ε0 h2 n2
r“
πme Ze2
By substituting numerical values for the constants, we obtain the value of the radius for hydrogen-like
species as:
n2
r “ 0.529 ˆ 0.05A
Z
The kinetic energy of the electron in the nth orbit is given by:
1 me Z 2 e4
K.E. “ me v2 “ 2 2 2
2 8ε0 h n
The potential energy of the atom can be expressed as:
Ze2 m e Z 2 e4
U “´ “´ 2 2 2
4πε0 r 4ε0 h n
Note that the potential energy is considered zero when the nucleus and electron are widely separated.
The total energy of the atom is the sum of kinetic and potential energies:
me Z 2 e4
T.E. “ K.E. Ù “ ´ p4q
8ε02 h2 n2
For the ground state of the hydrogen atom (n “ 1), the total energy is:
m e Z 2 e4
pT.E.q1 “ ´ “ ´13.6 eV
8ε02 h2
In this ground state, the electron revolves in the smallest allowed orbit with a radius of 0.053 nm.
From equation p4q, we observe that the energy of the atom in the nth energy state is proportional to
1
. Thus, the energy in the nth state can be expressed as:
n2
13.6 eV
pT.E.qn “ ´
n2
Notably, the total energy is negative and a larger magnitude indicates lower energy. The zero of
energy corresponds to the state where the electron and nucleus are widely separated.
In terms of Rydberg’s constant, the total energy of the atom can be written as:
RhcZ 2
T.E. “ ´
n2
Combining the Hydrogen Spectra with Bohr’s Model

Let us now delve into the reason why hydrogen gas, when kept in a flask at room temperature, does
not emit radiation. The key lies in understanding the electronic configurations of the hydrogen
atoms within the gas.
At room temperature, almost all the hydrogen atoms are in their ground state, meaning that their
electrons reside in the lowest possible energy level. In this state, there are no orbits of lower energy
for the electrons to transition to. Consequently, the atoms cannot emit any radiation at this point.
However, when external energy is supplied in the form of heat, electric discharge, or through other
means, some of the hydrogen atom’s electrons get excited and jump to higher energy orbits, such
as n “ 2, n “ 3 and so on. These excited electrons do not remain in these high-energy orbits
indefinitely; they eventually return to lower energy orbits, releasing photons of radiation during this
transition process.
To express the wavelengths in the emission spectrum for any atom with atomic number Z, we employ
the following equation:
Em ´ En me Z 2 e4
ˆ ˙
1 1 1
“ “ 2 3 ´
λ hc 8ε0 h c n2 m2
Here, Em and En represent the energy levels of the atom, me is the mass of the electron, e is the
elementary charge, h is Planck’s constant, c is the speed of light and ε0 is the vacuum permittivity.
me e4
We define the Rydberg constant as R “ 2 3 , which simplifies the equation to:
8ε0 h c
ˆ ˙
1 1 1
“ RZ 2 2
´ 2
λ n m
By understanding these principles, we gain valuable insights into the spectra of hydrogen atoms,
how they absorb and emit radiation and the nature of their electronic transitions. This understanding
plays a pivotal role in elucidating the mysterious yet captivating world of quantum physics.
Limitations of Bohr’s Model
Bohr’s atomic model, though widely embraced by beginners and non-physicists for its intuitive
depiction of electrons orbiting the nucleus, falls short in satisfying the profound implications
of quantum mechanics within the atom. The model, in its entirety, does not entirely align with
the principles of physics. Bohr’s postulates seem more like a mere adjustment to Maxwell’s
electromagnetism, rather than a comprehensive and seamless integration.
Maxwell’s electromagnetism, a highly successful theory, is not invalidated or replaced by Bohr’s
model. Instead, the model introduces the assumption that in specific orbits, electrons are granted the
privilege to defy the laws of electromagnetism, permitted not to emit energy, which deviates from
the observations made in the real world.
Additionally, Bohr’s model faces challenges in explaining the anomalies encountered when applied
to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle. These discrepancies bring to light the limitations of the
model when confronted with the intricacies of quantum mechanics.
Bohr’s atomic model with electrons in quantized orbits around the nucleus
12. The Atomic Nuclei
In the previous chapter, we explored the remarkable progress made in understanding the atom,
culminating in the development of the contemporary atomic model. Now, let us shift our focus to a
captivating subject within modern physics—the study of atomic nuclei! Here, at the very heart of the
atom, lies the fundamental building block of all matter in the observable universe. The nucleus of an
atom is composed of neutrons and protons, surrounded by other fundamental particles collectively
known as leptons.
It was in 1896 that Henri Becquerel in France serendipitously detected faint traces hinting at the
existence of the nucleus within the atom. Unlike atomic physics, which finds its explanation in
electromagnetism, nuclei and their behavior and forces lack a comprehensive theoretical framework.
For instance, there is no formula akin to Coulomb’s law for the force between two electric charges
that precisely describes the force between two fundamental constituents of the nucleus.
The early discoveries can be traced back to Ernest Rutherford, whose groundbreaking alpha particle
scattering experiment with gold foil revealed the presence of the nucleus at the center of an atom. By
the early 1930s, a model of the nucleus had emerged that remains valuable to this day. According to
this model, the nucleus consists of two types of particles: protons and neutrons. Although these
444 Chapter 12. The Atomic Nuclei
particles also exhibit wave properties, for the sake of simplicity, we usually refer to them as particles
in our discussions.
A proton (m p “ 1.67262 ˆ 10´27 kg) forms the nucleus of the simplest atom, hydrogen, possessing
a charge equal in magnitude to that of an electron but opposite in polarity. On the other hand, the
neutron, discovered in 1932 by the English physicist James Chadwick, is electrically neutral, as its
name implies and has a slightly larger mass (mn “ 1.67493 ˆ 10´27 kg) compared to the proton.
Together, the neutron and proton are collectively known as nucleons.
In nuclear physics, it is customary to express mass in terms of energy units using the conversion
formula E “ mc2 , as matter can be viewed as a condensed form of energy. For instance, the mass of
an electron is me “ 9.1093897 ˆ 10´31 kg and its equivalent energy is me c2 “ 510.1 keV.
Similarly, the mass of a proton is 938.27231 MeV{c2 . A regular hydrogen nucleus comprises a
single proton, whereas the nuclei of all other elements consist of both neutrons and protons. These
different nuclei are commonly referred to as nuclides. The number of protons in a nucleus is termed
the atomic number and denoted by the symbol Z, while the total number of nucleons is represented
by the symbol A and called the atomic mass number.
Nuclei that contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are known as
isotopes. On the other hand, nuclei with the same number of neutrons N but varying atomic numbers
Z are referred to as isotones and nuclei with the same mass number A are termed isobars.
12.1 Nuclear Properties

Nuclear Stability
Out of the myriad nuclides identified so far, only a fraction of them are bestowed with stability. A
stable nucleus, akin to an unwavering sentinel, maintains its constitution unchanged throughout
time, while an unstable nucleus undergoes changes, emitting various types of particles (a subject
we delve into in later sections). This phenomenon has captivated scientists for generations, driving
them to explore the intricacies of nuclear stability.
A glimpse into the fascinating world of nuclides reveals a schematic representation: the number of
neutrons versus the number of protons. The chart showcases the vast array of nuclides and among
them, only a select few reside in a state of stability. Light stable nuclides exhibit an intriguing
symmetry, where the neutron number and proton number are essentially equivalent, resulting in
a ratio N{Z “ 1. However, as we venture towards heavier stable nuclides, the N{Z ratio ascends,
12.1 Nuclear Properties 445
Nuclide (isotope) chart representing the region of nuclear stability organized by binding energy. Neutrons and protons are
symmetrically arranged along the diagonal line. The squares in dark blue depict the most stable nuclides, boasting the
highest binding energies. The valley of stability, with its elevated floor of binding energy, hosts the most stable nuclei
peaking at approximately 1.6.

The preservation of stable nuclei raises intriguing questions. While the electromagnetic force plays
a role in attracting protons, it alone is insufficient to counteract the repulsion arising from their like
charges. To overcome this conundrum, an elusive force known as the strong nuclear force intervenes.
Aptly named, this force must wield a mightier influence than the electromagnetic force to hold the
nucleus together. Understanding the dynamics of the strong nuclear force has been a paramount
pursuit, as it governs the intricate interactions between all nucleons, including protons and neutrons.
An astonishing feature of the nucleus is the profound complexity of the strong nuclear force in
comparison to the gravitational and electromagnetic forces. While these latter forces are well
understood through the magnificent theory of Quantum Electrodynamics (QED), the strong
nuclear force, along with radioactivity and gravity, remains among the enigmatic phenomena that
have yet to be fully explained. Consequently, researchers continue to explore the realms of the
strong nuclear force, seeking to unveil its mysteries and deepen our understanding of the intricate
world that exists within the heart of matter.
Nuclear Forces (Strong and Weak)

In the realm of atomic interactions, the nuclear force emerges as a dominant force, surpassing both
gravitational and electromagnetic forces when it comes to short distances within atomic nuclei.
As nucleons come close, nuclear forces replace the gravitational attraction and electric repulsion,
especially when the separation between them is around 1 femtometer (1 fm). These forces are
primarily attractive, but they exhibit intriguing variations as the nucleon separation changes.
The strong nuclear force, acting over incredibly short distances, is a key player in keeping nucleons
together within the nucleus. Here are some notable qualitative properties of nuclear forces:
• Short-Range: Nuclear forces are remarkably short-ranged, effective only up to distances
of approximately a femtometer or even less. As nucleons move away from each other, the
nuclear force rapidly diminishes and becomes negligible beyond a few femtometers. This
effective range is referred to as the nuclear range.
• Independence of Charge: Unlike electromagnetic forces, nuclear forces are independent of
charge. The strength of the nuclear force between two protons, two neutrons, or a proton and
a neutron remains the same.
• Strength: On average, nuclear forces are significantly stronger than electromagnetic forces
for short separation distances.
• Spin-Dependent: The nuclear force’s strength depends on the alignment of nucleon spins.
When nucleons have parallel spins, the force is stronger, while the force weakens for anti-
parallel spins.
• Limited Interaction: Due to the short-range nature of nuclear forces, each nucleon interacts
with only a few neighboring nucleons through these forces. This explains why the nucleon
density remains nearly constant across various nuclei.
Nuclear Radius
Describing the binding-energy curve for atomic nuclides often relies on a fluid-based model, which
provides valuable insights into nuclear behavior. In this model, each nucleon in a nucleus interacts
with its close neighbors, similar to the way molecules in a liquid maintain a fixed intermolecular
distance or atoms in a solid vibrate about fixed positions in a crystal lattice. The analogy to a
solid, however, breaks down as nucleons exhibit excessive vibrations around their average positions,
making the nucleus unstable. Instead, likening the nucleus to a liquid helps comprehend several
nuclear activities.
The liquid-drop model, initially introduced by George Gamow and later improved by Niels Bohr
and John Archibald Wheeler, portrays the nucleus as an extremely dense, incompressible fluid held
together by the strong nuclear force. This concept aligns with the shape of a liquid drop. While a
simplified model, the liquid-drop model successfully accounts for the spherical shape of most nuclei
and provides a reasonable prediction of their binding energy.
Diagram of a helium atom, depicting the electron probability density.
The nucleus, unlike a solid with a definite surface, is more akin to a liquid drop with nuclei being
predominantly spherical, though some may possess an elliptical shape. The nuclear radius is
experimentally found to be a function of the atomic mass number pAq, given by:
1
R “ R0 ¨ A 3 ,
where R0 “ 1.1 ˆ 10´15 m. Consequently, the estimated volume of a nucleus is expressed as:
4 4
V “ πR3 “ πR30 A.
3 3
Remarkably, the nuclear density is independent of the mass number pAq.

Graph comparing atomic radius to atomic numbers p1˘100q with an accuracy of ˘5 pm.
Nuclear Spin
The nuclear spin differentiates atomic nuclei into fermions or bosons based on whether the spin is
h
half-integer or integer, respectively, in units of the reduced Planck’s constant .
2
The notion of spin is a convenient and conventional representation, although the actual behavior
of an atom is quite distinct from that of a spinning particle. The analogy of a ball spinning about
its principal axis helps conceptualize spin. When an electron is placed in a magnetic field, a form
of torque is applied to it, causing its spin vector to precess, akin to a traditional gyroscope. This
phenomena is referred to as electron spin resonance (ESR) and plays a crucial role in nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and imaging, where protons in atomic nuclei exhibit
analogous behavior.
Nuclear Binding Energy

The fascinating phenomenon of nuclear binding energy lies at the heart of atomic stability. When
we examine the mass (M) of a nucleus, we find something intriguing – it is actually less than the
total mass of its individual constituents when combined separately.
The total binding energy represents the energy required to break a nucleus apart into its constituent
nucleons. If the mass of a nucleus, let’s say a He42 nucleus, were exactly equal to the sum of the
masses of two neutrons and two protons, the nucleus could easily fall apart without any energy
input. However, for a nucleus to be stable, its mass must be less than that of its constituent nucleons,
necessitating an input of energy to disassemble it. In a crude sense, we can describe the binding
energy as the energy lacking in the nucleus relative to the total mass of its separate constituents.
To express this concept mathematically, we define the binding energy, denoted by ∆EBE , as the
difference between the energy required to separate the nucleons and the mass energy of the nucleus
itself:
ÿ
∆EBE “ mc2 ´ Mc2
Furthermore, we can consider the rest mass energy of a free proton as m p c2 and that of a free neutron
as mn c2 . If a nucleus possesses a mass M, its rest mass energy is Mnucleus c2 . If it contains Z protons
and N neutrons, then the rest mass energy of its nucleons in the free state is Zm p c2 ` Nmn c2 .
With this information, we can express the binding energy of the nucleus (∆EBE ) as:
∆EBE “ pZm p ` Nmn ´ Mqc2
To better understand the stability of different nuclei, we define the binding energy per nucleon as
the total binding energy of a nucleus divided by A, the atomic mass number:
∆EBE
p∆EBE qnucleon “
A
The graph below illustrates the relationship between the binding energy per nucleon and the mass
number A for the more stable nuclides. This graph reveals valuable insights into the stability and
energy balance within atomic nuclei. Understanding nuclear binding energy is fundamental to
comprehending the behavior and properties of matter at the atomic level.
Nuclear States in a Nucleus

Within the nucleus, nucleons experience a mean attractive force, which arises due to the strong
nuclear interaction. This attractive force is approximately constant in the nuclear interior. Let’s take
a closer look at the potential energy experienced by an uncharged neutron within the nucleus:
Now, when we consider a proton within the nucleus, in addition to the attractive force experienced
by the neutron, there is an extra factor to account for - a repulsive coulombic force. This repulsion
12.2 Radioactivity and Radioactive Decay 451
arises because the proton carries a positive charge. The potential energy experienced by a proton
can be expressed as:
Ze2
U “´
4πε˝ r
Where Z is the atomic number, e is the elementary charge, ε˝ is the vacuum permittivity and r is the
distance from the center of the nucleus.
Sketch representing the potential energy experienced by a proton as a function of distance r from the center of a nucleus.
From the plots above, we can infer the nature of the strong nuclear force. For a neutron, the attractive
force remains relatively constant within the nucleus. However, for a proton, the potential energy
decreases rapidly with distance when outside the nucleus due to the repulsive coulombic force.
This interplay of attractive and repulsive forces plays a crucial role in maintaining the stability of the
universe. The energy barrier exhibited by the potential energy prevents charged nuclei from coming
into close contact with each other. This barrier is essential as it inhibits nuclear reactions from
initiating, safeguarding the stability of matter as we know it. The delicate balance of these forces
within the nucleus allows for the existence and stability of atoms and consequently, the material
world.
12.2 Radioactivity and Radioactive Decay

The groundbreaking discovery of radioactivity in 1896 by Antoine Becquerel marked a pivotal
moment in the development of nuclear physics.
Using a magnetic field to study radiations from a radium sample. Gamma rays are unaffected, remaining intact. Alpha
particles are deflected to the left, becoming positively charged, while beta particles are deflected to the right, becoming
negatively charged.
Radioactive nuclei, both natural and artificially produced, typically undergo α decay, β decay, or
occasionally a combination of both, emitting α, β and γ radiation. These nuclei, along with cosmic
rays from outer space, contribute to the background radiation experienced by all living beings.
Radioactive decay involves the transformation of an unstable nuclide or parent into a more stable
nuclide known as the daughter nuclide. If the daughter product is also radioactive, the decay process
continues in a series of decays, forming a decay chain until a stable product is reached. Radioactivity
is a random process, making it impossible to predict precisely when a particular unstable nucleus
will decay; instead, we can only specify the probability of it decaying within a given time interval.
Below, we present a diagram illustrating the penetrating powers of different types of radiation:
Alpha Emission
Many naturally occurring heavy nuclei with atomic numbers 82 ă Z ă 92, as well as artificially
produced transuranic elements with Z ą 92, decay through alpha emission.
In alpha decay, an unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle, reducing both its proton number Z and
its neutron number N by 2. The alpha decay process can be represented as:
A´4
XAZ “ YZ´2 ` He42
The α particle possesses a highly stable, tightly bound structure, enabling it to be spontaneously
emitted with positive energy during α-decay. Other decays, such as deuterium, tritium, or He3
decay, would require an input of energy. The energy released during alpha decay corresponds to the
difference in mass-energy between the parent and daughter products and manifests as the kinetic
Alpha particles can be totally blocked by a piece of paper, while beta particles can be stopped by aluminum shielding.
More dense materials, like a thick layer of lead, can significantly reduce gamma rays’ penetration
energy shared between the outgoing particles.

The energy released is given by the expression Qα “ pm p ´ mD ´ mα qc2 “ ED ` Eα ...p1q, where
m p is the mass of the parent nuclide,
mD is the mass of the daughter nuclide,
mα is the mass of the α nucleus,
Eα is the kinetic energy of the α particle,
and ED is the kinetic energy of the daughter nucleus.
Assuming the decaying nucleus is at rest, the daughter and the α particle must recoil in opposite
directions with the same momentum:
mD vD “ mα vα
„ ȷ „ ȷ
KED mα
Hence, we find that “ ...p2q
KEα mD
By using equations p1q and p2q, we can uniquely determine Qα , the energy released, in terms of Eα
and ED : „ ȷ „ ȷ
ED mα
Qα “ Eα 1` “ Eα 1 `
Eα mD
Beta Emission and Electron Capture

Unstable nuclei, particularly those that are neutron or proton-rich, tend to decay towards the line of
stability through either positive or negative β -emission or by capturing an atomic electron.
Beta decay involves the transformation of one of the nucleons in the nucleus from a neutron to a
proton or vice versa, leading to the creation of light particles called leptons (where electrons are
one type of lepton). This process results in the formation of a more stable final product. These
transformations are driven by weak forces operating within a neutron or a proton.
β ´ decay in an atomic nucleus, omitting the accompanying antineutrino
Unlike alpha particles, beta particles are emitted with a continuous spectrum of energies.
When a neutron is converted into a proton, an electron and a new particle named antineutrino are
created and emitted from the nucleus. The process can be symbolically represented as follows:
n Ñ p ` e´ ` ν̄
The Neutrino Particle: The apparent violation of energy conservation in beta decay, where
energy seems to be missing, was accounted for by Wolfgang Pauli in 1931. He postulated the
existence of an undetected particle in the decay, later called a neutrino (v). Neutrinos are
uncharged fermions with spin 1/2 and zero or negligible rest mass. They interact extremely
weakly with matter.
A stream of beta particles emitted from a bulk of unstable nuclei is referred to as a beta ray. Beta
decay can also be represented as follows:
XAZ Ñ YZ`1
A
` e´ ` ν̄
This type of decay is known as β -minus decay, as negatively charged beta particles are emitted.
If an unstable nucleus has an excess of protons compared to what is required for stability, a proton
can convert itself into a neutron. In this process, a positron and a neutrino are created and emitted
from the nucleus:
p Ñ n ` e` ` v
The positron e` has a positive electric charge equal in magnitude to the charge on an electron and
a mass equal to the mass of an electron. The positron is the antiparticle of the electron. When an
electron and a
positron collide, they annihilate each other, releasing energy. This process is called annihilation.
Similarly, neutrinos and antineutrinos are antiparticles of each other.
For a proton in a nucleus that converts itself into a neutron, the decay process is represented as
follows:
XZA Ñ YZ´1
A
` e` ` v
This process is known as β -plus decay.

An alternative process to β -plus decay is electron capture. This process is associated with proton-
rich nuclei. In electron capture, the nucleus captures one of the atomic electrons (usually an electron
from the K shell). A proton in the nucleus combines with this electron and converts itself into a
neutron. A neutrino is created in the process and emitted from the nucleus:
p ` e´ Ñ n ` v
You might wonder why the electron is more likely to be captured from its innermost orbit. In theory,
electrons from outer shells like L, M and N, among others, could also participate in electron capture,
but the likelihood depends on the extent of overlap between the electron wave function and the
nuclear volume.
Gamma Emission and Internal Conversion

An excited nucleus may lose energy by transitioning to a lower energy state within the same nucleus.
Most of the transition energy is emitted in the form of a gamma-ray photon, while a small portion is
taken by the recoiling nucleus undergoing conversion.
The electromagnetic radiation emitted during nuclear transitions is referred to as a gamma ray. The
hc
wavelength of this radiation is related to its energy through the expression λ “ , where E is the
E
energy of the emitted photon.
Gamma ray emission from an atomic nucleus, shown in an illustration
The process of a nucleus transitioning to a lower energy level by emitting a photon is known as
gamma decay.
Alternatively, the nucleus may de-excite by ejecting an electron from one of the atomic orbits in a
competing process called internal conversion. Both these decay modes occur due to the action of
the electromagnetic force.
For sufficiently high transition energy, a third type of electromagnetic decay is possible: internal
pair formation. In this process, an electron-positron pair is created.
12.3 Law of Radioactivity

In the fascinating realm of radioactivity, predicting the exact time at which a nucleus will decay
is beyond the realm of physics. Instead, the process is probabilistic and the time of decay can
only be ascertained once it has occurred. Imagine having several identical active nuclei prepared
simultaneously in an identical environment. Remarkably, they will not decay simultaneously, but
rather, some will decay early, some later and some might even endure for significantly extended
periods.
The probability per unit time that a given nucleus will decay is aptly known as the decay constant λ .
If we have N radioactive nuclei in a sample, the rate of decay is mathematically expressed as:
dN
“ ´λ N piq
dt
Here, the minus sign denotes that the number of active nuclei is decreasing over time. The rate of
decay can be further expressed as an equation:
żN żt
dN
“ ´λ dt
N
No 0
12.3 Law of Radioactivity 457
Thus, taking into account the initial number of active nuclei No at t “ 0, we derive the exponential
decay equation:
N
ln “ ´λt
No
Here, Nptq represents the number of active nuclei at time t. Rearranging, we obtain the quintessential
form of radioactive decay:
Nptq “ Np0q ¨ e´λt
* If a nucleus can decay to several different final states, then the decay constant λ is the sum of
the decay probabilities of all possible states of decay.
dN
The quantity p´ q gives the number of decays per unit time, which is commonly referred to as
dt
the activity of the sample. Hence, the activity of a radioactive sample is expressed as A “ λ N. An
alternative formulation for activity is:
ln 2 N
A “ λN “ N “ piiq
t1{2 τ
This formulation represents a solution to equation piq. In the International System of Units (SI), the
unit of activity (A) is called the Becquerel (Bq), where 1 Bq “ 1 disintegration{sec. Another older
unit, still in use today, is the Curie (Ci), defined as 3.7 ˆ 1010 Bq based on the activity of one gram
of radium.
Half-life and Mean Life
The concept of half-life (t1{2 ) refers to the time elapsed before half of the active nuclei decay.
No
Assuming there are No active nuclei at t “ 0, the half-life represents the time taken for nuclei to
2
No
decay, while remain active. From equation piiq, we find:
2
No
“ No ¨ e´λt1{2
2
ñ eλt1{2 “ 2
ln 2
ñ λt1{2 “ ln 2 ñ t1{2 “
λ
Similarly, at time t, the activity can be expressed as:
A
A“ t
2 t1{2
The mean life τ denotes the average lifetime of a radioactive nucleus. The number of nuclei that
will decay between a time interval t and t ` dt can be expressed as dN “ λ Ndt “ λ Np0qe´λt dt.
Calculating the mean life, we find:
ż ż8
tdN te´λt dt
1
τ“ ż “ ż0 8 “
λ
dN e´λt dt
0
1
ñτ “
λ
Furthermore, the half-life (t1{2 ) can be expressed in terms of the mean life (τ) as:
ln 2
t1{2 “ “ τ ln 2
λ
13. Semiconductors
Welcome to the grand finale of our journey through the captivating world of physics and electronics!
In this enchanting chapter, we’ll unveil the secret behind the wonders that power our modern world -
Semiconductors - the magical chips that make the impossible possible!
If you’ve ever wondered how ordinary sand turns into something as extraordinary as a smartphone
or a supercomputer, get ready to be mesmerized! We’ll venture into the realm of tiny particles and
quantum mysteries, where electrons dance to their own rules, defying the norms of conductors and
insulators.
As we dive into this adventure, imagine yourself as a wizard or witch in a realm of science and
sorcery. Together, we’ll unlock the mysteries behind intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, where
electrons become heroes of the story, playing hide-and-seek within energy bands.
But that’s not all! Hold on tight as we explore the marvelous world of diodes, the guardians of
current flow, standing tall against the forces of reverse bias. These enchanting creatures light up our
lives and rectify the chaotic waves around us.
Oh and don’t forget the extraordinary transistors - the shape-shifters of electronics! They can
amplify, they can switch and they hold the key to our electronic dreams. As we learn their magical
460 Chapter 13. Semiconductors
configurations, we’ll be able to conjure our own spells of electronic circuitry.

Prepare to be dazzled by the wonders of optoelectronic devices, where light meets the power of
electrons, paving the way for the dawn of a new era in communication and energy conversion.
And what’s this? Integrated Circuits - the epitome of magic chips! They’re like miniature worlds,
packed with countless spells and secrets, transforming massive machines into something that fits in
the palm of your hand.
As we reach the end of our sorcery-filled journey, we’ll see how semiconductors wield their power
not just in technology but also in saving the day through their incredible sensor abilities!
So, young wizards and sorceresses, join me in this final chapter as we unlock the door to the
captivating world of semiconductors. Prepare to be enchanted, for these magic chips are about to
unveil their secrets and inspire you to become the next generation of tech-savvy magicians!
13.1 Introduction to Semiconductors
In this section, we will introduce the fascinating world of semiconductors and explore their unique
properties that set them apart from conductors and insulators.
Semiconductors are materials that possess electrical conductivity between conductors (like metals)
and insulators (like glass). They exhibit an intermediate level of electrical conductivity, making
them a crucial component in modern electronics.
The behavior of semiconductors is governed by the concept of energy bands. At absolute zero
temperature, semiconductors are insulators and all their electrons occupy the valence band. However,
as the temperature increases, some electrons gain enough energy to move to the conduction band,
leaving behind holes in the valence band. This phenomenon enables semiconductors to conduct
electricity under specific conditions.
The unique properties of semiconductors have paved the way for an electronic revolution. From
tiny transistors that power our smartphones to advanced microprocessors that drive computers,
semiconductors form the backbone of modern technology.
In the upcoming sections, we will delve deeper into intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, exploring
the magic behind their carrier generation and recombination processes. We will uncover the secrets
of diodes, transistors and optoelectronic devices, witnessing how these enchanting materials shape
our modern electronic world.
13.2 Semiconductors 461
So, buckle up as we embark on this enthralling journey through the captivating world of semicon-
ductors!
Definition of Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials that possess electrical conductivity between conductors (like metals)
and insulators (like glass). They exhibit an intermediate level of electrical conductivity, making
them a crucial component in modern electronics.
Comparison between Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors

Let’s dive into a comparative analysis of these three distinct material types:
• Conductors: Materials in which electric charges (such as electrons) can move freely. They
have high electrical conductivity, making them suitable for conducting electricity efficiently.
Metals are a prime example of conductors.
• Insulators: In contrast, insulators are materials that do not allow electric charges to move
easily. They possess very low electrical conductivity and are commonly used as electrical
insulators to prevent the flow of electricity. Examples include glass, rubber and plastic.
• Semiconductors: As the name suggests, semiconductors hold a unique middle ground. Their
electrical conductivity lies between that of conductors and insulators. They can conduct
electricity under specific conditions and are the backbone of modern electronic devices.
Importance of Semiconductors in Modern Electronics

Semiconductors play an indispensable role in the world of modern electronics. From the smallest
microchips to powerful processors and integrated circuits, semiconductors enable the functioning of
various electronic devices we use daily. They form the foundation of digital technology and have
revolutionized our lives, from communication to computing and beyond.
13.2 Semiconductors
The best conductors (silver, copper and gold) have one valence electron, whereas the best insulators
have eight valence electrons. A semiconductor is an element with electrical properties between
those of a conductor and those of an insulator. As you might expect, the best semiconductors have
four valence electrons.
Germanium
Germanium is an example of a semiconductor. It has four electrons in the valence orbit. Many
years ago, germanium was the only material suitable for making semiconductor devices. But these
germanium devices had a fatal flaw (their excessive reverse current, discussed in a later section) that
engineers could not overcome. Eventually, another semiconductor named silicon became practical
and made germanium obsolete in most electronic applications.
Silicon
Silicon is one of the most important and widely used semiconductors in modern electronics. As a
semiconductor, silicon possesses unique electrical properties that make it an essential material for
building electronic devices and integrated circuits.
Silicon is a chemical element with atomic number 14 and is part of the group 14 elements in the
periodic table. It has four valence electrons in its outermost energy level, which gives it specific
electronic characteristics that are highly beneficial for semiconductor applications.
Silicon is classified as a semiconductor because it exhibits intermediate electrical conductivity

between that of conductors (e.g., metals) and insulators (e.g., non-metals). Unlike conductors that
readily allow the flow of electric current and insulators that block it entirely, silicon’s conductivity
can be controlled through various means, such as temperature, voltage, or doping.
13.3 The Enchanting Dance of the Silicon Crystal

Once upon a time, in the heart of a silicon mine, tiny silicon atoms were coming together, eager to
form a special bond. They had dreams of becoming a solid and stable silicon crystal, ready to play a
crucial role in the magical world of electronics.
13.3 The Enchanting Dance of the Silicon Crystal 463
Each silicon atom had four valence electrons and they knew that for their crystal to be strong, they
needed to share these electrons with their neighboring atoms. So, they reached out and held hands,
forming a circle of friendship, just like a team in a tug-of-war game.
As the silicon atoms shared their electrons, something magical happened. Each atom now had a total
of eight electrons in its outermost orbit, just like they had always dreamed! This perfect balance of
eight electrons in their valence shells brought a sense of harmony and stability to the crystal, making
it strong and resilient.
The silicon crystal was now ready to face the world, but it had a secret. Within its lattice, it held
tiny, mysterious spaces called holes and free electron pairs. These holes were like tiny empty seats,
waiting for an electron to fill them and the free electron pairs were like adventurous electrons that
loved to roam around freely.
And so, a dance began. Electrons would leave their seats and wander through the crystal, creating a
flow of electricity. These daring electrons became the life force of the silicon crystal, powering the
enchanting world of electronics and technology.
But the dance didn’t stop there. Sometimes, electrons would find themselves enchanted by the
holes and they would leap into them, filling the empty spaces. This mesmerizing recombination of
electrons and holes would create a dance of light, releasing energy in the form of photons.
It was like a cosmic ballet of electrons swirling around, filling holes and releasing flashes of light,
creating a dazzling display of colors. This beautiful interplay of electrons and holes brought life and
magic to the silicon crystal.
The silicon crystal reveled in its role as a semiconductor, a bridge between the worlds of conductivity
and resistance. Its covalent bonds and valency saturation gave it strength and stability, while the
emergence and flow of electrons and holes made it a beacon of electricity and light.
And so, the silicon crystal became a legend in the land of technology, where it would power the
devices of the modern world. From smartphones to computers, from communication networks to
medical devices, the silicon crystal’s enchanting dance would touch the lives of billions, bringing
wonders and possibilities beyond imagination.
And to this day, the silicon crystal continues its dance, shaping the future and weaving the fabric of
our technological dreams. So, the next time you hold a device in your hands, remember the magical
tale of the silicon crystal and the captivating dance of electrons and holes that powers the world of
technology.
13.4 Intrinsic Semiconductors

In this section, we delve into the intriguing world of intrinsic semiconductors, where the magic of
conductivity begins within the material itself.
Definition of Intrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic semiconductors are pure semiconductor materials that do not contain intentional impurities.
These materials naturally possess an equal number of electrons and holes, making them electrically
neutral. Examples of intrinsic semiconductors include pure silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge).
In the atomic structure of intrinsic semiconductors, each silicon or germanium atom forms covalent
bonds with its neighboring atoms, creating a crystal lattice. The valence electrons of these atoms
are shared, resulting in a stable structure. However, at absolute zero temperature, there is still some
thermal energy present, allowing some electrons to transition to higher energy levels and leaving
behind holes in the valence band.
Energy Band Diagram and Fermi Level

To comprehend the behavior of electrons and holes in intrinsic semiconductors, we use the concept
of energy bands. The energy band diagram represents the distribution of electrons across different
energy levels in the material. In intrinsic semiconductors, the valence band is filled with electrons
and the conduction band is empty at absolute zero temperature.
The Fermi level is a crucial reference energy level representing the highest energy level that electrons
can occupy at absolute zero temperature. In intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level lies in the
middle of the energy band gap between the valence and conduction bands.
13.4 Intrinsic Semiconductors 465
Carrier Generation and Recombination Processes

Intrinsic semiconductors can generate electron-hole pairs through various processes. At absolute
zero, quantum effects can still create electron-hole pairs due to the uncertainty principle. Addi-
tionally, as the temperature increases, thermal energy provides sufficient energy for electrons to
transition to the conduction band, leaving behind holes in the valence band.
On the other hand, carriers in intrinsic semiconductors can recombine. When an electron recombines
with a hole, both cease to exist as carriers, releasing energy in the form of a photon or heat.
Concept of Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

The intrinsic carrier concentration, denoted by ni for electrons and pi for holes, represents the
concentration of electrons and holes in an intrinsic semiconductor at thermal equilibrium, typically
at room temperature. The value of ni and pi is determined by the material properties and the energy
band gap.
At room temperature, the intrinsic carrier concentration is relatively low but not negligible. As
temperature increases, the number of thermally generated electron-hole pairs rises, causing an
increase in the intrinsic carrier concentration.
Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentration

The number of thermally generated carriers in intrinsic semiconductors is highly dependent on
temperature. As the temperature rises, more electrons are excited to the conduction band and more
holes are created in the valence band. Consequently, the intrinsic carrier concentration increases
with temperature.
Understanding the intricacies of intrinsic semiconductors is vital for comprehending their behavior
as the foundation of semiconductor devices. By harnessing the properties of these pure materials, we
unlock the true potential of semiconductors, paving the way for the fascinating world of electronics
and technological advancements.
13.5 Extrinsic Semiconductors

Welcome to the captivating realm of extrinsic semiconductors, where the magic of doping adds new
powers to these wondrous materials.
Introduction to Extrinsic Semiconductors

Extrinsic semiconductors are created by intentionally adding controlled amounts of impurities to
intrinsic semiconductors through a process called doping. This deliberate manipulation of the
material’s composition enhances its electrical properties, making it a crucial aspect of semiconductor
technology.
The process of doping introduces atoms of different elements into the crystal lattice of the semicon-
ductor, which leads to the creation of charge carriers - either extra electrons or missing electrons
known as holes. These additional carriers profoundly impact the electrical conductivity and behavior
of the material.
Doping: n-type and p-type Semiconductors

Doping involves the incorporation of specific impurity atoms into the semiconductor lattice, resulting
in two types of extrinsic semiconductors:
• n-type Semiconductors: Doping with elements that provide extra electrons (e.g., phosphorus)
creates an excess of negative charge carriers, making it n-type. These extra electrons are not
strongly bound to individual atoms and are free to move through the material, enhancing its
electrical conductivity.
13.5 Extrinsic Semiconductors 467
• p-type Semiconductors: Doping with elements that create missing electrons or holes (e.g.,
boron) results in an excess of positive charge carriers, making it p-type. Holes behave as if
they were positively charged particles, effectively contributing to the flow of electric current.
Energy Band Diagram of Doped Semiconductors

Doping significantly alters the energy band diagram of semiconductors. In n-type semiconductors,
the additional electrons from the dopant create an abundance of electrons in the conduction band,
lowering its energy level. Conversely, in p-type semiconductors, the holes left by the dopant result
in a surplus of holes in the valence band, elevating its energy level.
Majority and Minority Carriers

In extrinsic semiconductors, the majority carriers are the dominant charge carriers generated by
doping. For n-type semiconductors, electrons are the majority carriers, as they are in higher
concentration due to the excess electrons from the dopant. Similarly, in p-type semiconductors,
holes are the majority carriers, as they are present in greater numbers due to the lack of electrons.
On the other hand, the minority carriers are the less abundant carriers opposite to the majority
carriers. In n-type semiconductors, the minority carriers are holes and in p-type semiconductors, the
minority carriers are electrons.
Expression for Carrier Concentration in Extrinsic Semiconductors

The carrier concentration in extrinsic semiconductors can be described using mathematical ex-
pressions. For instance, in n-type semiconductors, the electron concentration is given by n “
ni ¨ epEF Éi q{pkT q , where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration, EF is the Fermi level, Ei is the
intrinsic energy level, k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature.
Similarly, the hole concentration in p-type semiconductors can be expressed as p “ ni ¨ epEi ÉF q{pkT q .
The world of extrinsic semiconductors holds immense potential, with various applications in
electronic devices, amplifiers, diodes and transistors. These doped materials unlock the true magic
of semiconductors, enabling the technology that powers our modern world.
13.6 Diodes
Get ready to be enchanted by the magical properties of diodes in this section. These tiny devices
wield tremendous power in controlling the flow of electrons.
Basics of Diodes
Diodes are semiconductor devices that exhibit a captivating property - they allow current to flow in
one direction only. They act as one-way gates for electricity, permitting easy passage in the forward
direction while blocking it in the reverse direction. This unique characteristic makes diodes essential
building blocks of electronic circuits.
p-n Junction Diode: Construction and Working Principle

The heart of a diode lies in its p-n junction - a junction between a p-type semiconductor (with an
excess of positive charge carriers or holes) and an n-type semiconductor (with an excess of negative
charge carriers or electrons). The combination of these two materials gives rise to the diode’s
fascinating properties.
When a voltage is applied in the forward direction across the p-n junction, the excess electrons from
the n-type material are attracted to the holes in the p-type material, creating a current flow. This
process is akin to an enchanting dance of charge carriers, enabling the diode to conduct electricity
effortlessly.
13.7 Unbiased Diode
An unbiased diode refers to the condition where no external voltage is applied across the p-n junction
of the diode. In this state, the diode remains in its natural, equilibrium condition without any external
influence.
In an unbiased diode, the diffusion of charge carriers (electrons and holes) takes place across the p-n
junction due to the concentration gradient between the two semiconductor regions. However, the
flow of carriers in opposite directions balances out, resulting in no net current.
13.8 Biasing of p-n Junction Diode 469
Depletion Layer
The depletion layer is a fascinating region that forms at the p-n junction of a diode in its unbiased
state. When the p-type and n-type semiconductors are brought together, the excess electrons from
the n-type side diffuse into the p-type side and the excess holes from the p-type side diffuse into the
n-type side.
As this diffusion occurs, a region depleted of majority charge carriers forms near the p-n junction. In
this depletion layer, positive and negative ions (due to the immobile dopants) accumulate, creating
an electric field that opposes further diffusion of charge carriers. This electric field prevents the net
flow of electrons and holes, resulting in a zone of near-zero conductivity.
Potential Barrier
The depletion layer creates a fascinating phenomenon called the potential barrier. The diffusion of
charge carriers across the p-n junction causes a difference in electric potential between the p-type
and n-type regions. This potential difference sets up an energy barrier that opposes the flow of
majority carriers.
In a p-n junction diode without any external voltage (unbiased), the potential barrier prevents the
electrons from the n-type region and the holes from the p-type region from crossing the junction
freely. It is as if the diode has created a magical wall, keeping the charge carriers separated and
restricting the flow of current.
When an external voltage is applied in the forward bias, the potential barrier reduces, allowing the
charge carriers to overcome the barrier and conduct current through the diode. In the reverse bias,
the potential barrier increases, strengthening the resistance to current flow, keeping the diode in its
non-conducting state.
The behavior of unbiased diodes, the formation of the depletion layer and the potential barrier
play crucial roles in understanding the magical properties of diodes and their role in electronic
circuits. With the application of external voltages, diodes can be transformed into powerful tools for
controlling the flow of electrons and enabling the world of modern electronics.
13.8 Biasing of p-n Junction Diode

The behavior of the p-n junction diode can be magically altered by applying an external voltage - a
process known as biasing.
In forward bias, the diode is like a welcoming gate, as the external voltage aids the flow of
electrons across the junction, allowing current to pass freely. It’s as if the diode opens its doors to
the current, inviting it in with open arms.
In contrast, in reverse bias, the diode becomes like an impenetrable wall, resisting the flow of
current. The external voltage creates an opposing force, preventing the electrons from crossing the
junction. It’s a magical barrier that keeps the current at bay.
Current-Voltage Characteristics of a Diode

The relationship between current and voltage in a diode is graphically depicted in its current-voltage
(I-V) characteristics. The curve showcases the mesmerizing behavior of the diode under various
biasing conditions.
At zero or low voltage, the diode remains in a non-conducting state, but as the voltage increases in
the forward direction, the current starts to flow exponentially. On the other hand, in reverse bias, the
current remains nearly negligible, even at higher voltages.
13.9 Barrier Potential and Temperature 471
Diode as a Half-wave and Full-wave Rectifier
Diodes possess the magical ability to rectify alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), an
essential transformation in electronic circuits.
A half-wave rectifier allows only half of the AC waveform to pass through, as if filtering out
the negative or positive halves, depending on the diode’s orientation.
In the case of a full-wave rectifier, the diode conjures a more continuous flow of current,
capturing both the positive and negative halves of the AC waveform.
The diode’s power to control the flow of electrons unlocks a myriad of possibilities in electronic
circuits and as we venture forth, we will encounter even more enchanting devices in the world of
transistors - the true shape-shifters of electronics.
13.9 Barrier Potential and Temperature
The barrier potential of a semiconductor junction refers to the potential difference or voltage drop
that occurs across the depletion region of the junction when it is in equilibrium (no external bias
applied). This depletion region forms at the interface between two differently doped regions in a
semiconductor, such as in a p-n junction.
When a p-n junction is formed, electrons diffuse from the n-type region to the p-type region and
holes diffuse from the p-type region to the n-type region. This diffusion process creates a region near
the junction where the concentration of majority carriers (electrons in n-type and holes in p-type)
reduces, leading to the formation of the depletion region.
The barrier potential arises due to the redistribution of charge carriers in the depletion region. As
electrons move from the n-type to the p-type region, they leave behind positively charged ions in
the n-region and similarly, as holes move from the p-type to the n-type region, they leave behind
negatively charged ions in the p-region. This charge separation creates an electric field that opposes
further carrier diffusion. The potential difference across this electric field is known as the barrier
potential (Vbi ).
The barrier potential depends on the properties of the semiconductor material and the level of doping
in the p-n junction. In a typical silicon p-n junction, the barrier potential is approximately 0.7 volts.
For other semiconductor materials or different doping levels, the barrier potential can vary.
Effect of Temperature on Barrier Potential

As the temperature increases, the barrier potential of a p-n junction decreases. This phenomenon
occurs due to the increase in the number of thermally generated charge carriers (electron-hole pairs)
in the semiconductor material.
At higher temperatures, more electron-hole pairs are created in the depletion region, which reduces
the net charge separation and, consequently, the strength of the electric field in the region. As a
result, the barrier potential decreases.
The relationship between barrier potential and temperature is generally described by the following
equation:
dT
Vbi “ Vbi0 ´ ¨ pT ´ T0 q
dT
Where: Vbi = Barrier potential at temperature T Vbi0 = Barrier potential at reference temperature
dT
T0 = Temperature coefficient of the barrier potential
dT
In summary, the barrier potential is the voltage drop across the depletion region of a semiconductor
junction and it depends on the properties of the material and the doping level. As the temperature
increases, the barrier potential decreases due to the increased generation of charge carriers. Under-
standing the temperature dependence of the barrier potential is essential in designing and analyzing
semiconductor devices and circuits, especially in temperature-sensitive applications.
13.10 Diode Breakdown
The breakdown of a diode refers to the sudden and significant increase in current flow through the
diode when it is operated in reverse bias. There are two main types of breakdown in diodes: Zener
breakdown and avalanche breakdown.
Zener Breakdown
Zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped Zener diodes, specially designed to operate in reverse
breakdown region. When a reverse voltage is applied to the Zener diode, the electric field across the
depletion region becomes strong enough to cause the ionization of charge carriers (electrons and
holes) in the semiconductor material. This creates a large number of electron-hole pairs, leading to
a significant increase in the reverse current through the diode.
13.11 Current through a Diode 473
In the Zener breakdown region, the diode maintains a nearly constant voltage drop across its
terminals, known as the Zener voltage (VZ ). This makes Zener diodes highly useful for voltage
regulation and protection applications.
Avalanche Breakdown
Avalanche breakdown occurs in lightly doped diodes, such as p-n junction diodes, when they are
operated in reverse bias. In this case, the reverse voltage applied creates a strong electric field
across the depletion region, causing accelerated carriers to gain sufficient kinetic energy. These
high-energy carriers then collide with other atoms, releasing more charge carriers and leading to an
avalanche-like effect.
As a result, the reverse current in the diode increases rapidly with a small change in reverse voltage.
Unlike Zener breakdown, the voltage drop across the diode in the avalanche breakdown region is
not constant and tends to increase with the reverse current.
Both types of breakdown are important and can be utilized in specific applications. Zener diodes
are designed to operate in the Zener breakdown region for voltage regulation, while avalanche
breakdown is sometimes used in applications such as voltage clamping and surge protection.
It is crucial to consider the breakdown characteristics of diodes when designing electronic circuits,
especially when operating them in reverse bias, to prevent damage and ensure proper functioning.
13.11 Current through a Diode
Transient Current
Transient current in a semiconductor device refers to the current that flows for a short duration
when the device undergoes a sudden change in its operating conditions. This can happen during the
switching on or off of a device or when a signal is applied or removed. Transient currents can be
a result of charge carriers (electrons or holes) being stored or released in the device’s capacitance
during these rapid changes.
In diodes, transient currents can occur during switching events or when the diode is subjected to a
rapid change in voltage. These currents can have a significant impact on the device’s performance
and need to be carefully considered in high-speed or high-frequency applications.
Reverse Saturation Current

Reverse saturation current (also known as reverse leakage current or reverse current) is the current
that flows through a diode when it is in reverse bias. In reverse bias, the diode is intended to block
current flow, but there is always a small amount of leakage current due to the thermally generated
minority carriers (electrons in p-type and holes in n-type) crossing the depletion region.
The reverse saturation current is typically very low but increases with temperature and the area of
the diode. It is an essential parameter in diode characterization and is used to determine the diode’s
quality and efficiency.
Surface Leakage Current

Surface leakage current is a type of leakage current that occurs at the surface of a semiconductor
device, such as a diode. It is caused by the imperfections or defects at the device’s surface, which
can create additional current paths.
Surface leakage currents are typically higher than the bulk leakage currents (reverse saturation
current) and can be a concern in high-voltage or high-precision applications. Manufacturers take
measures to reduce surface leakage currents through careful design and processing techniques to
ensure the device’s reliability and performance.
In summary, transient current is a short-duration current that occurs during rapid changes in the
device’s operating conditions, reverse saturation current is the leakage current in reverse bias and
surface leakage current is the current that flows at the surface of the semiconductor device due to
imperfections or defects. Understanding these currents is crucial for proper design and operation of
semiconductor devices in various electronic applications.
13.12 Transistors
Welcome to the enchanting world of transistors, where the power of tiny devices can amplify and
switch signals like magic!
Introduction to Transistors
Transistors are semiconductor devices that have revolutionized the world of electronics. They serve
as electronic switches and amplifiers, acting as the fundamental building blocks for complex circuits
and electronic systems.
13.12 Transistors 475
The discovery of transistors marked a significant milestone in the field of electronics, leading to the
miniaturization of electronic components and the birth of modern technology.
Types of Transistors: Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) and Field-Effect Transistors

(FET)
Transistors come in two main types: Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) and Field-Effect Transistors
(FET). Each type has its unique characteristics and applications.
BJTs are based on the combination of p-type and n-type semiconductors and are primarily used for
amplification and switching applications.
FETs, on the other hand, are based on the modulation of electric fields to control the flow of current,
making them suitable for high-frequency applications and low-power operations.
Structure and Working Principle of BJT and FET

The structure of a BJT consists of three doped semiconductor regions: the emitter, the base and the
collector. Its working principle relies on the control of current flow between the emitter and the
collector through the base current. By varying the base current, the transistor can amplify or switch
the current between the emitter and the collector.
FETs consist of three terminals: the source, the gate and the drain. The voltage applied to the gate
controls the flow of current between the source and the drain. By adjusting the gate voltage, the
FET can regulate the current passing through the source-drain path.
Common Emitter (CE) Configuration of BJT and Its Characteristics

The common emitter (CE) configuration is one of the most commonly used configurations of a BJT.
In this setup, the emitter is the common terminal and the base current controls the current flowing
from the collector to the emitter.
The CE configuration offers voltage amplification, making it suitable for applications where signal
amplification is required, such as in audio amplifiers.
Common Source (CS) Configuration of FET and Its Characteristics

The common source (CS) configuration is a fundamental setup for FETs. In this configuration, the
source terminal is common and the gate voltage controls the current flowing from the source to the
drain.
The CS configuration provides voltage gain and is widely utilized in electronic applications, includ-
ing in integrated circuits and signal processing circuits.
The mesmerizing abilities of transistors have reshaped the world of electronics, enabling us to create
intricate circuits that drive our modern technologies. But the magic doesn’t end here! Stay tuned to
explore optoelectronic devices and the fascinating world of integrated circuits in the next sections!
13.13 Optoelectronic Devices

Step into the realm of optoelectronic devices, where the magic of light and electricity blend
seamlessly to create fascinating wonders!
Basics of Optoelectronic Devices

Optoelectronic devices are semiconductor devices that interact with light to produce, detect, or
control electrical signals. These devices bridge the gap between the optical and electronic worlds,
unlocking a myriad of applications.
Light-emitting Diodes (LEDs): Construction and Working Principle

LEDs are one of the most enchanting optoelectronic devices. They convert electrical energy into
light through a process called electroluminescence. The construction involves a semiconductor
material with a p-n junction and when current flows through it, photons are emitted.
Photodiodes: Operation and Applications

Photodiodes are the magic eyes that sense light and convert it into electrical signals. They operate
based on the principle of the photoelectric effect, where incident photons generate electron-hole
pairs in the semiconductor material, creating a photocurrent. Photodiodes find applications in optical
communication, light sensing and more.
Solar Cells: Conversion of Light into Electricity

Witness the incredible power of solar cells as they harness the energy of sunlight and convert it
into electricity through the photovoltaic effect. These devices hold the key to clean and renewable
energy, making a positive impact on our environment.
The world of optoelectronic devices is filled with captivating applications, from lighting up our lives
with LEDs to harnessing the power of the sun with solar cells.
14. Exercises
14.1 Exercise: Microspocic Physics
Single Choice Questions
1. An atom absorbs a photon having frequency 8 ˆ 1014 Hz and immediately emits another
photon having wavelength 580 nm. What is the net energy absorbed by the photon?
A. 3.3 eV
B. 2.1 eV
C. 1.1 eV
D. 0.5 eV
2. Gaseous ionization requires energy changes of 1 ˆ 10´18 J to 1 ˆ 10´16 J. What region of

the Sun’s electromagnetic spectrum is responsible for creating the ionosphere in the Earth’s
atmosphere?
A. Microwaves.
B. Infrared.
C. Visible.
478 Chapter 14. Exercises
D. Ultraviolet.
3. Light bulb A emits at 400 nm and light bulb B emits at 700 nm, both being rated at 130 W.
Which bulb emits photons at a greater rate?
A. Bulb A.
B. Bulb B.
C. Both emit at same rate.
D. Insufficient information given.
4. In the previous problem,

A. Bulb A generates 2 ˆ 1020 more photons per second than bulb B.
B. Bulb B generates 1 ˆ 1020 more photons per second than bulb B.
C. Number of photons generated cannot be calculated from the given data.
D. None of the above.
5. The surface temperature of the Sun is about 5800 K. At what wavelength would the Sun
radiate most strongly?
A. 570 nm
B. 500 nm
C. 57 nm
D. 0.5 nm
6. A bulb emits monochromatic light at a wavelength of 630 nm. It is rated at 70 W and has an
efficiency of 93.2% in converting electricity to light. How many total photons will it emit, if
its lifespan is 730 hrs?
A. 9.62 ˆ 1032
B. 7.20 ˆ 1032
C. 5.43 ˆ 1026
D. 4.41 ˆ 1026
7. A cavity, whose walls are held at 1900 K, has a small hole, of diameter 1 mm drilled in its
wall. At what rate does energy escape through his hole from the interior of the cavity?
A. 150 W
B. 390 W
14.1 Exercise: Microspocic Physics 479
C. 580 mW
D. 732.5 mW
8. The minimum energy needed to remove an electron from sodium metal is 2.28 eV. Does
sodium show photoelectric effect with red lightpλ “ 678nm)?
A. Yes
B. No
C. Cannot be said
D. Sometimes yes, sometimes no.
9. The stopping potential for electrons emitted from a surface illuminated by light of wavelength
490 nm is 710 mV. When the incident wavelength is changed to a new value, the stopping
potential becomes 1.43 V. What is the new wavelength?
A. 380 nm
B. 570 nm
C. 1024 nm
D. 2581 nm
10. If the work function for a metal is 1.85 eV what would be the stopping potential for light of
wavelength 410 nm?
A. 2.1 V
B. 1.2 V
C. 3.4 V
D. 4.3 V
11. In the previous problem, what will be the maximum speed of the emitted electron at the
surface?
A. 6.4ˆ105 m/s
B. 3.2ˆ105 m/s
C. 1.6ˆ105 m/s
D. 0.8ˆ105 m/s
12. An argon atom at 300 K is travelling upwards into a laser beam of wavelength 105 nm. What
is the reduction in speed of the atom if it absorbs a single photon from this beam?
A. 9.5 m/s
B. -9.5 m/s
C. 9.5 cm/s
D. -9.5 cm/s
13. Photo-electrons emitted from a metal of work function 2 eV describes a circle of diameter 2
mm, in a magnetic field of induction 1 mT. The energy of incident photons is
A. 1.17 eV
B. 0.17 eV
C. 1.6 eV
D. None of these.
14. A pulse of light has power 4.5 mW. This pulse is of duration 250 µs. This pulse is completely
absorbed by an electron, initially at rest. What will be the final momentum of the electron?
A. 75 ˆ 10´17 kgm/s
B. 375 ˆ 10´17 kgm/s
C. 1 ˆ 10´17 kgm/s
D. None of these.
15. A proton is fired from very far away towards a nucleus with charge 200e, where e is the
electronic charge. It makes a closest approach of distance 15 fm to the nucleus. The de-broglie
wavelength at the start of the journey of the proton is? (Mass of proton = 1.66 ˆ10´27 kg)
A. 7.0 fm
B. 6.6 fm
C. 4.9 fm
D. 3.0 fm
16. Light of wavelength 1500 0.05A falls on a metal of work-function 7 eV. What is the velocity
of the electrons emitted?
A. 663 km/s
B. 1010 km/s
C. 6600 km/s
D. 45 km/s
17. Monochromatic light of wavelength 3000 0.05A and intensity 150 mW/m2 is incident on a
surface area of 4 cm2 . The rate at which photons strike the target is
A. 9 ˆ 1013 /s
B. 3 ˆ 1016 /s
C. 1.5 ˆ 1013 /s
D. 3 ˆ 1013 /s
18. Assume 10% efficiency of current in photo-electric effect. For a 75 W source and 5000 0.05A,
calculate the photocurrent.
A. 0.5 A
B. 1 A
C. 2 A
D. 3 A
19. In the figure, if h is Planck’s constant and e is the charge of electron, then,
tan θ
A. e “
h
V sin θ
(volt) B. e “
h
h
θ C. e “
tan θ
h
D. e “
sin θ
ν (Hz)
20. The exchange of energy between light and matter is governed by the . . . . . . properties of light.
The propagation of light is governed by its . . . . . . properties.
A. wave, wave
B. particle, particle
C. particle, wave
D. wave, particle
21. Which of the following is incorrect?

A. The rate of emission of photo-electrons does not depend on incident intensity.
B. The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photo-electrons is independent of the

intensity of incident light.
C. The maximum kinetic energy of the photo-electrons decreases linearly with 1{λ .
D. After the incidence of light on the metal surface, the photo-electrons are emitted instantly.
22. A source of power 2 kW produces 2.5 ˆ 1019 photons per second. The radiation is,
A. X-rays
B. Ultraviolet
C. Visible
D. Infrared
23. Two monochromatic beams, A and B of equal intensity hit a screen. The number of photons
emitted in A is half the number of photons emitted in B. Then,
A. νA “ νB
B. 2νA “ νB
C. νA “ 2νB
D. Any of the three are possible.
24. de-Broglie wavelength of an electron, accelerated by 3 V in Angstrom is,

A. 1
?
B. 2
C. 5
D. 7
25. Orbits of a particle moving in a circle are such that the perimeter of the orbit equals an integer
number of de-Broglie wavelengths of the particle. For a charged particle moving in a plane
perpendicular to a magnetic field, the radius of the nth orbital will be proportional to
A. n1
B. n´1
C. n1{2
D. n2
26. The energy of a photon (E) is equal to the kinetic energy of a proton. Let λ1 and λ2 be the
λ2
de-Broglie wavelengths of the proton and photon respectively. Then is proportional to
λ1
A. E 1{2
B. E 1
C. E ´1{2
D. E 0
27. A metal ball of work function 4.47 eV and radius 1 cm is irradiated with radiation of
wavelength 2500 0.05A. What is the charge on the ball?
A. 5.5 ˆ 10´13 C
B. 4.5 ˆ 10´13 C
C. 3.5 ˆ 10´13 C
D. 7.5 ˆ 10´13 C
28. An electron of mass m and charge e is at rest initially. It gets accelerated by a constant electric
d2λ
field E. What is 2 , where λ is the de-Broglie wavelength and t is the time?
dt
nh
A.
eEt 2
´2h
B.
eEt 2
nh
C.
eE
2h
D.
eEt 3
29. In a photo-electric effect measurement, the stopping potential for a metal is V0 when radiation
of wavelength λ0 is used. If radiation of wavelength 3λ0 is used, then the stopping potential
will be
2 hc
A. V0 `
3 eλ0
B. V0
2
C. V0
3
D. None of these.
30. Radiation of wavelength λ is incident on a photocell. The fastest emitted electron has speed v.
2
If the incident wavelength is changed to λ , then the speed of the fastest emitted electron
5
will be ˆ ˙
5 1{2
A. “ v
2
ˆ ˙1{2
5
B. ă v
2
ˆ ˙1{2
5
C. ą v
2
D. It does not depend on the wavelength of the incident radiation. It will remain v.
Multiple select questions (for NEST)
1. For aluminium, 4.2 eV is required to remove an electron. Then, if light of wavelength 200 nm
is incident on aluminium,
A. Kinetic energy of fastest emitted electron is 2 eV.
B. Kinetic energy of slowest emitted electron is 2 eV.
C. The cut-off wavelength is around 300 nm.
D. Kinetic energy of slowest emitted electron is 0.
2. Which of the following are correct?

A. Black body radiation can be explained on the basis of particle nature of light.
B. Photo-electric effect can be explained on the basis of particle nature of light.
C. Interference can be explained on the basis of wave nature of light.
D. Diffraction can be explained on the basis of wave nature of light.
3. In the Davisson-Germer experiment,

A. Nickel crystal behaves like a 3-D diffraction grating and it diffracts the photon beam
from the gun.
B. The diffracted result is received by the detector, which can be positioned at any angle by
rotating it about the point of incidence.
C. According to classical physics, the intensity of the incident light at all scattering angles
will be the same.
D. Davisson and Germer proved experimentally option (C).
4. An electron is moving in a magnetic field directed in the y-direction, with initial velocity in
the x-direction. Then,
A. The de-Broglie wavelength decreases.
B. The de-Broglie wavelength remains same.
C. The de-Broglie wavelength increases.
D. The force opposes the initial velocity.
5. Which of the following is/are incorrect?

A. Frank-Hertz experiment deals with the particle nature of light.
B. Frank-Hertz experiment also deals with the structure.
C. Photo-electric experiment deals with the wave nature of electron.
D. Davisson-Germer experiment deals with the discrete energy levels of atom.
6. A photocell has a constant potential across it. It is first illuminated by a point source from a
distance of 10 cm, then from a distance 20 m.
A. The number of electrons emitted in the first case are 2 ˆ 10´4 times the second case.
B. The number of electrons emitted in the first case are 4 ˆ 104 times the second case.
C. The intensity in the first case is 4 ˆ 104 times the second case.
D. The intensity in the first case is 4 ˆ 10´4 times the second case.

A. The rest mass of a photon is zero.
B. The rest mass of an electron is zero.
C. Relative velocity of two photons travelling in opposite directions is zero.
D. Relative velocity of two photons travelling in opposite directions is speed of light.

A. Davisson-Germer experiment established the particle nature of electron.
B. Davisson-Germer experiment established the wave nature of electron.
C. If electrons have wave nature, they can interfere.
D. If electrons have wave nature, they can show diffraction.
9. An electron beam is accelerated by a potential difference V to hit a metallic target to produce

X-rays. If λmin is the smallest possible wavelength of X-rays in the spectrum, the graph
variation of log λmin with logV,
A. is a straight line.
B. is not a straight line.
C. the y-intercept is around 6.
D. has a slope -1.
m
10. A particle A of mass m and linear velocity v collides with a particle B of mass , at rest. The
2
collision is head on and elastic.
λA
A. The ratio of de-Broglie wavelengths, “2
λB
λA 1
B. The ratio of de-Broglie wavelengths, “
λB 2
C. The co-efficient of restitution is 1.
D. The co-efficient of restitution in this case is not 1.
Answer Key
Table 14.1: Answer Key (SCQs)
Question 1 2 3 4 5
Answer (C) (D) (B) (D) (B)
Question 6 7 8 9 10
Answer (C) (C) (B) (A) (B)
Question 11 12 13 14 15
Answer (A) (D) (D) (B) (B)
Question 16 17 18 19 20
Answer (A) (A) (D) (C) (C)
Question 21 22 23 24 25
Answer (A) (A) (C) (D) (C)
Question 26 27 28 29 30
Answer (C) (A) (D) (D) (C)
Question 1 2 3 4 5
Answer (A, C, D) (A, B, C, (b c) (B) (A, B, C,
D) D)
Question 6 7 8 9 10
Answer (B, C) (A, D) (B, C, D) (A, D) (A, C)
14.2 Exercises: Semiconductors 489
14.2 Exercises: Semiconductors
Single Choice Questions
1. When a semiconducting material is doped with an impurity, new acceptor levels are created.
In a particular thermal collision, a valence electron receives an energy equal to 2kT and just
reaches one of the acceptor levels. Assuming that the energy of the electron was at the top
edge of the valence band and that the temperature T is equal to 300 K, find the energy of the
acceptor levels above the valence band
A. 50meV
B. 100meV
C. 20meV
D. 55meV
2. Suppose the energy liberated in the recombination of a hole-electron pair is converted into
electromagnetic radiation. If the maximum wavelength emitted is 820 nm, what is the band
gap ?
A. 2.5eV
B. 2.0eV
C. 1.5eV
D. 1.0eV
3. Find the maximum wavelength of electromagnetic radiation which can create a hole-electron
pair in germanium. The band gap in germanium is 0.65eV.
A. 1.0 ˆ 10´6 m
B. 2.9 ˆ 10´6 m
C. 2.0 ˆ 10´6 m
D. 1.9 ˆ 10´6 m
4. In a photodiode, the conductivity increases when the material is exposed to light. It is found
that the conductivity changes only if the wavelength is less than 620 nm. What is the band
gap?
A. 1.0eV
B. 2.0eV
C. 3.0eV
D. 4.0eV
5. The product of the hole concentration and the conduction electron concentration turns out
to be independent of the amount of any impurity doped. The concentration of conduction
electrons in germanium is 6 ˆ 1019 per cubic metre. When some phosphorus impurity is
doped into a germanium sample, the concentration of conduction electrons increases to 2ˆ
1023 per cubic metre. Find the concentration of the holes in the doped germanium.
A. 1.0 ˆ 1016 per m3
B. 2.0 ˆ 1016 per m3
C. 1.8 ˆ 1016 per m3
D. 3.0 ˆ 1016 per m3
6. A semiconducting material has a band gap of 1eV. Acceptor impurities are doped into it
which create acceptor levels 1meV above the valence band. Assume that the transition from
one energy level to the other is almost forbidden if kT is less than 1/50 of the energy gap.
Also, if kT is more than twice the gap, the upper levels have maximum population. The
temperature of the semiconductor is increased from 0 K. The concentration of the holes
increases with temperature and after a certain temperature it becomes approximately constant.
As the temperature is further increased, the hole concentration again starts increasing at a
certain temperature. Find the order of the temperature range in which the hole concentration
remains approximately constant
A. 20 to 230k
B. 10 to 100k
C. 20 to 100k
D. 10 to 230k
7. The drift current in a p-n junction is 20.0µA. Estimate the number of electrons crossing a
cross section per second in the depletion region
A. 0.1 ˆ 1013
B. 2.1 ˆ 1013
C. 6.25 ˆ 1013
D. 4.1 ˆ 1013
8. Find the equivalent resistance of the network shown in figure between the points A and B
A. 5Ω if VA ą VB and 10Ω if VA ă VB
B. 10Ω if VA ą VB and 5Ω if VA ă VB
C. 2Ω if VA ą VB and 1Ω if VA ă VB
D. 1Ω if VA ą VB and 2Ω if VA ă VB
9. When the base current in a transistor is changed from 30µA to 80µA, the collector current is
changed from 1.0 mA to 3.5 mA. Find the current gain β .
A. 100
B. 25
C. 150
D. 50
10. A load resistor of 2kΩ is connected in the collector branch of an amplifier circuit using a
transistor in common-emitter mode. The current gain β “ 50. The input resistance of the
transistor is 0.50kΩ. If the input current is changed by 50µA, by what amount does the output
voltage change
A. 1.0 V
B. 5.0 V
C. 2.0 V
D. 1.5 V
11. When a forward bias is applied to a p ´ n junction. It

A. raises the potential barrier
B. reduces the majority carrier current to zero
C. lowers the potential barrier
D. All of the above
12. For transistor action, which of the following statements are correct?
A. Base, emitter and collector regions should have similar size and doping concentrations
B. The base region must be very thin and lightly doped
C. The emitter junction is backward biased and collector junction is forward biased.
D. Both the emitter junction as well as the collector junction are forward biased
13. For a transistor amplifier, the voltage gain

A. remains constant for all frequencies
B. is high at high and low frequencies and constant in the middle frequency range
C. is low at high and low frequencies and constant at mid frequencies
D. None of the above
14. The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increase in temperature because

A. number density of free current carriers increases
B. relaxation time increases
C. both number density of carriers and relaxation time decreases but effect of decrease in
relaxation time is much less than increase in number density.
D. number density of current carriers increases, relaxation time decreases but effect of
decrease in relaxation time is much less than increase in number density
15. In figure, assuming the diodes to be ideal,
A. D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased and hence current flows from A to B.
B. D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased and hence no current flows from B to A
and vice-versa.
C. D1 and D2 are both forward biased and hence current flows from A to B.
D. D1 and D2 are both reverse biased and hence no current flows from A to B and vice-versa.
16. The following describes what a hole is :

A. An anti-particle of electron
B. A vacancy created when an electron leaves a covalent bond
C. Absence of free electrons
D. An artificially created particle
17. A 220 V AC supply is connected between points A and B. What will be the potential difference
V across the capacitor?
A. 220 V
B. 110 V
C. 0 V
?
D. 220 2 V
18. The potential barrier existing across an unbiased p-n junction is 0.2 volt. What minimum
kinetic energy a hole should have to diffuse from the p-side to the n-side if the junction is
unbiased
A. 0.2eV
B. 0.1eV
C. 0.3eV
D. 1.2eV
19. Find the current through the battery in each of the circuits shown in figure
A. 2 A and 1 A
B. 2 A and 0.5
C. 0.5 and 1 A
D. 1 A and 0.5 A
eV
¨ ˛
20. Consider a p-n junction diode having the characteristic i “ i0 ˝e kT ´ 1‚ where i0 “ 20µA.
The diode is operated at T “ 300k. Find the current through the diode when a voltage of
300mV is applied across it in forward bias.
A. 3 A
B. 1 A
C. 2 A
D. 4 A
21. A hole diffuses from the p-side to the n-side in a p - n junction. This means that
A. a bond is broken on the n-side and the electron freed from the bond jumps to the
conduction band
B. a conduction electron on the p-side jumps to a broken bond to complete it
C. a bond is broken on the n-side and the electron freed from the bond jumps to a broken
bond on the p-side to complete it
D. a bond is broken on the p-side and the electron freed from the bond jumps to a broken
bond on the n-side to complete it.
22. In a transistor
A. the emitter has the least concentration of impurity

B. the collector has the least concentration of impurity
C. the base has the least concentration of impurity
D. all the three regions have equal concentrations of impurity.
23. Let n p and ne be the numbers of holes and conduction electrons in an intrinsic semiconductor
A. n p ą ne
B. n p “ ne
C. n p ă ne
D. n p ‰ ne
24. In the circuit shown in figure, the base current ib “ 10µA and the collector current ic “ 52
mA. Can this transistor be used as an amplifier?
A. Yes
B. No
C. Can’t be determined
D. Insufficient information
25. An NPN transistor in a common emitter mode is used as a simple voltage amplifier with a
collector current of 4 mA. The terminal of a 8 V battery is connected to the collector through
a load resistance RL and to the base through a resistance RB . The collector emitter voltage
VCE “ 4 V, base emitter voltage VBE “ 06.V and current amplification factor is β “ 100.
Calculate the values of RL and RB
A. 103 Ω, 1.85 ˆ 105 Ω
B. 10Ω, 1.55 ˆ 105 Ω
C. 102 Ω, 0.85 ˆ 105 Ω
D. 102 Ω, 2.85 ˆ 105 Ω
26. A NPN transistor is connected in common emitter configuration in which collector supply is
8 V and the voltage drop across the load resistance of 800Ω connected in collector circuit is
0.8 V. If current amplification factor β “ 25{26, determine collector emitter voltage and base
current.
A. 3.2 V, 0.04 ˆ 10´3 A
B. 2.2 V, 1.04 ˆ 10´3 A
C. 1.2 V, 2.04 ˆ 10´3 A
D. 7.2 V, 1.04 ˆ 10´3 A
27. The real time variation of input signals A & B are as shown below. If the inputs are into
NAND gate, then select the output signals from the following :-
28. If α and β are the current gain in the CB and CE configurations respectively of the transistor
circuit then pβ ´ αq{αβ “ . . .
A. 8
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
29. If α “ 0.98 and current through emitter ie “ 20 mA the value of β is

A. 4.9
B. 49
C. 96
D. 9.6
30. Two identical p-n junctions may be connected in series with a battery in three ways (figure).
The potential difference across the two p-n junctions are equal in
A. circuit 1 and circuit 2

B. circuit 2 and circuit 3
C. circuit 3 and circuit 1

D. circuit 1 only.
Multiple Select Questions:

1. The impurity atoms with which pure silicon may be doped to make it a p-type semiconductor
are those of
A. phosphorus
B. boron
C. antimony
D. aluminium.
2. A semiconducting device is connected in a series circuit with a battery and a resistance. A

current is found to pass through the circuit. If the polarity of the battery is reversed, the
current drops to almost zero. The device may be
A. an intrinsic semiconductor
B. a p-type semiconductor
C. an n-type semiconductor
D. a p-n junction.
3. A semiconductor is doped with a donor impurity

A. The hole concentration increases.
B. The hole concentration decreases.
C. The electron concentration increases.
D. The electron concentration decreases.
4. In a normal operation of a transistor,

A. the base-emitter junction is forward-biased
B. the base-collector junction is forward-biased
C. the base-emitter junction is reverse-biased
D. the base-collector junction is reverse-biased
5. Let iE , iC and iB represent the emitter current, the collector current and the base current
respectively in a transistor. Then
A. iC is slightly smaller than iE
B. iC is slightly greater than iE

C. iB is much smaller than iE
D. iB is much greater than iE
6. In the depletion region of a diode,

A. there are no mobile charges
B. equal number of holes and electrons exist, making the region neutral
C. recombination of holes and electrons has taken place
D. immobile charged ions exist.
7. What happens during regulation action of a Zener diode?

A. The current and voltage across the Zener remains fixed.
B. The current through the series resistance (R) changes.
C. The Zener resistance is constant.
D. The resistance offered by the Zener changes.
8. The breakdown in a reverse biased p-n junction diode is more likely to occur due to
A. large velocity of the minority charge carriers if the doping concentration is small
B. large velocity of the minority charge carriers if the doping concentration is large
C. strong electric field in a depletion region if the doping concentration is small
D. strong electric field in the depletion region if the doping concentration is large.
9. In an n ´ p ´ n transistor circuit, the collector current is 10mA. If 95 per cent of the electrons
emitted reach the collector, which of the following statements are true?
A. The emitter current will be 8 mA
B. The emitter current will be 10.53 mA.
C. The base current will be 0.53 mA
D. The base current will be 2 mA.
10. Consider an n-p-n transistor with its base-emitter junction forward biased and collector base
junction reverse biased. Which of the following statements are true?
A. Electrons crossover from emitter to collector.
B. Holes move from base to collector.
C. Electrons move from emitter to base.
D. Electrons from emitter move out of base without going to the collector.
Answer Key
Question 1 2 3 4 5
Answer (A) (C) (D) (B) (C)
Question 6 7 8 9 10
Answer (A) (C) (A) (D) (B)
Question 11 12 13 14 15
Answer (C) (B) (C) (D) (B)
Question 16 17 18 19 20
Answer (B) (D) (A) (D) (C)
Question 21 22 23 24 25
Answer (C) (C) (B) (B) (A)
Question 26 27 28 29 30
Answer (D) (B) (B) (B) (B)
Question 1 2 3 4 5
Answer (B, D) (D) (B, C) (A, D) (A, C)
Question 6 7 8 9 10
Answer (A, B, C) (B, D) (A, D) (B, C) (A, C)
14.3 Previous Year Questions 501
14.3 Previous Year Questions

IISER Aptitude Test
1. [IAT 2017] In the given circuit, the input voltages at P and Q could be either 0 V or 10 V. Use
the fact that a diode under forward bias is a short circuit and under reverse bias is an open
circuit. The truth table of this circuit will be that of
A. an AND gate
B. a NAND gate
C. an OR gate
D. a NOR gate
2. [IAT 2017] From the given plot of the decay rate R versus time t of some radioactive nuclei,
the half life of the nuclei in hours can be estimated to be,
A. 2.5
B. 0.6ln2
C. 5/3ln2
D. 3
3. [IAT 2018] What is the probability that a radioactive nucleus will not have decayed after a
time equal to twice it’s half life?
A. 0.50
B. 0.75
C. 0.01
D. 0.25
4. [IAT 2018] For a p-n junction normal diode and a Zener diode, which of the following
statements is true?
A. The Zener diode has thicker depletion region and normal diode has higher electric field
across the junction
B. The normal diode has thicker depletion region and has higher electric field across the
junction.
C. The zener diode has thicker depletion region and higher electric field across the junction
D. The zener diode has thicker depletion region and higher electric field across the junction
5. [IAT 2018] λ2 and λ4 are the wavelengths of photons required to excite the hydrogen atom
from it’s ground state to it’s second and fourth excited states, respectively. What is the ratio
of λ2 {λ4 ?
A. 0.25
B. 4
C. 1.25
D. 0.8
6. [IAT 2019] The allowed energy levels of electrons in a Hydrogen atom are given by En “
´13.6{n2 eV . For electronic transition in Hydrogen atom, what is the maximum frequency of
the emitted photon? (h = 6.62 ˆ 10´34 Js; e = 1.6 ˆ 10´19 C)
A. 2.1 ˆ 106 GHz
B. 5.5 ˆ 106 GHz
C. 3.3 ˆ 106 GHz

D. 1.7 ˆ 106 GHz
7. [IAT 2020] Consider the circuit with a Zener diode whose breakdown voltage Vs “ 4V . What
is the voltage Vo if Vi “ 20V ?
A. 8 V
B. 12 V
C. 10 V
D. 16 V
8. [IAT 2020] In the photoelectric effect experiment, the frequency of the incident light is
changed from red to blue while keeping the energy per unit area per unit time of the incident
radiation fixed. What will happen to the saturation current?
A. Saturation current does not depend on frequency and therefore will be same for red and
blue light
B. Saturation current depends on intensity and therefore will be same for red and blue light
C. Saturation current for blue color light is larger than red color light
D. Saturation current for blue color light is smaller than red color light
9. [IAT 2020] An electron of mass me has a speed un in the nth Bohr orbit of a hydrogen atom.
The normalized speed Vn is given as Vn “ un {c “ 1{685 and the mass of the electron in the
units of energy is given as Me = me c2 = 0.51 ˆ 106 eV, where c is the velocity of light in
e2
vacuum. It is given that 1/137. The Planck’s constant h is given as 4.13 ˆ 10´15 eV-sec.
2εo hc
The electron makes a transition from nth orbit to the ground state of the atom. What is the
frequency of the emitted photon?
A. 3.29 ˆ 1015
B. 2.47 ˆ 1015
C. 2.93 ˆ 1015
D. 3.16 ˆ 1015
10. [IAT 2021] A 2-input exclusive OR (XOR) gate with inputs X and Y produces the output
X̄Y ` X Ȳ . In the Boolean circuit shown below, which values of the inputs P and Q will
produce the output 0?
A. P=0,Q=0
B. P=1,Q=0
C. P=0,Q=1
D. P=1,Q=1
11. [IAT 2021] The half life of a radioactive element is 000 hours. Approximately how much
time is required for the decay of 2/3 of its nuclei?
A. 1170 hrs
B. 3000 hrs
C. 3170 hrs
D. 2830 hrs
12. [IAT 2021] In an experiment on the photoelectric effect, the de Broglie wavelength of the
emitted electron is λB . The energy of the photon incident on the metal is five times the work
function. If h is Planck’s constant and me is the electron mass, then what is the work function?
h2
A.
10me λB2
h2
B.
4me λB2
h2
C.
12me λB2
h2
D.
8me λB2
13. [IAT 2022] Consider that in a fission of a single Uranium pU 235 q atom 200 MeV energy is
released. Assuming all atoms Of Uranium undergo fission, which Of the following options is
the closest estimate of the amount of Uranium required for a 20,000 units of TNT explosion?
(1 unit of TNT= 4.184 ˆ 109 J, 11eV “ 1.6 ˆ 10´19 J)
A. 60g
B. 10kg
C. 1kg
D. 0.5kg
14. [IAT 2022] The figures in the options show the photocurrent J of a photoelectric material
versus the wavelength of an incident light beam. The light beam can have three different
intensities I1 , I2 , I3 , with II ą I2 ą I3 . Which of the options is correct?
National Entrance Screening Test

1. [NEST 2008] A sample of radioactive nuclei of a certain element can decay by both γ
emission and β emission. The half-life for γ emission is 24 minutes and that for β emission
is 36 minutes. The half-life for the sample is nearly
A. 60 minutes
B. 14 minutes
C. 24 minutes
D. 30 minutes
2. [NEST 2008] A free particle with initial kinetic energy E and de Broglie wavelength λ enters
a regionîn which
˙ it has potential energy V. The particle’s new de Broglie wavelength is
V
A. λ 1 ´
E
V ´1
ˆ ˙
B. λ 1 ´
E
V 1{2
ˆ ˙
C. λ 1 ´
E
V ´1{2
ˆ ˙
D. λ 1 ´
E
3. [NEST 2008] An element X is brought to an ionized hydrogenic ground state. It is then
converted to a fully ionized forn by absorption of monochromatic light of wavelength 1.42
nm (l nm = 10´9 m). (An ionized hydrogenic state is an ion with only one electron orbiting
the nucleus.) Which of the following statement(s) is/are true?
A. The atomic number of the element is 6.
B. Its first Bohr orbit has a radius of 0.053 nm.
C. According to the Bohr model, the angular momentum of the hydrogenic ground state of
the element X is about 10´34 Js.
D. It is possible to reconvert it to the hydrogenic ground state by absorption of an electron
followed by the emission of a photon of wavelength 1.42
4. [NEST 2009] In an α-decay of a nucleus of A = 200 at rest in the laboratory, the Q-value is 5
MeV. Choose the correct statement(s).
A. The de Broglie wavelengths of the emitted α particle and of the recoil nucleus are equal.
B. The kinetic energy of the α particle and the recoil nucleus (as seen in the laboratory) are
nearly equal.
C. The kinetic energy of the α particle is approximately 4.9 MeV.
D. The de Broglie wavelength of the α particle is approximately 1 A.
5. [NEST 2009] A radioactive source, (t1{2 “ 5 min) was found to have a counting rate of 12000
counts/sec at an instant. Fifteen minutes after this observation, the counting rate is
A. 1500 counts/sec
B. 6000 counts/sec
C. 4000 counts/sec
D. 750 counts/sec
6. [NEST 2009] In a laboratory projectiles of mass m1 collide with a target of mass m2 at rest. It
is observed that there are projectiles hurled at large scattering angles (>150˝ ). For this
A. the impact parameter of m1 must be large and m1 ă m2
B. the impact parameter of m1 must be small and m1 ă m2
C. the impact parameter of m1 must be large and m1 ą m2
D. the impact parameter of m1 must be small and m1 ą m2
7. [NEST 2010] We want to determine the value of Planck’s constant, h, by doing an experiment
using the photoelectric effect. This experiment is performed by varying both the frequency of
the incident light as well as its intensity and measuring both the voltage and the current. In
order to calculate h, it would be best to plot
A. current as a function of frequency.
B. current as a function of intensity.
C. stopping potential as a function of intensity.
D. stopping potential as a function of frequency.
8. [NEST 2010] Electrons accelerated in an X-ray tube strike a nickel target (ZNi = 28) and
come to rest. The resulting continuous X-ray spectrum has a minimum wavelength given by
λmin “ 3 ˆ 10´11 m. If the nickel target is replaced by a molybdenum target (ZMo = 42), the
minimum wavelength will be
A. 3 ˆ 10´11 m
B. 2 ˆ 10´11 m
C. 4.5 ˆ 10´11 m
D. 6.8 ˆ 10´11 m
9. [NEST 2010] An excited state of doubly ionised Lithium (Li2` ) has an orbital radius that is
about 1.33 times that of the ground state of hydrogen (H) (in Bohr’s theory). The ratio of
energy of the two states, E(Li2` )/E(H), is
A. 2.25
B. 4.5
C. 1
D. 9
10. [NEST 2010] Consider positron (e` ) emission from a nucleus at rest:
A. The emitted e` has a continuous energy spectrum since the energy released in the decay
is shared by e` and ν.
B. If there was no additional particle ν emitted in the decay, the energy of the emitted e`
would be always equal to pMX ´ MY qc2 , if the recoil energy of Y is neglected. (MX and
MY are rest masses of the nuclei X and Y, resp., and c is light speed in vacuum.)
C. The emitted neutrino (ν) always has non-relativistic speed (i.e., speed much less than c)
due to its very small rest mass.

D. Consider the competing process to the positron emission, in which an electron (e´ ) from
an inner orbit of the atom (K shell) is captured by the nucleus and a neutrino is emitted.
e´ ` XZA ÝÑ YZ´1
A
`ν
This process is energetically allowed if e` emission process is energetically allowed.

(“Energetically allowed” is allowed by the conservation of energy and momentum)
11. [NEST 2011] The electron in the Li2` ion is replaced by a meson which has the same charge
as the electron. Such an ion is called a Li2` mesic ion. Let EB be the binding energy of the
hydrogen atom and rB the Bohr radius. You may take the mass of a meson to be 200 times the
mass of electron. Which of the following statements is/are true for the Li2` mesic ion?
A. The binding energy is 1800EB
B. The radius of the meson in the ground state is rB {1800
C. The angular momentum in the ground state is 200h{2π where h is the Planck’s constant
D. The Balmer series will be in the infrared wavelengths.
12. [NEST 2011] In a photoelectric setup, three metals M1 , M2 and M3 with work functions
φ1 , φ2 and φ3 respectively (0 ă φ1 ă φ2 ă φ3 ), are illuminated with light of frequency ν and
wavelength λ . The currents i and voltages V are registered. The stopping potential and cutoff
wavelength are denoted by Vo and λ0 respectively. Which plot below could be a possible
outcome of the experiment?
13. [NEST 2012] Consider a 3-level system with energies E1 , E2 and E3 in ascending order. λ1 ,
λ2 and are the wavelengths of radiation corresponding to the transitions E2 ÝÑ E1 , E3 ÝÑ E2
and E3 ÝÑ E1 respectively. The wavelengths are related by,
A. λ1 “ λ2 λ3 {pλ3 ´ λ2 q
B. λ2 “ λ3 ´ λ1
C. λ2 “ λ1 λ3 {pλ3 ` λ1 q
D. λ3 “ λ1 λ2 {pλ1 ` λ2 q
14. [NEST 2012] A and B are two radioactive substances. The half-life of A is same as the
average life of B. The decay constant of B is 3.33 per day. (assume ln2 = 0.70)
A. If initially A and B have the same number of nuclei, then the ratio of the number of
nuclei of A to that of B will be l/e after 1 day.
B. If the initial amount of A and B are the same, then the ratio of the number of nuclei of A
to that of B will grow exponentially.
C. If the initial amount of B is twice that of A, then the number of nuclei of A and B will
be the same after 0.7 days.
D. 85.7% of A will disintegrate in about 3 days.
15. [NEST 2013] The binding energy per nucleon of X 10 is 8 MeV and that of X 11 is 7.5 MeV
where X represents an element. The minimum energy needed to remove a neutron from X 11 is
A. 7.5 Mev
B. 2.5 MeV
C. 8 MeV
D. 0.5 MeV
16. [NEST 2013] The mean momentum p of a particle has uncertainty ∆p. Taking Planck’s
constant to be h. the uncertainty on the de Broglie wavelength of the particle is
h
A.
∆p
h∆p
B.
p
C. 0
h∆p
D.
p2
17. [NEST 2014] A free particle with initial kinetic energy 9 eV and de Broglie wavelength 1 nm
enters a region of constant potential energy V0 such that the new de Broglie wavelength is
now 1.5 nm. Then V0 is
A. 5 eV
B. 6 eV
C. 13.5 eV
D. 15 eV
18. [NEST 2014] Consider the sequential radioactive decay process
K1 2K
A ÝÑ B ÝÑ C
with decay constants, K1 and K2 such that 2K1 “ K2 . At time t = 0 the number NA ptq of the
species A is N0 and the numbers NB ptq and Nc ptq Of species B and C respectively, are zero.
Then
A. the sum NA ptq ` NB ptq ` Nc ptq is a constant at any given time t.
B. NB ptq exhibits a maximum.
C. Nc ptq approaches No as t ùñ inf
D. for t smaller than the half life of species A, NB ptq is greater than NA ptq.
19. [NEST 2015] The activity of two radioactive nuclei Q and R is plotted on a semi-log graph.
The half-life and decay constant of Q and R are (τQ ,λQ ) and (τR ,λR ) respectively. The plot
implies that (the symbol « means approximately equal to)
A. τQ « τR and λQ ą λR
B. τQ ą τR and λQ ă λR
C. τQ « τR and λQ « λR
D. τQ ă τR and λQ ą λR
20. [NEST 2015] The intensity of radiation from a human body is maximum around a certain
wavelength. A photon of this wavelength can just excite an electron from the valence to the
conduction band of a semiconductor used in a night vision device. Assume that the black
body radiation law holds for the human body. The band gap of such a semiconductor is near
A. 0.1 eV
B. 0.5 eV
C. 1.0 eV
D. 2.0 eV
21. [NEST 2016] Four ideal diodes are connected to form a circuit as shown in the figure. An
AC signal Vin = 10sinp100πtq volt is applied across points 1 and 2 and the output is measured
across points 5 and 6. The output voltage (Vout ) is
A. 10 sinp100πtq V
B. 10 V
C. 6.4 V
D. 3.2 V
22. [NEST 2016] In an experiment on photoelectric effect photons of wavelength 300 nm eject
electrons from a metal of work function 2.25eV. A photon of energy equal to that of the most
energetic electron corresponds to the following transition in the hydrogen atom:
A. n=2 to n=1 state

B. n=3 state to n=1 state
C. n=3 state to n=2 state
D. n=4 to n=3 state
23. [NEST 2017] A circuit with Si and Ge diodes is shown in the accompanying figure. The
barrier potential for Silicon is VSi =0.7V and that of Germanium is VGe =0.3V. If the input
voltage is 20 V, then the voltage VA measured across the resistance RL 1 kΩ is
A. 19.7 V
B. 19.3 V
C. 19.0 V
D. 18.7 V
24. [NEST 2017] Consider the following decay schemes: The energies corresponding to X and Y
with respect to Hg198 198

80 are 1.088 MeV and 0.412 MeV respectively [note the energy of Hg80
is taken to be 0 MeV.] The atomic masses of Au7 9198 and Hg198
80 are 197.966 u, respectively,
where 1 u should be taken as 931MeV {c2 . Then,
A. the energies corresponding to γ1 and γ2 are 1.088 MeV and 0.412 MeV respectively.
B. the energies corresponding to γ1 and γ3 are 1.088 MeV and 0.412 MeV respectively.
C. the maximum KE of β1´ and β2´ are about 0.77 MeV and 1.45 MeV respectively.
D. the energy corresponding to Au198
79 is 150 MeV
25. [NEST 2018] Consider the circuit with an ideal p-n diode as shown. Let Vp be the voltage
applied at the terminal P. The equivalent resistance between the terminals P and Q is R1 when
Vp = +5.0 V and R2 when Vp =-5.0 V. Then
A. R1 “ 5R{3 and R2 “ 3R{5

B. R1 “ 3R{5 and R2 “ 5R{3
C. R1 “ 2R{3 and R2 “ 5R{3
D. R1 “ 5R{3 and R2 “ 2R{3
26. [NEST 2019] Ten electrons, each of mass me , are confined to a one dimensional box of size
L. Assume that the electrons are non-interacting, obey the Pauli exlcusion principle and can
be described by de Broglie waves. Define α “ h2 {8me and U0 to be the ground state energy.
A. the total energy of the first excited state is U0 ` 11α{L2
B. U0 “ 110α{L2
C. the energy level of the highest occupied state is 100α{L2
D. the total energy of the second excited state is U0 ` 22α{L2 .
27. [NEST 2019] C14 has a half life of 5730 years and its abundance in the atmosphere is 1 in
1012 carbon atoms. A fresh sample of 0.001 mole of C02 collected from the atmosphere
records a decay of 1700 atoms over a week. A large piece of old wood is burnt and mole of
C02 collected from it records a decay of 430 C14 atoms over a week. Wood’s age is around
A. 8600 years
B. 11500 years
C. 2900 years
D. 1440 years
28. [NEST 2019] The speed, frequency of revolution and the radius of the electron in the nth
orbital in the Bohr model (Z=1) is denoted by νn , fnrev and rn respectively. Let f(n) be the
frequency of the photon when the electron makes a transition from the nth orbital to the
pn ´ 1qth orbital. Then
A. fnrev 91{n2
B. νn 91{n
C. rn 9n2
D. For large npąą 1q, f pnq “ fnrev
29. [NEST 2020] The remote control of a TV emits infra-red light of wavelength 900 nm. The
TV detector is made of a semiconductor whose band gap is x eV. The detector is shielded by
a semiconductor optical filter whose band gap is x eV. From the four options below, select the
best option for the TV to function.
A. x=1.2, y=1.4
B. x=1.1, y=1.8
C. x=2.2, y=1.0
D. x=2.0, y=1.2
30. [NEST 2020] A radioactive dye of 4 grams is injected into the bloodstream of a patient. The
half life of the dye is 6 hours. At the same time the dye is filtered and removed by the body
with a half life of 12 hours. One gram of the radioactive dye will be found in the blood after
A. 8 hours
B. 6 hours
C. 9 hours
D. 12 hours
31. [NEST 2020] A free particle with initial kinetic energy E and de Broglie wavelength λ enters
a region in which it has potential energy —V. Find new de Broglie wavelength of the particle.
A. λ p1 `V {Eq´1{2
B. λ p1 ´V {Eq1{2
C. λ p1 `V {Eq1{2
D. λ p1 ´V {Eq´1{2
32. [NEST 2020] The figure shows the emission spectra recorded for three different light sources
a, b and c using a spectrometer (note that the intensities are not to scale). Select the most
appropriate statement regarding the identity of the source.
A. a: blue LED, b: Incandescent bulb, c: atomic hydrogen

B. a: incandescent bulb, b: blue LED, c: atomic hydrogen
C. a: hydrogen gas. b: blue LED, c: incandescent bulb
D. a: blue LED, b: hydrogen gas, c:incandescent bulb
33. [NEST 2020] An element of atomic number Z is in the ionized hydrogenic ground state. The
largest wavelength that can convert it to a fully ionized state is 3.65nm. Select the correct
statement(s). (1 nm=10´9 m and take the ionization energy of the H-atom to be 13.60 eV)
A. It’s potential energy is 680 eV
B. Z=5
C. It’s kinetic energy is 340 eV
D. Its Bohr radius is 0.1nm
34. [NEST 2021] Consider an atomic species of atomic number Z and consisting of three electrons
which are orbiting equally spaced in the same circular orbit. Let aB be the Bohr radius and let
the Bohr quantization rule hold for each electron. Then the ground state radius of the three
electron atom is
aB
A. a
Z ´ 2{3
aB
B.
Z ´ 1{3
aB
C.
Z ´ 2{3
aB
D. ?
Z ´ 1{ 3
35. [NEST 2021] In a photoelectric setup electrons of maximum kinetic energy 0.5 eV and 1.3
eV are liberated when ultraviolet light of wavelengths 310 nm and 250 nm respectively are
employed. Then the calculated value of the Planck constant is closest to
A. 4.5 ˆ 10´34 Js
B. 7.5 ˆ 10´34
C. 6.5 ˆ 10´34
D. 5.5 ˆ 10´34
36. [NEST 2021] The photon flux of a one curie gamma ray source incident on a human tissue of
cross-sectional area 1.0 cm2 decreases exponentially with tissue depth x:
Ipxq “ I0 expp´µxq
where µ is the attenuation constant and I is the flux. Let E = 1 MeV be the average energy of
the incident gamma ray photon and σ be the surface mass density of the tissue. Select the
correct statement(s): (One curie is 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second)
A. At a distance of x “ 3{µI is close to 0.37I0
B. EI0 is of order 0.1 Watt/m2
C. The attenuation constant for beta rays is larger than that for photons of similar energy.
D. EI{σ has dimensions of L2 T ´3
37. [NEST 2022] The number of radioactive nuclei in a sample is halved every 69 sec. Then, on
an average the number of nuclei decaying per second is approximately
A. 1 in 70
B. 1 in 140
C. 1 in 100
D. 1 in 35
38. [NEST 2022] A detector records 200 events from the decay of a radioactive sample in the
first 10s. It records 74 events in the next 10 s. The half life of the sample is
A. 10s
B. 9s
C. 7s
D. 3s
39. [NEST 2022] An unbiased silicon based p-n junction along with the net charge density
profile is shown in the figure. The n and p sides are doped with phosphorus and boron atoms
respectively, each of density 1022 m´3 . Taking xn “ 3.3 ˆ 10´7 m and relative permitivity of
silicon to be 11.7, select the correct statement(s):
A. The electric field is in the negative x-direction

B. x p “ 3.3 ˆ 10´7
C. The magnitude of the electric field at x=0 is 4.9 ˆ 106V {m
D. The magnitude of the electric field from xn to x p decays exponentially
40. [NEST 2023] Consider the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom. Suppose that the charge of
the proton were 1.1e while the electron charge continued to be -e but the masses for both
remained unchanged. Then, the angular frequency of revolution ωB of the electron would
have
A. remain unchanged.
?
B. change to 1.1ωB .
C. change to 1.1 ωB .
D. change to 1.21 ωB .
41. [NEST 2023] Two radioactive samples X and Y have the same number of atoms initially
x of X is half the mean life of Y. Then the ratio
rNx pt “ 0q “ Ny pt “ 0qs. The half life τ1{2
x , is close to
Ny ptq{Nx ptq when t =τ1{2
A. 0.8
B. 1
C. 1.2
D. 1.4
42. [NEST 2023] A proton accelerated from rest by a potential difference of V volts has a
de Broglie wavelength of 0.20.05A (1.00.05A “ 10´10 m). A fully ionized Helium atom is
similarly accelerated by a potential difference of 2V volts. Its de Broglie wavelength (0.05A)
is closest to
A. 0.05
B. 0.07
C. 0.1
D. 0.2
43. [NEST 2023] Consider the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom with Bohr radius aB . If the
mass of the electron and that of the proton become twice the present values, then the new
Bohr radius will
A. remain unchanged
B. change to 2aB
C. change to aB {2
D. change to 4aB
44. [NEST 2023] A metal rod, connected between two high voltage electrodes, attains steady-
state temperature through a balance between radiated power loss and Joule heating. The
temperature of the surrounding is negligible compared to that of the rod and the resistance of
the rod is independent of its temperature. Assuming the current through the rod to be I, the
dominant wavelength of radiation(λ ) is given by λ 9I α . Then, the value of α is
A. 1
B. -0.5
C. 2
D. -1
Answer Key
Table 14.5: Answer Key (IAT)
Question 1 2 3 4 5
Answer (A) (C) (D) (B) (C)
Question 6 7 8 9 10
Answer (C) (A) (D) (D) (A)
Question 11 12 13 14
Answer (A) (A) (C) (B)
Table 14.6: Answer Key (NEST)
Question 1 2 3 4 5
Answer (D) (D) (D) (C) (A)
Question 6 7 8 9 10
Answer (B) (D) (A) (A) (A, B, D)
Question 11 12 13 14 15
Answer (A) (D) (D) (B, C) (B)
Question 16 17 18 19 20
Answer (D) (A) (A, B, C) (D) (A)
Question 21 22 23 24 25
Answer (C) (C) (A) (A, C) (B)
Question 26 27 28 29 30
Answer (A, B) (B) (B, C, D) (A) (A)
Question 31 32 33 34 35
Answer (A) (A) (B, C) (D) (C)
Question 36 37 38 39 40
Answer (A, C, D) (C) (C) (D) (D)
Question 41 42 43 44
Answer (C) (A) (C) (B)

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Modern Physics

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VI

11 Atomic Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

12 The Atomic Nuclei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443

10.1 Young’s Double Slit Experiment

10.2 Black Body Radiation

Color of the metal versus the temperature

Find the Formula!

where c is the speed of light in vacuum.

Graph of x2 {20, similar to the relation between

Planck to the Rescue!

10.3 It’s all Connected!

Back to Wien’s and Rayleigh-Jean’s Law

giving us an insightful result for the average energy distribution:

To determine the intensity, we integrate Upν, T q over all frequencies:

10.4 Rise of the Quanta!

Experimental setup for the photoelectric effect.

As we investigate the behavior of photoelectrons emitted from a metal surface, we observe a

Variation of photocurrent with respect to the potential applied to the anode.

Since W “ q∆V , we can write:

Rearranging the equation, we find:

10.5 De Broglie Hypothesis: The Wave-Particle Duality

The De Broglie Wavelength

Wave Nature of Electrons

Wave Packet and Uncertainty Principle

Applications and Legacy

11.1 Unveiling the Subatomic Universe: Atoms

Quantum Mechanics and Subatomic Phenomena

The Subatomic Symphony: Particles and Forces

Modern Discoveries and Technological Marvels

foundation of a technological revolution that touches every aspect of modern life.

11.2 The Early Atomic Models

The Plum Pudding Model of the atom.

Rutherford’s Model of the Atom

11.3 The Groundbreaking α Particle Scattering Experiment

hardly affect the much heavier α particles, leading to minimal deflection.

Rutherford’s Key Conclusions:

Determining the Distance of Closest Approach

Solving for ro , we obtain:

Illustration of impact parameter (b) and scattering angle (θ )

Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model

11.4 Bohr’s Model of the Atom and His Postulates

Fractional numbers of wavelengths cannot endure due to destructive interference.

Energy of a Hydrogen Atom using Bohr’s Quantization Rule

The potential energy of the atom can be expressed as:

Combining the Hydrogen Spectra with Bohr’s Model

Limitations of Bohr’s Model

model when confronted with the intricacies of quantum mechanics.

12.1 Nuclear Properties

peaking at approximately 1.6.

Nuclear Forces (Strong and Weak)

Diagram of a helium atom, depicting the electron probability density.

Remarkably, the nuclear density is independent of the mass number pAq.

Nuclear Binding Energy

∆EBE “ pZm p ` Nmn ´ Mqc2

Nuclear States in a Nucleus

12.2 Radioactivity and Radioactive Decay

energy shared between the outgoing particles.

Beta Emission and Electron Capture

β ´ decay in an atomic nucleus, omitting the accompanying antineutrino

This process is known as β -plus decay.

Gamma Emission and Internal Conversion

Gamma ray emission from an atomic nucleus, shown in an illustration

12.3 Law of Radioactivity