Describing and lmplementing Foundational Wireless Theory

lntroduction
The size and number of Wi-Fi network deployments have increased exponentially over the past few years. Beginning with a single access
point (AP) replacing a cable on the floor, Wi-Fi networks have become a true extension of the local-area network (LAN), sometimes spreading
over entire warehouses or even campuses, and providing simultaneous network connectivity to thousands of laptops, tablets, and smart
phones.

Understanding how these systems work will help you, the wireless engineer, to configure, design, and operate wireless networks. lt is not
magic. lt is physics!

Wireless Fundamentals
Wireless Topologies
There are several types of wireless networks:
• Wireless personal area network (WPAN)
• Wireless LAN (WLAN)
• Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN)

WLAN: WMAN:
Local Area Connectivity Metro Area Connectivity
< 100 meters (city or suburb)
> 100 meters

Wireless Personal Area Network

A personal area network (PAN) is a network that exists within a relatively small area and connects electronic devices such as desktop
computers, printers, scanners, fax machines, PDAs, and notebook computers. In the past, connecting these devices required extensive
cabling, connectors, and adapters. Today, you connect these devices wirelessly, which creates a WPAN.

Wireless LAN
In contras! to WPANs, WLANs provide more robust wireless network connectivity overa local area between an AP and associated clients.
The goal is not to connect one device to another, but to connect many devices to a network without the need for cables. WLANs today are
based on the IEEE 802.11 standard and are referred to as Wi-Fi networks. Because these networks are common, a wireless network
administrator needs to understand how they work and how to configure and troubleshoot them.

Wireless Metropolitan Area Network

A WMAN is a wireless communications network that covers a large geographic area, such as a city ora suburb. In lhis type of area, the
wireless signa! often provides a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint backbone. Wireless can be used to install links ata low cost:
organizations need only two end devices that poinl al each other inslead of a complex and coslly wired infrastructure.

Piconets
Piconets, or PANs, are used to connecl wireless devices for printing, sharing, syncing, and display, and for externa! devices such as a mouse
or keyboard.
 Subordinate Subordinate Subordinate

Subordinate Subordinate

Bluetooth Piconets
With Bluetooth, up to eight devices can fonn a small temporary network. Wireless devices can be added and removed dynamically. One
device is considerad the "primary," and the other devices are the "subordinates· (fonnerly known as "master'' and "slave"). The subordinate
devices are assigned specific time periods for their transmissions and will not collide with other devices in the same piconet. Because
Bluetooth uses frequency hopping (79 channels for traffic) and low power, the piconets are unlikely to interfere with one another.

Piconets can be connected to other piconets to form a "scatternet." The primary from one piconet is a subordinate to a primary in another
piconet

Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a radio technology that connects devices wirelessly in the wireless personal area network (WPAN) range (less than 5 to 1 O m
[16.4 to 32.8 ft).

• A radio system (RF standard) that defines a small personal network

• Transmits between 2.402 and 2.480 GHz (overlaps Wi-Fi frequencies)
• Reaches speeds up to 24 Mbps
• Three classes of products (power transmission levels)
• No line-of-sight restrictions
• High security

Bluetooth was officially created in March 1998, when the WPAN Study Group was formed with the goal of investigating the need for a
wireless network standard for devices within a personal operating area.

Two months later, in May 1998, the Bluetooth Special lnterest Group (SIG) was fonned.

Ten months later, the WPAN Study Group became IEEE 802.15, known as the WPAN Working Group. The Bluetooth SIG continuas to define
the Bluetooth standard and promote the technology under IEEE 802.15.1.
 Subordinate

Subordinate Subordinate

• A Bluetooth network can include seven subordinate devices and one primary device.
• Bluetooth solves a simple problem: replacing cables used on mobile devices and their peripherals with RF waves.
• Bluetooth tries to emulate the capabilities of cable for mobile users.
• The Bluetooth cell is called a piconet.
• Bluetooth is designed to allow easy ad hoc network creation, so security is a concern.

When people say that a product has Bluetooth, they are referring to a piece of hardware or a small computar chip that contains the Bluetooth
radio, which lets the user connect wirelessly using the Bluetooth technology. Bluetooth uses the 2.4-GHz spectrum, which is also used for Wi-
Fi networks (802 11 ).

Bluetooth has three classes of power:

• Class 1: In this ctass, devices have a maximum power of 100 mW anda maximum range of 100 m (328 ft). Very few portable devices are
in this class because of the levels of power consumption.
• Class 2: This class is for devices that have a maximum power of 2.5 mW anda maximum range of 10 m (32.8 ft).
• Class 3: This class is for devices with a maximum power of 1 mW anda range of 1 m (3.28 ft).

There are several generations of Bluetooth, starting with v1 .O and v1 .OB. However, these versions were nonfunctional raleases. Bluetooth
v1 .1 was the first functional revision and was released in 2002. Bluetooth vt .2, v2.0, v2.1, v3.0, v4.2, v5.0, and v5.1 have also been released.

A Bluetooth device can connect with as many as seven other devices. The connection creates a prirnary-subordinate relationship.

Bluetooth does not operate like Wi-Fi devices and is incompatible with them. Bluetooth RF signals operate in the same frequency as Wi-Fi
(2.4 GHz). so Bluetooth can be a source of interference for Wi-Fi networks. However, given the transmit (Tx) power of Bluetooth (most
devices are Class 1 or 2), single Bluetooth devices do not usually have a significan! impact on Wi-Fi communications.

Bluetooth Low Energy

Version 4.0 of Bluetooth introduced Bluetooth low energy (BLE), which is sometimes called Bluetooth Smart. lt was designad to connect to
any mobile platforrn (Apple iOS, Android, Windows, phones, and so on) at lower power. lt is designad to support the Internet of Things (loT)
for connectivity to smart phones, tablets, and location devices.

iBeacon and BLE

iBeacon is the Apple implementation of BLE and is supported in Apple iOS 7+.
 • Apple implementation based on BLE
• Standardized formal for BLE advertising (beacons)
• Used for location and proximity detection
• Push notifications can be sent to a usar device.

- Directions inside a store

- Coupons for that store
- Social media interaction

• Can be used for mobile payments or shopper analytics

NFC allows for the exchange of data between devices such as smart phones. 11 is popular for electronic payment transactions.

Because of its frequency band and small range, it should not be a source of interference in the Wi-Fi networ1<.

ZigBee
ZigBee is based on the IEEE 802.15.4 protocol for WPAN.

In the same logic as Bluetooth, the IEEE defines the protocol. The ZigBee Alliance is an association of companies that is involved with
building higher-layer standards (network, security, and application protocols). ZigBee-compliant devices are used in home automation and for
sensors on factory ñoors,

• Low-power mesh networking

- Built on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard

- Reliability through meshed connectivity

• Designad for tow-power applications with a long battery life

• Low data rafe provides reliability through meshed connectivity al 20 to 250 kbps (depending on band).
• Very secure; AES-128 encryption is available.
• Self-configuring
• Applications include remole control, air conditioning, automation, and so on.
• Designed for cheap applications (less expensive than Wi-Fi or Bluetooth)

ZigBee was originally created specifically for control and sensor networks. The protocol broadened its field and now aims to develop
hardware and applications that have a low data rate, low power consumption, and low complexity. (Low power consumption means that a
device could run from the same battery for months or even years ) ZigBee devices can operate in different spectrums (for example, the 868-
MHz band in Europe, the 915-MHz band in North America and Australia, and the 2.4-GHz band worldwide).

The protocol is often confused with Bluetooth, but the two technologies are very different
• The ZigBee data rate is low (20, 40, and 250 kbps) compared with Bluetooth (as much as 24 Mbps).
• The ZigBee range is longer (10 to 100 m (32.8 to 328 fil) than the Bluetooth range (usually 10 m (32.8 ft) maximum).
• ZigBee can create ad hoc links and star or mesh topologies. Bluetooth creates point-to-point links or very small networks.
• The power of the ZigBee device connection mus! be fas! (less than 30 rns), whereas connection can take as long as 10 seconds with
Bluetooth.
• Power consumption of ZigBee applications is intended to be very low (because they are typically nonreplaceable, battery-operated
devices), as is the complexity of applications that use it. Bluetooth power consumption is medium, and Bluetooth application complexity is
usually medium or high.

ZigBee and Bluetooth applications are different. ZigBee is found in monitoring devices, remole controls (universal remole controls, heat
controls, and light or environmental controls), automation devices, toys, and so on. A typical application integrales ZigBee in a cellular phone
to transform it into a universal remole control for a garage door opener, TV, stereo, air conditioning, light, and so on.

ZigBee 3.0 was published in November of 2014. lt is designad to support the loT for connectivity to smart phones, tablets, and location
devices. The biggest change was standardization al the application level, which allows developers to bring products and services to
consumers.
ZigBee Networks
A ZigBee network contains a network coordinator, which is the device that sets up the network and manages the information about each node
and the information that is transmitted or received within the network. Every ZigBee network must contain a network coordinator. The network
also contains fuU-function devices, which are the active devices that may interact with the physical world. These devices can also talk to the
network coordinator or become a network coordinator. This multifunctional capability is why these devices are called full-function devices.
Other devices have a simpler program and are considered reduced-function devices, which interact only with the physical world and report to
the network coordinator. These devices cannot become network coordinators.

• Incompatible with Wi-Fi

• Uses the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band and might interfere; usually low power

Point-to-Multipoint Clustered Stars

• Full-Function Device
- Communications Flow
Q Reduced-Function Device

ZigBee operates in two main modes: beacon and nonbeacon.

Beacon mode is a fully coordinated mode. The network coordinator sends a beacon to all other devices. The devices wake up for this
message and determine whether they have any message to receive. lf no messages are available, the devices retum to sleep mode. Also,
the network coordinator returns to sleep mode when its job is complete.

Nonbeacon mode is less coordinated. In this mode, any device can communicate with the coordinator at will. This mode creates more
channel occupancies and more interference.

ZigBee-based products can access !he same frequencies as Wi-Fi, but they are not compatible with Wi-Fi. This incompatibility implies that
Wi-Fi and ZigBee cannot communicate with each other and that each sees the other as noise. Therefore, ZigBee and Wi-Fi networks can
interfere with each other.

The maximum power of ZigBee is 100 mW. The impact of ZigBee on wireless networks can be significan!, depending on how often they wake
up and transmit. Although !he applications !ha! have been developed have low power consumption, this consumption is an average. ZigBee
devices can stay idle (in something such as power-save mode), then wake up and send bursts of information before falling back to sleep.

IPv6 loT Protocols: 6LoWPAN and Thread

The 6LoWPAN and Thread protocols allow 1Pv6 loT communications.

• Incompatible with Wi-Fi

• 6LoWPAN defines the transmission of 1Pv6 over IEEE 802.15.4.

- Header compression format for 1Pv6 datagrams

- 802.15.4 only supports a trame size of 127 bytes

• Normal 1Pv6 MTU = 1280 bytes

 - Why such a small MTU for IEEE 802.15.4?

• Networks are composed of many embaddad devices with limitad power, memory, and processing resources
• Networks are very tossv, and bandwidth is limitad (e.g., 150 Kbps)
• Solution: divide the frame into fraglets and compress the header

- Usad for smart meters, actuators, street lighting, and intelligent sensors

• Thread is basad on 6LoWPAN and is designad for home network automation

The 6LoWPAN inteñace acts asan adaptation layar ovar the IEEE 802.15.4 layer to enable 1Pv6 communication on the IEEE 802.15.4 RF
mesh. 11 provides header compression, 1Pv6 datagram fragmentation, and optimizad 1Pv6 neighbor discovery, thus enabling efficient 1Pv6
communication ovar low-power and lossy links such as the ones definad by IEEE 802.15.4.

Oevices are expected to be embaddad with limitad resources. IEEE 802.15.4 operates ovar low-speed, lossy, bandwidth-limitad networks,
and support 127 bytes per frame.

1Pv6 trames can be much largar. 6LoWPAN manages this situalion by compressing the headers and fragmenting the trames.

Thread is an effort of multiple companies to standardize on a protocol that runs ovar 6LoWPAN for home automation. The protocol is
expectad to compete with ZigBee.

Ad Hoc Networks
To create a Wi-Fi network, users nead to have wireless-eapable devices. When two Wi-Fi-capable devices are in ranga of each other, they
need only share a common set of basic parameters (frequency and so on) to be able to communicate.

Surprisingly, this set of parameters is all that is requirad to create a personal area Wi-Fi network. The first station defines the radio
parameters and group name; the other station only needs to detect the group name. The other station then adjusts its parameters to the
parameters that the first station defined, and a group is formad that is known as an ad hoc network. Other stations can join this network in the
sameway.

• IBSS
• Exists when two wireless devices communicate
• Limitad number of devices because of collision and organization issues

A Basic Service Set (BSS) is the area within which a computar can be reached while connectad toan AP, through its Wi-Fi connection.
Because the computers in an ad hoc network communicate without an AP, the BSS is callad an lndependent Basic Service Set (IBSS).
Computer-to-cornputer wireless communication is most commonly referred to asan ad hoc network, IBSS, or (wireless) peer-to-peer network.
One technical limitation of this type of network is that ali stations must be in range of one another to communicate.
In a Wi-Fi network, only one computer can speak ata given time; otherwise, the radio waves that the computers send will collide and both
messages will be lost. To prevent this issue from happening, the dialog has to be organized so that only one station speaks ata time, which is
called half-duplex communication.

Each computer uses one radio to receive and transmit, but the radio cannot send and receive at !he same time. This restriction affects the
throughput of wireless networks.

Ad hoc networks are considered to be a traditional-type network and are no longer natively supported by operating systems or
supported with Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 (WPA2).

lnfrastructure Mode
In an infrastructure mode design, a central device is dedicated to centralizing the communication between machines. This central device
defines the frequency and wireless operating values. The machines would need to connect to the device to communicate through it with the
other machines of the group. This mode allows the client to access other network devices and resources.

Internet

BSA

I DS = Distribution System I
• The AP functions as a translational bridge between 802.3 wired media and 802.11 wireless media.
• Wireless is a half-duplex environment.
• A BSA is a wireless cell.
• A BSS is the service that the AP provides.

The central device is called an AP, which is close in concept to an Ethernet hub in relaying communication. But, as in an ad hoc network, all
devices share the same frequency. Only one device can speak at the same time; it sends its frame to the AP, which then relays !he frame to
its final destination.

Although the system might be more complex than a simple peer-to-peer network, an AP is usually better equipped than a simple machine to
manage congestion. An AP can also connect one machine to another in the same Wi-Fi space orto the wired network-a crucial capability.

The comparison to a hub is made because of the half-duplex aspect of the communication. APs have sorne functions that a wired hub simply
does not possess. For example, an AP can address and direct Wi-Fi traffic. Managed switches maintain dynamic MAC address tables that
can direct packets to ports, based on the destination MAC address of the packel Sirnilarly, an AP is a portal device that directs traffic to the
network backbone or back into the wireless medium, based on MAC addresses. The IEEE 802.11 header of a wireless frame typically has
three MAC addresses, but can have as many as four in certain situations, The AP uses the specific Layer 2 addressing scheme of the
wireless trames to forward the upper-layer information to !he network backbone or back to the wireless space toward another wireless
machine.

In a network, all wireless-capable devices are called stations. The end devices are often called client stations, whereas the AP is often
referred to asan infrastructure device, oran AP station.
Like a PC in an ad hoc network, an AP offers a BSS. An AP does not offer an IBSS, because the AP is a dedicated device that controls and
admínisters the BSS. The area that the AP radío covers ís callad a basíc servíce area (BSA) or cell. Because the clíent statíons connect to a
central devíce, this type of network is said to use an infrastructure mode as opposed to an ad hoc mode.

The AP converts 802.11 packets to IEEE 802.3 packets and forwards them to the distribution system (OS in the figure), which receives these
packets and distributes them wherever they need to be sent.

Internet

BSA BSA

•••
AP

Wireless Clients /

When the distributíon system links two APs, or two cells, the group is callad an Extended Service Set (ESS). This scenario is common in
most Wi-Fi networks because it allows Wi-Fi stations in two separata areas of the network to communicate and, with the proper design, also
permits roaming.

In a Wi-Fi network, roaming occurs when a statíon moves, or leaves the coverage area of the AP to which it was originally connected, and
arrives at the BSA of another AP. In a proper design scenario, a station detects the signal of the second AP and jumps to it before losing the
signal of the first AP.

ldeally for the user, the experience is a seamless movement from one connection to another connection. For the infrastructure, the desígner
must make sure that an overlapping area exists between the two cells to avoid loss of connection. lf an authentication mechanism exists (to
ensure that only the authorized stations can communicate with the network), then a method must be defined to ensure that credentials can be
sent from one AP to another fast enough for the connection to remain intact. Modem networks often use controllers-central devices that
contain the parameters of all the APs and the credentials of connected users.

Because an over1ap exists between the cells, it is better to ensure that the APs do not work on the same frequency (or channel). Otherwise,
any client that stays in the over1apping area affects the communication of both cells. This problem occurs because Wi-Fi is half-duplex. The
problem is callad cochannel interference and must be avoided by making sure that neighbor APs are set on frequencies that do not over1ap.
Wi-Fi Direct
This topic describes how Wi-Fi Direct is used to connect wireless devices for printing, sharing, syncing, and display.

, r
. ---
Synch
Show

Print
Share

Wi-Fi Direct in the Enterprise

Not everyone has {or wants) access to a Wi-Fi AP or hotspot. However, users often carry content and applications that they want to share,
print, display, or synchronize. Wi-Fi Direct is a certification by the Wi-Fi Alliance. The basic premise is that peer-to-peer Wi-Fi connections are
created between devices, without the need for an AP. 11 is another example of a WPAN.

This connection, which can operate without a dedicated AP, does not operate in IBSS mode. Wi-Fi Direct is an innovation that operates asan
extension of the infrastructure mode of operation With the technology that under1ies Wi-Fi Direct, a device can maintain a peer-to-peer
connection to another device inside an infrastructure network-an impossible task in ad hoc mode.

Devices can operate one-to-ons or ons-to-many for connectivity.

Wi-Fi Direct Predefined Services

The following list describes the predefined Wi-Fi Direct services:

• Miracast connections over Wi-Fi Direct allow a device to display photos, files, and video on an extemal monitor or TV.
• Wi-Fi Direct for Digital Living Network Alliance (DLNA) lets devices stream music and video between each other.
• Wi-Fi Direct Print gives allows users to print documents direcUy from a smart phone, table!, or personal computer {PC).

Service Set ldentifiers

Another issue in wireless is how to group different sets of stations together, whether ad hoc or under the control of one or more APs. lf two
Wi-Fi networks are created in the same area, a method is needed to differentiate which computers belong to each network. This method uses
a system of network names that are defined. The network name is called the Service Set ldentifier (SSID) This name has up to 32 American
Standard Code for lnformation lnterchange (ASCII) characters and is configured on both the AP and the client stations that ant to join
(associate) this AP. However, the SSID may also require sorne kind of authorization to determine which station has the right to connect. The
term wireless LAN {WLAN) is often used to define both the SSID and the associated parameters (security and so on).

To roam between different APs within a network, !he APs must share the same network name (SSID).
 Internet

BSA
---·------
•••••• __
.......
__.. ..J ... 1-----�-�
BSA

AP

I do "guest" 00:05:9A:3C:78:04}
I do "voice" 00:05:9A:3C:78:05 MB

SSID
Wireless Clients /

BSA = Basic Service Area; DS = Distribution System; ESS = Extended Service Set

When a profile is configured on a client station, the SSIO is a name that identifies the WLAN to which the client station may connect. The AP
associates a MAC address with this SSI O. This MAC address can be the MAC address of the radio interface if the AP supports only one
SSID, or it can be derived from the MAC address of the radio interface if the AP supports severa! SSIDs. Because each AP has a different
radio MAC address, the derived MAC address is different on each AP for the same SSIO name. This configuration allows a station that stays
in the overlapping area to hear one SSID name and still understand that two APs offered.

The name of the MAC address that is associated with an SSIO is the Basic Service Set ldentifier (BSSIO) The BSSIO identifies the BSS that
the AP coverage area determined.

Because this BSSIO is a MAC address that is usually derived from the radio MAC address, APs can often generate severa! values. This
ability allows the AP to support severa! SSIDs in a single area al the same time.

An administrator can create severa! groups on the sama AP (for example, the guest SSIO and the interna! SSIO). The criteria by which a
station is allowed on one or the other AP will be different, but the AP will be the same. This configuration is an example of a Multiple Basic
Service Set ldentifier (MBSSIO).

MBSSIDs are basically virtual APs. AII the created SSIOs still share the same physical device, which has a half-duplex radio. As a result, if
two users of two SSIOs on the sama AP try to senda trame al the sama time, the trames will still collide. Even if the SSIOs are different, the
Wi-Fi space is the same. Using MBSSIOs is simply a way of differentiating the traffic that reaches the AP; it is nota way to increase the
capacity of the AP.

Broadcast vs. Hidden SSID

SSIOs can be broadcast (advertised) or not broadcast (hidden) by the Wi-Fi APs. A hidden network is not undetectable. SSIDs are advertised
in Wi-Fi packets that are sen! from the client, and SSIOs are advertised in Wi-Fi responses that the APs send.

One ironic side effect of hiding the SSIO, is that client devices have to be configured to connect to nonbroadcasting networks. Therefore, they
have to rely on sending out a Wi-Fi packet into their environment that includes the network (SSIO) to which they want to connect. They
cannot simply listen for beacons, because they are hidden.

This situation can result in more of a security risk, because the client may advertise networks to which it connects from home or wor1<. 11 does
not know which networks are available because they are hidden. The client sends packets, looking for its "hidden" network. A hacker can
then broadcast this SSIO to entice the client to join the hacker networ1<; the hacker can then exploit the client (that is, connect to the client
device or gel the user to provide security credentials).
Workgroup Bridges
Devices can be located in places where Ethernet cables are not feasible; maybe because the devices are mobile or because of the
environment (such as in a warehouse where the distance to the switch would exceed 100 rn, or in an old and protected building where drílling
new holes is not allowed). Wireless is a natural way to provide access to the network, but devices might only have an Ethernet port. not an
optíon for a Wi-Fi port.

In these cases, a special device that is called a WGB can be used to connect to an Ethernet port and provide access to the Wi-Fi network. To
use a WGB with multiple clients, the WGB must be connected to a hub or switch.

A WGB provides a wireless connectíon from an Ethernet port.

Internet

••••••
AP

Cisco provides two kinds of workgroup bridge (WGB): standard (Cisco) or universal. The WGB establishes a single Wi-Fi connectíon for
multiple Ethernet clients toan upstream AP. The protocol that is used is proprietary, so a standard WGB can communicate only with Cisco
Aironet APs. The universal WGB was implemented later to support an Ethernet client from another vendor that is connected through a WGB
so that it appears as a single normal client.

Repeaters
ESSs can connect APs. However, in sorne large areas, such as warehouses, pulling a cable to the middle of an open space to install an AP
might be impossible, or the maximum cable length of 328 feet (100 m) might be exceeded. The area might stíll have power, anda WGB might
not be the right solution because the devices are mobile (such as laptops or bar-code scanners) and need only a Wi-Fi connection to the
network.
 • Extend the AP coverage
• Dual radio can create dual half-duplex
• Require 50% overlap
• Throughput affected when single frequency is used

One solution might be to install a repeater. A Wi-Fi repeater is simply an AP that is not connected to the wired backbone. This AP uses its
antenna to receive the signa! from another AP that is connected to the wired network. This unconnected AP repeats the signa! far clients that
are clase to it, but too far away from the first AP to connect directly.

Far this setup to work, a 50-percent overlap of the BSSID (radio signa!) must exist between the AP on the backbone and the Wi-Fi repeater.
The time that is needed to receive and retransmit data will increase the overall transmission time. The repeater must be on the same channel
as the original AP (called the root AP; the AP that connects to Ethernet).

lf the original AP, the repeater, and the client are on the same channel, then throughput will be severely affected. Using one repeater
effectively causes every trame to be sent twice, so throughout can easily be cut in half. However, it is possible to alleviate this problem by
putting the original AP and repeater link on one channel (or frequency) and putting the repeater-to-client link on a separata channel (or
frequency). This arrangement is the fundamental principie of a mesh. This solution does require the repeater to have two radios.

Outdoor Wireless Bridges

The Wi-Fi network can be extended to link LANs. This link is referred to as a bridge. These LANs are typically in buildings that líe within a few
miles of each other. This linking is the most common use of a Wi-Fi bridge, but there are other uses as well.
 • Extend the LAN by linking LANs
• Typical range of a few miles
• Point-to-point or hub-and-spoke

Sorne bridges can be used as a hybrid, to communicate with Wi-Fi clients and to link two networks. This bridge can be with or without end
stations. Sorne other models are used for bridging purposes only and do not communicate with clients. Cisco Aironet bridges operate al the
MAC address layer (data link layer), so they have no routing capabilities. They actas wireless trunks between switches.

A bridge can be point-to-point, simply linking two networks, or pojnt-to-rnultpoint, connecting several smaller LANs to a central one. In this
topology, spokes cannot communicate with each other cirectíy, but must connect through the central point.

Outdoor networks present specific challenges, such as the impact of humidity or lightning strikes, and specialized help is usually needed for
good deployment.

Outdoor Mesh Networks

Bridges, even point-to-multipoint bridges, are usually deployed in a static configuration in which the central point is always the same and the
spokes take a predictable path to communicate with the other networks over the air.

This topology has a disadvantage. lf the central point is disconnected, or if its bridge is disabled for any reason (such as power issues,
Ethernet connectivity issues, or radio inteñerence), the spokes will be isolated. The spokes will be unable to connect to the other networks if
they cannot connect to the central point, which is required for this purpose.

In a largar deployment, a network might need to provide connectivity of the spokes, not necessarily with a central point but with one another.
Using the ability that sorne antennas have to send and receive to and from any direction, this type of topology is possible and is callad a
mesh network. Each AP in this topology is called a node.
Devices are connected redundantly between nodes; no single point of failure exists.

Mesh nodes actas repeaters to transmit data from nearby nodes to peers that are too far away for a manageable cabled connection. In a
mesh network, many possible paths are determined from any given node to other nodes. Paths through the mesh network can change in
response to traffic loads, radio conditions, or traffic prioritization.

lf one node drops out of the network because of hardware failure or any other reason, its neighbors simply find another route. Extra capacity
can be achieved by adding more nodes.

Sorne of the nodes have a connection to the wired network, and the nonwired APs use a special algorithm to determine the shortest path to
the cable.

The Cisco Adaptive Wireless Path Protocol (AWPP) does not look for !he shortest path, but rather the easiest path, which can be considerad
!he opposite of cost. The preferred path is the one that is easiest to traverse. Ease is calculated using the SNR and the hop value of each
neighbor.

Mesh Components

In a typical mesh deployment model, a dual-radio AP can dedícate a radio for backhaul operations to reach a wired network and can use the
2.4-GHz radio for Wi-Fi clients.
The AP node lhal has a conneclion lo the wired network is known as a root AP (RAP), and lhe nodes lhat are nonwired are known as mesh
APs (MAP)s Cisco AWPP is a special algorithm that is used to calculate the shortest path from the MAPs back to the RAP

Cordless Phones
Cordless phones operate on many frequencies: 900 MHz (for indoor phones, not outdoor cellular phones), 1800 to 1900 MHz, 2.4, 5, and 1.9
GHz (DECT 6.0) Sorne older phones fall in the same frequency bands as the Wi-Fi network, and the use of these phones can cause
significant RF interference lo your WLAN.

[iJ
DECT Phone

• The phone is lhe client to a base station (which is the AP equivalent).

• Cordless phones use TDMA and FDMA to exchange data between the station and phone.
• Protocols are derived from ISDN.
• Cordless phones are incompatible with Wi-Fi but might use the same frequency range, which might interfere and shíft channels within the
ISM band.
• Newer DECT phones use either 5.8 GHz or 1.9 GHz (DECT 6.0)

Most U.S. phones use Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) (former1y known as digital European cordless telephone ora
varían! that is derived from it). The ETSI developed DECT, but many countries (including most of Asia, Australia, South America, and the
United States) have adopted tt.

The DECT physical !ayer is different than the one that Wi-Fi networks use. The DECT physical !ayer uses Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA) and frequency-division multiple access (FDMA). With TOMA, the system can allow severa! stations to emit on the same frequency by
allocating slot times to each of the stations.

DECT and Wi-Fi are incompatible. The communication of a cordless phone with its base aims to provide features such as flow control,
mobility management, and message services. Layer 2 of the phone is derived from the Link Access Procedure on the D channel (LAPD)
protocol, a componen! of the ISDN stack of protocols. The DECT call-eontrol capability derives from Q.931 (a signaling protocol for ISDN).
Therefore, DECT is not Wi-Fi compatible and cannot exchange information with a Wi-Fi device.

Potential 802.11b lnterference

Sorne cordless phones still in use today are 2.4-GHz models. These phones can cause devastating effects on IEEE 802.11 b/g/n WLANs,
although their power is usually low (averaging 1 O mW in Europe and 4 mW in the United States, with allowed peaks of 250 mW in Europe
and 100 mW in the United States). Finding cases in which 2.4-GHz phones severely interfere with 802.11b/g/n WLANs is usually easy. Sorne
802.11 b/g/n WLANs have even been shut down simply because someone answered a 2.4-GHz cordless phone.

Potential 802.11a lnterference

Cordless 5-GHz phones may have detrimental effects on 802.11 a WLANs, but ít is usually the older models. However, if interference issues
do arise, lhey will probably be easier to correct than in an 802.11 b/g/n WLAN. 802.11 a uses more nonconflicting channels within the 5-GHz
spectrum compared to 802.11b/g/n in the 2.4-GHz spectrum. 802.11a can use up to 24 independent nonoverlapping channels. 802.11 b/g/n
uses 11 channels in the United Slates, but only three of lhese channels (1, 6, and 11) do not over1ap.
Other Non-802.11 Radio lnterferers
Because the 2.4-GHz industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band is unlicensed, the band is crowded by transmissions from all sorts of
devices, such as RF video cameras, baby monitors, and microwave ovens. Most of these devices are high-powered; they do not send IEEE
802.11 packets but can still cause interference for Wi-Fi networks.

Wireless Video
Microwave Ovens Cameras Flourescent Lights

Wireless Wireless
Motion Detectors Headphones Game Controller

RF video cameras operate by exchanging information (the image stream) between a transmitter (the camera) and the receiver (linking to a
video display). These cameras usually use up to 100 mW and a channel that is narrower than Wi-Fi. The stream of information is continuous
and severely affects any Wi-Fi network in the neighboring channels. These cameras are incompatible with Wi-Fi; an AP cannot natively
receive and understand a camera video stream.

As another example, baby monitors are found in home environments rather than industrial or office networks (although they can be found in
hospitals, nurseries, and many other social service or education-related environments). The exchanged keepalive inforrnation between the
monitoring stations can be single-way or double-way and half-duplex. Sorne of these monitors can use severa! channels for one monitor
station to control two devices. The monitors can use 100 mW of power; they are not 802.11 technologies but work in the same bandwidth and
at the same power as 802.11 devices.

Microwave ovens provide a pulse form of interference in the middle to upper bands of the 2.4-GHz Wi-Fi band ata much higher power. Wi-Fi
AP transmitters are measured in milliwatts, while microwave ovens can use power levels of over 1000 W.

Fluorescent lights can also interact with Wi-Fi systems but not as interference. The interaction occurs because the lamps are driven with AC
power, so they switch on and off many times each second. When the lights are on, the gas in the tube is ionized and conductive. Because the
gas is conductive, it reflects RF. When the tube is off, the gas does not reflect RF. The net effect is a potential source of interference that
comes and goes many times per second.

Generally speakinq, any device that uses a radio should be checked to determine if it works in one of the Wi-Fi spectrums.
 RF Principies
To fully understand Wi-Fi technology, you must have a clear understanding of how Wi-Fi works at the first (physical) layer of the Open
Systems lnterconnection (OSI) model. RF communications are at the heart of the physical layer.

RF Spectrum
Many devices use radio waves to send information. A radio wave can be defined as an electromagnetic field that radiales from a transmitter.
This wave propagates to a receiver, which receives its energy. Light is an example of electromagnetic energy. The eye can interpret light and
send its energy to the brain, which in turn transforms this light into impressions of colors.

I Wireless Networks I •@• Yellow 1:ji

'\Visible(

Audio Radio

r Microwaves
1 1
X-Ray

Gamma-Rey

10 100 10 100 10 100 10 100 10 100 10 100 10 100 10

Hz kHz MHz GHz THz PHz E Hz

• Wireless networks use RF signals.

• Radio frequencies are electromagnetic waves.
• The spectrum defines wave sizes, which are grouped in categories.
• The Wi-Fi network radio range is in the microwave segment.

Different waves have different sizes, which are expressed in meters. Another unit of measurement, hertz, expresses how often a wave occurs
per second (frequency). Waves are grouped in categories, with each group matching a size variation. The highest-frequency waves are in the
gamma-ray group.

The waves that are used to send information are beyond our perception as human beings. Depending on the type of information that is being
sent, certain wave groups operate differently as they are transmitted out into the environment, because they have different properties.
Because of the different needs and regulations that arose over time, creating subgroups became necessary.

Frequency
A radio wave is sent at the speed of light when it is transmitted asan electromagnetic field (if you are a physicist, you are aware that the
speed varíes slightly depending on the material through which the energy is passínq, but that will be ignored for simplicity).

A direct relationship exists between the frequency of a signa! (how often the signa! cycles) and the wavelength of the signal (the distance that
the signa! travels in one cycle). The shorter the wavelength is, the more often the signal repeats itself overa given distance, and therefore,
the higher the frequency.

Cycle
2 Cycles per sec = 2 Hz

4 Cycles per sec = 4 Hz

7 Cycles per sec = 7 Hz

1 Sec
 • Frequency determines how often a signal cycles per second.
• One cycle per second equals 1 Hz.
• Low frequencies tend to travel farther through objects than high frequencies.

A signal that occurs 1 million times per second is said to have a frequency of 1 megahertz, and a signal that occurs 1 billion times per second
is said to have a frequency of 1 gigahertz.

The effect that air has on sound can be seen in everyday lite. When a car that is playing loud music approaches, !he first sounds that
you hear are the drums and the bass because lower frequencies travel farther (through the air) than higher frequencies. The effect is
somewhat similar for radio waves traveling through objects; shorter waves tend to gel absorbed more easily. This effect can be seen
in Wi-Fi, where 2.4 and 5 GHz have much better penetration than 60 GHz.

Wavelength
An RF signal starts with an electrical AC signal that a transmitter generales. This signal is sent through a cable to an antenna, where the
signal is radiated in the form of an electromagnetic wireless signal. Changes of electron flow in the antenna, otherwise known as curren!,
produce the electromagnetic RF signal.

Cable
Transmitter

L.
Antenna
Access Point Wavelength (1)

• An electric signa! that is generated in the transmitter is sent to the antenna.

• The movement of the electrons in the antenna generales an electromagnetic field, which is the radio transmission.
• The size of the wave is callee! the wavelength.

An alternating curren! is an electrical current in which the direction of !he current changes cyclically, al sorne frequency. An altemating curren!
cycling in an antenna will create a radio wave.

As the radio wave leaves !he antenna, its properties resemble a sine wave. Fortunately, this resemblance means that the understanding you
have of a sine wave, and the measurements that you can take of a sine wave, can be applied to radio wave theory.

The physical distance from one peak point of !he radio wave cycle to !he same point in the next cycle can be measured and is callee! the
wavelength, which is usually representad by the Greek symbol lambda (A). The wavelength is defined as the physical distance that the wave
covers in one cycle.

Wavelength distance determines sorne importan! properties of the wave. Certain environments and obstacles can affect the wave. The
degree of impact varíes depending on the wavelength and the obstacle that the wave encounters.

Sorne amplitude modulation (AM) radio stations use a wave that can be between 1312 or 1640 feet (400 or 500 rn) long. Wi-Fi networks use
a wave that is a few centimeters long. Sorne satellites use waves that are about 0.04 inch (1 mm) long.

One useful fact to remember about Wi-Fi is that a 2.4-GHz wave is approximately 5 inches long, anda 5-GHz wave is approximately 2.4
inches long. The actual numbers are rounded up here, but rounding makes it easy to remember.

Amplitude
Amplitude is another importan! factor that affects how a wave is sent. Amplitude can be defined as the strength of the signal, or the amount of
energy pul into the signa!. In a graphical representation, amplitude is seen as the distance between the center line and the highest (and
because it is a sine wave, the lowest) crests of the cycle.

Amplitude also affects the signa! because it represents the level of energy that is injected into the wave. The more energy that is injected into
a wave, the higher the amplitude.
 Amplitude

An easy way to represent this concept is to picture a 20-foot (600-cm) rope that is tied to a fence. lf you shake the free end of the
rope, you create a wave in the rope. To create a larger wave, you must shake the rope harder. Generating a large wave with the rope
requires more energy than generating a small one.

Amplification is the increase of the amplitude of the wave. Amplification can be active or passive. In active amplification, the applied power is
increased. Passive amplification is accomplished by focusing the energy in one direction by using an antenna. Amplitude can also be
decreased. This decrease is called attenuation.

Finding the right amplitude for a signa! can be difficult. The signal weakens as it moves away from the emitter. lf the signa! is too weak, it
might be unreadable when it arrives at the receiver. lf the signa! is too stronq, then generating it requires too much energy (making the signa(
costly to generate). Too high a signa! strength can also damage the receiver.

Regulations exist to determine the right amount of power that should be used for each type of device, depending on the expected distance
that the signa( will be sent. Following these regulations helps avoid problems that can be created by using the wrong amplitude.

The transmitter can dynamically modífy amplitude; thís modífication is called amplitude modulation. Sorne radio stations use this
modulation to encade the information that they send to a radio receiver. Others prefer to change the frequency of the signal to
encode the information; this modification is called frequency modulation.

Free Space Path Loss

Path loss as the signal propagates through space is often referred to as free space path loss. A radio wave that an AP emits is radiated into
the surrounding environment. lf the antenna is omnidirectional, the signa! is emitted in ali directions. An analogy to this transmission is when a
stone is thrown into water, and waves radiate outward from the point at which the stone enters the water. lf the antenna is directional, !he
beam is more focused, somewhat like a flashlight, focusing the energy in a specific direction.
 • The wave becomes weaker as it spreads away from the emitter.

- The quantity of available energy declines as the distance increases, because it is spread out over more area.
- The quantity of available energy on a line from the center of the circle, passing out through each of the circles is less as the circles get
larger.
- The receiver catches only part of this energy.

• Determining the range of a signal can be done by determining the energy loss, which in tum depends on the distance.

As the signal or wave travels away from the AP, any obstacles that it encounters affect it. The exact effect differs depending on the type of
obstacle that the wave encounters.

Even without encountering any obstacle, the wave signal strength still experiences degradation. This degradation occurs because as the
wave propagates farther from the source, the wave spreads across a largar area , effectively decreasing a single point's wave strength.

Continuing with the example of a stone being thrown into water, the generated radio wave circles have higher crests close to the
center than they do farther out. As the distance increases, the circles become flatter, until they finally seem to disappear completely.

The attenuation of the signal strength on its way between a sender and a receiver is free space path loss. The words "free space" in the
expression refers to the fact that the loss of energy is simply a result of distance, not of any obstacle. lncluding these words in the term is
importan! because RF engineers also talk about path loss, which takes into consideration other sources of loss.

Keep in mind that what causes free space path loss is not the distance itself; there is no physical reason why a signal is weaker farther away
from the source. The cause of the loss is actually the combination of two phenomena:
• The signal is sent from the emitter in ali directions. As the signal propagates away from the source, the wave front expands. The energy
must be distributed overa larger area (a larger circle), but the amount of energy that is originally sent does not change Therefore, the
amount of energy that is available on each point of the circle is higher if the circle radius is small (with fewer points) than if the circle radius
is larga (with more points among which the energy must be divided).
• The receiver antenna has a certain physical síze, and the amount of energy that is collected depends on this size. A large antenna
collects more points of the circle than a small one. But regardless of size, the antenna cannot pick up more than a portion of the original
signal, especially because this process occurs in three dimensions (whereas the stone in water example occurs in two dimensions); the
rest of the sent energy is lost, from the perspectiva of the receiver.

The combination of both factors causes free space path loss. lf energy could be emitted in a single direction and if the receiver could catch
100 percent of the sent signa 1, there would be no loss at any distance as long as nothing else along the path absorbs any signal strength.

Sorne antennas are built to focus the signal as much as possible to try to send a powerful signal far from the AP. But the focus still expands
outward, however tight you try to make it. lt cannot be like a laser beam, so receivers cannot ever capture 100 percent of what is sent.

Absorption
As a signal travels away from the AP, it loses energy through free space path loss and by passing through different types of material. Each
material absorbs part of the energy. Dust and humidity in the air can also negatively affect the signal.

As the signal propagates from the transmitter, it also encounters other mataríais or objects, such as walls. As the energy passes through an
object, sorne of the energy is absorbed. The amount of the absorption depends on the density of the object The higher the density, the higher
the absorption

Original Signal Degraded Signal

More Amplitude Less Amplitude

Wall
 • Absorption takes energy from the wave.
• This energy is dissipated as heat in the obstacle.
• When 100 percent of the energy is taken, the wave stops.
• The effect of absorption is to reduce amplitude.
• The signal is less powerful, but the same wavelength and frequency are maintained.

lf the absorption is high-that is, 100 percent-then the whole wave stops inside the obstacle. lf the absorption is less than 100 percent, only
part of the original wave reaches the receiver. lf the signal or wave is too weak-if its amplitude is too flat-the receiver might be unable to
understand what was sent and will hear only "noise."

Absorption plays an importan! role in Wi-Fi networks. Ali buildings are full of obstacles, but not all obstacles absorb the signal in the same
way: A concrete wall absorbs much of the signal energy, whereas a plasterboard wall (drywall) absorbs only a portian of it.

Site surveys are often conducted to position APs while the building is empty. When furniture is brought into the building, the Wi-Fi network
suddenly is notas efficient as it was before; new obstacles change the pattern.

Crowds can also affect absorption. lf, for example, a site survey for a fair is conducted befare the fair starts, the coverage might be reduced
when the fair begins and people arrive; the human body is full of water, which absorbs the signal.

Reflection
Reflection is another major phenomenon that affects Wi-Fi signals and must be considerad.

When a signal hits an obstacle, the resulting effect depends on the nature of the obstacle. For example, porous materials absorb part of the
energy. A flat surface reflects sorne of the signal (al an angle equal to the one al which the energy arrives) because the wave tends to bounce
uniformly on this type of a surface. A more irregular (rough) texture (relative to the wavelength) partly reflects the signal and partly absorbs it,
Sorne of the signal may still make it through the object.

Reflection Point

Access Point
. .. . .. . .. . ..
. .. . .. . .....

• Part of the energy is reflected.

• The angle of reflection is the same as the initial angle of arrival.
• Reflection depends on the roughness of the material, which is relative to the wavelength.

The quantity of energy that is absorbed and either reflected or transmitted through the material to the other side of the obstacle depends on
the angle at which the wave was received and the type of obstacle. For example, metal cabinets reflect more energy than carpet or
plasterboard.

A given obstacle might not be a source of reflection for a signal al one frequency, but it might be a high source of reflection for the same
signal when it is sent at another frequency.

Reflection also depends on the angle at which a signal is received. The intensity of the reflection from a window differs according to whether
the signal is received at an acule angle or an obtuse angle.

Multipath
Another way in which reflections affect Wi-Fi networks is through a phenomenon called multipath.

When a signal is sent as a wave, one portien of the wave travels in a straight line from the sender to the receiver. This portion is the main
signal. Another part of the same wave may hit obstacles and be reflectad, sorne of which is toward the same receiver. This part of the wave
reaches the destination slightly later. This second wave must travel a longer distance; as a result, the first wave (the main signal) becomes
mixed up with its own reflection.
 Ceiling

Obstacle

Floor

• Occurs when a signal is reflected.

• Multiple delayed copies of the same signal hit the receiver.
• The effect depends on the wavelength and the position of the receiver.

This effect can cause major problems in Wi-Fi networ1<s. The first problem is that the received signal is distorted and more difficult to
understand. lf lhe interference is too great, the receiving statíon might be unable to understand tne signal at all, even if the sender is close
and the signal strength is good.

The second problem is that the signal might be weaker than it should be. This weakness results in the signal being out of phase, which
results in a "downfade." Phase refers to the relationship between two signals that are at the same frequency. A wave has particular amplitude,
which is the height of the crests. The downfade can start to occur when the phase difference in the amplitud e of two wave signals becomes
greater !han +/-90 degrees. Al 180 degrees of separation, the result can be total signal cancelation.

The Wi-Fi technologies of today use multipath and multiple antennas in a positiva way to increase Wi-Fi transmission. IEEE
802.11ac relies on multipath to receive a better signal.

Multipath: Phase
• Two signals are in phase when the crests of their cycles coincide.
• Being out of phase causes interactions between the two signals. lt can be positiva from O to 90 degrees, but greater than 90 degrees can
cause degradation.

Main Signal

ln-Phase Signal

90º Out-of-Phase Signal

180º Out-of-Phase Signal

lf a signal is received with a renection in phase, then the secondary wave adds its power to the primary wave. The receiver gets more energy
at the same instan!. As a result, both waves add to the amplitude (energy) of a single wave. Both signals are in phase, resulting in an
"upfade" or stronger signal. Although the final received signal level can never be stronger than the original transmitted signal, it is stronger
than it would have been al reception without the upfade The upfade occurs when the difference between the primary and secondary wave
signal is O to +/-90 degrees.

However, if both signals arrive out of phase, the receiver might simultaneously receive a positiva crest from the first signal and a negativa
crest from the second signal. Receiving a positiva signal to which a negativa signal is added results in a loss.

An everyday example of this scenario is the noise cancellation that occurs when you use a noise-cancellation headset. This device
usually contains an electronic system that detects or captures surrounding noise as it approaches the ear and dynamically plays the
opposite wave with the same amplitude. Toe result is canceled noise.

lf the signals are completely out of phase, the result is nulling, and occurs at 180 degrees out of phase. A 180-degree phase difference
means that the high crest of the first signal reaches the endpoint at the sama time as the low crest of the second signal. The signals are
exactly opposite, and if both signals have the same amplitude and wavelength, the receiver gets no signal.
Most of the time, the difference between these signals is not 180 degrees, and the receiver does receive a signal, but the second signal (or
third signal, and so on, depending on how many reflectad signals are required to reach the receiver) can cause a gain ora loss in the actual
signal.

Physical position is another important issue. When the source of reflection is a flat metallic ceiling, reflection can occur in most places.
However, when the source of reflection is a smaller obstacle, reflection depends on the relativa positions of the sender and receiver and on
the wavelength.

For example, an emitted signal that has a longer wavelength neither hits an obstacle at the same position nor bounces in the sama way as a
signal with a shorter wavelength. The result is that a given signal ata given frequency might be negatively affected by reflections ata given
position, but be unaffected ata position a few centimeters away. (Remember that the Wi-Fi wavelengths are a few centimeters long.)

An example of the effect that physical position can have follows: As a car pulls up to a stop sign, the driver notices static on the
radio, but as the car moves forward a few inches or feet, the station starts to come in more ctearty. By rolling forward, the antenna is
moved away, slighUy, from the point at which the multipath signals converge.

Another result is that a signa! ata given frequency might be negatively affected by reflections at any given position but be unaffected when, at
the same position, it uses another frequency.

Scattering and Diffusion

Reflection also occurs in the aír, lf you could see the radio wave and the air particles, you would see that sorne of them, such as dust or
humidity, affect the wave. These multiple reflections are described as scattering or diffusion.

• Occur when microparticles deviate the wave in multiple directions

• Affect shorter wavelengths more than longer ones
• Can weaken or block the signa!

An effect that is similar to scattering occurs when a light beam is sen! to a mirrored disco ball.

Scattering affects signa! quality because the received result is weaker (because part of it was reflected in other directions along the path) and
more diffuse.

Oust and humidity are not the only things that cause scattering. Other types of droplets, bubbles, density fluctuations, roughness of the
surface on which a reflection might occur (part of the signal is reflectad in one direction, part of it in many scattered directions), or cells in
organisms (such as the human body) can aíso cause scattering.

The effect of scattering depends on the frequency. When crossing the same environment, sorne frequencies are highly scattered, whereas
others are mostly unaffected.

The effects of scattering can be seen almos! every day. When the light from the sun crosses the atmosphere, the air scatters the

o
higher frequencies, such as blue, much more !han the other frequencies. As a result, the blue frequency is reflected in ali directions,
and the sky looks blue from the ground. This effect is called Rayleigh scattering (so-caneo because the British physicist Lord
Rayleigh was the first to understand it).

But at sunrise and sunset, sunlight enters the atmosphere ata shallow angle and travels a long distance before reaching your eyes.
Ouring this long passage, most of the blue light is deftected, so virtually all that you see from the sun is the red and orange
wavelengths.
Scattering can cause two effects in Wi-Fi networks:
• The first effect is a degradation of the wave strength and quality of the signal at the receiver. This effect is usually easy to predict because
the degradation is relatively consistent in the atmosphere. The effect is more difficult to determine in nonheterogeneous environments (for
example, in long-range radio links that cross highly polluted urban air).
• The second effect occurs when a wave crosses uneven environments, such as tree leaves, or reflects off uneven surfaces, such as
moving water or rocky terrain. The effect on the wave at the receiver in these scenarios is more difficult to predict because it depends on
how the reflections occur.

Refraction
Refraction is a phenomenon that occurs when a wave changes direction, as it passes from one medium to another of a different density.

• Occurs when a wave passes from one medium to another, causing the wave to change direction
• Has a minor effect on indoor networks
• Can have a major effect on outdoor íonq-ranqe links

• This effect can be seen when you look ata spoon ora straw in a glass: lt looks as though the spoon or straw has been cut, or bends
I instead of being a continuous, straight object. The light goes through the liquid and lhe glass is refracted. The change of direction in
the light beam creates this illusion.

Refraction generally has only a minor effect on indoor networks. Refraction might have more of an effect on long-range Wi-Fi links that cross
areas of the atmosphere that have different densities and humidity.

Line of Sight
As a signa! travels in a straight line toward a receiver, it is received in good condition when there is clear line of sight between the sender and
the receiver. lf an object, such as a tree ora building, is in the path of the wave, then attenuation (absorption) and other phenomena will
prevent communications. lndoor Wi-Fi networks can also have line-of-siqht issues. lndoor devices can still receive a signa! in this case
because of RF reflection and multipath.

• Line of sight is necessary for good signa! transmission.

• Earth curvature plays a role in the quality of outdoor links, even with a distance of a few miles (depending on the elevation of the
transmitter and receiver).
• Visual obstacles may or may not prevent radio line of sight.
In an outdoor link, if the receiver is placed beyond a certain distance, the curvatura of the earth also plays a role. For a 6-foot (183-em)
person, the horizon appears at about 6 miles (1 O km). The height of the observar determines when the horizon disappears. lf there are two
10-foot (3 m) structures, the top of one will have a line of sight to the other for about 16 miles (26 km), but it will have mínimum clearance at
the horizon point.

A signal is said to be received in good condition if the receiver is in the line of sight of the sender. However, the line of sight that is mentioned
here is a radio line of sight rather than a visual line of sight. The two concepts are closely related but are different.

For instance, there might be no visual line of sight because the antenna is hidden behind a light object such as roof tiles. There is still a radio
line of sight because the signal reaches the receiver in good enough condition to be decoded. In sorne extreme conditions, the signal might
reflect on an object or the atmosphere and be received in a place from which the sender cannot be seen.

Fresnel Zone
The Fresnel zone determines an area around a radio line of sight where reflections have the most negativa impact on the signal The Fresnel
zone should be at least 60 percent free of obstacles.

The radio line of sight, even when it matches the model of a straight line or a visual line of sight, is more than a simple line. lf obstacles are
close to but not directly on the path (understood to be a direct line between the sender and receiver), then the radio waves that reflect from
these objects might arrive out of phase with signals that travel directly to the receiver.

The radio line of sight can increase or decrease the power of the received signal or cause the signal to arrive in or out of phase. Objects and
their reflections most commonly decrease the signal (depending on the angle).

---------------- ------ - ... - -

-------------------

----

One way to mitigate interferences is to ensure a mínimum distance between the direct line of the signal and the closest obstacle. This
mínimum distance depends on the distance between the two points and the frequency of the signal, because travel through the air and
reflections affect individual frequencies differently.

Augustin-Jean Fresnel (pronounced fray-NELL), a 19th_century physicist, provided a method for calculating where reflections will be in phase
and out of phase around the direct line between the sender and the receiver. Fresnel created corresponding zones.

To determine the Fresnel zone, think of the radio signal as a rugby ball oran American football. A sender and a receiver are at each end of
the ball and there is an imaginary line from one to the other.
Theoretically, there are an infinite number of zones, but the area of main concern is the first zone. This zone should be kept primarily free of
obstructions to avoid interfering with radio reception. Sorne obstruction might be acceptable, but at leas! 60 percent of this first zone should
be free of any interference; 80 percent is recommended.

The Fresnel zone primarily affects outdoor links. For indoor links, distances are usually too short for obstacles to a Fresnel zone to be a mejor
issue.

RSSI and Signal-to-Noise Ratio

Because obstacles in its path might affect the RF wave, it is important to determine how much signal the other endpoint will receive. The
signal can be too weak for the receiver to hear or detect it as a signal.

The value that indicates how much power is received is called the RSSI and is a more common name for the signal value. The RSSI is the
signal strength that one device receives from another device. The RSSI is usually expressed in decibels referenced to 1 milliwatt (dBm).

• The RSSI is the signal strength indicator.

• The dBm value is obtained from a signal..grading coefficient that the vendor determines.
• ldeally the RSSI is --67 dBm or better (for voice over Wi-Fi).
• The SNR is the signal strength relative to the noise level.
• The higher the SNR, the better.

RSSl/signal
strength

Signal-to-noise ratio

Noise Level

Time (seconds)

Calculating the Received Signal Strength lndicator (RSSI) is a complex problem because the receiver does not know how much power was
originally sent. RSSI expresses a relative value that the receiving device determines by comparing received packets to each other.

The RSSI is a grade value, which can range from O (no signal orno reference) to a maximum of 255.

However, many vendors use a maximum value that is lower than 255 (for example, 100 or 60). The value is relative because a magnetic field
andan electric field are received, anda transistor transforms them into electric power; curren! is not directly received. How much electric
power can be generated depends on the received field and the circuit that transforms it into current.

From this RSSI grade value, an equivalen! dBm is displayed.

Again, this value depends on the vendor. One vendor might determine that the RSSI for a card will range from O to 100, where O is
represented as-95 dBm and 100 as-15 dBm; another vendor might determine that the range will be O to 60, where O is represented as -92
=
dBm and 60 as -12 dBm. In this case, you cannot compare powers when reading RSSI -35 dBm on the first product and RSSI -28 dBm =
on the second product. For Cisco products, good RSSI values would be --67dBm or better (for example, -55dBm).

Therefore, RSSI is not a means of comparing devices; rather, it is a way to help you understand how strong a received signal is, relative to
itself in different locations.

Wireless devices such as cordless phones and microwaves can cause noise (or noise floor) The noise value is measured in decibels from O
to -120. The noise leve! is the amount of interference in your Wi-Fi signa!, so the lower the value, the better. A typical noise floor would be
-95 dB.

Another importan! metric is signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) The SNR is a ratio-based value that evaluates a signal, and is based on the noise that
is seen. The SNR is measured as a positive value; the higher the value, the better.

The SNR comprises two values:

• RSSI
• Noise (any signal that interferes with your signal)
 To calculate the SNR value, subtract the noise value from the RSSI. Because both values are usually expressed as negative
numbers, the result is a positive number that is expressed in decibels.

For example, if !he RSSI is -55 and the noise value is -95, the following is true:
• -55 - -95 = -55 + 95 = 40
• The SNR is 40. The general principie is that the higher the SNR is, the better. Any SNR above 20 is good.

An example of SNR in everyday life: When someone speaks in a room, a certain volume is enough to be heard and understood. lf
the same person speaks outside, surrounded by the noise of traffic, the same volume might be enough to be heard but not enough
to be understood.

In a very quiet room, a whisper can still be heard. Although the voice is almos! inaudible, it is easy to understand because it is the
only sound that is present. In an outdoor, noisy environment, isolating the voice from the surrounding noise is more difficult, so the
voice needs to be much louder than the surrounding noise to be understood.

These values depend not only on the background noise, but also on the speed that is to be achieved. To get higher speeds, you need the
SNR to be above 25.

Summary Challenge

What is the maximum number of devices that a piconet supports?

10

12

iBeacon is Apple's implementation of which technology?

IEEE 802.11

SSID broadcasts

Ad hoc networking

BLE

What is !he range of connectivity between NFC devices?

50cm

25 cm

10 cm

1 cm

Which two statements about comparing ZigBee with Bluetooth are true? (Choose two.)

The ZigBee data rate is lower than Bluetooth.

The ZigBee range is longer than the Bluetooth range.

ZigBee and Bluetooth can create poínt-to-point links or very small networks.

The ZigBee device connection times are slower than Bluetoolh.

ZigBee power consumption is much higher than Bluetooth and is measured in Watts.
What are the two factors of Free Space Path Loss that cause attenuation? (Choose two.)

distance

energy must be distributed in all directions

reflection

absorption

multipath

Which three statements about absorption are true? (Choose three )

Absorption takes energy from the wave and the energy is dissipated as heat in the obstacle.

Absorption affects the radio wavelength and frequency.

Dust and humidity in the air can negatively affect a radio signal.

A plasterboard wall absorbs the same amount of energy as a concrete wall.

The presence of people affects absorption.

The absorption effect is inversely proportional to the density.

Absorption can add energy to the wave.

Which two statements correclly describe reflection? (Choose two.)

The angle of a reflected signa! is the same as the angle of the signa! received, with respect to the object.

The amplitude of a signal impacts how it is reflected.

A rough material will always reflect more signa! !han a smooth one.

An obstacle may reflect a given signa! differenlly depending on the signal's frequency.

lf reflection occurs, no signa! passes through the object.

Which two factors cause delayed signals and multipalh-related issues? (Choose two.)

wavelength

position of the receiver

absorption

attenuation

amplitude

Which statement correctly describes the refraction of a radio wave?

loss of signa! as it passes through an object

a wave passing from one medium to another of a different density

encroachment into the Fresnal zone

reflection of a signa! in the air causing it to be sent to multiple directions

Answer Key
Wireless Fundamentals

What is the overlap of AP radio signals that a wireless repeater requires?

50 percent

35 percent

25 percent

20 percent

Which device does not emit radio frequencies that can interfere with network APs?

microwave oven

wireless video camera

fluorescent light

motion detector

wireless headphones

Which statement correctly describes an ad hoc wireless network?

lt requires an AP

lt uses multiple wireless frequencies.

lt has a maximum connectivity range of 1000 meters.

lt is referred to asan IBSS.

RF Principies

What is the frequency of a radio wave that cycles 1000 times per second?

1000 Hz

10 KHz

1 Mz

1 GHz

Which two statements about line-ot-siqht communication are true? (Choose two.)

The distance between the sender and receiver must be al least 25 miles apart for earth curvature to play a role in the quality of
outdoor links.

Visual obstacles always preven! adequate line of sighl

A signa! might reflect on an object and be successfully received in a place from which the sender cannot be seen.

For a 6-foot person, the horizon appears at about 6 miles.

Visual line of sight is necessary for good signa! transmission.

 Which option gives the mínimum and recommended percentages between which the Fresnel zone should be kept free of obstructions to
avoid interfering with radio reception?

60 and 80 percent

50 and 75 percent

40 and 60 percent

70 and 85 percent

Summary Challenge

What is the maximum number of devices lhat a piconet supports?

10

12

iBeacon is Apple's implementalion of which technology?

IEEE 802.11

SSID broadcasts

Ad hoc networking

BLE

What is the range of connectivity between NFC devices?

50cm

25cm

10 cm

1 cm

Which two slatements aboul comparing ZigBee with Bluetoolh are true? (Choose two.)

The ZigBee data rale is lower than Bluetooth.

The ZigBee range is longer than the Bluetooth range.

ZigBee and Bluetooth can create point-to-poínt links or very small networks.

The ZigBee device conneclion times are slower than Bluetooth.

ZigBee power consumption is much higher than Bluetooth and is measured in Watts.
What are the two factors of Free Space Path Loss that cause attenuation? (Choose two.)

distance

energy must be distributed in all directions

reflection

absorption

multipath

Which three statements about absorption are true? (Choose three.)

Absorption takes energy from the wave and the energy is dissipated as heat in the obstacle.

Absorption affects the radio wavelength and frequency.

Dust and humidity in the air can negatively affect a radio signal.

A plasterboard wall absorbs the sama amount of energy as a concrete wall.

The presence of people affects absorption.

The absorption effect is inversely proportional to the density.

Absorption can add energy to the wave.

Which two statements correctly describe reflection? (Choose two.)

The angle of a reflectad signal is the same as the angle of the signal received, with respect to the object.

The amplitude of a signal impacts how it is reflectad.

A rough material will always reflect more signal than a smooth one.

An obstacle may reflect a given signal differently depending on the signal's frequency.

lf reflection occurs, no signal passes through the object.

Which two factors cause delayed signals and multipath-related issues? (Choose two.)

wavelength

position of the receiver

absorption

attenuation

amplitude

Which statement correctly describes the refraction of a radio wave?

loss of signal as it passes through an object

a wave passing from one medium to another of a different density

encroachment into the Fresnel zone

reflection of a signal in the air causing it to be sent to multiple directions