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studies in childhood and youth
theorising childhood
citizenship, rights and participation
Series Editors
Afua Twum-Danso Imoh
University of Sheffield
Sheffield, UK
Nigel Thomas
University of Central Lancashire
Preston, UK
Spyros Spyrou
European University Cyprus
Nicosia, Cyprus
Penny Curtis
University of Sheffield
Sheffield, UK
This well-established series embraces global and multi-disciplinary schol-
arship on childhood and youth as social, historical, cultural and material
phenomena. With the rapid expansion of childhood and youth studies in
recent decades, the series encourages diverse and emerging theoretical
and methodological approaches. We welcome proposals which explore
the diversities and complexities of children’s and young people’s lives and
which address gaps in the current literature relating to childhoods and
youth in space, place and time.
Studies in Childhood and Youth will be of interest to students and schol-
ars in a range of areas, including Childhood Studies, Youth Studies,
Sociology, Anthropology, Geography, Politics, Psychology, Education,
Health, Social Work and Social Policy.
Theorising Childhood
Citizenship, Rights and Participation
Editors
Claudio Baraldi Tom Cockburn
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia Edge Hill University
Emilia-Romagna, Italy Ormskirk, UK
story on the wireless, had a relationship to the land, husbandry and wild-
life that is now, for most children, only mediated through the internet,
books, film and other media. As someone who grew up as a child in rural
Oxfordshire in England, then spent all of my adult life in London, I was
amazed to discover on a nursery school trip to a country farm with my
young daughter in the 1980s one of her friends thrilled and physically
excited to see a real live cow for the first time in his life.
Citizenship has been conjoined for much of its modern formation
with public participation, but also with land or, rather, the control of
land as bounded territory. Citizenship has been historically enunciated
from a particular sense of place with regard to the control of that place as
conceptualised space. The belonging and identity of citizenship are both
deeply ideological and entwined in the processes of national imagination.
Of course, the French revolutionary and Enlightenment construction of
‘man’ as the subject of universal human rights is entwined with those
stories of nation, land and belonging, yet it also offers possibilities beyond
those constraints. The idea of human rights feeds an imagination beyond
the nation and a sense of the political beyond national community. It is
an idea, at once tied to biopolitics, deeply caught up in the governmen-
tality of national populations, that Michel Foucault analyses, as to the
fracturing and contestation of such a politics that may be understood
through the writing of Jacques Rancière and his sense of disagreement as
a rupturing of the social.
This collection began life at the European Sociological Association
Research Network 4: ‘Sociology of Children and Childhood’ mid-term
symposium, which took place in Modena (Italy) from 21 to 23 May
2014. However, Theorising Childhood: Citizenship, Rights and Participation
emerges at a particular moment of European crisis (or aggregation of
crises), and it raises questions that resonate beyond its European origin
and setting. In their introduction (Chap. 1), the editors Claudio Baraldi
and Tom Cockburn list the crises of ‘Europe’—the crisis of Europe as a
political, economic and cultural project post-Brexit, the increase in ‘ram-
pant nationalism’, the economic crisis of debt and austerity, and the crisis
concerning the growth, visibility and hostility towards migrant popula-
tions from the East and the South across the Mediterranean Sea. This
nexus of crises carries deep historical overtones from the 1920s, 1930s
Foreword
vii
and 1940s. After the First World War, there was rampant nationalism,
economic recession, the collapse of the old European order and mass
migration from the East. Writing about these crises and their contribu-
tion to the rise of totalitarianism in Europe, but also writing in the con-
text of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, Hannah
Arendt in her The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951) rightly warns that
human rights stripped of political community and the jurisdiction of the
nation state are worthless and offer no real protection.
This volume offers an understanding of citizenship, rights and partici-
pation not from the vantage point of adult philosophy and political the-
ory but from the lived experiences of children. This is a perspective so
often ignored. The chapters offer understandings—all different in many
ways—of citizenship, rights and participation not as abstracted ideas or
concepts, with normative and adultist assumptions, but as lived. The
emphasis on lived experience is deeply sociological. Ethnomethodology,
developed in the 1960s, was critical of abstracted and expert accounts;
instead it revealed how ordinary and everyday social interactions hold the
key to how society is ordered. Conversation analysis comes out of this
sociological tradition. In this volume there is a focus on how sociological
categories are generated and have meaning through localised interactions
and particularities. To stress the lived aspect of children’s lives and child-
hoods is to shift away from universal categories and to understand any
commonalities as a consequence of situated practices and interactions.
The ‘national’, ‘local’ and ‘global’ are not sociological abstractions but
empirical consequences of social interactions. National boundaries are
felt and realised, for example, through the particular practices and tech-
niques of border control, policing, age verification, internment and
deportation; and children, as human subjects, tell us about and provide
accounts of these practices and techniques in law courts, in journalistic
interviews, in therapy sessions and in sociological research.
Yet it is in these contexts where citizenship and rights are more difficult
to ascertain, are the site of struggle and contestation or are forcibly denied,
where a political vulnerability is often matched with a vulnerability of the
body and a vulnerability of voice. When civic rights have been stripped
from human beings, the body on its own finds it difficult, or is insuffi-
cient on its own, to support claims for rights. It is only through the
viii Foreword
relationality of bodies that rights claims are made and become realised.
But it also through the fragility of such relations that the voice stutters
between the audible and inaudible. In the context of questions about
children’s rights, participation and voice, the horizon of audibility and
inaudibility is significant. Children’s ‘voices’—or rather the wealth of
media and mediums through which a politics might be demonstrated—
face not ready recognition but the challenge of recognition—namely, the
fact of inclusion within political community is itself contested at first
base. Recognition in this sense is never given but always framed as a point
of struggle, and always through forms of social solidarity. Voice in itself is
never enough to articulate a politics. Moreover, children’s voices, even in
the plural, are certainly never enough. They must be conjoined with oth-
ers as part of a complex of generational, intergenerational and intragen-
erational struggle.
This volume, for all its attention to lived childhood, doubles its atten-
tion to the demand for social change. A concern about the status quo of
social practice and interaction is matched by another about political
change. How things are is matched by how things could be. And instead
of simply aligning agency and participation as one and the same thing,
Theorising Childhood brings out the subtle differences and interrelations
between the two ideas as situated categories, such that both categories
take shape and meaning through their articulation in a set of questions
about power, dominance and normativity. The world we live in now, so
very different in many ways from Europe at the turn of the twentieth
century, provides new and different surfaces within which to associate,
interact and participate. The forms of mediation and the forms of solidar-
ity and contestation available to children and young people now mean
that their lived experiences and the means of control and exploitation are
radically different. This volume provides support to reflect on how things
might be different.
How did this collection get written and produced? Through the hard
work and commitment of a large variety of people, all of whom are inter-
ested in the nature of children’s citizenship, rights and participation. The
chapters developed out of the European Sociological Association Research
Network 4: ‘Sociology of Children and Childhood’ mid-term sympo-
sium, which took place in Modena (Italy) from 21 to 23 May 2014. The
event was held at the beautiful University of Modena and Reggio Emilia,
which was very well placed given the region’s world-famous history and
approaches to child-centred pedagogy commonly known as the Reggio
Emilia approach, a key model for childhood studies courses across the
globe. The network began in the 1980s as a critical alternative to main-
stream research on children, and through increasing empirical and theo-
retical activity it has come to make significant and influential contributions
to understanding childhood as a social phenomenon. The importance of
children and childhood(s) as topics for sociological study is reflected in a
growing community of scholars engaged in theoretical and empirical
work in this area across Europe. This includes work looking at children
living in times of political change and transition, engagements with
understanding childhood as a structural space in societies, and explora-
tions of children’s everyday lives from their own perspective.
The focus of the symposium was on theorising childhood, in particular
the areas of citizenship, rights and participation, exploring the different
ix
x Preface
and various perspectives that included these three topics into the broader
field of childhood studies and sociology. The event theorised the variety
of contexts of citizenship, rights and participation, approaching the social
studies of childhood in terms of children’s actions, competences and per-
spectives. The results are reproduced in this collection. The symposium
comprised keynote speakers, including Hanne Warming (University of
Roskilde, Denmark) and Michael Wyness (University of Warwick), but
also Karl Hanson (Kurt Bösch Institute, Sion) and Maria Herczog (chair
at Family, Child and Youth, Reader at Eszterházy Károly College and
member of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
Committee). It also involved a number of contributors from across
Europe. The evaluation of the conference from participants stressed both
the friendliness of the experience and the high quality of the papers.
Then, needless to say, the participants went home and we went back to
our usual routine.
However the legacy remained. The quality of the papers initiated a
discussion between the two editors, and from this the book developed
and we remembered vividly the desire of participants to put their work to
good purpose. Thus we approached the paper presenters and colleagues
to develop the ideas of the book, albeit with some nervousness.
Of course, the greatest part of the book has depended on the contribu-
tors. We owe a huge debt to these individual authors, who wrote and
rewrote their papers with patience, professionalism and not a little aca-
demic zeal. We editors are very excited by their ideas and have formulated
some rather modest conclusions from standing on the shoulders of the
participants, authors and other great influential thinkers in the field of
the sociology of childhood. The latter are far too numerous to list but can
be discerned through the acknowledgements in the chapters. However,
particular acknowledgement needs to go to Jo Moran Ellis, Cath Larkins,
Madeleine Leonard, Lucia del Moral Espin, Randi Nilsen and Daniel
Stoecklin, the previous coordinators of the European Sociological
Association Research Network, without whom we would never have got
close to producing the book. Hanne Warming needs thanking for her
support in running the network. Maarit Alasuutari, Harriet Strandell and
Leena Alanen need mentioning for their support and counsel. The many
others involved in running the network are too numerous to mention but
Preface
xi
xiii
xiv Contents
I ndex 271
List of Contributors
Sara Amadasi received her PhD in social sciences at the University of Padova
(Italy). Her research interests concern children with a migrant background and
involved in transnational journeys, and children and youth participation in
intercultural communication. She has published the paper ‘“I already have a
culture.” Negotiating competing grand and personal narratives in interview con-
versations with new study abroad arrivals’ (2017, with A. Holliday) and is cur-
rently co-editing a book on small culture formation and intercultural
communication (2019, with A. Holliday).
xv
xvi List of Contributors
Rita de Cássia Marchi has a PhD in political sociology from Paris Descartes
University (France). She is a professor at the Regional University of Blumenau
(Brazil), teaching on postgraduate (Master in Education) and undergraduate (social
sciences) degree courses. She is a researcher in sociology and anthropology, focusing
on the sociology of childhood, the sociology of education, childhood anthropology
and urban anthropology. Her research interests concern contemporary childhood,
childhood poverty, child labour, school education and street children. She is editor-
in-chief of the journal Atos de Pesquisa em Educação and she leads the research
group Interdisciplinary Studies of the Child and the Teenager at the National
Council for Scientific and Technological Development (in Brazil) (CNQP).
based policies and practices, focusing on issues such as child protection, missing
children, children’s place in public spaces and child participation. He is currently
completing a PhD thesis on the political and moral foundations of the children’s
rights project, which explores, through distinct thematic case studies, the prac-
tices of child rights activists at the international, national and local levels.
Manuel Jacinto Sarmento has a PhD from the University of Minho (Portugal).
He is an aggregate professor at the Institute of Education, Department of Social
Sciences of Education there. His research focuses on the sociology of childhood,
the sociology of education and research methodologies. He has published exten-
sively on the sociology of childhood in both books and journals.
Gabriela de Pina Trevisan has a PhD in childhood studies from the University
of Minho (Portugal). She specialises in the sociology of childhood. She is
List of Contributors
xix
xxi
1
Introduction: Lived Citizenship, Rights
and Participation in Contemporary
Europe
Claudio Baraldi and Tom Cockburn
C. Baraldi (*)
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Emilia-Romagna, Italy
T. Cockburn
Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, UK
Oft hört die Pigmentirung aber auch ziemlich plötzlich und nahe dem
Grunde der Endplatte auf, wie an dem Haare von Nyctinomus
limbatus (Fig. 8) und dem von N. bivittatus (Fig. 7) zu sehen ist.
An Haaren mit nur wenig verbreitertem Ende ist dies in der Regel
durchweg ziemlich dunkel, nur die äusserste Randzone erscheint
etwas heller (Fig. 10, 11 auf Taf. X).
Manche von den Borsten (Fig. 11, 17), die wir als erste Andeutungen
von Spatelhaaren erkannten, bilden offenbar eine Vermittlung
zwischen den auf den ersten Blick ganz isolirt stehenden Haaren
von ausgeprägter Löffelform und denen, die oben als erste Gruppe
der vom Körperhaar abweichenden beschrieben wurden. Für diese
Auffassung ist auch bemerkenswerth, dass bei solchen
gewissermaassen rudimentären Formen die Cuticularschuppung
stärker als an den echten Spatelhaaren hervortritt (Fig. 17).
Auch in unserem Falle scheint mir der Gedanke nicht ohne weiteres
abzuweisen, ob es vielleicht nur die zum ersten Male gebildeten
Haare sind, die einen solchen Anhang besitzen. Zur Entscheidung
dieser Frage wäre es nöthig, von den einzelnen Arten Reihen
verschiedener Alterstufen zu untersuchen, die mir nicht zur
Verfügung standen.
Die Haarbälge sind recht derb und massig, besonders mit Rücksicht
auf die geringe Grösse der Haare, und ihre dichte Anhäufung ist es
wesentlich, wodurch die schwielige Verdickung an den Zehen
bedingt wird. Doch konnte ich von einer cavernösen Structur der
Balgwandung, wie sie für „Tasthaare“ als charakteristisch gilt und
letztere auch als „Sinushaare“ bezeichnen lässt, an Durchschnitten
hier nichts wahrnehmen. Da ich indessen bei der Kürze der
verfügbaren Zeit erst wenige Präparate anfertigen konnte und da die
Gewebe durch jahrelanges Liegen in dünnem Spiritus sehr gelitten
hatten, will ich ein abschliessendes Urtheil hiermit keineswegs
ausgesprochen haben.
Bei alle dem wird man sich bezüglich der Function der Spatelhaare
auch gegenwärtig bei der Ansicht bescheiden müssen, die
H o r s f i e l d (Zool. Res. 1824, VIII. Cheiromeles, 6. S.) aussprach,
als er zum ersten Male die Felder an den Füssen von Cheiromeles
und Nyctinomus plicatus beschrieb: „It is doubtless of importance in
the economy of the animal, but its use remains to be determined.“
„Nach oben gegen die Talgdrüse zu wird der Schaft etwas dünner
und rundlich, und so tritt er aus der Balgöffnung hervor. Er setzt sich
in einen langen drehrunden Abschnitt fort, der sich endlich zu einem
lanzettförmigen Plättchen verbreitert. Dasselbe endet in einer
abgestutzten Spitze.“
Die Figuren auf Tafel XI sollen in der Mehrzahl dazu dienen, eine
Anschauung von einigen typischen Anordnungen der Spatelhaare im
Gesichte verschiedener Molossiden-Arten zu geben. Es ist zu dem
Zwecke der Kopf fast durchweg in der Ansicht von vorn und etwas
von unten gezeichnet, sodass das Gebiet der Schnauze, der Ober-
und Unterlippe möglichst vollständig vor Augen liegt. In die
Umrisszeichnung aller dieser Theile sind dann unter Controlle
mittelst des Binoculars die Spatelhaare oder die ihnen
entsprechenden Borsten nach Zahl und Anordnung möglichst genau
eingetragen und durch Punkte oder durch Striche mit verdickten
Enden angedeutet. Andere als Spatelhaare oder ihre Vertreter sind
dabei nicht berücksichtigt.
Bei jeder Art werde ich, soweit sie mir bekannt geworden sind, auch
die Angaben früherer Autoren, die sich auf das Vorkommen dieser
Haare beziehen, anführen, in der Synonymie folge ich dabei der
Autorität von D o b s o n s Catalogue 1878.
[Inhalt]
Molossi
Als erster und wohl auch einziger Autor, der auf den Besitz von
Spatelhaaren als einen allgemeinen Charakter der Gruppe
aufmerksam gemacht hat, ist B u r m e i s t e r zu nennen. In der
„System. Übers. d. Thiere Brasil. I. Säugethiere. Berl. 1854“ sagt er
(S. 66) bei der allgemeinen Charakteristik der Gattung Dysopes (=
Molossus und Nyctinomus): „Die breiten Lippen sind … mit einem
dichten Wimpernsaume besetzt; Schnurrhaare fehlen oder stehen
sehr vereinzelt, dagegen sieht man k u r z e , h a k e n f ö r m i g
a u f w ä r t s g e b o g e n e B o r s t e n i n d e n L i p p e n .“ 22
Ferner S. 67: „die Zehen sind kurz, dick, klein, ausserhalb mit
langen, steifen, gebogenen, abstehenden Wimperhaaren besetzt;
die erste und letzte Zehe etwas erweitert und u n t e r h a l b m i t
s t e i f e n H ä k c h e n b e k l e i d e t .“ 22 Offenbar sind hier die
Spatelhaare gemeint, die ja in der That bei geringer
Lupenvergrösserung von ihrer eigenthümlichen Form kaum mehr als
die Krümmung des oberen Endes erkennen lassen.
Nyctinomus Geoffr.
Ganz klar und zutreffend sind dagegen die Felder an den Füssen
beschrieben (H o r s f i e l d , Zool. Research. 1824, Nyctinomus
tenuis): „A series of delicate hairs, about one line in length, extends
along the whole of the exterior side both of the thumb and of the little
finger; a few hairs of a greater length are scattered through these
and likewise stretch forward, and spread over the claw. These hairs
rise nearly erect or vertically from the finger, and are not directed
horizontally outward, as in Cheiromeles. The separate hairs are bent
or hooked at the extremity; their colour is silvery gray. This regularly
defined series of hooked hairs must not be confounded with the long
lax hairs which are observed in all the fingers of the Nyctinomi, and
which, according to M. G e o f f r o y , must also be placed among the
generic characters.“
2. Nyctinomus sarasinorum A. B. M.
Tafel X, Fig. 13
Tafel X, Fig. 2 u. 2 a
8. Nyctinomus astrolabiensis A. B. M.