Psychopathology

Paper 3 Important
Q1. Abnormal behaviour, meaning and definition
Q2. Biological approach
Q3. DSM IV - TR and ICD- 10
Q4. Schizophrenia and it's symptoms
Q5. Causes of Schizophrenia
Q6. Overall picture of paranoid patient
Q7. Explain Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Q8. Anxiety disorder vs Post traumatic stress disorder
Q9. Phobias and treatment
Q10. Mood disorders, symptoms
Q11. Catatonic schizophrenia
Q12. Major Depressive Disorder
Q13. Cyclothymia
Q14. Agoraphobia

Abnormal behaviour, meaning and definition in Psychopathology

Abnormal psychology is a branch of psychology that studies, diagnoses, and treats

unusual patterns of behavior, emotions, and thoughts that could signify a mental
disorder.
Abnormal psychology studies people who are “abnormal” or “atypical” compared to
the members of a given society.
Remember, “abnormal” in this context does not necessarily imply “negative” or
“bad.” It is a term used to describe behaviors and mental processes that significantly
deviate from statistical or societal norms.

Abnormal psychology research is pivotal for understanding and managing mental

health issues, developing treatments, and promoting mental health awareness.

Defining Abnormality
The definition of the word abnormal is simple enough, but applying this to
psychology poses a complex problem:

What is normal? Whose norm? For what age? For what culture?

The concept of abnormality is imprecise and difficult to define. Examples of

abnormality can take many different forms and involve different features, so that,
what at first sight seem quite reasonable definitions, turns out to be quite problematic.

There are several different ways in which it is possible to define ‘abnormal’ as

opposed to our ideas of what is ‘normal.’

There are different ways to define abnormal behavior. One way looks at whether the
behavior causes distress or makes it hard to function in daily life. Another way
considers whether the behavior is statistically rare compared to what most people do.
Cultural and social factors also play a big role, as what's considered normal can vary
from one group to another.

When mental health professionals assess abnormal behavior, they look at different
factors, including biological, psychological, and social influences. They also consider
a person's background, family, and cultural background to understand their behavior
better.

Abnormal behavior, in the context of psychology and mental health, refers to actions,
thoughts, or feelings that deviate from what is considered typical or usual within a
particular society or culture. This can include behavior or emotions that cause
significant distress, impair normal functioning, or go against social or cultural norms.

The definition of abnormal behavior can vary depending on different factors, such as
cultural background, social context, and individual differences. Typically, mental
health professionals consider whether the behavior causes distress or interferes with a
person's ability to function effectively in their daily life. They also take into account
how statistically rare the behavior is compared to the general population, as well as
cultural norms and expectations.

When evaluating abnormal behavior, psychologists and mental health professionals

consider a range of biological, psychological, and social factors that may contribute to
a person's experiences. This holistic approach takes into consideration genetic,
environmental, and social influences, as well as a person's background, family
dynamics, and cultural background.
It's important to recognize that labeling behavior as abnormal does not imply that it is
inherently negative or problematic. Instead, understanding and empathy are crucial in
supporting individuals who may be struggling with their mental health. By promoting
open conversations, reducing stigma, and fostering a more inclusive society, we can
work towards a better understanding and support for individuals experiencing
abnormal behavior.

Ques 2. Biological approach

Ans. The biological approach in psychology emphasizes the influence of biological
factors, such as genetics, neurochemistry, and the nervous system, on behavior and
mental processes. This perspective suggests that an individual's biology, including
their genetic makeup and neurological functioning, plays a significant role in shaping
their thoughts, emotions, and actions.

Key principles of the biological approach include:

1. Genetics: The biological approach places importance on the role of genetics in

influencing behavior and mental health. Genetic predispositions may contribute to
certain traits, behaviors, and susceptibility to mental health conditions.

2. Neurochemistry: This aspect focuses on the role of neurotransmitters, hormones,

and other chemicals in the brain in regulating emotions, cognition, and behavior.
Imbalances in neurotransmitter levels are associated with various mental health
disorders.

3. Brain structure and function: Understanding the structure and function of the
brain is central to the biological approach. It explores how different brain regions and
neural circuits contribute to specific behaviors, thoughts, and emotional experiences.

4. Evolutionary influences: The biological approach also considers how evolutionary

processes have shaped human behavior and psychological traits. It examines how
behaviors and cognitive processes may have evolved to increase survival and
reproductive success.

Key Features

• Natural Selection / Evolution

 Key Features

• Adaptation
• Scientific method
• Heredity
• Nomothetic (studies the group)

Methodology

• Lab Experiments
• Correlation studies
• Twin research
• Naturalistic observations
• Cross-cultural research

Weaknesses

• Reductionist: ignores the environment and

cognitive processes
• Deterministic – little room for free will
• Behaviourism – we are born a blank slate
and not with instincts at birth
• The biological approach is determinist and
views behavior as caused by biological factors
over which we have no control

When applying the biological approach, psychologists and researchers examine how
biological factors interact with environmental and social influences to shape an
individual's psychological functioning. This integrated perspective helps in
understanding how genetic and neurobiological factors contribute to the development
of mental health conditions and psychological processes.

Overall, the biological approach offers valuable insights into the biological
underpinnings of behavior and mental processes, contributing to a comprehensive
understanding of human psychology while guiding the development of interventions
and treatments for mental health disorders.

Q3. DSM IV - TR and ICD- 10

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text
Revision (DSM-IV-TR) and the International Classification of Diseases, 10th Edition
(ICD-10) are two widely used classification systems for mental health disorders. Both
systems provide diagnostic criteria and codes for various mental health conditions,
facilitating accurate diagnosis and treatment planning in clinical practice.

DSM-IV-TR:

- The DSM-IV-TR, published by the American Psychiatric Association, is a manual

used by mental health professionals in the United States and beyond for diagnosing
and classifying mental disorders.

- It includes standardized criteria for diagnosing mental health conditions and

provides a common language for mental health professionals to communicate about
these disorders.

- The DSM-IV-TR includes specific diagnostic criteria, alongside text descriptions

and research findings related to each mental disorder. It helps clinicians form
diagnoses based on observable symptoms and behaviors.

ICD-10:

- The ICD-10 is the tenth edition of the International Classification of Diseases,

published by the World Health Organization (WHO). It is used globally as a standard
diagnostic tool for epidemiology, health management, and clinical purposes.

- ICD-10 includes a wide range of medical diagnoses, not only limited to mental
health disorders, and it provides a coding system for health information and billing
purposes.
- The ICD-10 includes specific codes for mental and behavioral disorders, allowing
clinicians and health organizations to accurately record and track the prevalence and
treatment of these conditions.

Both the DSM-IV-TR and ICD-10 are invaluable resources in the field of mental
health, providing standardized criteria and terminology for diagnosing and treating
mental disorders. These classification systems are updated periodically to reflect new
research findings, changes in diagnostic practices, and advancements in the
understanding of mental health conditions.

It's important to note that since the development of DSM-IV-TR, the DSM-5 has been
published, incorporating significant changes in diagnostic criteria and classification of
mental disorders. Similarly, ICD-10 has been succeeded by ICD-11, which offers
updated diagnostic guidelines and classification of mental health disorders. Mental
health professionals and organizations around the world use these classification
systems to ensure standardized and accurate diagnosis and treatment of mental health
conditions.

Q4. Schizophrenia and it's symptoms

Schizophrenia is a complex and severe mental disorder that profoundly impacts a

person's thinking, emotions, perception, and behavior. The symptoms of
schizophrenia are typically divided into several categories, providing a comprehensive
overview of the diverse ways the disorder can manifest. It's important to note that the
presentation of symptoms can vary widely among individuals. The diagnostic criteria
for schizophrenia, as outlined in the DSM-5, include the presence of two or more of
the following symptoms over a significant portion of time, accompanied by impaired
functioning:

1. Positive Symptoms:

- Delusions: False beliefs that are not based in reality. These delusions can take
various forms, such as persecutory, grandiose, or referential delusions.

- Hallucinations: Perceiving things that are not present, often involving auditory
experiences, but may also include visual or sensory hallucinations.

- Disorganized Thinking (Formal Thought Disorder): Disorganized thought

processes that may manifest as incoherent speech, derailment, or tangentiality.
 - Disorganized or Abnormal Motor Behavior: This can include a range of
unusual behaviors, such as agitation, catatonia, or unpredictable movements.

2. Negative Symptoms:

- Reduced Emotional Expression: Limited display of emotions through facial

expressions, tone of voice, or gestures.

- Anhedonia: Diminished ability to experience pleasure or interest in previously

enjoyable activities.

- Avolition: Lack of motivation or ability to initiate and sustain goal-directed

activities.

- Alogia: Decreased speech output or diminished quality of speech.

3. Cognitive Symptoms:

- Impairments in working memory, attention, and executive function.

- Difficulty in comprehending and using information to make decisions and solve

problems.

4. Other Symptoms:

- Social and Occupational Dysfunction: Difficulties in maintaining relationships,

holding down a job, or functioning independently.

- Duration: Symptoms persist for a significant portion of time, often impacting an

individual's adjustment and functioning.

Schizophrenia is a chronic condition, and the symptoms can fluctuate in intensity and
presentation over time. The exact cause of schizophrenia is not fully understood, but it
is likely to involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and neurobiological
factors. Treatment typically involves a combination of antipsychotic medications,
psychosocial interventions, and support services to help individuals manage their
symptoms and improve their quality of life.

It's important for individuals experiencing symptoms consistent with schizophrenia to

seek evaluation and support from mental health professionals to receive an accurate
diagnosis and appropriate treatment. Early intervention and ongoing care can help
individuals manage their symptoms and improve their overall well-being.
Q7. Explain Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a mental health condition characterized by

the presence of obsessions and/or compulsions that significantly impact an
individual's daily life. Obsessions are intrusive, persistent, and unwanted thoughts,
urges, or images that cause distress, while compulsions are repetitive behaviors or
mental acts that an individual feels driven to perform in response to an obsession or
according to rigid rules. These compulsions are aimed at reducing anxiety or
preventing a dreaded event or situation. It's important to note that not everyone with
OCD will have both obsessions and compulsions.

Some common obsessions include fears of contamination, aggressive impulses,

unwanted sexual thoughts, or the need for symmetry or exactness. Compulsions can
take various forms, such as excessive cleaning or handwashing, constant checking,
repetitive counting, mental rituals like silent prayers, or arranging objects in a precise
manner.

The impact of OCD goes beyond the specific obsessions and compulsions. It can lead
to significant distress, interfere with daily activities, and impair social, occupational,
and academic functioning. Individuals with OCD often recognize that their obsessions
and compulsions are excessive or unreasonable, but they feel unable to control or
resist them.

The exact cause of OCD is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a
combination of genetic, neurobiological, and environmental factors. Additionally,
abnormalities in certain neurotransmitter systems, particularly serotonin, are thought
to play a role in the development and maintenance of OCD.

Treatment for OCD typically involves a combination of psychotherapy, particularly

cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) with exposure and response prevention (ERP),
and medication. CBT helps individuals understand and manage their symptoms by
changing thought patterns and behaviors, while ERP specifically focuses on gradually
confronting feared situations or thoughts and refraining from performing compulsions.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are commonly prescribed medications
for OCD, and they can help alleviate symptoms by affecting serotonin levels in the
brain.

It's important for individuals experiencing symptoms consistent with OCD to seek
evaluation and support from mental health professionals. Early intervention and
appropriate treatment can significantly improve the management of OCD symptoms
and enhance an individual's overall quality of life. The understanding and support of
family members and friends, along with ongoing care, play a crucial role in the
effective management of OCD.

Ques. Catatonic schizophrenia

Catatonic schizophrenia is a subtype of schizophrenia, a serious mental disorder

characterized by a disintegration of thought processes and emotional responsiveness.
Catatonic schizophrenia is distinguished by the presence of catatonic symptoms,
which are extreme changes in motor behavior. Here are some notes on catatonic
schizophrenia:

1. Symptoms: The primary symptoms of catatonic schizophrenia are disturbances in

movement. Individuals may display either excessive or reduced movement. This can
include catalepsy (rigid or fixed posture), mutism (inability or refusal to speak), waxy
flexibility (maintaining a body position in which an examiner places them), agitation,
and unusual movements. Additionally, individuals may exhibit echolalia (repeating
words spoken by another) and echopraxia (repeating the movements of another).

2. Altered States of Consciousness: Patients with catatonic schizophrenia may

experience altered states of consciousness, such as catatonic stupor, during which they
are immobile and unresponsive to the outside world. This state can resemble coma,
with individuals showing minimal spontaneous movement or response to stimuli.

3. Causes: The causes of catatonic schizophrenia, like other forms of schizophrenia,

are not fully understood. However, genetic, environmental, and neurobiological
factors are believed to contribute to the development of the disorder.

4. Diagnosis: Diagnosis of catatonic schizophrenia involves a thorough psychiatric

evaluation, including a review of symptoms and medical history. The Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) criteria are commonly used to aid in
the diagnosis of catatonic schizophrenia.

5. Treatment: Treatment for catatonic schizophrenia typically involves a combination

of antipsychotic medications, psychotherapy, and support services. In severe cases,
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) may be considered. Hospitalization may be
necessary to ensure the safety and well-being of the individual, particularly if their
symptoms put them at risk.
6. Prognosis: The prognosis for individuals with catatonic schizophrenia varies. With
appropriate treatment and support, many individuals can experience significant
improvement in their symptoms and quality of life. However, the condition can be
chronic and may require ongoing management.

7. Impact on Daily Life: Catatonic schizophrenia can have a profound impact on an

individual's daily life, affecting their ability to work, maintain relationships, and
engage in everyday activities. Support from mental health professionals, family, and
friends is crucial in helping individuals manage their symptoms and lead fulfilling
lives.

It is important to note that schizophrenia, including its catatonic subtype, is a complex

and multifaceted disorder that requires individualized care and support. Treatment and
management should be tailored to each person's unique needs and circumstances.

The biological approach to abnormal psychology focuses on the ways in which

biological factors and processes contribute to the development and expression of
psychological disorders. This perspective emphasizes the role of genetic, neurological,
and physiological factors in understanding abnormal behavior.

One key area of focus within the biological approach is the study of genetic influences
on psychological disorders. Researchers in this field seek to identify specific genes
that may predispose individuals to certain mental health conditions. By understanding
the genetic underpinnings of disorders, scientists hope to develop more targeted and
effective treatments.

Another important aspect of the biological approach is the study of neurobiology and
brain function. Researchers investigate how abnormalities in brain structure and
function can give rise to psychological disorders. For example, studies have linked
abnormalities in certain brain regions, such as the amygdala and prefrontal cortex, to
conditions like anxiety disorders and depression. Advances in neuroimaging
technology have allowed researchers to better understand how these brain
abnormalities contribute to abnormal behavior.
In addition to genetic and neurological factors, the biological approach also considers
the role of physiological processes in psychological disorders. This includes the study
of hormones, neurotransmitters, and other chemical messengers in the body. For
example, imbalances in neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine have been
implicated in conditions such as schizophrenia and mood disorders.

The biological approach also examines the impact of physical illness and injury on
psychological functioning. Certain medical conditions, such as traumatic brain injury
or endocrine disorders, can have profound effects on mental health. Understanding
these connections is important for providing comprehensive care to individuals with
both physical and psychological health concerns.

One of the strengths of the biological approach is its emphasis on empirical research
and the use of scientific methods to study psychological disorders. Advances in fields
such as genetics, neuroscience, and pharmacology have led to important discoveries
about the biological underpinnings of abnormal behavior. This knowledge has
contributed to the development of effective medications and other biological
treatments for many psychological disorders.

However, the biological approach is not without its limitations. Critics of this
perspective argue that it may oversimplify complex psychological phenomena by
reducing them to biological factors alone. Additionally, the emphasis on biological
determinants of behavior can sometimes lead to an underestimation of the role of
environmental and psychological factors in the development of psychological
disorders.

Despite these criticisms, the biological approach continues to be a valuable and

influential perspective in the field of abnormal psychology. Researchers and clinicians
increasingly recognize the importance of integrating biological, psychological, and
social factors in understanding and treating psychological disorders. This holistic
approach, known as the biopsychosocial model, acknowledges the complex interplay
of biological, psychological, and social factors in the development and maintenance of
mental health conditions. By considering all of these factors, mental health
professionals can provide more comprehensive and effective care for individuals with
psychological disorders