AEE465/565 – Rocket Propulsion – Professor Dr. Werner J.A.

Dahm
Isentropic Nozzle Flow Thrust Performance
Total-to-Static Relations: Normal Shock Relations: (M = Mach before shock) Thrust Equation:
𝑇 = 𝑚̇𝑝 𝑉𝑒 + (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑃∞ )𝐴𝑒
*First term is jet (momentum) thrust, the second term is
pressure thrust.
𝑇 = 𝑚̇𝑝 𝑉𝑒𝑞
*Valid in all cases

Equivalent Velocity:
Total Relations: (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝∞ ) 𝐴𝑒 𝑇
𝛾 1 𝑉𝑒𝑞 = 𝑉𝑒 + =
𝑝𝑡 2 (𝛾 + 1) 𝑀 2 𝛾−1 𝛾+1 𝛾−1
𝑚̇𝑝 𝑚̇𝑝
=[ ] [ ] *Would be the exit velocity from a fully expanded nozzle
𝑝𝑡 1 (𝛾 − 1) 𝑀2 + 2 2𝛾𝑀 2 − (𝛾 − 1)
that produces same thrust as actual nozzle.
𝑇𝑡2
=1
𝑇𝑡1 Specific Impulse:
𝑇𝑡 𝛾−1 2 Shock Jump Relations: 𝑉𝑒𝑞 𝑇
= [1 + 𝑀 ] 𝐼𝑠𝑝 = =
𝑇 2 𝑔0 𝑚̇𝑝 𝑔0
𝛾 𝑝2 2𝛾𝑀 2 − (𝛾 − 1)
𝑝𝑡 𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1 =
= [1 + 𝑀 ] 𝑝1 𝛾+1 *Equivalent time that 1 lbf of combustion products could
𝑝 2 produce 1 lbf of thrust, units of seconds
1 𝑇2 [2𝛾𝑀 2 − (𝛾 − 1)][(𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 + 2]
𝜌𝑡 𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1 =
= [1 + 𝑀 ] 𝑇1 (𝛾 + 1)2 𝑀2 Thrust Coefficient:
𝜌 2
𝜌2 (𝛾 + 1)𝑀2 𝑇
= (𝑐𝑇 )𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = (𝑐𝑇 )𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 =
Mass Flow Rate: 𝜌1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀 2 + 2 𝑝𝑡 𝐴∗
1
𝑚̇(𝑥) = 𝑚̇∗ = 𝜌∗ 𝑢∗𝐴∗ (𝛾 − 1)𝑀12 + 2 𝛾+1 𝛾−1 2
1 𝑀22 = 2 2 𝛾−1 𝑝𝑒 𝛾 (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝∞ ) 𝐴𝑒
𝛾+1 2 2𝛾𝑀12 − (𝛾 − 1) 𝛾 {( )( ) [1 − ( ) ]} +
𝑝𝑡 𝐴∗ 2 𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝛾+1 𝑝𝑡 𝑝𝑡 𝐴∗
𝑚̇𝑝 = [𝛾 ( ) ]
√𝑅 𝑇𝑡 𝛾+1 Oblique Shock Jump Relations: 1
𝛾+1 𝛾−1 2
^This is valid for any choked nozzle. 2 2 𝛾−1 𝑝𝑒 𝛾
(𝑐𝑇 )𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝛾 {( )( ) [1 − ( ) ]}
𝛾−1 𝛾+1 𝑝𝑡
Isentropic Area-Mach Number Relation:
1 𝛾+1 *Isentropic and fully expanded nozzle flow (𝑝𝑒 = 𝑝∞ )
𝐴 1 2 𝛾 − 1 2 2 𝛾−1
= {( ) [1 + 𝑀 ]} 1
𝐴∗ 𝑀 𝛾 + 1 2 𝛾+1 2
2 2 𝛾−1
*Find
𝐴𝑒
given Exit Mach number or solve numerically to (𝑐𝑇 )𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 = 𝛾 {( )( ) }
𝐴∗ 𝛾−1 𝛾+1
𝐴𝑒
find Exit Mach from
𝐴∗ Angle-Mach Relations: *Fully expanded flow in a vacuum (infinite nozzle length)
*Once 𝑀𝑒 is known, can solve or 𝑇𝑒 and 𝑝𝑒 using (𝛾 + 1)𝑀12
isentropic relations (above). cot(𝛿) = tan(𝜃) [ − 1] Trajectories
2(𝑀12 sin2(𝜃) − 1)
Tsiolkovsky Rocket Equation (velocity increment):
Nozzle Choking Criterion: (𝛾 − 1)𝑀12 sin2(𝜃) + 2 𝑀0
𝑀22 sin2(𝜃 − 𝛿) = Δ𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 𝑉𝑒𝑞 ln ( ) − 𝑔0 𝑡𝑏
𝛾 2𝛾𝑀12 sin2(𝜃) − (𝛾 − 1) 𝑀𝑓
𝑝𝑡 𝛾+1 𝛾−1
=( ) 𝑎𝑡 𝑀 ∗ = 1 Total Relations:
𝑝∗ 2 𝛾 1 - Larger velocity increment due to high thrust for short
𝑝𝑡 2 (𝛾 + 1) 𝑀12 sin2 (𝜃) 𝛾−1 𝛾+1 𝛾−1
burn time than due to lower thrust for long burn time.
*Unchoked if, =[ ] [ ]
𝛾 𝑝𝑡 1 (𝛾 − 1) 𝑀12 sin2 (𝜃) + 2 2𝛾𝑀12 sin2 (𝜃) − (𝛾 − 1) - Short burn at high thrust reduces energy consumed
𝑝𝑡 𝛾 + 1 𝛾−1
<( ) Shock Jump Relations: lifting propellant (for vertical launch)
𝑝∗ 2
𝑝2 2𝛾𝑀12 sin2(𝜃) − (𝛾 − 1) Aerodynamic Drag:
=
Exit Velocity: 𝑝1 𝛾+1 1
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐴𝐶𝐷
𝑉𝑒 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑀𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑎𝑒 = √𝛾 𝑅 𝑇𝑒 𝑇2 [2𝛾𝑀12 sin2(𝜃) − (𝛾 − 1)][(𝛾 − 1)𝑀12 sin2(𝜃) + 2] 2
1 = 𝜋
*Circular cross-section with diameter d has area 𝐴 = 𝑑 2
𝛾−1 2 𝑇1 (𝛾 + 1)2 𝑀12 sin2(𝜃) 4
2𝛾 𝑝𝑒 𝛾
𝑉𝑒 = { 𝑅 𝑇 [1 − ( ) ]} 𝜌2 (𝛾 + 1)𝑀12 sin2(𝜃)
𝛾−1 𝑡 𝑝𝑡 = Gravitational Force:
𝜌1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀12 sin2(𝜃) + 2 𝑅𝑒 2
Where, 𝑔(𝑧) = 𝑔𝑒 ( )
𝑘𝐽 𝑅𝑒 + 𝑧
𝑅̃ (8314 ) Nozzle Expansion:
𝑅= = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾 *As a function of altitude 𝑧 in 𝑚,
𝑀𝑊 𝑀𝑊
earth radius 𝑅𝑒 = 6378 (103 ) 𝑚,
*Therefore, lower 𝑀𝑊 gives higher 𝑉𝑒 → higher thrust
and acceleration of gravity at surface 𝑔𝑒 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2
Isentropic Model of Atmosphere:
Time and Altitude at Burnout:
𝛾
𝑝(𝑧) 𝛾 − 1 𝑧 𝛾−1 ln(𝑅) 1
≈ [1 − ( ∗ )] ℎ𝑏 = 𝑉𝑒𝑞 {1 − } 𝑡 − 𝑔 𝑡2
𝑝𝑠 2 𝑧 𝑅−1 𝑏 2 𝑒 𝑏
𝑁
*Where surface pressure, 𝑝𝑠 = 101.3 (103 ) 𝑀
𝑚2 *First term is dependent on Mass Ratio 𝑅 = ( 0 )
∗ 𝑀𝑓
𝑧 = 8404 𝑚
𝑀𝑃
𝑡𝑏 = ( ) 𝑡𝑏 = (𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
Summerfeld Separation Criterion: 𝑚̇𝑝
𝑝𝑒
When nozzle flow is “highly” over expanded, when
𝑝∞ Maximum Vehicle Altitude (vertical launch):
gets too small, flow in nozzle separates when,
1 (Δ𝑉𝑏 )2
𝑝𝑒 ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑏 +
≲𝐾 2 𝑔𝑒
𝑝∞
for 0.25 ≤ 𝐾 ≤ 0.4 𝑉𝑒𝑞2 (ln(𝑅))2 𝑅
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − 𝑉𝑒𝑞 𝑡𝑏 { ln(𝑅) − 1}
2𝑔𝑒 𝑅−1
*Boundary layer separation can cause highly turbulent
recirculating flow *Minimizing 𝑡𝑏 maximizes ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥
 Rocket Staging
Staging Methods: Velocity Increments for an Optimally Staged Rocket: Circular Orbits: 𝑟(𝜃) = 𝑅 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑒 < 0, 𝜀 = 0
Δ𝑉 due to burnout of the 𝑖 th-stage, Velocity:
(𝑉𝑏 )𝑖 = (𝑉𝑒𝑞 ) ln(𝑅𝑖 ) − 𝑔0 (𝑡𝑏 )𝑖 𝜇
𝑖 𝑉=√
Final Δ𝑉 imparted on final payload 𝑀𝐿 of stage 𝑁, 𝑅
𝑁 Period:
𝑇𝑏 = ∑(𝑡𝑏 )𝑖 𝑅3
𝑖=1 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑁 𝜇
1 + 𝜆𝑖
(𝑉𝑏 )𝑁 = ∑ [(𝑉𝑒𝑞 ) ln ( )] − 𝑔𝑜 𝑇𝑏 Escape from Circular Orbit:
𝑖 𝜀𝑖 + 𝜆𝑖 𝜇
𝑖=1
1 −1 Δ𝑉1 ≥ (√2 − 1)√
𝑀𝐿 𝑁 𝑅
(Δ𝑉𝑏 )𝑁 = 𝑉𝑒𝑞 𝑁 ln {𝜀 + (1 − 𝜀) [ ] } − 𝑔𝑜 𝑇𝑏
𝑀0 Parabolic Trajectories: (not orbit) 𝑒 = 0, 𝑎 = ∞, 𝜀 = 1
Ideal Case (infinitely many stages): 𝑉∞ = 0
𝑀0 Escape Velocity:
(Δ𝑉𝑏 )𝑁→∞ = 𝑉𝑒𝑞 (1 − 𝜀) ln [ ] − 𝑔𝑜 𝑇𝑏
𝑀𝐿 2𝜇
𝑇 𝑉𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √
*Equivalent Velocity 𝑉𝑒𝑞 = ≈ same for all stages 𝑟
𝑚̇𝑝
Escape from planet surface:
Orbital Dynamics
2𝜇
Gravitational Parameter: 𝑉𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √
𝑅𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑁 ∙ 𝑚2
𝜇 = 𝐺𝑀 ′ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11
𝑘𝑔
Hyperbolic Trajectories: (not orbit) 𝑒 > 0
Radial Position (from vehicle to center of planet): Excess Velocity:
𝑎(1 − 𝜀 2 ) 𝜇
𝑟= 𝑉∞ = √2𝑒 𝑉∞ = √
1 + 𝜀 cos(𝜃) −𝑎
Asymptote Angle:
Semimajor Axis: 1
𝜃∞ = 𝜋 − cos −1 ( )
1 1 𝜀
𝑎 = 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑎= (𝑟 + 𝑟𝑝 ) Turning Angle:
1−𝜀 2 𝑎
1
𝛿 = 2 sin−1 ( )
Eccentricity: 𝜀
Miss Distance:
𝑟𝑎 − 𝑟𝑝 𝑏2 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 Δ = −𝑎√𝜀 2 − 1
𝜀= 𝜀 = √1 − 𝜀 =1−
𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑝 𝑎2 𝑎
Orbital Maneuvers
*Where b = semi-minor axis
Circularization Burn:
𝜀 < 1 → 𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒
𝜀 = 1 → 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎 Circularize at 𝑟𝑎 :
𝜀 > 1 → ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎 𝜇 2𝑟𝑝
𝜀 = 0 → 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 Δ𝑉1 = √ ∙ [1 − √ ]
𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑝

Vis-Viva: Circularize at 𝑟𝑝 :
2
2 1
*For Parallel Staging: Mass of 1st stage propellant from 𝑉 = 𝜇( − ) 𝜇 2𝑟𝑎
𝑟 𝑎 Δ𝑉1 = √ ∙ [1 − √ ]
large tank is equal to the total mass of the large tank’s 𝑟𝑝 𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑝
propellant times the fraction of the 1st stage burn time Perigee Radius:
over the total burn time of the 1st and 2nd stages. 𝑟𝑝 = 𝑎(1 − 𝜀) Inclination Change: (circular orbits)

Stage Mass Relation: 𝑁-stage vehicle, the 𝑖 th-stage has,

Perigee Velocity:
𝑀0𝑖 = 𝑀𝑃𝑖 + 𝑀𝑆𝑖 + 𝑀𝐿𝑖
𝜇 1+𝜀 𝜇 2𝑟𝑎
Payload Ratio: 𝑉𝑝 = √ ( ) 𝑉𝑝 = √
𝑎 1−𝜀 𝑟𝑝 (𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑝 )
𝑀0(𝑖+1) 𝑀𝐿𝑖 𝑀𝐿𝑖
𝜆𝑖 ≡ = = 1
𝑀0𝑖 − 𝑀0(𝑖+1) 𝑀0𝑖 − 𝑀𝐿𝑖 𝑀𝑃𝑖 + 𝑀𝑆𝑖 *Both other angles are: 𝜋 − 𝜃
Apogee Radius: 2
*Equal for all similar stages, 𝜆𝑖 = 𝜆(𝑖+1) = ⋯ = 𝜆𝑁 𝜇 𝜃
1⁄
𝑟𝑎 = 𝑎(1 + 𝜀) Δ𝑉1 = 2√ sin ( )
𝑅 2
(𝑀𝐿⁄𝑀 )
𝑁
0 Apogee Velocity:
𝜆𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 1⁄
𝑀 𝑁 Orbital Rendezvous:
(1 − 𝐿⁄𝑀 ) Lead Angle:
0 𝜇 1−𝜀 𝜇 2𝑟𝑝 𝜇 𝑟𝑎
𝑉𝑎 = √ ( ) 𝑉𝑎 = √ 𝑉𝑎 = √
𝑎 1+𝜀 𝑟𝑎 (𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑝 ) 𝑎 𝑟𝑝 𝜋 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )3
Structural Coefficient: 𝛼𝐿 = √
𝑀𝑆𝑖 𝑀𝑆𝑖 𝑀𝑆𝑖 2 2(𝑅2)3
𝜀𝑖 = = = Orbital Period: Transfer Time:
𝑀0𝑖 − 𝑀0(𝑖+1) 𝑀0𝑖 − 𝑀𝐿𝑖 𝑀𝑆𝑖 + 𝑀𝑃𝑖
*Equal for all similar stages, 𝜀𝑖 = 𝜀(𝑖+1) = ⋯ = 𝜀𝑁 𝑎3 𝜋 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )3
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑇𝑇𝑋 = 𝑇𝐻𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 = √
𝜇 2 2𝜇
Mass Ratio:
Intercept Opportunity Times:
𝑀0𝑖 𝑀0𝑖 1 + 𝜆𝑖 Energy (per unit mass):
𝑅𝑖 = = = 𝜇 1 1 1 𝑅𝑖
𝑀0𝑖 − 𝑀𝑃𝑖 𝑀𝑆𝑖 + 𝑀𝐿𝑖 𝜀𝑖 + 𝜆𝑖 = − 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 (𝑇𝐶 )𝑖 = 2𝜋√
𝑒=− 𝑇 (𝑇𝐶 )1 (𝑇𝐶 )2 𝜇
2𝑎
 Orbital Transfers
Hohmann Transfer: Standard Gravitation Parameters Combustion Tap-Off Systems:
3
𝑚
Body 𝜇 = 𝐺𝑀 ′ [ 2 ]
𝑠
Sun 1.327 × 1020
Mercury 2.203 × 1013
Venus 3.249 × 1014
Earth 3.986 × 1014
(Moon) 4.903 × 1012
Mars 4.283 × 1013
Circular Orbit Velocities: Jupiter 1.267 × 1017
𝜇 𝜇 Saturn 3.793 × 1016
(𝑉𝐶 )1 = √ (𝑉𝐶 )2 = √
𝑅1 𝑅2 Uranus 5.794 × 1015
Transfer Orbit Parameters: (Trans time, see Rendezvous) Neptune 6.837 × 1015
𝑟𝑝 = 𝑅1 *Uses combustion product gas from combustion chamber
Pluto 1.108 × 1012
𝑟𝑎 = 𝑅2 to drive gas turbine that then drives pumps.
Propellant Feed Systems Open Systems:
𝜇 2𝑅2 - Turbine exit gas pressure low, dumped overboard
𝑉𝑝 = √ Pressure-Fed Systems:
𝑅1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 Closed Systems:
- Turbine exit gas dumped into nozzle at low pressure
𝜇 2𝑅1 location to add 𝑚̇𝑝 at nozzle exit
𝑉𝑎 = √
𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 *Moderate/high thrust (Saturn I-B/Blue Origin)
Velocity Increments: Gas Generator Systems:
𝜇 2𝑅2
Δ𝑉1 = √ [√ − 1]
𝑅1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝜇 2𝑅1
Δ𝑉2 = √ [1 − √ ]
𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Bielliptic Transfer:

*Part of fuel and oxidizer are burned in preburner to

Deliver Pressure > Tank Pressure, produce high-pressure gas that drives turbopumps.
𝑃ℎ = 𝜌(𝑔 + 𝑎)ℎ - Preburner operated very fuel-rich to keep
temperature sufficiently low
- Fuel-rich exhaust dumped overboard (open) or
Circular Orbit Velocities: dumped into nozzle (closed)
- Power controlled by adjusting fuel/ox rates into
𝜇 𝜇
(𝑉𝐶 )1 = √ (𝑉𝐶 )2 = √ preburner
𝑅1 𝑅2 - Can achieve higher CC pressure than expander sys.
Transfer Orbit Parameters: (𝑅𝑇𝑋 can be chosen)
Staged Combustion Systems:
𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑝𝑇𝑋1
𝑅𝑇𝑋 = 𝑅𝑎𝑇𝑋1
𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑝𝑇𝑋2
Expander Systems:
𝑅𝑇𝑋 = 𝑅𝑎𝑇𝑋2
1
𝑎 𝑇𝑋1 = (𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑇𝑋 )
2
1
𝑎 𝑇𝑋2 = (𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑇𝑋 )
2
Transit Time:
√(𝑎 𝑇𝑋1 )3 + √(𝑎 𝑇𝑋2)3
𝑇𝑇𝑋 = 𝜋
√𝜇
Velocity Increments:
2 1 𝜇
Δ𝑉1 = √𝜇 ( − )−√
𝑅1 𝑎 𝑇𝑋1 𝑅1

2 1 2 1 *All propellant is burned in two stages (nothing wasted).

Δ𝑉2 = √𝜇 ( − ) − √𝜇 ( − ) *Fuel is expanded to gaseous form to drive turbine that First in fuel-rich preburner, then in main CC.
𝑅𝑇𝑋 𝑎 𝑇𝑋2 𝑅𝑇𝑋 𝑎 𝑇𝑋1
powers pumps which then push propellant into CC. - Allows very high CC pressures (high thrust)
𝜇 2 1 - Low/moderate thrust applications - Can be used with any liquid propellants
Δ𝑉3 = √ − √𝜇 ( − ) - Often used for upper stage engines - More efficient than gas generator (all fuel burned)
𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑎 𝑇𝑋2
- Requires very high-pressure turbopumps
 Propellants and Aerothermochemistry
Propellant Types: Hydrocarbon Combustion: Turbines:
Liquid Propellants: Overall Stoichiometric Reaction: Application of 1st Law:
Fuels: 𝑚 𝑚 (Δℎ𝑡 )1,2 = 𝑞1,2 − 𝑤1,2 = 0
1 𝐶𝑛 𝐻𝑚 + (𝑛 + ) 𝑂2 → 𝑛𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
a) Cryogenic 4 2
→ ℎ𝑡2 − ℎ𝑡1 = 0
- LH2 – liquid hydrogen (20 K) “deep cryogen” 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠, 𝑚 = ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
- LCH4 – liquid methane (111 K) Mixture Ratio: → 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑡2 − 𝑇𝑡1 ) = 0
b) Non-cryogenic 𝑀𝑂 ∴ 𝑇𝑡2 = 𝑇𝑡1
𝑟 = ( 2)
- RP-1 – kerosene [𝐶1 𝐻1.96 ] 𝑀𝑓
Turbine Work:
- ethyl alcohol – [𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻] Stoichiometric Mixture Ratio: 1
c) Hypergolic (𝐸𝑎 ≤ 0) (reacts on contact with oxi.) 32𝑛 + 8𝑚 |𝑊|𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝜂 𝑇 Δ𝑝𝑡
𝑟𝑠 = 𝜌
- hydrazine [𝑁2 𝐻4 ] 12𝑛 + 𝑚 Temperature Change Across Turbine:
- monomethyl hydrazine (MMH) Equivalence Ratio: Δ𝑝𝑡
- unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine (UDMH) 𝑟𝑠 Δ𝑇 = (1 − 𝜂 𝑇 )
𝜑= 𝜌 ∙ 𝑐𝑉
Oxidizers: 𝑟 Turbine Work: (per unit mass)
a) Cryogenic 𝜑 = 1 → 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 |𝑤𝑇 | = |𝐶𝑃 (𝑇𝑡𝑒 − 𝑇𝑡𝑖 )|
- LOX – liquid oxygen 𝜑 > 1 → 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 − 𝑟𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
- LF2 – liquid fluorine Turbine Power:
𝜑 < 1 → 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 − 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
- FLOX – fluorine-enhanced LOX 𝑊̇𝑇 = 𝑚̇|𝑤𝑇 |
- N2O4 – dinitrogen tetroxide Molar Enthalpy of Combustion:
Turbine Stage Efficiency:
b) Non-cryogenic |𝑤|
Δℎ̃𝐶 = [∑ 𝐵𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ] − [∑ 𝐵𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ] 𝜂𝑆 =
- N2O – nitrous oxide 𝑖 𝑖 |𝑤|𝑆
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑
- N2O4 – dinitrogen tetroxide Total Turbine Efficiency:
- ClF5 – chlorine pentafluoride Δℎ̃𝐶 < 0 → 𝑒𝑥𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑐
Δℎ̃𝐶 > 0 → 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑇
1 − ( 𝑡3 )
Monopropellants: 𝑇𝑡1
Convert to mass-specific enthalpy: 𝜂𝑇 = 𝛾−1
* Both fuel and oxidizer are contained in the same 𝑝𝑡3 𝛾
molecule; contact with a catalyst bed initiates reaction Δℎ̃𝐶 1−( )
𝑝𝑡1
Δℎ𝐶 =
(breaks oxidizer and fuel components apart). 𝑀𝑊𝐻𝐶 Turbine Total Temperature Ratio:
* Usually used for RCS and in-space propulsion at low-mid 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑡3 𝑝𝑡3
𝛾−1
𝛾
thrust applications. 𝑀𝑊𝐻𝐶 = 12𝑛 + 1𝑚 [ ] = 1 − 𝜂 𝑇 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑔 𝑇𝑡1 𝑝𝑡1
- hydrazine (N2H4) + granular Al w/iridium coating Convert to [𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔]:
- hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) + many possible catalysts Turbine Total Pressure Ratio:
𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙 1000 𝑐𝑎𝑙 1000𝑔 4.1814 𝐽 1 𝑘𝐽 𝛾
- nitromethane (CH3NO2) Δℎ𝐶 [ ]∙( )( )( )( ) 𝑝𝑡3 1 𝑇𝑡3 𝛾−1
𝑔 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑙 1000𝐽 = [1 − (1 − )]
- ethylene oxide (C2H4O) 𝑝𝑡1 𝜂𝑇 𝑇𝑡1
- nitrous oxide (N2O) Total-to-Static Temperature Relation:
Turbopumps and Turbines
- hydroxylammonium nitrate (HAN) (H4N2O4) 𝛾 − 1 2 −1
Turbopumps: 𝑇3 = 𝑇𝑡3 [1 + 𝑀3 ]
Solid Propellants: 2
Shaft Power from Turbine:
* Both fuel and oxidizer are initially in solid form. Total-to-Static Pressure Relation:
𝑊̇ = 𝜏 ∙ Ω̇ 𝛾
Homogenous Propellants: 𝛾 − 1 2 −𝛾−1
Ideal Pump Work: 𝑝3 = 𝑝𝑡3 [1 + 𝑀3 ]
* Fuel and oxidizer are contained in the same 2
1
molecule or in a homogeneous mixture. |𝑤|𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = (𝑝 − 𝑝𝑡1 ) Entropy Change Across Turbine:
𝜌 𝑡2
- nitroglycerine + nitrocellulose 𝑇𝑡3 𝑝𝑡3
C3H5(NO2)3 + C6H7O2(NO2)3 Ideal Pump Power: Δ𝑠 = 𝑠3 − 𝑠1 = 𝐶𝑝 ln ( ) − 𝑅 ln ( )
1 𝑇𝑡1 𝑝𝑡1
- Single/Double/Triple base propellants |𝑤̇ |𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚̇|𝑤|𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚̇ (𝑝𝑡2 − 𝑝𝑡1 ) 𝛾−1
Metal powders often added to increase heat of 𝜌 𝑅 = 𝐶𝑝 ( )
𝛾
combustion. Pump Efficiency:
𝑅 = 𝐶𝑣 (𝛾 − 1)
Heterogeneous (composite) Propellants: |𝑤|𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 |𝑤̇ |𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙
𝜂𝑃 = = Temperature-Velocity Relation:
* Heterogeneous mixture of oxidizing crystals held in |𝑤|𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 |𝑤̇ |𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑉2
an organic plastic-like fuel “binder” Non-Ideal Pump Work: (𝑇𝑡 − 𝑇) =
2 ∙ 𝐶𝑝
a) Fuel Component (common binders) 11
|𝑤|𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = (𝑝 − 𝑝𝑡1 )
- hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) 𝜂𝑃 𝜌 𝑡2 Nozzle Design
- rubber/asphalt Non-Ideal Pump Power:
b) Oxidizer Component (ground crystals of one or Simple Conical Nozzles:
1 1
more of the following) |𝑤̇ |𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚̇|𝑤|𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚̇ (𝑝 − 𝑝𝑡1 )
𝜂𝑃 𝜌 𝑡2
- ammonium perchlorate (AP) *𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒
- ammonium nitrate (AN) 𝜌
Δ𝑝𝑡 = (𝑝𝑡2 − 𝑝𝑡1 ) = 𝑤𝑃 𝜂𝑃
- nitronium perchlorate (NP) 𝑚̇
- potassium perchlorate (KP) 1st Law for Liquid Flow Through Pump:
- potassium nitrate (PN) 1 1
𝑐𝑉 = (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + (𝑝2 − 𝑝1 ) + (𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) = |𝑤|
- cyclotrimethylene trinitomine (RDX) 𝜌 2
- cyclotetramethylene tetranitramine (HMX) 1
𝑐𝑉 = (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + (𝑝𝑡2 − 𝑝𝑡1 ) = |𝑤|
* The combination of fuel/ox specifies the propellant 𝜌
(e.g. AP-HTPB, KP-HTPB, …) Temperature Change Across Pump: Axial Thrust:
Many possible combinations. 1 − 𝜂𝑃 (𝑝𝑡2 − 𝑝𝑡1 ) 1 + cos(𝛼)
(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = ( ) 𝑇𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚̇𝑝 𝑉𝑒 + (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝∞ )𝐴𝑒
𝜂𝑃 𝜌 ∙ 𝑐𝑉 2
*See notes for Rao and TOP nozzle stuff
 Combustion Chamber Performance DOF and Molecular Energy Non-Isentropic Nozzle Flow
Combustion Chambers: Monatomic Molecules: Application of 1st Law:
(𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 3 (Δℎ𝑡 )2,𝑒 = 𝑞2,𝑒 − 𝑤2,𝑒 = 0
→ ℎ𝑡2 − ℎ𝑡𝑒 = 0
(𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑣𝑖𝑏 = 0 → 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑡2 − 𝑇𝑡𝑒 ) = 0
(𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑟𝑜𝑡 = 0 ∴ 𝑇𝑡2 = 𝑇𝑡𝑒
→ (𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙 = 3 Temperature-Velocity Relation:
𝑉2
Diatomic Molecules: (𝑇𝑡 − 𝑇) =
2 ∙ 𝐶𝑃
(𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 3
Total Pressure Ratio:
(𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑣𝑖𝑏 = 2 𝑝𝑡𝑒 Δ𝑠
= 𝑒− 𝑅
𝑝𝑡2
(𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑟𝑜𝑡 = 2
*where, 𝑝𝑡𝑒 < 𝑝𝑡2 and Δ𝑠 > 0
→ (𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙 = 7
Total-to-Static Pressure Ratio:
𝛾
Polyatomic Molecules: 𝑝𝑒 1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀𝑒2 𝛾−1
= {1 − [ ]}
(𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 3 𝑝𝑡2 𝜂𝑁 2 + (𝛾 − 1)𝑀𝑒2
2 𝑖𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝐶𝑂2 ) Nozzle Efficiency:
(𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑣𝑖𝑏 = {
3 𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑠) 𝛾 − 1 2 −1
1 − [1 + 𝑀𝑒 ]
2(3𝑛 − 5) 𝑖𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝜂𝑁 = 2
(𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑟𝑜𝑡 = { 𝛾−1
2(3𝑛 − 6) 𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑝 𝛾
1−( 𝑒)
𝑝𝑡2
5 + 2(3𝑛 − 5) 𝑖𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟
→ (𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙 = { Area-Mach Relation:
Thrust Coefficient: 6 + 2(3𝑛 − 6) 𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑇 𝐴𝑒
𝐶𝑇 = Energy Stored in One Molecule: =
𝑝𝑡2 ∙ 𝐴∗ 𝐴∗
1
Thrust: 𝑒 ′ = 𝑘𝑇(𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 1 2
1 𝛾+1
𝛾 − 1 2 2 𝛾−1 1 𝛾 − 1 2 −𝛾−1
𝛾
2 {( ) [1 + 𝑀𝑒 ]} ∙ {1 + (1 − ) 𝑀𝑒 }
𝑝𝑡2 ∙ 𝐴∗
𝑇 = 𝑚̇𝑝 ( ) 𝐶𝑇 𝑅̃ 8.314 𝐽⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾 𝑀𝑒 𝛾 + 1 2 𝜂𝑁 2
𝑚̇𝑝 𝑘= = (𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝐴𝑣 6.022 × 1023 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 *from resulting 𝑀𝑒 , get:
C* “Characteristic Velocity”: 𝑚𝑜𝑙 → 𝑝𝑒 from total-to-static (above)
𝑝𝑡2 ∙ 𝐴∗ 1
𝑒̃ = 𝐴𝑣 ∙ 𝑒 ′ = 𝑅̃𝑇 ∙ (𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒) 𝛾 − 1 2 −1
𝐶∗ = 2 → 𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝑡𝑒 [1 + 𝑀𝑒 ]
𝑚̇𝑝 2
1 1 𝛾−1
𝛾+1 2 𝑒 = 𝑒̃ ⁄𝑀𝑊 = 𝑅𝑇 ∙ (𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠) → 𝑎𝑒 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑅 = 𝐶𝑝 ( )
𝑝𝑡2 2 𝛾−1 2 𝛾
∗
𝐶𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = √𝑅𝑇𝑡2 [𝛾 ( ) ] *(𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 depends on temperature → 𝑉𝑒 = 𝑀𝑒 ∙ 𝑎𝑒
𝑝𝑡1 𝛾+1
- Low T = only trans. active → 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑝 𝑉𝑒 + (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝∞ )𝐴𝑒
C* Efficiency: - Med T = trans. and rot. active
∗
𝐶𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 - High T = trans., rot., and vib. are active
𝜂𝐶 ∗ = ∗
𝐶𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 Non-Isentropic Thrust Coefficient:
Specific Heat and Gas Constant Relations: 1
Specific Impulse: 𝛾+1
Specific Heat - Constant Volume: 2 2 𝛾−1 𝑝𝑒
𝛾−1 2
(𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝∞ ) 𝐴𝑒
1 𝐶𝑇 = 𝛾 {𝜂𝑛 ( )( ) [1 − ( )
𝛾
]} +
𝐼𝑆𝑃 = 𝐶 ∗ 𝐶𝑇 1 𝛾−1 𝛾+1 𝑝𝑡2 𝑝𝑡2 𝐴∗
𝑔 𝐶̃𝑉 = 𝑅̃ (𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
Pressure Ratio: 2
1 Injectors and Droplet Vaporization
𝑝2 (1 + 𝛾𝑀12 ) 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 (𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
= 2 Droplet Characterization:
𝑝1 (1 + 𝛾𝑀22 ) Specific Heat - Constant Pressure:
Droplet Diameter Probability:
Temperature Ratio: 1
𝐶̃𝑃 = 𝑅̃ [1 + (𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ] 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏 (𝐷 + 𝑑𝐷)
1
𝑇2 1 + 𝛾𝑀12 𝑀2 2 2 2
=[ 2] ∙ ( ) 1 𝑃(𝐷) =
𝑇1 1 + 𝛾𝑀2 𝑀1 𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 [1 + (𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ] 𝑑𝐷
Total Temperature Ratio: 2 *Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD): the droplet diameter with
Gas Constant Relations: same surface-to-volume ratio as the entire spray.
𝛾−1 2 2
𝑇𝑡2 1+ 𝑀2 1 + 𝛾𝑀12 𝑀2 2 𝑅 = 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉
=[ 2 ]∙( ) ( ) *Weber Number: ratio of inertia (mass) to surface tension
𝑇𝑡1 1+
𝛾−1 2
𝑀1 1 + 𝛾𝑀 2
2 𝑀1 𝑅̃ = 𝐶̃𝑃 − 𝐶̃𝑉 *Ohnesorge Number: ratio of friction to surface tension
2 *given 𝐶𝑃 and 𝛾 𝑆𝑀𝐷
𝑇𝑡2 𝑞1,2 𝐶𝑉 1 𝛾−1 = 𝑐 ∙ 𝑊𝑒 𝑝 ∙ 𝑂ℎ𝑞
= +1 𝑅 = 𝐶𝑃 (1 − ) = 𝐶𝑃 (1 − ) = 𝐶𝑃 ( ) ℓ
𝑇𝑡1 𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑡1 𝐶𝑃 𝛾 𝛾 ℓ 𝑊𝑒𝐶𝐶 𝑝 𝑂ℎ𝐶𝐶
Total Pressure Ratio: *given 𝐶𝑉 and 𝛾 (𝑆𝑀𝐷)𝐶𝐶 = (𝑆𝑀𝐷)𝑙𝑎𝑏 ∙ ( 𝐶𝐶 ) ( ) ( )
𝛾
ℓ𝑙𝑎𝑏 𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑏 𝑂ℎ𝑙𝑎𝑏
𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1 𝐶𝑃
𝑝𝑡2 1+ 𝑀2 1 + 𝛾𝑀12 𝑅 = 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝐶𝑉 ( − 1) = 𝐶𝑉 (𝛾 − 1)
2 𝐶𝑉 Droplet Vaporization:
=[ ] ∙( )
𝑝𝑡1 𝛾 − 1 1 + 𝛾𝑀22 Specific Heat Ratio: Heat of Vaporization: (heat flux into droplet)
1+ 𝑀12
2 2
Combustion Chamber-to-Throat Area Ratio: 𝑚̇𝑉 ∙ Δℎ𝑉 = 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝛾 =1+
1𝛾+1
(𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑇
𝐴𝐶 1 2 𝛾 − 1 2 2𝛾−1 ̇
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = −𝑘 | ∙ 4𝜋𝑅2
Monatomic: 𝑑𝑟 𝑅(𝑡)
= {( ) [1 + 𝑀2 ]}
𝐴∗ 𝑀2 𝛾 + 1 2 (𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 3 (independent of temp.) 𝑑𝑅
Thermal Choking Criterion: 2 𝑚̇𝑉 = −4𝜋𝜌𝐿 𝑅2 (𝑡)
→𝛾 =1+ = 1.667 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑡2 1 (1 + 𝛾𝑀12 )2 (3) Droplet Diameter: (as function of time)
≥
𝑇𝑡1 2(1 + 𝛾) [1 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀 2 ] 𝑀 2 Diatomic: 8𝑘
2 1 1 𝐷 2 (𝑡) = 𝐷0 − ( ) ln(1 + 𝐵) ∙ 𝑡
- Medium temp 𝜌𝐿 𝐶𝑃
*subtract 1 from result to get max allowable 𝑇𝑡2 2 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑉 )
(𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 5 → 𝛾 = 1 + = 1.4 𝐵≡
(5) ΔhV
- High temp Vaporization time:
2 𝜌𝐿 𝐶𝑃 𝐷02
(𝐷𝑂𝐹)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 7 → 𝛾 = 1 + = 1.286 𝑡𝑉 = 𝐷02 =
(7) 8𝑘 ln(1 + 𝐵) 𝑘𝑉