Technical Strengthening existing buildings
Strengthening of existing
buildings: an introduction
LIZZIE BLAISDELL COLLINS
P.E., S.E., LEED AP
Vice President of Engineering, Build Change,
Denver, CO, USA
JOE WHITE
CEng, MIStructE, P.E., CPEng, MEngNZ
Project Director, Holmes Consulting LP,
Utrecht, The Netherlands
Introduction
As a society, we need to make better use of
the building stock we already have, extending
the life of our buildings rather than demolishing
and rebuilding them. This is one of the most
significant ways we can reduce our impact
on the environment1 and prepare for the
effects of climate change. Strengthening is a
key component in this endeavour – enabling
changes of use, achieving compliance with
modern building codes, resisting a previously
unforeseen environmental load or increasing
resilience.
It is possible to repurpose and/or extend
the life of buildings of all forms, materials and
vintages. However, a wide range of solutions
is needed to cater for local constraints,
opportunities and differing needs of structures in
different parts of the world.
This article aims to provide information on
how to identify the specific needs of a project
and an overview of potential design approaches
that might suit the challenge. A broad
description of some common strengthening
options is given, as well as guidance on where
to find more information, and two case studies.
Please note that repair of existing structures
is not covered here but may be addressed in a
future article. Maximising the assessed capacity
of existing structures has been explored in
HAZARD DESIGN
IDENTIFICATION CRITERIA
Determine hazard Establish design
using code as criteria for building
baseline but elements. May
considering other include best
non-mandated and worst cases
hazards such as to account for
tsunami, tornado, uncertainty (e.g.
climate change sea level rise)
ìFIGURE 1: Risk-based approach to performance-based design
TECHNICAL Streng_TSE September 2021_The Structural Engineer.indd 20
previous articles in The Structural Engineer2,3.
These topics are also vital to extending the life
of our building stock and should be given close
consideration by all structural engineers.
Philosophies of strengthening
The most common reason for strengthening
is an owner deciding for themselves to update
or repurpose an existing building. In such
instances, there are two main philosophies to
consider: code-based and performance-based.
Code-based design
The change of use or significant modification
of a building often triggers the need for some
degree of compliance with current code
requirements. Although the natural impulse
may be to go with a ‘minimum permissible’
approach, there are good reasons to consider
going further and voluntarily incorporate full
current code provisions.
Such measures often provide improved
performance over the remaining life of a building
and reduce potential damage and downtime
following a severe event. Installation during a
wider renovation is also typically the most cost-
effective moment to do so.
It should be noted that most codes do not
consider the impact of climate change on
hazards such as flooding or intense rainfall.
A WIDE RANGE OF
SOLUTIONS IS
NEEDED TO CATER
FOR LOCAL
CONSTRAINTS,
OPPORTUNITIES AND
DIFFERING NEEDS
BUILDING
VULNERABILITY
Assign building
response to design
criteria. Could be
code compliance,
damage/downtime
after event or
‘in-service’ daily
performance
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Incorporating future load conditions as part of a
renovation may also significantly extend the life
and value of a building, as well as avoiding the
need for future upgrades.
Performance-based design
A more targeted approach is to use
performance-based objectives and metrics to
establish design criteria for a strengthening or
upgrade. The safety, damage and downtime
implications of a range of design options are
quantified over the life of the building and
compared with the upfront costs. This is
sometimes known as lifecycle cost analysis or
cost–benefit analysis. The benefits include:
Ò| increased revenue or occupancy of the
strengthened building
Ò| extended design life
Ò| reduced material damage from an extreme
event
Ò| reduced downtime after an event
Ò| reduced loss of life in an event
Ò| reduced environmental impact compared
with other options (demolition and rebuild).
In the future, performance-based approaches
are expected to become more mainstream.
Many codes/design guides (e.g. Eurocode
8, Part 34 or ASCE-415) outline a consistent
methodology for performance-based design.
A ‘risk-based’ methodology is another option,
providing greater flexibility to the designer
by developing building-specific ‘hazards’,
‘vulnerabilities’ and ‘performance objectives’.
The key steps in the process are shown in
Figure 1.
When resources are limited, a progressive
approach can be taken where partial or
incremental improvements are employed to
cost-effectively reduce vulnerability6. Structural
safety interventions can be prioritised to mitigate
the most hazardous conditions first, while also
balancing a logical constructability scheme.
PERFORMANCE STRENGTHEN/
OBJECTIVES MITIGATE
Determine desired Once design
performance criteria and
for each hazard. vulnerability are
Performance established,
objectives develop
include life strengthening
safety, immediate measures to
occupancy, achieve desired
continuous outcomes
operation or
specific (e.g. Xmm
settlement)
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TABLE 1: Strengthening solutions for concrete buildings
CASE STUDY 1
Defence House, Wellington,
New Zealand
Originally constructed in 1962, this
reinforced concrete office building
has recently been seismically
strengthened and extended
(Figure 2). The project also included
replacement of the internal fit-out,
building services, lifts/stairs and
facade. Together, these upgrades
have enabled the building to be
repurposed as the New Zealand
Defence Force Headquarters.
The primary strengthening
objective was to increase (double)
the seismic strength of the building
to meet current standards. The
client also took the opportunity to
extend the building footprint and
to laterally stabilise the extension
via the strengthened main building,
thus creating open and flexible
additional floor space. Other
structural upgrades were achieved,
such as strengthening the car park
roof to permit landscaping and
creating ‘high load’ areas on each
level for storage.
The building is laterally stabilised
by two H-shaped concrete shear
cores at the centre of the building
footprint. Each wall within these
cores is 600mm thick. Steel plate
jacketing and through-bolts have
been added at each end of each
wall over the building height to
increase confinement and thus
ductility. The flanges of each ‘H’
have also been cut free vertically
from the web to reduce the stiffness
of each core, increase the building
period and reduce seismic loads.
Additional concrete shear walls
have been added at the building
perimeter to reduce torsional
effects.
îFIGURE 2: Defence House
a) View from street
TECHNICAL Streng_TSE September 2021_The Structural Engineer.indd 21
Strengthening existing buildings Technical
Example strengthening Example deficiencies
Floors/beams
Cast-in-place reinforced concrete (RC) Flexural capacity of floor
topping over existing floor* Diaphragm capacity of floor
Fire resistance of floor
Disproportionate collapse requirements
Cast-in-place capitals (or steel collars) Punching shear capacity of floor
around existing columns at floor soffit
Steel member (channel) bolted to each Flexural capacity of beam
side of floor beam Shear capacity of beam
Bearing length/vertical support of precast concrete and other
floor systems
Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP)/steel Flexural capacity of floor/beam
longitudinal strips bolted to soffit of slab/ Diaphragm capacity
beam [A] [B] Disproportionate collapse requirements
‘U-jacketing’ of floor beam with transverse Shear capacity of beam
FRP strips [A] [B] Ductility (confinement – if at plastic hinge locations)
External post-tensioning of beam Flexural capacity of beam
Shear capacity of beam
Disproportionate collapse requirements
Columns
Cast enlarged RC column around existing Axial capacity
column Flexural capacity
Shear capacity (column)
Punching shear (floor)
Fire resistance
Wrap existing column with FRP sheets or Axial capacity (confinement)
strips [A] [B] Shear capacity
Ductility (confinement)
Lateral load-resisting system
Additional RC shear wall/s (often also Global lateral load capacity or stiffness
requires foundation strengthening)
Additional steel cross-bracing (often also Global lateral load capacity or stiffness
requires foundation strengthening)
Vertical steel section bolted to ends of Flexural capacity
existing shear wall [C]
Separating masonry infill panels from Ductility
an RC frame or strengthening panels to
undergo necessary lateral displacement
[D]
FRP overlay or steel jacketing of existing Shear capacity
wall [C] Ductility and axial capacity (confinement – if both sides and
combined with through-ties across wall width)
* Load effect on beams/columns/foundations must be checked, also geometric effect on door/lift openings and stair landings
Further reading
[A] International Federation for Structural Concrete (fib) (2019) FIB Bulletin 90: Externally applied FRP reinforcement for
concrete structures, Lausanne: fib
[B] American Concrete Institute (2017) ACI PRC-440.2-17: Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP
Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures, Farmington Hills, MI: ACI
[C] White J. and McKenzie H. (2017) ‘Seismic strengthening of the Majestic Centre, a 30-storey office tower in Wellington, New
Zealand’, The Structural Engineer, 95 (4), pp. 7–19
[D] Federal Emergency Management Agency (2006) FEMA 547: Techniques for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings,
Washington, DC: FEMA
b) Plan view of existing floor area (green) and extension (orange)
PRECINCT PROPERTIES
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 Technical Strengthening existing buildings

TABLE 2: Strengthening solutions for steel buildings One example is the ‘Earthquake Brace + Bolt’
programme in California7.
Example strengthening Example deficiencies There are also resources that encourage
Floors/beams incremental retrofits as part of an ongoing
maintenance or capital improvement plan, such
Reduce floor span with additional beam/s Flexural and vibration capacity (of metal deck flooring, or similar)
as FEMA P-4208.
Steel plates or sections welded/bolted to Flexural capacity
bottom flange of existing floor beam [E]
Building demand for strengthening
Strengthening may be mandated by governing
Steel plates or sections welded/bolted to Shear capacity
authorities beyond the typical code-prescribed
web of existing floor beam [E]
triggers. This is often the case with clear
Reinforced concrete (RC) encasement of Flexural capacity life-safety risks in high seismic zones, such
existing floor beam Shear capacity
Fire resistance as unreinforced masonry structures in New
Zealand9 or ‘soft-storey’ timber-framed
Columns buildings in California10.
Steel sections (angle, channel, tee) Axial capacity (increased area and radius of gyration) Mandating strengthening in more general
welded/bolted to existing column Flexural capacity terms, such as for all buildings in central
RC encasement of existing column* (or Axial capacity London against blast loading from a terrorist
concrete fill of hollow section) Flexural capacity event or the flood risk from the River Thames,
Fire resistance
can be problematic as the cost implications
Lateral load-resisting system for building owners can be significant. Such
Additional cross-bracing (often also Global lateral load capacity or stiffness policies may therefore become politically
requires column, connection and unappealing.
foundation strengthening) Policies and programmes that use the
Additional walls (RC or steel plate – often Global lateral load capacity or stiffness following initiatives are likely to be more
also requires foundation strengthening) realistic and ultimately successful in increasing
Replace precast or masonry cladding with Perimeter beam shear/flexural capacity the demand for strengthening and gradually
lightweight panel/glazing [F] Perimeter column axial capacity improving the overall building stock:
Global lateral load (seismic) capacity Ò| New buildings should be required to meet
* Can also apply to hollow section cross-bracing the desired standard. This increases
Further reading expectations of existing buildings and
[E] Tsavdaridis K.D. (2014) ‘Strengthening Techniques: Code-Deficient Steel Buildings’. In: Beer M., Kougioumtzoglou I., Patelli
E. and Au IK. (eds) Encyclopedia of Earthquake Engineering, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642- directly contributes to the gradual
36197-5_207-1 improvement of the building stock.
[F] Federal Emergency Management Agency (2006) FEMA 547: Techniques for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings,
Washington, DC: FEMA Ò| Financial incentives can be offered to

CASE STUDY 2. Un/under-reinforced masonry a) Before strengthening

house, Mixco, Guatemala

Low-rise masonry houses that most informal houses can

are the most common type of
structure in many countries,
typically comprising 50–90%
of the housing stock. These
buildings are among the most
vulnerable to natural hazards
and most likely to be built and
expanded informally by low-
income households.
Projects in Colombia,
Guatemala, Haiti, Indonesia,
Nepal, Philippines and Sint
Maarten have aimed to
structurally improve masonry
houses. A performance-based
approach has been followed
to improve resistance against
earthquakes and windstorms.
Habitability improvements have
been achieved in conjunction,
such as roof repairs, guttering,
ventilation, lighting, egress,
electricity, kitchen, water and
sanitation.
Such projects demonstrate
be made safer quickly and
affordably, using solutions which
already exist. On average, the
cost of upgrading a home has
been found to be approx. 1/4
to 1/3 the cost of replacement.
Seismic strengthening can
prepare such buildings for
safe vertical expansion, which
is a goal for many urban
homeowners.
The case study is a one-story
home in Mixco, Guatemala
(Figure 3) that was originally
constructed informally in
the confined masonry style.
Structural deficiencies included
low-strength concrete masonry was strengthened with new ëèFIGURE 3: Masonry house in Mixco
and the absence of a structural confined masonry walls and
diaphragm at the top of the a reinforced overlay on select The client intended to add
walls. walls. New foundations were a second storey. This future
A reinforced concrete roof built to support the new walls. load case was considered in
diaphragm was constructed to The overlay reinforcement was the strengthening design and
replace the existing light-framed connected to the existing wall, an access stair to the roof was
roof. The lateral stability system foundation and new slab above. built.

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 Strengthening existing buildings Technical

TABLE 3: Strengthening solutions for masonry buildings TABLE 4: Strengthening solutions for timber buildings
Example strengthening Example deficiencies Example strengthening Example deficiencies
Walls Floors
Adding walls – building new (cross) wall, In-plane capacity Plywood overlay flooring (or fixed to joist Flexural capacity of floor and
infilling openings [G] Out-of-plane capacity soffit) with close edge fixings [M] stiffening of floor
Vertical discontinuity Diaphragm capacity of floor
Additional floor joists and/or steel flitch Flexural and shear capacity of
Adding a reinforced concrete (RC) ring Out-of-plane capacity plates [M] floor
beam at the top of walls, below a light- Weak/absent diaphragm Stiffening of floor
framed roof [G] Wall-to-roof connection
Steel angle placed around perimeter of floor Wall-to-floor connection (in-plane
‘Confined masonry’ (slender RC tie beams In-plane capacity and/or associated or alternate wall-to-floor and out-of-plane)
and columns cast into channels cut from Out-of-plane capacity connections Disproportionate collapse
existing masonry walls) [H] Disproportionate collapse requirements
requirements Diaphragm stiffening
Removing or bracing parapets and gable Out-of-plane capacity Columns
walls
Timber or steel sections bolted to existing Axial capacity
column
Vertical timber or steel ribs (strongbacks) Out-of-plane capacity*
bolted to existing walls (inner side)
Lateral load-resisting system
Steel angle placed around perimeter of Wall-to-floor connection (in-plane Sheathing, plywood or cross-laminated In-plane capacity
floor soffit and associated or alternate and out-of-plane) timber wall overlay of existing walls or Disproportionate collapse
wall-to-floor connections Floor bearing length/vertical support additional wall panels [M] requirements
Disproportionate collapse
requirements Cross-bracing or panels installed between In-plane capacity
Diaphragm stiffening (for timber raised ground floor and foundation level [N]
floors) Steel portal or steel braced frames inserted In-plane capacity
RC overlay (or wire mesh-reinforced Axial capacity within building (ensuring appropriate Disproportionate collapse
cement-sand plaster overlay) of existing In-plane capacity diaphragm connections) requirements
walls (inner side) [J] Out-of-plane capacity* Connect roof-to-wall and wall-to-foundation In-plane capacity
Steel portal/braced frames erected In-plane capacity Uplift capacity
against existing walls Disproportionate collapse Further reading
requirements [M] Branco J., Dietsch J. and Tannert T. (eds.) (2021) Reinforcement of Timber Elements in
Existing Structures, s.l.: Springer
Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) overlay of In-plane capacity [N] Build Change (2021) The Build Change Guide for Resilient Housing: An Essential
Handbook for Governments and Practitioners, Denver, CO: Build Change
existing walls (inner side) [K]
FRP or steel rods embedded into existing y
Out-of-plane capacity*
walls
Post-tensioning – external [L] or internal In-plane capacity
(via holes cored vertically down through y*
Out-of-plane capacity*
centre of existing walls)
* Out-of-plane strengthening can also overcome deficiencies with disproportionate
ionate collapse c) Structural
requirements retrofit plan

Further reading
[G] Build Change (2021) The Build Change Guide for Resilient Housing: An Essential
ssential
Handbook for Governments and Practitioners, Denver, CO: Build Change
[H] Confined Masonry Network [Online] Available at: https://confinedmasonry.org/
y.org/ (Accessed:
August 2021)
[J] Federal Emergency Management Agency (2006) FEMA 547: Techniques for or the Seismic
Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings, Washington, DC: FEMA
[K] Italian National Research Council (2014) CNR-DT 200 R1/2013: Guide for the Design and
Construction of Externally Bonded RFP Systems for Strengthening Existing Structures, Rome:
CNR
[L] Dizhur D., Bailey S., Trowsdale J., Griffith M. and Ingham J.M. (2013) ‘Performance
ormance of post-
tensioned seismic retrofit of two stone masonry buildings during the Canterbury
bury earthquakes’,
Australian Earthquake Engineering Society 2013 Conference, 15–17 November, ber, Hobart,
Tasmania

b) After strengthening

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 Technical Strengthening existing buildings
existing building owners who implement
strengthening, as has been achieved via
tax credits for the seismic strengthening of
homes in California11 and via subsidies for
improving housing in Colombia12.
Ò| Regulatory processes and procedures can
be simplified for the voluntary upgrade of
buildings.
Ò| Structural engineers can generate awareness
by engaging with clients to illustrate
potential risks and solutions that provide
long-term benefits, particularly when other
refurbishments are already planned.
Common solutions
Tables 1–4 provide a selection of common
solutions to deficiencies that are often found
with concrete, steel, masonry and timber
buildings. The solutions are listed in order of
increasing complexity.
Hazard-specific solutions
The following are a few examples of ‘extreme’
hazards where specific solutions are often
required.
Seismic
Base isolation
The existing building is lifted with hydraulic jacks
and a new substructure is constructed. Isolation
bearings are placed across the footprint of the
building, to form an isolation plane between
the building and the new substructure. This
isolates the building from the ground movement
during an earthquake. For more information, see
Christopoulos and Filiatrault13.
REFERENCES
1) Wilson N. (2020) ‘Lean design: 10 things to do now’,
The Structural Engineer, 98 (8), pp. 12–14
2) Mathew M. (2021) ‘Analysing existing structures:
a brief introduction’, The Structural Engineer, 99 (6),
pp. 14–17
3) Foster J. (2021) ‘What can you do if you are
convinced a structure will work but can’t prove it to
code?’, The Structural Engineer, 99 (6), pp. 18–22
4 British Standards Institution (2006) BS EN
1998-3:2005 Eurocode 8. Design of structures for
earthquake resistance. Assessment and retrofitting of
buildings, London: BSI
5) American Society of Civil Engineers (2007) ASCE/
SEI 41-06: Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings,
Reston, VA: ASCE
6) Giordano N., Norris A., Manandhar V. et al.
(2021) ‘Financial assessment of incremental seismic
retrofitting of Nepali stone-masonry buildings’, Int.
J. Disast. Risk Reduct., 60, 102297; https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102297
7) California Earthquake Authority (2021)
Earthquake Brace + Bolt [Online] Available at: www.
earthquakebracebolt.com/ (Accessed: August 2021)
8) Applied Technology Council (2009) FEMA P-420
Engineering Guideline for Incremental Seismic
Rehabilitation, Washington, DC: FEMA
9) New Zealand Government (2017) Hurunui/Kaikoura
Earthquakes Recovery (Unreinforced Masonry
Buildings) Order 2017 (LI 2017/25)
TECHNICAL Streng_TSE September 2021_The Structural Engineer.indd 24
Viscous damping
Steel braces, which contain oil-filled dampers,
are added into the existing structure. These
dampers slow movement of the building and
reduce damage. For more information, see
Christopoulos and Filiatrault13.
Selective weakening
Buildings that predate modern ductile ‘capacity’
design methods can be strengthened by
weakening certain elements. The goal is to
ensure a ductile sway mechanism can be
formed. For more information, see Kam and
Pampanin14.
Wind (hurricane and tornado)
Strengthening or replacement of cladding
panels and connections should be considered
to resist high wind pressures and driven rain.
Areas of focus are balconies and building
corners. The impact of ‘missiles’ (i.e. everyday
objects) should also be considered. Many
conventional cladding systems, particularly
glazing, have insufficient resistance. Retrofitting
with high-impact cladding assemblies or
temporary impact shutters can mitigate this
hazard. For more information, see the Florida
Building Code15.
Flood
Permanent or temporary flood barriers can be
used to protect buildings. Solutions include
strengthening walls and lower floors to resist
hydrostatic pressure, along with installing
barriers that are extended over door openings
prior to the event. Alternatively, ‘break away’
10) City and County of San Francisco (2013)
Mandatory Soft Story Program [Online] Available at:
https://sfdbi.org/softstory (Accessed: August 2021)
11) City of Berkeley (s.d.) Seismic Retrofit Refund
Program [Online] Available at: www.cityofberkeley.
info/Finance/Home/Real_Property__Transfer_Tax_
Seismic_Refunds.aspx (Accessed: August 2021)
12) Government of Colombia (2021) Casa Digna
Vida Digna [Dignified House, Dignified Life] [Online]
Available at: https://casadignavidadigna.minvivienda.
gov.co/informacion (Accessed: August 2021)
13) Christopoulos C. and Filiatrault A. (2006)
Principles of Passive Supplemental Damping and
Seismic Isolation, Pavia: IUSS Press
14) Kam W.Y. and Pampanin S. (2008) ‘Selective
weakening techniques for retrofit of existing reinforced
concrete structures’, 14th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, 12–17 October, Beijing,
China
15) Florida Department of Business and Regulation
(2020) Florida Building Code (7th ed.), Washington,
DC: ICC
16) State of New Jersey (2018) Hazard Mitigation
Grant Program (HMGP) Elevation Program [Online]
Available at: www.nj.gov/dep/special/hurricane-
sandy/hmgp.htm (Accessed: August 2021)
17) National Fire Protection Association website
(2021) [Online] Available at: www.firewise.org
(Accessed: August 2021)
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walls can be designed to allow the water to
flow through a specific part of the building,
preventing the remaining building structure from
being damaged. Smaller buildings, such as
residential buildings, can also be raised above
the flood level16.
Wildfire
The most effective means of mitigation is to
prevent the fire from reaching the building.
High-volume sprinklers (drenchers) and
fire-breaks (cleared land) around the building
perimeter are the two main options. For more
information, refer to the National Fire Protection
Association17.
Non-structural elements and contents
It is important to consider non-structural
elements and building contents. Back-up
power systems, gas shut-off valves, securing
of equipment and bracing of internal partitions/
assemblies can often be critical.
Conclusion
Each strengthening project will have specific
needs, risks and opportunities. A vital yet often
overlooked role for structural engineers is
identifying these and explaining them to clients
to ensure each project delivers the maximum
value. Whether the hazards or strengthening
measures are simple or complex, there are
a wide range of technical resources and
references available to inform the process. It is
incumbent on us all to make better use of our
existing buildings.
FURTHER READING
International Code Council (2017)
International Existing Building
Code, Washington, DC: ICC
Costa A., Arêde A. and Varum
H. (2018) Strengthening and
Retrofitting of Existing Structures,
s.l.: Springer
Lampropoulos A. (ed.) (2020)
IABSE Bulletins Case Studies 2:
Case Studies on Conservation
and Seismic Strengthening/
Retrofitting of Existing Structures,
Zurich: IABSE
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