4AUnit 4 Chemical Reactions-Answers Unlocked

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Unit 4 - Chemical Reactions
4.1 Introduction for Reactions

4.2 Net Ionic Equations
4.3 Representations of Reactions
4.4 Physical and Chemical Changes
4.5 Stoichiometry
4.6 Introduction to Titration
4.7 Types of Chemical Reactions
4.8 Introduction to Acid-Base Reactions
4.9 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions
ISPS Chemistry Mar 2022 page 1 Chemical Reactions
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4.1 Introduction for Reactions
Physical or Chemical ?
At times, the difference can be clear and obvious but there are also many times when it is far from
clear-cut.
Heating of an iron bar: Rusting of an iron bar:

Fe(s) → Fe(s) → Fe(s) Fe(s) → Fe2O3(s)
grey red grey grey reddy orange
colour change colour change
The key difference between these processes (best illustrated by the equations) is that there is no
change in composition (metallic network) when an iron bar is heated/cooled wheras the iron has
changed completely (metallic network → ionic network) during rusting
One definition of a chemical change is that existing bonds should be breaking and new bonds
should be forming.
metallic bonds covalent bonds ionic bonds

breaking breaking forming
However, we could argue that metallic bonds

were breaking when we heated our iron bar
and would have to break if we melted and then
boiled the iron.
What would prevent us from ever considering
this as a chemical process would be the fact
that there is no change in composition.
Fe(s) → Fe(l) → Fe(g)
In changes of state, we consider any bonds

being broken as intermolecular attractions and,
since no new bonds are forming, would confidently label this as a Physical change.
metallic bonds breaking during melting → Physical change
metallic bonds breaking during rusting → Chemical change
Similarly, when water melts or boils,

only intermolecular attractions are being broken.
Only the hydrogen bonds between water molecules
are broken, the covalent bonds within the molecules
remain intact.
H2O(s) → H2O(l) → H2O(g)
There is no change in the composition - Physical.
By contrast, when water is electrolysed bubbles of gas form just like
when water boils.
However, this time covalent bonds within the water
molecules are breaking and new covalent bonds are
forming in the oxygen and hydrogen molecules.
2 H2O(l) → 2 H2(g) + O2(g)
The composition has changed completely -
Chemical change.
What about dissolving?

One can certainly argue that there are bonds
breaking (ionic bonds & hydrogen bonds) and
new attractions (ion-dipole) taking their place.
We are also losing the ionic network so change
in composition?
NaCl(s) → NaCl(aq)
Our equation makes clear that, in reality, there
has been no change in composition - our Na+
and Cl- ions remain - so Physical Change.
However, the formation of a solution can be spontaneously exothermic or endothermic, and in
later units (particularly in the Equilibrium Unit) we will treat them in the same way as 'normal'
reactions so, as I've said, not always clear-cut.
What about precipitation?

Can depend, if salt precipitates out of a saturated
solution:
NaCl(aq) → NaCl(s)
then there is no change in composition so it would
be considered a Physical Change.
If we mix KI(aq) with Pb(NO3)2(aq) and precipitate out

some yellow PbI2(s) :
2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq
then the change in composition means it would
be considered a Chemical Change.
Sometimes both changes are taking place.
The combustion of the candle wax is a
Chemical change. It is an exothermic process.
There is a change in composition.
C15H32(s) + 23 O2(g) → 15 CO2(g) + 16 H2O(l)
Meanwhile. all around the flame, some of the
candle wax is melting in a Physical Change.
C15H32(s) → C15H32(l)
This is an endothermic process but there is
no change in composition.
The melting of candle wax was endothermic because energy is needed to overcome the London
Dispersion attractions between the wax molecules and to make them move faster in order to
change from solid to liquid - intermolecular attractions only are broken.
The dehydration of copper(II) sulfate
is considered a Physical change:
CuSO4. 5H2O(s) → CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)
since the fundamental composition of
the copper(II) sulfate remains the same:
one Cu2+ ion for every one SO42-.
We would consider the attractions broken
between the ions and the water molecules to be intermolecular attractions.
If a few drops of water are then added to the colourless anhydeous CuSO4(s), the blue colour of
hydrated CuSO4. 5H2O(s) returns. A characteristic of Physical changes is that they are often easy to
reverse.
The decomposition of copper(II) carbonate also
involves a colour change (green → black) but
is a Chemical change:
CuCO3(s) → CuO(s) + CO2(g)
There is a change in the composition and ionic and
covalent bonds will be breaking and forming.
The chemical change can be reversed, but not easily.
Copper carbonate is also hydrated so water vapour
will also be observed due to the Physical change:
H2O(s) → H2O(l)
The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is a Chemical change:
2 H2O2(aq) → 2 H2O(l) + O2(g)
involving the breaking and forming of covalent bonds and
a clear change in composition.
However, it is a very slow reaction so is usually catalysed by
the addition of manganese (IV) oxide (MnO2 ).
When added, it is often in the form of lumps but changes to
powder during the reaction. this would not be considered a change in composition.
MnO2(s) → MnO2(s) Fom lump to powder is a Physical change.
A chemical change occurs when substances are transformed into new substances,
typically with different compositions.
Evidence for a 'new substance with different composition' can include: formation of a gas,
formation of a solid precipitate, a colour change and release (exothermic) of energy which can be
light, heat or electricity. Some of these can, however, also be seeen in Physical changes so it is
important to look carefully at the context within which these changes are happening.

4.1 Practice Problems
1.
Equimolar samples of CH3OH(l) and C2H5OH(l) are placed in separate, previously evacuated,
rigid 2.0 L vessels. Each vessel is attached to a pressure gauge, and the temperatures are
kept at 300 K. In both vessels, liquid is observed to remain present at the bottom of
the container at all times. The change in pressure inside the vessel containing
CH3OH(l) is shown below.
Which of the following best describes the change that takes place immediately after the
CH3OH(l) is introduced into the previously evacuated vessel?
A A chemical change takes place because covalent bonds are broken.
B A chemical change takes place because intermolecular attractions are overcome.
C A physical change takes place because covalent bonds are broken.
O
D A physical change takes place because intermolecular attractions are overcome.
2. 2 H2O2(l) → 2 H2O(l) + O2(g)

The exothermic process represented above is best classified as a
A physical change because a new phase appears in the products.
B physical change because O2(g) that was dissolved comes out of solution
C chemical change because entropy increases as the process proceeds.
O
D chemical change because covalent bonds are broken and new covalent bonds are
formed.

3. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
A student had two dilute, colorless solutions, HCl(aq) and NaOH(aq), which were at the same
temperature. The student combined the solutions, and the reaction represented above
occurred. Which of the following results would be evidence that a chemical reaction took
place?
A The resulting solution is colorless.
O
B The temperature of the reaction mixture increases.
C The total volume of the mixture is approximately equal to the sum of the initial
volumes.
D The resulting solution conducts electricity.
4. A student was asked to formulate a hypothesis about what would happen if 100.mL of
0.1MNaOH(aq) at 25°C was combined with 100.mL of 0.1MMgCl2(aq) at 25°C .
Which of the following hypotheses indicates that the student thought a chemical change
would occur?
A The volume of the resulting solution will be equal to the sum of the volumes of the
original solutions.
B The mass of the resulting solution will be equal to the sum of the masses of the original
solutions.
O
C The resulting solution would contain a precipitate.
D The resulting solution will be clear.
5. A student was studying physical and chemical changes. The student carried out some
procedures in the laboratory and recorded observations. For one of the procedures,
the student concluded that a physical change took place, but not a chemical change.
Which of the following could have been the results of the procedure?
O
A A cube of metal was changed into a flat sheet of metal.
B When two liquids at room temperature were combined in a beaker, the beaker became
hot.
C When two clear liquids were combined, the resulting mixture was cloudy.
D When a colorless liquid was added to a blue liquid, the resulting solution was yellow.

4.2 Net Ionic Equations

The illustration above gives us a clear idea of the Chemical process involved in automotive
combustion.
We can identify Reactants (octane and oxygen) and Products (carbon dioxide and water) and use
them to write a Word Equation:
Reactants → Products
octane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
The illustration also makes clear the composition of each chemical making it easy to write the
correct Formulae Equation:
C8H18 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
An important skill is the ability to ensure that the same number of each type of atom is present
throughout the reaction to produce the correct Balanced Equation:
8 C atoms, C8H18 + O2 → 8 CO2 + H2O
18 H atoms, C8H18 + O2 → 8 CO2 + 9 H2O
so, 25 O atoms, C8H18 + 12½ O2 → 8 CO2 + 9 H2O
The use of 12½ does not imply 'half an oxygen molecule' which is impossible. Instead, it implies
' 12½ moles ' which is part of the stoichiometry of the reaction:
C8H18 + 12½ O2 → 8 CO2 + 9 H2O
Stoichiometry 1 mol 12½ mol 8 mol 9 mol
Masses (simplified) 114 g 400 g 352 g 162 g
Conservation of Matter (the same number of each type of atom is present throughout the reaction)
also leads to Conservation of Mass:
C8H18 + 12½ O2 → 8 CO2 + 9 H2O
Masses (simplified) 114 g 400 g 352 g 162 g
Reactants = 514 g 514 g = Products
Similarly with Physical processes such as melting
and evaporation:
Word Equation: ice → water → steam
Formula Equation: H2O(s) → H2O(l) → H2O(g)
Matter : 1 mol → 1 mol → 1 mol
Mass: 18g → 18g → 18g
In our Balanced equations, we tend to represent everything as if they were molecules or single
atoms. For example,
Fe2O3(s) + 2 Al(s) → Al2O3(s) + 2 Fe(s)
makes no attempt to represent the ionic network structure of Fe2O3 and Al2O3 or the metallic
network structure of Al and Fe. We sometimes refer to these as Balanced Molecular Equations.
When dealing with ionic solutions, however, it is often

better to make the dissociation of the ions clearer, so
2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

becomes
2K+(aq) + 2I-(aq) + Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2K+(aq) + 2NO-3(aq)
This is called a Complete Ionic Equation and makes it

easier to identify spectator ions - ions that have not
changed during / not taken part in the reaction.
Removing the spectator ions allows us to see what was actually happening and we write the Net
Ionic Equation:
2I-(aq) + Pb2+(aq) → PbI2(s) the precipitation of lead(II) iodide
This works for most ionic compounds where we can assume that they dissociate 100% in water.
They are referred to as strong electrolytes (strong acids if they release H+ ions and strong bases if
they release OH- ions or accept H+ ions).
So weak acids such as hydrofluoric acid and ethanoic acid are often represented as:
HF(aq) rather than H+(aq) + F-(aq)
CH3COOH(aq) rather than H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
Some of our bases such as magnesium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide are quite insoluble and
dissociate < 1% so:
Mg(OH)2(s) rather than Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
1.
At 27°C, five identical rigid 2.0 L vessels are filled with N2(g) and sealed. Four of the five
vessels also contain a 0.050 mol sample of NaHCO3(s), NaBr(s), Cu(s), or I2(s), as shown in the
diagram above.
The volume taken up by the solids is negligible, and the initial pressure of N2(g) in each
vessel is 720 mm Hg. All four vessels are heated to 127°C and allowed to reach a constant
pressure.
At 127°C, the pressure in vessel 1 is found to be higher than that in vessel 2. Which of the
following reactions best accounts for the observation?
A NaHCO3(s) → Na(s) + HCO3(s)
B NaHCO3(s) → NaH(s) + CO3(s)
O
C 2 NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
3(s)
D 2 NaHCO + N2(g) → 2 NaNO3(s) + C2H2(g)

2. Which of the following is the net ionic equation for the reaction between aqueous sodium
fluoride and hydrochloric acid?
A NaF(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + HF(aq)
B Na+(aq) + F−(aq) + H+(aq) + Cl−(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + HF(aq)
C Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq) → NaCl(aq)
O
D F−(aq) + H+(aq) → HF(aq)
3. Equal volumes of 0.2M solutions of lead(II) nitrate and potassium bromide are
combined to form lead(II) bromide as a yellow precipitate. Which of the following is the
correct net ionic equation for the reaction?
O
A Pb2+(aq) + 2Br−(aq) → PbBr2(s)
B K+(aq) + NO3−(aq) → KNO3(aq)
C Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) + 2K+(aq) + 2Br−(aq) → 2K+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) + PbBr2(s)
D Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KBr(aq) → PbBr2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
4. The reaction between aqueous strontium chloride (SrCl2) and aqueous potassium sulfate
(K2SO4) forms a precipitate of strontium sulfate (SrSO4) . Which of the following
represents the net ionic equation for the reaction?
A Cl−(aq) + K+(aq) → KCl(aq)
O
B Sr2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → SrSO4(s)
C Sr2+(aq) + 2Cl−(aq) + SO42−(aq) + 2K+(aq) → SrSO4(s) + 2Cl−(aq) + 2K+(aq)
D SrCl2(aq) + K2SO4(aq) → SrSO4(s) + 2KCl(aq)
5. . . . C10H12O4S(s) + . . . O2(g) → . . . CO2(g) + . . . SO2(g) + . . . H2O(g)

When the equation above is balanced and all coefficients are reduced to their lowest
whole-number terms, the coefficient for O2(g) is
A 6 B 7 C O 12 D 14 E 28
6. . . . Ca3(PO4)2(s) + . . . H3PO4(l) → . . . Ca(H2PO4)2(s)

When the equation above is balanced and all coefficients are reduced to lowest
whole-number terms, what is the coefficient for H3PO4(l) ?
A 1 B 2 C 3 D O 4 E 5
7. . . . C3H8(g) + . . . O2(g) → . . . H2O(g) + . . . CO2(g)

When the equation for the reaction represented above is balanced and all coefficients are
reduced to the lowest whole-number terms, the coefficient for O2(g) is
A 1 B 2 C 3 D O 5 E 6
8. . . . LiHCO3(aq) + . . . H2SO4(aq) → . . . Li2SO4(aq) + . . . H2O(l) + . . . CO2(g)

When the equation above is balanced and the coefficients are reduced to lowest
whole-number terms, what is the coefficient of H2O(l) ?
A 1 B O 2 C 3 D 4 E 5

4.3 Representations of Reactions
Particulate representations of chemical equations will normally have:

reactants at start
products at end
correct formulae
correct quantities
(balanced)
conservation of
matter
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O

or 2 CH4 + 4 O2 → 2 CO2 + 4 H2O
C2H4O + H2O → C2H6O2

However, expect to see
representations where one
of the reactants was in
excess so there will be
some of these molecules
mixed in with the new
products.

In this case, Fe and S react

together in equimolar quantities.
In terms of relative masses, this
would be,
32g S : 56g Fe
In this representation, the sulfur
is in excess so there will be sulfur
left over.
If initial masses are known then
mass of S left can be calculated.
Conservation of matter would allow

us to deduce the correct formula for
the starting hydrocarbon.
3 CO2 → 3 C atoms so x = 3
4 H2O → 8 H atoms so y = 8
so C3H8 - propane

If yellow = S and red = O, which of the drawings
represents sulfur dioxide molecules?
d) looks OK in terms of numbers of sulfur atoms and
oxygen atoms but structure of SO2 is

so b) is actually correct answer
Which drawing represents a mixture?

a) and d) are mixtures
Which drawing represents a product

mixture consistent with the law of
mass conservation?

only d) is 'balanced with a)

1. A mixture of CO(g) and O2(g) is placed in a container,
as shown opposite. A reaction occurs, forming CO2(g).
Which of the following best represents the contents of
the box after the reaction has proceeded as completely
as possible?
A B O

C D
2. Which of the following particle diagrams best

represents the products when four molecules
of H2O2(l) decompose into water and oxygen
gas at room temperature?
A B
O

C D

3. The diagram opposite represents H2(g) and N2(g)
in a closed container.
Which of the following diagrams would represent the
results if the reaction shown below were to proceed as
far as possible?
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)
A B C D O
E
4. Which of the following particulate diagrams best shows the formation of water vapor from
hydrogen gas and oxygen gas in a rigid container at 125°C?
A B
O

C D

5. A mixture of H2(g) and O2(g) is placed in a container
as represented opposite. The H2(g) and O2(g) react to
form H2O(g) .
Which of the following best represents the container
after the reaction has gone to completion?
A B O

C D

4.1 - 4.3 Quick Check FRQ
1. Answer the following questions about the solubility of Ca(OH)2
a) Write a balanced chemical equation for the dissolution of Ca(OH)2(s) in pure water.
1 point is earned for the correct equation. Ca(OH)2 ⥦ Ca2+ + 2 OH-
b) In the box below, complete a particle representation diagram that includes four
water molecules with proper orientation around the Ca2+ ion.
Represent water molecules as

1 point is earned for a correct
diagram that shows at least three
of the four water molecules
oriented correctly.
[The diagram should show the

oxygen side of the water
molecules oriented closer to the
Ca2+ ion.]

2. A student learns that ionic compounds have
significant covalent character when a cation
has a polarizing effect on a large anion.
As a result, the student hypothesizes that salts

composed of small cations and large anions should
have relatively low melting points.
a) Select two compounds from the table and explain how the data support the student’s
hypothesis.
1 point is earned for choosing an appropriate pair of compounds (LiI/KI, LiI/LiF, or
LiI/NaF).
1 point is earned for an explanation that supports the hypothesis.
LiI and KI. LiI has a small cation and a large anion and KI has a large cation and the same
large anion. The melting point of LiI (with its smaller cation) is lower than that of KI.
OR
LiI and LiF. LiI has a small cation and a large anion and LiF has the same small cation and
a small anion.The melting point of LiI (with its larger anion) is lower than that of LiF.
OR
LiI and NaF. LiI has a small cation and a large anion and NaF has a relatively small cation
and a small anion. The melting point of LiI (with its larger anion) is lower than that of NaF.
b) Identify a compound from the table that can be dissolved in water to produce a
basic solution. Write the net ionic equation for the reaction that occurs to cause the
solution to be basic.
1 point is earned for choosing one of the correct compounds.
Either LiF or NaF is acceptable.
1 point is earned for writing a correct balanced equation.

F- + H2O ⇄ HF + OH-

4.4 Physical and Chemical Changes
This was all covered in Lesson 4.1.
Reread the notes and then try the following questions.

1.

A student places a sample of a pure metal in a crucible and heats it strongly in air. Data
from the experiment are given in the table above. The final mass was determined after the
sample was cooled to room temperature.
Which of the following statements related to the experiment is correct?
A The mass of the sample decreased, so physical changes occurred as the metal
first melted and then boiled out of the crucible.

O
B The mass of the sample increased, so a chemical change occurred when bonds
formed between the metal and another substance.
C There was nothing for the metal to react with, so only a physical change could have
occurred.
D The sample was only heated, so neither a physical nor a chemical change occurred.

2. A student mixes 20.0g of white KCl crystals with distilled water in a beaker. After the
mixture was stirred, no crystals are visible and the solution is clear. After several days, all
of the water evaporates and white crystals are found in the beaker.
Which of following pieces of experimental evidence would best help the student to confirm
that a new compound had not been made and that only a physical change occurred?
A The solution does not change color after stirring.
B The KCl crystals are no longer visible after mixing with water.
C There is a temperature change in the solution during the dissolving process.
.
O
D After the water has evaporated, the white crystals in the beaker have a mass of 20.0g

3.
The table above summarizes data given to a student to evaluate the type of change that
took place when substance X was mixed with water. The student claimed that the data did
not provide enough evidence to determine whether a chemical or physical change
took place and that additional tests were needed.
Which of the following identifies the best way to gather evidence to support the type of
change that occurred when water and X were mixed?
A Measuring the melting point of the mixture of water and X
B Adding another substance to the mixture of water and X to see whether a
solid forms
C Measuring and comparing the masses of the water, X, and the mixture of water
and X
O
D Measuring the electrical conductivities of X and the mixture of water and X .
4. Which of the following describes the changes in forces of attraction that occur as H2O
changes phase from a liquid to a vapor?
A H – O bonds break as H – H and O – O bonds form.
O
B Hydrogen bonds between H2O molecules are broken.
C Covalent bonds between H2O molecules are broken.
D Ionic bonds between H+ ions and OH- ions are broken.
E Covalent bonds between H+ ions and H2O molecules become more effective.

4.5 Stoichiometry
So far ...
Molar Mass, M = atomic or formula weight in grammes
Avogadro's constant = 6.023 x 1023 mol-1

n = PV / RT
M = n /L
mol l-1
Mstock x Lstock = Mnew x Lnew
Stoichiometry - using Balanced Equations

Using the coefficients that were used to balance a chemical equation provides us with mole
relationships that can be used in a variety of calculations.
For example, 3 mol of H2 2 mol of NH3

Which can then be converted into a mass relationship using Molar Masses:
6g of H2 34g of NH3
If Pressure and Temperature are known then actual volume relationship can be calculated.
However, since they are likely to be under same Pressure and Temperature, we can often derive a
simple volume relationship:
3 vol of H2 2 vol of NH3
Sometimes, it will be necessary to identifying limiting reactant /reactant in excess to ensure the
correct mole relationship is used in further calculations:
In theory, the 3 mol N2 should be
able to produce 6 mol NH3.
But there would need to be 9 mol H2,
wheras there is only 6 mol H2, so H2
is the limiting reactant and should be
used to calculate amount of NH3.
3 mol H2 2 mol NH3
6 mol H2 4 mol NH3
12g H2 68g NH3
If 3 mol N2 had been used we would
have wrongly calculated 102g NH3.
Example 1: MgCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
A 100mL sample of 0.1M MgCl2(aq) and a 100mL sample of 0.2MNaOH(aq) were combined,
and Mg(OH)2(s) precipitated, as shown by the equation above.
What changes would double the amount of Mg(OH)2(s) produced?
To double the number of moles of Mg(OH)2(s) would require us to double the number
of moles of both of the reactants - if they were of equivalent amounts to begin with
i.e. neither was in excess.
so this needs to be checked: MgCl2 0.1 L x 0.1 M = 0.01 mol MgCl2
n = MxL

NaOH 0.1 L x 0.2 M = 0.02 mol NaOH

the balanced equation tells us: 1 mol MgCl2 needs 2 mol NaOH
so: 0.01mol MgCl2 needs 0.02mol NaOH
so they are of equivalent amounts - just enough to react 100% - neither is in excess
so we could double volume of MgCl2 and double volume of NaOH
or double Molarity of MgCl2 and double Molarity of NaOH
n= MxL
or double volume of MgCl2 and double Molarity of NaOH
or double Molarity of MgCl2 and double volume of NaOH
Example 2:
According to the equation above, how many moles of potassium chlorate, KClO3, must be
decomposed to generate 1.0 L of O2 gas at standard temperature and pressure?
the balanced equation tells us: 3 mol O2 would be produced from 2 mol KClO3
the significance of standard temperature and pressure is that: 1mol of any gas = 22.4 L
so: 3 x 22.4 L O2 would be produced from 2 mol KClO3
so: 67.2 L O2 would be produced from 2 mol KClO3
so: 1 L O2 would be produced from 2/67.2 mol KClO3 = 0.0298 mol
A variation on this question might have asked us to calculate the mass of KClO3 required.
(Molar Mass = 122.5 g mol-1)
so: 3 x 22.4 L O2 would be produced from 2 x 122.5 g KClO3
so: 67.2 L O2 would be produced from 225 g KClO3
so: 1L O2 would be produced from 225/67.2 KClO3 = 3.35 g
1. 2F2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → OF2(g) + 2NaF(aq) + H2O(l)
A 2 mol sample of F2(g) reacts with excess NaOH(aq) according to the equation above.
If the reaction is repeated with excess NaOH(aq) but with 1 mol of F2(g), which of the
following is correct?
A The amount of OF2(g) produced is doubled.
O
B The amount of OF2(g) produced is halved.
C The amount of NF(aq) produced remains the same.
D The amount of NF(aq) produced remains the same.
2. MgCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
A 100mL sample of 0.1M MgCl2(aq) and a 100mL sample of 0.2MNaOH(aq) were combined,
and Mg(OH)2(s) precipitated, as shown by the equation above.
If the experiment is repeated using solutions of the same molarity, which of the following
changes in volume will double the amount of Mg(OH)2(s) produced?
A Using the same volume of MgCl2(aq) but twice the volume of NaOH(aq)
B Using twice the volume of MgCl2(aq) but half the volume of NaOH(aq)
C Using twice the volume of MgCl2(aq) but the same volume of NaOH(aq)
O
D Using twice the volume of MgCl2(aq) and twice the volume of NaOH(aq)
3. C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
The reaction between C6H12O6 and O2 is represented by the balanced equation above. In an
experiment, 0.30 mol of CO2 was produced from the reaction of 0.05 mol of C6H12O6 with
excess O2.
The reaction was repeated at the same temperature and in the same container, but this time
0.60 mol of CO2 was produced. Which of the following must be true?
O
A The initial amount of C6H12O6 in the container must have been 0.10 mol
B Exactly 0.30 mol of C6H12O6 must have reacted because C atoms were conserved.
C Exactly 0.40 mol of O2 must have reacted because the temperature and container
volume are the same.
D More than 0.60 mol of O2 must have reacted because it was present in excess.
4.
At 27°C, five identical rigid 2.0 L vessels are filled with N2(g) and sealed. Four of the five
vessels also contain a 0.050 mol sample of NaHCO3(s), NaBr(s), Cu(s), or I2(s), as shown in the
diagram above.
The volume taken up by the solids is negligible, and the initial pressure of N2(g) in each
vessel is 720 mm Hg. All four vessels are heated to 127°C and allowed to reach a constant
pressure.
At 127°C, the entire sample of I2 is observed to have vaporized. How does the mass of
vessel 5 at 127°C compare to its mass at 27°C?
A The mass is less, since the I2 is in the vapor phase.
O
B The mass is the same, since the number of each type of atom in the vessel is constant.
C The mass is greater, since the I2 will react with N2 to form NI3 , which has a greater
molar mass.
D The mass is greater, since the pressure is greater and the particles have a higher
average kinetic energy.
5.
According to the equation above, how many moles of potassium chlorate, KClO3, must be
decomposed to generate 1.0 L of O2 gas at standard temperature and pressure?
A B O
C D E
6. A 20.0–milliliter sample of 0.200–molar K2CO3 solution is added to 30.0 milliliters of

0.400–molar Ba(NO3)2 solution. Barium carbonate precipitates. The concentration of
barium ion, Ba2+, in solution after reaction is
A 0.150 M O
B 0.160 M C 0.200 M D 0.240 M E 0.267 M

7. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(s)
A mixture of gases containing 0.20 mol of SO2 and 0.20 mol of O2 in a 4.0 L flask reacts to
form SO3. If the temperature is 25ºC, what is the pressure in the flask after reaction
is complete?
A O
B C

D E
8. Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) → FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
When a student adds 30.0 mL of 1.00 M HCl to 0.56 g of powdered Fe, a reaction occurs
according to the equation above.
When the reaction is complete at 273 K and 1.0 atm, which of the following is true?
A HCl is in excess, and 0.100 mol of HCl remains unreacted.
B HCl is in excess, and 0.020 mol of HCl remains unreacted.
C 0.015 mol of FeCl2 has been produced.
O
D 0.22 L of H2 has been produced.
9. Reaction 1: CaC2(s) + 2 H2O(l) → C2H2(g) + Ca(OH)2(s)

Reaction 2: NaOCl(aq) + 2 HCl(aq) → Cl2(g) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Reaction 3: C2H2(g) + Cl2(g) → C2H2Cl2(g)
Reaction 2 occurs when an excess of 6 M HCl(aq) solution is added to 100. mL of

NaOCL(aq) of unknown concentration. If the reaction goes to completion and
0.010 mol of Cl2(g) is produced, then what was the molarity of the NaOCL(aq) solution?
A 0.0010 M B 0.010 M O
C 0.10 M D 1.0 M
10. If equal masses of the following compounds undergo complete combustion, which will
yield the greatest mass of CO2?
O
A Benzene, C H 6 6
B Cyclohexane, C6H12 C Glucose, C6H12O6 D Methane, CH4
11. A sample of a compound that contains only the elements C, H, and N is completely
burned in O2 to produce 44.0 g of CO2, 45.0 g of H2O, and some NO2 . A possible empirical
formula of the compound is
A CH2N O
B CH N 5
C C2H5N D C3H3N
12. If 0.40 mol of H2 and 0.15 mol of O2 were to react as completely as possible to produce
H2O, what mass of reactant would remain?
O
A 0.20 g of H 2
B 0.40 g of H2 C 3.2 g of O2 D 4.0 g of O2 E 4.4 g of O2
13. 2 N2H4(g) + N2O4(g) → 3 N2(g) + 4 H2O(g)

When 8.0 g of N2H4 (32 g mol-1) and 92 g of N2O4 (92 g mol-1) are mixed together and
react according to the equation above, what is the maximum mass of H2O that can be
produced?
O
A 9.0 g B 18 g C 36 g D 72 g E 144 g
14. 2 Al(s) + 6 HCl(aq) → 2 AlCl3(aq) + 3 H2(g)

According to the reaction represented above, about how many grams of aluminum (atomic
mass 27 g) are necessary to produce 0.50 mol of hydrogen gas at 25°C and 1.00 atm?
A 1.0 g O
B 9.0 g C 14 g D 27 g E 56 g
15. What mass of Au is produced when 0.0500 mol of Au2S3 is reduced completely with excess
H2?
A 9.85 g O
B 19.7 g C 24.5 g D 39.4 g E 48.9 g
16. H2 + F2(g) → 2 HF(g)

In the reaction represented above, what mass of HF is produced by the reaction of
3.0 x 1023 molecules of H2 with excess F2 ? (Assume the reaction goes to completion.)
A 1.0 g B 4.0 g C 10 g O
D 20 g E 40 g
17. C3H8 (g) + 4 Cl2 (g) → C3H4Cl4 (g) + 4 HCl (g)

A 6.0 mol sample of C3H8(g) and a 20. mol sample of Cl2(g) are placed in a previously
evacuated vessel, where they react according to the equation above. After one of the
reactants has been totally consumed, how many moles of HCl(g) have been produced?
A 4.0 mol
ISPS Chemistry Mar 2022
B 8.0 mol O
C 20 mol
page 31
D 24 mol
Chemical Reactions
18. M+ is an unknown metal cation with a +1 charge. A student dissolves the chloride of the
unknown metal, MCl, in enough water to make 100.0 mL of solution. The student
then mixes the solution with excess AgNO3 solution, causing AgCl to precipitate.
The student collects the precipitate by filtration, dries it, and records the data shown
below. (The molar mass of AgCl is 143 g/mol.)
Mass of unknown chloride, MCl 0.74 g

Mass of filter paper 0.80 g
Mass of filter paper plus AgCl precipitate 2.23 g
What is the identity of the metal chloride?
A NaCl O
B KCl C CuCl D LiCl
19. What is the maximum number of moles of Al2O3 that can be produced by the reaction of
0.40 mol of Al with 0.40 mol of O2 ?
A 0.10 mol O
B 0.20 mol C 0.27 mol D 0.33 mol E 0.40 mol
20. 2 MnO4-(aq) + 5 C2O42-(aq) + 16 H+(aq) → 2 Mn2+(aq) + 10 CO2(g) + 8 H2O(l)

Permanganate and oxalate ions react in an acidified solution according to the balanced
equation above. How many moles of CO2(g) are produced when 20. mL of acidified 0.20 M
KMnO4 solution is added to 50. mL of 0.10 M Na2C2O4 solution?
A 0.004 mol B 0.005 mol C 0.009 mol O

D 0.010 mol E 0.020 mol
21. A 1.0 L sample of an aqueous solution contains 0.10 mol of NaCl and 0.10 mol of CaCl2.
What is the minimum number of moles of AgNO3 that must be added to the solution in
order to precipitate all of the Cl- as AgCl(s) ? (Assume that AgCl is insoluble.)
A 0.10 mol B 0.20 mol O

C 0.30 mol D 0.40 mol E 0.60 mol
22. C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) → 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(l)

In the reaction represented above, what is the total number of moles of reactants
consumed when 1.00 mole of CO2(g) is produced?
A 0.33 mol B 1.33 mol C 1.50 mol O

D 2.00 mol E 6.00 mol

23. 2 H2O(l) + 4 MnO4-(aq) + 3 ClO2-(aq) → 4 MnO2(s) + 3 ClO4-(aq) + 4 OH-(aq)
According to the balanced equation above, how many moles of ClO2-(aq) are needed to react
completely with 20. mL of 0.20 M KMnO4 solution?
O
A 0.0030 mol B 0.0053 mol C 0.0075 mol D 0.013 mol E 0.030 mol
24. 10 HI + 2 KMnO4 + 3 H2SO4 → 5 I2 + 2 MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 8 H2O
According to the balanced equation above, how many moles of HI would be necessary to
produce 2.5 mol of I2, starting with 4.0 mol of KMnO4 and 3.0 mol of H2SO4 ?
A 20 B 10 C 8.0 O
D 5.0 E 2.5
25. 3 Ag(s) + 4 HNO3 → 3 AgNO3 + NO(g) + 2 H2O
The reaction of silver metal and dilute nitric acid proceeds according to the equation
above. If 0.10 mole of powdered silver is added to 10. milliliters of 6.0–molar nitric
acid, the number of moles of NO gas that can be formed is
O
A 0.015 mol B 0.020 mol C 0.030 mol D 0.045 mol E 0.090 mol
26. When 100 mL of 1.0 M Na3PO4 is mixed with 100 mL of 1.0 M AgNO3, a yellow precipitate
forms and [Ag+] becomes negligibly small. Which of the following is a correct listing of the
ions remaining in solution in order of increasing concentration?
O
A [PO43-] < [NO3-] < [Na+]
B [PO43-] < [Na+] < [NO3-]
C [NO3-] < [PO43-] < [Na+]
D [Na+] < [NO3-] < [PO43-]
E [Na+] < [PO43-] < [NO3-]
27. MnO4− + 5 Fe2+ + 8 H+ → Mn2+ + 5 Fe3+ + 4 H2O
In the reaction represented above, the number of MnO4- ions that react must be equal to
which of the following?
O
A One-fifth the number of Fe2+ ions that are consumed
B Eight times the number of H+ ions that are consumed
C Five times the number of Fe3+ ions that are produced
D One-half the number of H2O molecules that are produced
28. 2 KClO3(s) → 2 KCl(s) + 3 O2(g)
What is the percentage yield of O2 if 12.3 g of KClO3 (molar mass 123 g) is decomposed to
produce 3.2 g of O2 (molar mass 32 g) according to the equation above?
A 100% O
B 67% C 50% D 33% E 10%
29. W(g) + X(g) → Y(g) + Z(g)
Gases W and X react in a closed, rigid vessel to form gases Y and Z according to the
equation above. The initial pressure of W(g) is 1.20 atm and that of X(g) is 1.60 atm. No Y(g)
or Z(g) is initially present. The experiment is carried out at constant temperature.
What is the partial pressure of Z(g) when the partial pressure of W(g) has decreased to 1.0
atm?
O
A 0.20 atm B 0.40 atm C 1.0 atm D 1.2 atm E 1.4 atm
30. NH4NO3(s) → N2O(g) + 2 H2O(g)
A 0.03 mol sample of NH4NO3(s) is placed in a 1 L evacuated flask, which is then sealed and
heated. The NH4NO3(s) decomposes completely according to the balanced equation above.
The total pressure in the flask measured at 400 K is closest to which of the following?
(The value of the gas constant, R, is 0.082 L atm mol-1 K-1.)
O
A 3 atm B 1 atm C 0.5 atm D 0.1 atm E 0.03 atm
31. CS2(l) + 3 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 SO2(g)
What volume of O2(g) is required to react with excess CS2(l) to produce 4.0 L of CO2(g)?
(Assume all gases are measured at 0°C and 1 atm.)
O
A 12 L B 22.4 L C ⅓ x 22.4 L D 2 x 22.4 L E 3 x 22.4 L

1. In the laboratory, the hydrate CaSO4 ⋅ 2 H2O(s) can be heated in a crucible to completely
drive off the water of hydration to form the anhydrous salt, CaSO4(s).
A 2.49 g sample of pure CaSO4 ⋅ 2 H2O(s) is heated several times until the mass is constant.
Calculate the mass, in grams, of the solid that remains after the dehydration reaction
is complete.
1 point is earned for the (rounded) correct molar masses.
molar mass of CaSO4 ⋅ 2 H2O(s) = 172.172 g mol−1
molar mass of CaSO4(s) = 136.14 g mol−1
1 point is earned for an answer consistent with the molar masses.
2.49 g CaSO4 ⋅ 2 H2O(s) x 136.14g / 172.172g = 1.97 g of CaSO4
2. C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)

Ethanol, C2H5OH, will combust in air according to the equation above.
a) When a sample of C2H5OH was combusted, the volume of CO2(g) produced was
18.0 L when measured at 21.7 °C and 1.03 atm . Determine the number of moles of
CO2(g) that was produced.
The response gives a calculation equivalent to the following.
n = PV / RT = (1.03 atm)(18.0 L) / (0.08206 L atm mol-1 K-1) (273.15 + 21.7 K)
= 0.766 mol CO2
b) Determine the volume of C2H5OH(l) , in mL, that was combusted to produce the
volume of CO2(g) collected in part a). (The density of C2H5OH(l) is 0.79g/mL.)
The response meets both of the following criteria.
The response indicates that 1 mol of C2H5OH produces 2 mol of CO2 .

The response gives a calculation equivalent to the following:

0.766 x ½ x 46.07g x 1 mL /0. 79 g = 22 mL

3. A compound containing the elements C , H , N , and O is analyzed. When a 1.2359 g
sample is burned in excess oxygen, 2.241 g of CO2(g) is formed. The combustion analysis
also showed that the sample contained 0.0648 g of H.
a) Determine the mass, in grams, of C in the 1.2359 g sample of the compound.
1 point is earned for the correct answer. = 0.6116 g of C.
b) When the compound is analyzed for N content only, the mass percent of N is found
to be 28.84 percent. Determine the mass, in grams, of N in the original 1.2359 g
sample of the compound.
1 point is earned for the correct answer. 1.2359 g x 0.2884 = 0.3564 g N.
c) Determine the mass, in grams, of O in the original 1.2359 g sample of the

compound.
1 point is earned for the answer consistent with the answers in parts a) and b).
Because the compound contains only C, H, N, and O,
mass of O = g sample − ( g H + g C + g N )
= 1.2359 − (0.0648 + 0.6116 +0.3564) = 0.2031 g
d) Determine the empirical formula of the compound.

1 point is earned for all masses converted to moles. Note: Moles of C may be shown
in part a).
1 point is earned for dividing by the smallest number of moles.
1 point is earned for the empirical formula consistent with the ratio of moles
calculated.
Divide all mole quantities by the smallest number of moles:

0.05092 mol ÷ 0.01269 mol = 4.013
0.06429 mol ÷ 0.01269 mol = 5.066
0.02544 mol ÷ 0.01269 mol = 2.005
0.01269 mol ÷0.01269 mol = 1.000 ⇨ Empirical formula is C4H5N2O

4. H2O2(aq) + OCl−(aq) → H2O(l) + Cl−(aq) + O2(g)
A student investigates the reaction between

H2O2(aq) and NaOCl(aq), which is represented
by the net-ionic equation shown above.
The student decides to produce 40.0mL of O2(g)

at a pressure of 0.988 atm and a temperature of
298 K using the reaction represented above.
The student uses the equipment shown.

The student sets up a 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask fitted with a one-hole stopper. The flask is
connected to a 50 mL gas-collection tube that initially is completely filled with water.
a) Calculate the volume of 0.800 M H2O2(aq) that the student should add to excess
NaOCl(aq) to produce 40.0 mL of O2(g) at 0.988 atm and 298 K.
1 point is earned for calculating the number of moles of O2 needed.
n = PV / RT = (0.988 atm)(0.0400 L) / (0.08206 L atm mol-1 K-1) (298 K)
= 0.00162 mol O2
1 point is earned for calculating the volume of H2O2 solution that should be added.
0.00162 mol O2 × 1 mol H2O2/1 mol O2 =0.00162 mol H2O2 needed
0.00162 mol H2O2 × L/ 0.800 mol H2O2 =0.00202 L
b) The student added the amount of H2O2(aq) calculated in part a)
to excess NaOCl(aq). However, instead of producing 40.0 mL of
O2(g), the volume indicated in the diagram below was produced.
Based on the diagram above, what volume of gas was produced?
1 point is earned for the correct reading of the meniscus level to
three significant figures. 36.5 mL (values within ± 0.4 of 36.5 are acceptable).
c) Assuming that all the gas in the tube is O2(g), calculate the percent yield of O2(g).
1 point 1 is earned for the correct percent yield.
percent yield = actual yield / theoretical yield = 36.5 mL/40.0 mL x 100 = 91.3%
d) Is the assumption that all the gas in the tube is O2(g) correct? Explain.
1 point is earned for the correct answer with a valid explanation.
(Only one of the two extra gases is required for the point.)
No, the gas also contains water vapor and air that was originally in the flask.

4.6 Introduction to Titration
Volumetric Analysis
Titration is the most common application of Volumetric
Analysis - accurate measurements of volumes using
pipettes and burettes.
Titration is the slow addition of one solution of a known
concentration (called a titrant) to a known volume of
potassium hydrogen
another solution of unknown concentration until the
phthalate (KHP) is a
reaction reaches the equivalence point, which
popular choice for an
is
acid. often indicated by a color change.
sodium carbonate is a
The solution of known concentration will usually be
popular choice for a
prepared by accurate weighing and careful transfer
base.
to a volumetric flask before carefully making
up to the mark.
This can often be considered as the Primary
Standard.
Acid-Base Titration

There are a wide variety of acids and bases (which

will be dealt with in more detail later) but the
net ionic reaction is:
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
The equivalence point is reached when [H+]=[OH-]
and pH = 7.
The titration will stop when the indicator changes
colour - this is called the end-point. It may require
an extra drop of OH- solution as indicators
rarely change colour at exactly pH = 7.
For example, phenolpthalein will change
(colourless to pink) from pH = 8 to pH = 10.
Acid-base titrations are often carried out using a pH

meter to plot a pH curve as shown opposite.
The pH changes rapidly around the equivalence
point so if an indicator was used instead, its colour
change should be completed within a single drop.
The equivalence point is not always at pH = 7 as the
salts produced can themselves be basic or acidic.
However, the equivalence point is always the
midpoint in the region of rapid change, allowing the
volume added to be determined.
Red-Ox Titration

There are an even wider variety of chemicals

that can take part in Red-Ox reactions.
The equivalence point is reached when
electrons lost = electrons gained
(oxidation) (reduction)
The titration will stop when there is an
obvious colour change at the end-point.
For example, the prescence of starch (an
indicator) will cause a blue-black colour to
appear once iodine (I2(aq) + 2e- → 2I-(aq))
has completed reacting with the reductant.
The first drop of excess I2(aq) will then be free
to react with the starch.
Many red-ox reactants are coloured and can
be self-indicating. The managanate ion
(MnO4-(aq)) is strongly purple and reacts to
form the colourless Mn2+(aq) ion:
MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e- Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
Again, once the MnO4-(aq) has completed reacting with the reductant, the first drop of excess
MnO4-(aq) will produce a permanent pale pink colour.
In Red-Ox reactions we can either use ion-electron ½ equations or combine them to make the
overall balanced net ionic equation:
Reduction: MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e- Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
Oxidation: H2C2O4(aq) 2CO2(g) + 2H+(aq) + 2e-
To balance these ½ equations it is necessary to ensure that electrons lost = electrons gained. This
can be achieved by multiplying the two equations to reach 10e- so:
Reduction: 2MnO4-(aq) + 16H+(aq) + 10e- 2Mn2+(aq) + 8H2O(l)
Oxidation: 5H2C2O4(aq) 10CO2(g) + 10H+(aq) + 10e-
After adding the two equations (and cancelling down):
Net Ionic Equation: 2MnO4-(aq) + 6H+(aq) + 5H2C2O4(aq) 2Mn2+(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 10CO2(g)

2 moles 5 moles
As usual, from the balanced equation we can get our mole relationships for calculations.
Stoichiometry - Titration Calculations

n=MxL M=n/L
x mol y mol
Example 1: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
The end point in a titration of a 50.00-mL sample of aqueous HCl was

reached by addition of 35.23 mL of 0.250 M NaOH titrant.
What is the molarity of the HCl?
Step 1: determine moles of titrant added n = MxL

= 0.250 x 0.03523 = 0.00881 moles NaOH
Step 2: determine moles of analyte x mol y mol

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

1 mol ← 1mol
0.00881 moles NaOH 0.00881 moles HCl
Step 3: determine molarity of analyte M = n/L

= 0.00881 / 0.05000 = 0.176 mol l-1 HCl
The accuracy of a titration calculation is usually limited by

the ability to read the burette.
Most burettes are marked off to nearest 0.1 ml but
experienced operators are often able to estimate to the
nearest 0.01 ml. So probably 6.23 ml rather than 6.2 ml
if reading to nearest line.
A single drop from a burette ≈ 0.05 ml.
Example 2: 2MnO4-(aq) + 6H+(aq) + 5H2C2O4(aq) 2Mn2+(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 10CO2(g)
A 20.00-mL sample of aqueous oxalic acid, H2C2O4, was titrated with a

0.09113-M solution of potassium permanganate.
A volume of 23.24 mL was required to reach the end point. What is the oxalic
acid molarity?
Step 1: determine moles of titrant added n = MxL

= 0.09113 x 0.02324
= 0.002118 moles MnO4-(aq)
Step 2: determine moles of analyte x mol y mol

2MnO4-(aq) + 6H+(aq) + 5H2C2O4(aq)

2 mol 5mol
0.002118 moles MnO4-(aq) 5/2 x 0.002118
= 0.005295 moles H2C2O4(aq)
Step 3: determine molarity of analyte M = n/L

= 0.005295 / 0.02000
= 0.2648 mol l-1 H2C2O4(aq)
Titration Method
Pipette and burette should be washed several
times with water.
Pipette should then be washed out, at least
twice, with the analyte solution.

Burette should be washed out, at least
twice, with the titrant solution.
Burette readings should be taken at
eye-level and to two decimal places.
Titrations should be repeated until three
concordant results are obtained.
1. Potassium hydrogen phthalate, KHP, is used as a primary standard for determining the
concentration of a solution of NaOH by titration. If the KHP has not been dried before
weighing, the calculated molarity of the NaOH would be
O
A higher than the actual value, since water is included in the apparent mass of KHP
B higher than the actual value, since the presence of water requires a larger volume of
titrant

C lower than the actual value, since NaOH absorbs water
D unaffected, since KHP is a strong acid
E unaffected, since water is routinely added before the titration
2. 5 H2O2(aq) + 2 MnO4-(aq) + 6 H+(aq) → 2 Mn2+(aq) + 8 H2O(l) + 5 O2(g)

In a titration experiment, H2O2(aq) reacts with aqueous MnO4-(aq) as represented by the
equation above. The dark purple KMnO4 solution is added from a buret to a colorless,
acidified solution of H2O2(aq) in an Erlenmeyer flask. (Note: At the end point of the
titration, the solution is a pale pink color.)
Which of the following best describes what happens to the pH of the H2O2 solution as the
titration proceeds?
A The +2 charge on the manganese ions maintains the acidity of the solution.
B The production of water dilutes the solution, making it basic.
O

C As H+ ions are consumed, the solution becomes less acidic and the pH increases.
D As H+ ions are consumed, the solution becomes less acidic and the pH decreases.
3. When a buret is rinsed before a titration, which of the techniques below is the best
procedure?
A Rinse the buret one time with some of the titrant solution.
B Rinse the buret one time with some of the titrant solution and then dry the buret in
an oven.

C Rinse the buret two times: once with some of the titrant solution, then once with
distilled water.
O
D Rinse the buret two times: each time with some of the titrant solution.
E Rinse the buret two times: each time with distilled water.
4. A particle view of a sample of H2O2(aq) is shown opposite. The H2O2(aq)
is titrated with KMnO4(aq), as represented by the equation below.
2 MnO4−(aq) + 5 H2O2(aq) + 6 H+(aq) → 2 Mn2+(aq) + 5 O2(g) + 8 H2O(l)
Which of the following particle views best represents the mixture

when the titration is halfway to the equivalence point?
(H2O molecules and H+ ions are not shown.)
A B
C D
5. A student pipetted five 25.00–milliliter samples of hydrochloric acid and transferred each
sample to an Erlenmeyer flask, diluted it with distilled water, and added a few drops
of phenolphthalein to each. Each sample was then titrated with a sodium hydroxide
solution to the appearance of the first permanent faint pink color.

The following results were obtained.

Volumes of NaOH Solution: 35.22 mL , 36.14 mL , 36.13 mL , 36.15 mL and 36.12 mL
Which of the following is the most probable explanation for the variation in the student’s
results?
A The burette was not rinsed with NaOH solution.
B The student misread a 5 for a 6 on the burette when the first sample was titrated.

C A different amount of water was added to the first sample.
O
D The pipette was not rinsed with the HCI solution.
E The student added too little indicator to the first sample.
4.6 Quick Check FRQ
1. HF(aq) + OH−(aq) → F−(aq) + H2O(l)
A student performed a titration of HF(aq) with

NaOH(aq). The net ionic equation for the
neutralization reaction that occurs during the
titration is shown above.
The student titrated 30. mL of 0.15 M HF(aq)
with 0.30 M NaOH(aq). The results are plotted
on the graph opposite.
a) How many moles of HF are in 30. mL
of 0.15 M HF(aq) ?
The response gives the following calculation (or a variation):

0.15 M HF / 1000 mL x 30.0 mL = 0.0045 mol

b) Draw an X on the horizontal axis of the graph to show the amount of NaOH(aq)
that had been added when the equivalence point was reached.
The response shows an X on the horizontal axis at 15.0 mL OR on the curve
at 15.0 mL . (If the X is drawn on the curve, it does not need to be at the
correct pH .)

c) The graph above shows the results of the titration of the 30. mL of 0.15 M HF(aq)
with 0.30 M NaOH(aq). On the same graph, draw the curve for the titration of 60. mL
of 0.15 M HF(aq) with 0.30 M NaOH(aq).
The drawing meets all of the criteria below:

The curve is shaped like a titration curve.
The curve starts at a pH essentially the same as the first curve.
The roughly vertical part of the curve is at a volume of 30.0 mL

2. A solution of 0.100 M HCl and a solution
of 0.100 M NaOH are prepared.
A 40.0 mL sample of one of the solutions
is added to a beaker and then titrated with
the other solution.
A pH electrode is used to obtain the data
that are plotted in the titration curve
shown opposite.
a) Identify the solution that was initially
added to the beaker.
Explain your reasoning.
1 point is earned for the correct identification with rationale.
The solution in the beaker was the 0.100 M HCl because the initial pH was 1
(the pH of 0.100 M HCl).

b) On the titration curve above, circle the point that corresponds to the equivalence
point.
1 point is earned for the correct choice of point.
The point with coordinates (40.0 , 7) is circled.

c) At the equivalence point, how many moles of titrant have been added?
1 point is earned for the correct numerical answer.
0.100 M HCl / 1000 mL x 40.0 mL = 0.00400 mol
d) What is the difference between the equivalence point of a titration and the end point
of a titration?
1 point is earned for each correct definition (for a maximum of 2 points).
The equivalence point in a titration occurs when the number of moles of titrant
added is exactly sufficient to react completely with the number of moles of the
titrated species present in the sample being titrated.
The end point of a titration is the point in a titration at which the indicator
undergoes its color change.

3. A student dissolved a 0.139g sample of oxalic acid, H2C2O4 , in water in an Erlenmeyer
flask. Then the student titrated the H2C2O4 solution in the flask with a solution of KMnO4,
which has a dark purple color. The balanced chemical equation for the reaction that
occurred during the titration is shown below.
6H+(aq) + 2MnO4−(aq) + 5H2C2O4(aq) → 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(l) + 2Mn2+(aq)
a) Identify the species that was reduced in the titration reaction.
Justify your answer in terms of oxidation numbers.
Th e response indicates that Mn7+ is reduced to Mn2+ as the
oxidation number of Mn changes from +7 to +2 , a gain of
5 electrons.
b) The student used a 50.0mL buret to add the KMnO4(aq) to the H2C2O4(aq)
until a faint lavender color was observed in the flask, an indication that
the end point of the titration had been reached.
The initial and final volume readings of the solution in the buret are
shown opposite.
Write down the initial reading and the final reading and use them to
determine the volume of KMnO4(aq) that was added during the titration.
The response shows a calculation similar to the following, consistent with
values measured from the bottom of the meniscus on the magnified glassware
illustration.
29.55 mL - 3.35 mL = 26.20 mL
c) Given that the concentration of KMnO4(aq) was 0.0235 M, calculate
the number of moles of MnO4- ions that completely reacted with the
H2C2O4.
The response shows a calculation similar to the following and is
consistent with the answer in part b) and maintains 3 significant figures
from the molarity:
(0.02620 L)(0.0235 mol L-1) = 0.000616 mol
d) The student proposes to perform another titration using a 0.139g sample of
H2C2O4, but this time using 0.00143 M KMnO4(aq)in the buret. Would this
titrant concentration be a reasonable choice to use if the student followed the
same procedure and used the same equipment as before? Justify your
response.
The response indicates “No”. The response indicates that the titrant solution is
so diluted that the volume of titrant needed to reach the end point would be
much greater than the capacity of the buret.

4.7 Types of Chemical Reactions

Types of Reactions
The labels synthesis, decomposition and
displacement are important but we can
usually do better!
For example, all of the following reactions

are displacements but they are very
different in important ways and it is more
helpful to identify them as Acid-Base,
Red-Ox or Precipitation reactions.
Reactions in which H+(aq) from an acid

react with OH-(aq) from a base are
better labelled as Acid-Base reactions.

2HCl(aq)+ Mg(OH)2(s) → MgCl2(aq) +2H2O(l)

Removing spectator ions reveals the
net ionic equation:
2H+(aq)+ 2OH-(aq) → 2H2O(l)
2H+(aq)+ O2-(s) → H2O(l)
2H+(aq)+ CO32-(s) → H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Reactions in which electrons are lost
(oxidation) by one species and
electrons are gained (reduction) by
another species.
These are better labelled as Red-Ox
reactions.

2AgNO3(aq)+ Cu(s) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)

net ionic equation:
2Ag+(aq)+ Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq)+ 2Ag(s)
Reactions in which an ion from one

solution reacts with a different ion from
another solution to form an insoluble
solid.
These are better labelled as
precipitation reactions.

2KI(aq)+ Pb(NO3)2(aq) → 2KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)

net ionic equation:
2I-(aq)+ Pb2+(aq)) → PbI2(s)
Acids & Bases

Our simplest acids are all polar covalent molecules that release
hydrogen ions H+(aq) when dissolved in water.

H𝛿+— Cl𝛿-(g) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

The hydrogen ion is essentially just a proton and is too unstable to exist
alone so will become attached to a water molecule

H+ + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) hydroxonium or
hydronium ion

Similarly, for nitric acid,
the resonance structure helps

HNO3(l) + H2O(l) NO -
3 (aq)
+ H3O +
(aq)
stabilise the nitrate ion
And for ethanoic acid,
the resonance structure

helps stabilise
CH3COOH(l) + H2O(l) CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq) the ethanoate ion
Acids, like HCl and HNO3, that dissociate 100%

are described as strong acids.
Other acids, like CH3COOH will dissociate < 1%
and are described as weak acids.
The proportion of dissociated molecules in a

diagram can be used to identify the strongest
acid:
HY > HZ > HX

Bases can be more difficult to identify and we need better definitions, which will be developed
further in the next lesson.
Often bases are defined as
chemicals that produce hydroxide ions, OH-(aq) when they dissolve in water.
Ionic hydroxide compounds, such as NaOH, KOH, and Ca(OH)2, are among the most common
bases, mainly because they are the most soluble so can be 'relied' upon to produce 100% of the
possible OH-(aq) - strong bases.
Less obvious bases include covalent ammonia, NH3 ,
as well as many of the organic amines such as
methylamine, CH3NH2 .
Notice that the use of the reversible arrows is an indication that ammonia will only partially
ionise so it would be a weak base.
Other bases include oxides, such as Na2O, and carbonates, such as K2CO3 , which do not
obviously contain hydroxide ions, though, similarly to ammonia, we can usually write equations
that show the formation of hydroxide ions:
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
However, these equations can be challenging and not particularly helpful:

K2CO3(s) + 2H2O(l) 2K+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2CO3(aq)

Instead we can also define bases as
2H+(aq)+ 2OH-(aq) → 2H2O(l) chemicals that accept (react with) H+(aq) ions.
H+(aq)+ NH3(aq) ⥦ NH4+(aq) 2H+(aq)+ O2-(s) → H2O(l) 2H+(aq)+ CO32-(s) → H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Since our acids start as covalent molecules, acid strength is largely to do with their tendency to
ionise when dissolved in water. The Equilibrium Unit will provide us with numbers (Ka values)
that will make life much easier.
Since our bases start as ionic
networks, base strength is largely
to do with their ability to
dissolve in water.
Group I (alkali metals) and
Group II (alkali earth metals)
provide our strongest bases.
Ksp values will come later.
Oxidation & Reduction
Originally, the term oxidation only referred
to reactions with oxygen:

Mg(s) + O2(g) MgO(s)

Combustion was simply an extreme form of
oxidation:
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
The term reduction referred to the 'reduction

in mass' that accompanied reactions in
which oxygen was lost - typically the
decomposition of metal oxides.
2HgO(s) 2Hg(s) + O2(g)

Oxidation - an increase in oxygen
Reduction - a decrease in oxygen
As our understanding of atomic structure increased, our definitions changed:
Oxidation - is loss of electrons Reduction - is gain of electrons
A substance cannot lose electrons (Oxidation) unless another substance is able to gain those
electrons (Reduction) so we will increasingly refer to these reactiona as REDOX reactions.
Redox reactions involve the transfer of elecrons between chemical species

Biochemists will often recognise oxidation
by an increase in the oxygen content.
C2H5OH(l) CH3COOH(l)
ethanol ethanoic acid
However, less obvious oxidation can also be
accompanied by a decrease in hydrogen.
C2H5OH(l) C2H4O(l)
ethanol ethanal
Oxidation - an increase in the

oxygen: hydrogen ratio

Reduction - a decrease in the

oxygen: hydrogen ratio
Oxidation Numbers

Not surprisingly, we need a system that
makes it easier to determine oxidation and
reduction, regardless of the context.
One method is to assign 'notional' oxidation
numbers to the individual species found in a
chemical.

The -4 oxidation number assigned to C in CH4 allows us to work out changes taking place when,
for example, methane burns to produce CO2, in which the C would now be +4.
The C atom is experiencing a change that is 'equivalent to' the loss of 8 electrons (-4 to +4) which
is clearly oxidation.
However, CH4 is a covalent molecule and there is definitely not a C4- ion present in CH4. Similarly,
there are no C4+ ions present in covalent CO2 molecules.

Not surprisingly, in reactions involving

ionic compounds, we see a closer match
between oxidation numbers assigned
and actual charges.
Mg(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2e-
2H+(aq) + 2e- H2(g)
Assigning an oxidation number of +7 to Mn in KMnO4 and knowing that the

Mn2+ ion is produced during at titration involving KMnO4 leads to:
Mn7+(aq) + 5e- Mn2+(aq) gain of 5 electrons = reduction
If the titration was with Fe2+, we would now know that the Fe2+ must be losing
electrons (oxidation):
Fe2+(aq) Fe3+(aq) + e-

Therefore the molar relationship would be: 1 mol KMnO4 ≣ 5 mol of Fe2+

Again, this is a 'notional' oxidation number. The energy needed to remove 7
electron and form a 7+ ion make it unlikely/impossible that this is how
the Mn atom in the MnO4- ion exists in reality.
Instead, the negative charge from the oxygens will 'dampen down' and
stabilise the Mn meaning that it's actual charge is significantly less than 7+.
However, it definitely reacts like it is gaining 5 electrons and can force 5 Fe2+
ions to lose one electron each. We are justified in using our oxidation
numbers to work out what is happening during RedOx reactions.

It’s important to remember that in every RedOx reaction, the oxidation numbers of at least two
atoms must change. The oxidation number increases for any atom that is oxidised and decreases
for any atom that is reduced.
1 x O is -2 neutral compound so Mn = +2
3 x F = -3 neutral compound so Mn = +3
2 x O = -4 neutral compound so Mn = +4
3 x K = +3 neutral compound so MnO4 ion = -3

4 x O = -8 MnO43- polyatomic ion so Mn = +5
Comparing left and right sides, we see that the sulfur is oxidised; it's oxidation number increases
from -2 to zero - equivalent to losing 2 electrons.
And the nitrogen is reduced (it's oxidation number decreases +5 → +2 - equivalent to gaining 3
electrons). This is a redox reaction.
Acid-Base reactions involve ions. Are they also RedOx reactions?
This time when we compare oxidation numbers on the right and left, nothing has changed. No
electrons have been transferred, so this is not a RedOx reaction.

1. The diagrams opposite represent solutes
present in two different dilute aqueous
solutions before they were mixed. Water
molecules are not shown. When the solutions
were combined, a precipitation reaction took
place.
Which of the diagrams below is the best
particle representation of the mixture after the precipitation reaction occurred?
A B
C D
2. When C2H4(g) reacts with H2(g), the compound

C2H6(g) is produced, as represented by the
equation opposite.
The reaction is correctly classified as which of the following types?
A Acid-base, because two hydrogen atoms are donated to C2H4(g).
B Precipitation, because two reactant species form a single product.
C Decomposition, because pure H2(g) is consumed.
O
D Oxidation-reduction, because H2(g) is oxidized.

3. I2(aq) + C6H8O6(aq) → C6H6O6(aq) + 2I−(aq) + 2H+(aq)
The compound C6H8O6 reacts with I2 according to the reaction represented by the
equation above. The reaction is correctly classified as which of the following types?
A Acid-base, because H+ ions are produced.
B Precipitation, because there are only two reactants but there are three products.
C Double replacement, because both H and I appear as ions in the products.
O
D Oxidation-reduction, because I2 is reduced.
4. 2 H2O2(aq) → 2 H2O(l) + O2(g)
The decomposition of H2O2(aq) is represented by the equation above. Which of the

following identifies the element(s) being oxidized and reduced in the reaction?
A Hydrogen is oxidized and oxygen is reduced.
B Oxygen is oxidized and hydrogen is reduced.
O
C Oxygen is both oxidized and reduced.
D No elements are oxidized or reduced; the reaction is not a redox reaction.
5. 5 H2O2(aq) + 2 MnO4-(aq) + 6 H+(aq) → 2 Mn2+(aq) + 8 H2O(l) + 5 O2(g)
In a titration experiment, H2O2(aq) reacts with aqueous MnO4-(aq) as represented by the

equation above. The dark purple KMnO4 solution is added from a buret to a
colorless, acidified solution of H2O2(aq) in an Erlenmeyer flask. (Note: At the end point of
the titration, the solution is a pale pink color.)
Which element is being oxidized during the titration, and what is the element’s change in
oxidation number?
O
A Oxygen, which changes from -1 to 0
B Oxygen, which changes from 0 to -2
C Manganese, which changes from -1 to +2
D Manganese, which changes from +7 to +2

6. H2Se(g) + 4 O2F2(g) → SeF6(g) + 2 HF(g) + 4 O2(g)
Which of the following is true regarding the reaction represented above?
A The oxidation number of O does not change.
B The oxidation number of H changes from -1 to +1.
C The oxidation number of F changes from +1 to -1.
O
D The oxidation number of Se changes from -2 to +6.
E It is a disproportionation reaction for F.
7. Which of the following represents a process in which a species is reduced?
A Ca(s) → Ca2+(aq)
B Hg(l) → Hg22+(aq)
C Fe2+(aq) → Fe3+(aq)
O
D NO3-(aq) → NO(g)
E SO32-(aq) → SO42-(aq)
8. When water is added to a mixture of Na2O2(s) and S (s) , a redox reaction occurs, as
represented by the equation below.
2 Na2O2(s) + S(s) + 2 H2O(l) → 4 NaOH(aq) + SO2(aq)
Atoms of which element are reduced in the reaction?
A S - each atom loses four electrons
B Na in Na2O2 - each atom loses one electron
O
C O in Na2O2 - each atom gains one electron
D O in H2O - each atom gains one electron
9. 2 MnO4-(aq) + 10 Br-(aq) + 16 H+(aq) → 2 Mn2+(aq) + 5 Br2(aq) + 8 H2O(l)
How many electrons are transferred in the reaction represented by the balanced equation
above?
O

A 2 B 4 C 5 D 8 E 10
10. Which of the following compounds at 25°C and 1.0 atm contains an atom in a +1
oxidation state?
A CO2 B PbO2 C CaO D N2O5 O

E Cu2O
11. Which of the following is a precipitstion reaction
A 2 Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2 MgO(s).
O
B Pb2+(aq) + CrO42-(aq) → PbCrO4(s)
C SO3(g) + 2 H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + HSO4-(aq)
D 2 H2O(g) → 2 H2(g) + O2(g)
E Ag+(aq) + 2 NH3(aq) → [Ag(NH3)2]+(aq)
12. Which of the following is an oxidation-reduction reaction that is also a synthesis reaction
O
A 2 Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2 MgO(s).
B Pb2+(aq) + CrO42-(aq) → PbCrO4(s)
C SO3(g) + 2 H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + HSO4-(aq)
D 2 H2O(g) → 2 H2(g) + O2(g)
E Ag+(aq) + 2 NH3(aq) → [Ag(NH3)2]+(aq)
13. In which of the following species does sulfur have the same oxidation number as it does
in H2SO4?
A H2SO3 B S2O32- C S2- D S8 O

E SO2Cl2
14. Zn(s) is used to reduce other compounds in chemical reactions. If a chemist needs a
substance that is more effective in its reducing ability, which of the following species would
be the best choice?
O
A Na B H+ C K+ D Cl-

4.8 Introduction to Acid Base Reactions

Arrhenius Acids & Bases
The Arrhenius concept of acids and bases can be
stated in the following way:
• An acid is a substance that, when dissolved in
water, increases the concentration of H+(aq) ions.
• A base is a substance that, when dissolved in
water, increases the concentration of OH—(aq)
ions.
H+(aq) refers to the hydrated hydrogen ion and is

accepted as being an alternative to the more accurate
use of the hydronium ion - H3O+(aq) ,
H2O(l)
so HCl(g) Cl-(aq) + H+(aq)
or HCl(g) + H2O(l) Cl-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
The Arrhenius definition is not wrong, but it is limited. Later chemists extended the definition of
an acid or a base and we now prefer the more general definition proposed in 1923 by the
Danish chemist Johannes Brønsted and the English chemist Thomas Lowry.
Brønsted-Lowry Acids & Bases

Their definition centers on the proton. A proton is what remains when a normal hydrogen atom,
loses its electron to form a hydrogen ion, H+. Brønsted and Lowry defined acids and bases in a
different way:
An acid is any substance capable of donating a proton.
A base is any substance capable of accepting a proton.
Notice that the role of the water molecule is clearly illustrated and that it can act as both a proton
acceptor (base) and as a proton donor (acid). Substance that can act as both a base and an acid,
are often described as being amphoteric.
The amphoteric nature of water explains why there are small amounts of H+(aq) and OH-(aq) present
in what should be a covalent substance:

Typically, in pure water at 25°C, the concentration of both these ions = 1.0 x 10-7 mol L-1 so water
is neutral and pH = 7.
Conjugated Acids & Bases

An extension of the Brønsted-Lowry definition of acids and bases is the concept of the
conjugate acid-base pair, which can be defined as an acid and its conjugate base or
a base and its conjugate acid.
The conjugate base of a Brønsted-Lowry acid is the species that remains when one proton has been
removed from the acid. For example, the chloride ion (Cl-) is the conjugate base formed from the
acid HCl:
In reality, because HCl is a very strong acid (ionises 100%) the Cl-(aq) ion is a very weak base so as
it will struggle to accept a proton to reform the HCl molecule.

So, for example, if NaCl is added to water, the number of OH—(aq) produced will have a negligible
effect and the water will remain neutral, pH = 7.
Conversely, a conjugate acid results from the addition of a proton to a Brønsted-Lowry base. For
example, the ammonium ion (NH4+) is the conjugate acid formed from the base ammonia (NH3):

This time, because NH3 is a weak base (ionises < 1%) the NH4+ will be able to to donate a proton
and reform the ammmonia molecule.
So, for example, if NH4Cl is added to water, the number of H+(aq) produced will have a small but
significant effect and the water will become acidic, pH < 7.
For every acid there is a conjugate base that differs by a proton:

Similarly, for every base there is a conjugate acid that differs by a proton:

1. The particle diagram opposite represents an
aqueous solution of a weak monoprotic acid.
The white circles represent H atoms.
Which of the following shows the species that
act as a Brønsted-Lowry base and its conjugate acid,
in that order, in the solution?
A B
C D
2. HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
For the dissolution of HCl in water represented above, which of the following pairs
includes the Brønsted-Lowry bases?
A HCl(aq) and Cl−(aq)
B HCl(aq) and H3O+(aq)

C H2O(l) and H3O+(aq)
O
D H2O(l) and Cl−(aq)
3. NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq) → NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
When 0.20 M NH4Cl(aq) and 0.20 M NaOH(aq) are mixed, the reaction represented by the
equation above occurs and a strong smell of ammonia, NH3, is observed. Based on
this information, which of the following statements is true?
A NH4+(aq) acts as a Brønsted-Lowry base.

O
B NH4+(aq) is a stronger acid than H2O(l) is.
C NH3(aq) is a stronger base than OH−(aq) is.
D NH4+(aq) and Cl−(aq) are a conjugate acid-base pair.
4. Which of the following is the conjugate acid of NH2- ?
A NH2- O
B NH3 C H+ D NH4+ E H2O
5. HSO4- + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + SO42-
In the equilibrium represented above, the species that act as bases include which of the
following?
I. HSO4- II. H2O III. SO42-
A II only B III only C I and II D I and III O

E II and III
6. NH3(aq) + HCl(aq) → NH4+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
The Brønsted-Lowry bases in the reaction represented above are

A NH3(aq) and NH4+(aq)

O
B NH3(aq) and Cl−(aq)
C NH3(aq) and HCl(aq)
D HCl(aq) and NH4+(aq)
E HCl(aq) and Cl−(aq)
7. H2C2O4(aq) + H2O(l) ⇄ H3O+(aq) + HC2O4-(aq)
HC2O4-(aq) + H2O(l) ⇄ H3O+(aq) + C2O42-(aq)
H2O(l) + H2O(l) ⇄ H3O+(aq) + OH- (aq)
All the reactions represented above occur in an aqueous solution of oxalic acid. Which of
the following represent a Brønsted-Lowry conjugate acid-base pair?
A H2C2O4(aq) and C2O42-(aq)

O
B HC2O4-(aq) and C2O42-(aq)
C HC2O4-(aq) and H2O(l)
D H3O+(aq) and OH-(aq)

4.9 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions
Redox Equations
Oxidation numbers can be used to identify the species that are being oxidised and reduced. This
can be quite simple and obvious:

Charge must be conserved so electrons can be added to form an ion-electron ½-equation:
Oxidation Al(s) Al3+(aq) + 3e-
Reduction Ag+(aq) + e- Ag(s)
Similarly electrons lost must equal electrons gained so:

Oxidation Al(s) Al3+(aq) + 3e-
Reduction 3Ag+(aq) + 3e- 3Ag(s)
This can make it much easier to put together a balanced redox equation for the overall reaction:
RedOx Al(s) + 3Ag+(aq) Al3+(aq) + 3Ag(s)
Therefore the molar relationship would be: 1 mol Al ≣ 3 mol of Ag+ ≣ 3 mol of Ag
Notice that all of these equations are written without spectator ions and that electrons should never
appear in the final redox equation if balancing was correct.
This can also be more complicated:
Again oxidation numbers can be used

to identify the species that are being
oxidised and reduced.
Conservation of matter means that the different
numbers of I and Cr atoms on left and right
must be balanced first.
Oxidation 2 I-(aq) I2(s)

Reduction Cr2O72-(aq) 2 Cr3+(aq)
Charge must be conserved so electrons can be added to form an ion-electron ½-equation:

Oxidation 2 I-(aq) I2(s) + 2e-
Knowing that the Cr in Cr2O72- has oxidation number +6 (x2 Cr so +12 in total) while the
Cr in Cr3+ has oxidation number +3 (x2 Cr so +6 in total) would allow number of electrons
gained to be deduced.
Reduction Cr2O72-(aq) + 6e- 2 Cr3+(aq)
(Knowing how to fully balance these ½-equations is beyond scope of AP course but you
can expect to see the fully balanced version)
Reduction Cr2O72-(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e- 2 Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
(Notice that the use of H+(aq) also ensures that charge is conserved. The large number of
H+(aq) can be ensured by adding acid to the dichromate solution to make it acidified)
Electrons lost must equal electrons gained so:

Oxidation 6 I-(aq) 3 I2(s) + 6e-
Reduction Cr2O72-(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e- 2 Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
This can make it much easier to put together a balanced redox equation for the overall reaction:
RedOx Cr2O72-(aq) + 6 I-(aq) + 14H+(aq) 2 Cr3+(aq) + 3 I2(s) + 7H2O(l)
Therefore the molar relationship would be: 1 mol Cr2O72- ≣ 6 mol of I- ≣ 3 mol of I2
Notice that all of these equations are written without spectator ions and that electrons should never
appear in the final redox equation if balancing was correct.

1. Al(s) → Al3+(aq) + 3e− Zn2+(aq) + 2e −→ Zn(s)
The half-reactions for the oxidation-reduction reaction between Al(s) and Zn2+(aq) are
represented above. Based on the half-reactions, what is the coefficient for All(s) if the
equation for the oxidation-reduction reaction is balanced with the smallest whole-number
coefficients?
A 1 B 2 O C 3 D 4

2. Ni(s) → Ni2+(aq) + 2e− Ag+(aq) + e− → Ag(s)
Which of the following is the balanced net ionic equation for an oxidation-reduction
reaction between Ag+(aq) and Ni(s) based on the half-reactions represented above?
A Ag+(aq) + Ni(s) → Ag(s) + Ni2+(aq)
B 2 Ag+(aq) + Ni(s) → Ag(s) + 2 Ni2+(aq)

C Ag+(aq) + 2 Ni(s) → Ag(s) + 2 Ni2+(aq)
O
D 2 Ag+(aq) + Ni(s) → 2 Ag(s) + Ni2+(aq)
3. Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)

The reaction between solid copper and aqueous silver nitrate produces solid silver and a
blue solution, as represented by the balanced equation shown above.
Based on the balanced equation, which of the following identifies the oxidation and
reduction half-reactions?
A
O

B

1. In human cells a compound known as NADH is involved in a reaction that generates an
electrical potential. The balanced equation for the overall reaction is shown below.
O2 + 2H+ + 2NADH → 2H2O + 2NAD+
How many moles of electrons are transferred for each mole of O2 that reacts? Justify your
answer in terms of the balanced equation and the change in oxidation number of oxygen.
The response indicates that four moles of electrons are needed to convert the two
moles of oxygen atoms in one mole of O2 from the zero oxidation state to the
-2 oxidation state.
2. Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 HSO4−(aq) → 2 PbSO4(s) + 2 H2O(l)
The equation above represents the overall reaction that occurs when a lead storage
battery is producing electricity.
Determine the oxidation number of sulfur in PbSO4.
1 point is earned for the correct answer. +6
3. HClO(aq) + H2O(l) ⇄ H3O+(aq) + ClO−(aq)
The reaction between hypochlorous acid and water is represented above.

Identify one of the conjugate acid-pairs in the reaction.

The response gives one of the following pairs.
HClO(aq) and ClO-(aq)
H2O(l) and H3O+(aq)

4. A student dissolved a 0.139g sample of oxalic acid, H2C2O4 , in water in an Erlenmeyer
flask. Then the student titrated the H2C2O4 solution in the flask with a solution of KMnO4,
which has a dark purple color. The balanced chemical equation for the reaction that
occurred during the titration is shown below.
6H+(aq) + 2MnO4−(aq) + 5H2C2O4(aq) → 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(l) + 2Mn2+(aq)
a) Identify the species that was reduced in the titration reaction.

Justify your answer in terms of oxidation numbers.
The response indicates that Mn7+ is reduced to Mn2+ as the
oxidation number of Mn changes from +7 to +5 , a gain of
2 electrons.

b) The student used a 50.0mL buret to add the KMnO4(aq) to the H2C2O4(aq)
until a faint lavender color was observed in the flask, an indication that
the end point of the titration had been reached.
The initial and final volume readings of the solution in the buret are
shown opposite.
Write down the initial reading and the final reading and use them to
determine the volume of KMnO4(aq) that was added during the titration.
The response shows a calculation similar to the following, consistent with
values measured from the bottom of the meniscus on the magnified glassware
illustration.
29.55 mL - 3.35 mL = 26.20 mL

c) Given that the concentration of KMnO4(aq) was 0.0235 M, calculate

the number of moles of MnO4- ions that completely reacted with the
H2C2O4.
The response shows a calculation similar to the following and is
consistent with the answer in part b) and maintains 3 significant figures
from the molarity:
(0.02620 L)(0.0235 mol L-1) = 0.000616 mol
d) The student proposes to perform another titration using a 0.139g sample of
H2C2O4, but this time using 0.00143 M KMnO4(aq)in the buret. Would this
titrant concentration be a reasonable choice to use if the student followed the
same procedure and used the same equipment as before? Justify your
response.
The response indicates “No”.
The response indicates that the titrant solution is so diluted that the volume of titrant
needed to reach the end point would be much greater than the capacity of the buret.

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Unit 4 - Chemical Reactions

4.1 Introduction for Reactions

ISPS Chemistry Mar 2022 page 2 Chemical Reactions

BY: Credit must be given to me, the creator.

ISPS Chemistry Mar 2022 page 3 Chemical Reactions

4.1 Introduction for Reactions

Heating of an iron bar: Rusting of an iron bar:

metallic bonds covalent bonds ionic bonds

However, we could argue that metallic bonds

In changes of state, we consider any bonds

Similarly, when water melts or boils,

What about dissolving?

What about precipitation?

If we mix KI(aq) with Pb(NO3)2(aq) and precipitate out

ISPS Chemistry Mar 2022 page 8 Chemical Reactions

B A chemical change takes place because intermolecular attractions are overcome.

C A physical change takes place because covalent bonds are broken.

2. 2 H2O2(l) → 2 H2O(l) + O2(g)

A physical change because a new phase appears in the products.

C chemical change because entropy increases as the process proceeds.

ISPS Chemistry Mar 2022 page 9 Chemical Reactions

A The resulting solution is colorless.

D The resulting solution conducts electricity.

D The resulting solution will be clear.

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4.2 Net Ionic Equations

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When dealing with ionic solutions, however, it is often

This is called a Complete Ionic Equation and makes it

A Cl−(aq) + K+(aq) → KCl(aq)

5. . . . C10H12O4S(s) + . . . O2(g) → . . . CO2(g) + . . . SO2(g) + . . . H2O(g)

6. . . . Ca3(PO4)2(s) + . . . H3PO4(l) → . . . Ca(H2PO4)2(s)

7. . . . C3H8(g) + . . . O2(g) → . . . H2O(g) + . . . CO2(g)

8. . . . LiHCO3(aq) + . . . H2SO4(aq) → . . . Li2SO4(aq) + . . . H2O(l) + . . . CO2(g)

ISPS Chemistry Mar 2022 page 15 Chemical Reactions

4.3 Representations of Reactions

Particulate representations of chemical equations will normally have:

CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O

C2H4O + H2O → C2H6O2

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In this case, Fe and S react

Conservation of matter would allow

Which drawing represents a mixture?

a) and d) are mixtures

Which drawing represents a product

only d) is 'balanced with a)

2. Which of the following particle diagrams best

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[The diagram should show the

ISPS Chemistry Mar 2022 page 20 Chemical Reactions

As a result, the student hypothesizes that salts

1 point is earned for writing a correct balanced equation.

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4.4 Physical and Chemical Changes

This was all covered in Lesson 4.1.

Reread the notes and then try the following questions.

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ISPS Chemistry Mar 2022 page 25 Chemical Reactions

Mstock x Lstock = Mnew x Lnew

Stoichiometry - using Balanced Equations

6. A 20.0–milliliter sample of 0.200–molar K2CO3 solution is added to 30.0 milliliters of