M1108-Eng CH 2

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises
Department of mathematics - Lebanese University
2020

Plan de cours
Chapter I : Matrices
Chapter II : Determinants
Chapter III : Linear Systems
Chapter IV : Vector Spaces
Chapter V : Linear Transformations
Chapter VI : Linear Transformations and Matrices
Chapter VII : Eigenvalues, Eigenvectors, Diagonalization

Definition
Properties of determinant
Computation of the inverse of a matrix
Determinants
A Definitions
B Properties of determinant
C Computation of the inverse of a matrix

Definition
Throughout this chapter, all the matrices considered are square matrices
and by K we mean R or C.. For any square matrix A ∈ Mn (K), we will
associate a real or complex scalar, called the determinant of the matrix
and denoted by det(A) or |A|.

Definition
1 Definition
2 Properties of determinant
3 Computation of the inverse of a matrix

Definition
Definition

Consider the matrix A = aij ∈ Mn (K). We will define the
determinant of A by induction on its order n.

1 If n = 1, then A = a11 . Set det(A) = a11 .
a
11 a12

2 If n = 2, then A = . Set det(A) = a11 a22 − a12 a21 .
a21 a22
We will introduce a general method to compute the determinant of a

square matrix of order n ≥ 3.

Definition
Definition
1 We define the minor of the term aij of the matrix to be the
determinant ∆ij of the matrix Mij obtained from A by deleting its i th
row and j th column.
2 We call cofactor of the term aij the scalar denoted by
cof (aij ) = (−1)i+j ∆ij = (−1)i+j det(Mij ).

Definition
Remark
1 Every matrix Mij is a square matrix of order n − 1.
2 The coefficient (−1)i+j is equal to
(
1 if i + j is even,
(−1)i+j =
−1 if i + j is odd.

Definition
(3) In other words, the signs of (−1)i+j are represented by the following
matrix
i+j
Matrix
 of the signs of
 (−1) =
+ − + ···
 − + − ··· 
 
 + − + ··· 
 .. .. .. ..
 

 . . . . 
.. .. .. ..
 
. . . .

Definition
Example
Let  
1 4 7
A= 2 5 0 ,
3 6 9
then

1 4
cof (a23 ) = cof (0) = (−1)5 det = −(6 − 12) = 6.
3 6

Definition
Definition
We now give the formula of the
expansion of the determinant along the i th row : det(A) =
 
a11 a22 · · · a1n
 · · ··· ·  n n
  X i+j
X
det  ·
 · ··· · =
 (−1) ∆ij aij = aij cof (aij ).
 · · ··· ·  j=1 j=1
an1 an2 · · · ann

Definition
Example
we calculate the determinant of matrix along the 3rd row.

 
1 4 −1
 2 0 3 
 3 −1 0  = 3cof (3) + (−1)cof (−1) + 0
det  
4 −1 1 −1
= 3 +
0 3 2 3
= 3(12) + (3 + 2) = 41

Definition
Definition
We now give the formula of the
expansion of the determinant along the j th column :
 
a11 a22 · · · a1n
 · · ··· ·  X n
(−1)i+j ∆ij aij =
 
det(A) = det   · · · · · · =

 · · ··· ·  i=1
an1 an2 · · · ann
Xn
aij cof (aij ).
i=1

Definition
Example
Along the 2nd column we have :

 
1 4 −1
det  2 0 3  = 4cof (4) + 0 + (−1)cof (−1)
3 −1 0
2 3 1 −1
= −4 +
3 0 2 3
= −4(−9) + (3 + 2) = 41

Definition
Remark
The value of the determinant is independent of the choice of the row
or the column.
We can compute the determinant by expanding along any row or
any column.
In the computation of the same determinant, we can expand along a
row and then along a column (or vice versa).

Definition
1 Definition

Definition
Proposition
1 det(In ) = 1.
2 det(A · B) = det(A) · det(B) = det(B) · det(A) = det(B · A).
3 If A is an invertible matrix, then det(A) 6= 0 and
1
det(A−1 ) = .
det(A)
4 det(tA ) = det(A).
5 Let A be an upper or a lower triangular matrix :
 
a11 a12 a13 · · · · · · a1n
 0
 a22 a23 · · · · · · a2n 

A=  0 0 a33 · · · · · · a3n 

 · · · ··· ··· · 
0 0 0 · · · · · · ann

Definition
Or  
a11 0 0 ··· ··· 0

 a21 a22 0 ··· ··· 0 

A=
 a31 a32 a33 ··· ··· 0 ,

 · · · ··· ··· · 
an1 an2 an3 ··· ··· ann
n
Y
then det(A) = a11 a22 · · · ann = aii .
i=1
6 Let A be a diagonal matrix :
 
a11 0 0 ··· ··· 0
 0
 a22 0 ··· ··· 0 

A=  0 0 a33 ··· ··· 0 

 · · · ··· ··· · 
0 0 0 ··· ··· ann
n
Y
then det(A) = a11 a22 · · · ann = aii .
i=1
Definition
7 Elementary properties :
1 If a matrix B is obtained from a matrix A by multiplying a row or a
column of A by a nonzero scalar α, then det(B) = α det(A).
We deduce that det(αA) = αn det(A).
2 If a matrix B is obtained from a matrix A by interchanging two rows
or two columns of A then det(B) = − det(A).
3 If a matrix B is obtained from a matrix A by replacing a row or a
column of A by its sum with a multiple of another row or another
column, then det(B) = det(A).
8 The determinant of A is zero if :
1 A has a zero row or a zero column.
2 A has two rows or two columns that are identical or multiple of each
others.

Definition
Example
Find the determinant of the matrix

 
x a a a
 a x a a 
A=  a
.
a x a 
a a a x

Definition
We have
x a a a
a x a a
det(A) = R1 → R1 + R2 + R 3 + R4
a a x a
a a a x
x + 3a x + 3a x + 3a x + 3a
a x a a
= Ci → Ci − C1 , i = 2, 3, 4
a a x a
a a a x
x + 3a 0 0 0
a x −a 0 0
=
a 0 x −a 0
a 0 0 x −a
| {z }
determinant of a triangular matrix
3
= (x + 3a)(x − a) .

Definition
1 Definition

Definition
Theorem
A ∈ Mn (K) is invertible ⇐⇒ det(A) 6= 0 ⇐⇒ rk(A) = n.

Definition
Definition

Let A = aij ∈ Mn (K). The adjoint of A, denoted by adj (A), is the
matrix defined to be the transpose of the matrix of the cofactors of A. In
other words,
 
cof (a11 ) cof (a21 ) · · · · · · cof (an1 )
 cof (a12 ) cof (a22 ) · · · · · · cof (an2 ) 
 
adj (A) =  · ··· · ··· · 

 · ··· · ··· · 
cof (a1n ) cof (a2n ) · · · · · · cof (ann )
with cof (aij ) = (−1)i+j ∆ij = (−1)i+j det(Mij ).

Definition
Example
Consider the matrix

+ − +
 
z}|{ z}|{ z}|{
 1
 − 2 −1  ?
 + − 
 z}|{ z}|{ z}|{ 
 3
A= 0 5   ?
 + − + 
 z}|{ z}|{ z}|{ 
 2 −1 7  ?
Then
 
cof (a11 ) cof (a12 ) cof (a13 )
cof (A) =  cof (a21 ) cof (a22 ) cof (a23 ) 
cof (a31 ) cof (a32 ) cof (a33 )

Definition
With
1+1 0 5 2+1 2 −1
cof (a11 ) = (−1) cof (a21 ) = (−1)
−1 7 −1 7
=5 = −13
1+2 3 5 2+2 1 −1
cof (a12 ) = (−1) cof (a22 ) = (−1)
2 7 2 7
= −11 =9
1+3 3 0 2+3 1 2
cof (a13 ) = (−1) cof (a23 ) = (−1)
2 −1 2 −1
= −3 =5
3+1 2 −1
cof (a31 ) = (−1)
0 5
= 10  
3+2 1 −1 5 −11 −3
cof (a32 ) = (−1)
3 5 cof (A) =  −13 9 5 
= −8 10 −8 −6
3+3 1 2
cof (a33 ) = (−1)
3 0
= −6
Definition
Then
? ? ?
 
z}|{ z}|{ z}|{

 5 −13 10 

adj(A) = 
 −11 9 −8 .

 −3 5 −6 

Definition
Theorem
Let A ∈ Mn (K). Then :
 
det(A) 0
(1) A(adj(A)) = (adj(A))A = det(A)In = 
 .. .

.
0 det(A)
1
(2) If A is invertible then A−1 = adj(A)
det(A)

Definition
Example
Use the adjoint matrix to find the inverse of the matrix
 
1 2 −1
A= 3 0 5 
2 −1 7
and  
5 −13 10
adj(A) =  −11 9 −8  ,
−3 5 −6
then
det(A) = a11 cof (a1 1) + a12 cof (a1 2) + a13 cof (a1 3)
and
det(A) = 1 × 5 + 2 × (−11) + (−1) × (−3) = −14.
Thus  
5 −13 10
1 
A−1 =− −11 9 −8  .
14
−3 5 −6
Definition
Example
Consider
a b
A=
c d
with A invertible. Find A−1 using the adjoint of A. We have :

d −c
cof (A) =
−b a
thus
d −b
adj(A) =
−c a
and

−1 1 d −b
A = , ad − bc 6= 0 as A is invertible
ad − bc −c a

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M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

Department of mathematics - Lebanese University

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

Chapter III : Linear Systems

Chapter IV : Vector Spaces

Chapter V : Linear Transformations

Chapter VI : Linear Transformations and Matrices

Chapter VII : Eigenvalues, Eigenvectors, Diagonalization

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

C Computation of the inverse of a matrix

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

3 Computation of the inverse of a matrix

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

We will introduce a general method to compute the determinant of a

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

cof (aij ) = (−1)i+j ∆ij = (−1)i+j det(Mij ).

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

we calculate the determinant of matrix along the 3rd row.

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

Along the 2nd column we have :

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

3 Computation of the inverse of a matrix

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

Find the determinant of the matrix

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

3 Computation of the inverse of a matrix

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

with cof (aij ) = (−1)i+j ∆ij = (−1)i+j det(Mij ).

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

Consider the matrix

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

M1108 - Lecture notes and Exercises

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