GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS Involve simple methods of study made on the suface withthe aim of ascertaining subsurface detais ‘Measures physical properties and interpreting in terms of subsurtace geology Passive methods Which detect variations within the natura elds associated with the earth tke the ‘gravitational and magnetic fel, such as gravit, magnetic, some electric and some, electromagnetic methods, radioactive and geothermal methods ‘Active methods These aticlaly generated signals transmitted ino the ground and then modify the received signais in ways that are characteristic of the materials trough which they ttavel. Examples of these methods are seismic and some elecical methods. Generally, natural fled methods {passive methods) can provide information on ‘earth properties to greater depths and are simpler to carry out than arficlal source ‘methods (active methods). Moreover, the artficil source methods are capable of producing a more detailed and better resolved picture of the subsurface geology. APPLICATIONS OF GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS ‘May be applied in solving problems of regional geology locating and estimating economicaly important mineral deposits Locating and assessing groundwater potential and quailty Problem solving in connection with geology CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS (GRAVITY METHOD + Represent a set of geophysical methods which make use of natural gravity of feld of ‘earth + Gravity prospecting involves the measurement of variations in the gravitational feld of {he earth (Le. minute variations in the pul of gravity from rock within 1 fist few miles of the earth's surface) PHYSICAL PROPERTY: Density ~ controling physical property Different types of rock have different densities and the denser rocks have the: greater gravitational attraction. I the higher-density formations ore arched upward ina structural high, such as on ontcine, tne earth's gravitational eld wil be greater over tne axis of the stucture than along its ranks. PRINCIPLE: Nature of distribution of gravity on the surface is analyzed useful wherever the formations of interest have densities which are appreciably different from those of surrounding formations Instruments: Use: gravimeter: - used in relative gravity measurement is mass loaded spring ‘gravity instruments are designed to measure variations in the force of gravity from one place to another than the absolute force itself It & mainly used for oll exploration. Sometimes in mineral and ground water prospecting effective means of mapping sedimentary basins where the basement rocks have a higher density than the sediments uitable for locating and mapping salt bodies because of the low density of salt ‘compared with that of surrounding formations sed for direct detection of heavy minerals such as chromiteMAGNETIC METHOD * Take advantage of natural magnetic field associated with the earth and its relation to subsurface geology = deals with variations in the magnetic field of the earth which are related to changes of structures or magnetic susceptibility in certain near surface rocks CONTROLLING PROPERTY: = Magnetic susceptibility PRINCIPLE: ‘+ Based on magnetic bodies present in earth's surface that contribute to the magnetic field of the earth + Bodies possessing different magnetic moments to surrounding rocks contribute to deviations in measurements ~ magnetic anomalies ‘+ Different parameters measured during magnetic investigations are total magnetic fleld {intensity and direction) and different space components ‘= Magnetic surveys have inherit imitations; thus unique and accurate solutions, magnetic Prospecting is offen carried out along with gravity or other methods = Magnetic surveys are designed to map structure on or inside the basement rocks or to detect magnetic mineral directly. APPLICATION OF MAGNETIC INVESTIGATIONS * For delineation of large structural forms favorable for the accumulation of oil and gases + Fordetection of and location of faults + Forlocating strongly magnetic on ores * By virtue of their inexpensive nature and easy operation, magnetic method are widely used for detection of ore deposits, geological structures = Inmining exploration, magnetic methods are employed for direct location of ores Containing magnetic minerals such as magnetite ELECTRICAL METHOD. = Numerous and more versatile and are more popular "More successful in dealing with variety of problems like groundwater studies, subsurface structure and many others CONTROLLING PROPERTIES: = Bectric conductivity ‘* Magmatic permeability Dielectric constant of subsurface bodiesPRINCIPLE: + Difference in electrical properties such as subsurface formation, structures, ore deposits, etc are investigated suitably and exploited to draw necessary ‘conclusions CATEGORIES: + Electrical resistivity method PRINCIPLE: ‘+ Studies electrical resistivity (or conductivity) of subsurface formation; note that the electrical resistivity varies for innomogenous surface = currents driven through the ground using a pair of electrodes and the resulting distribution of the potential in the ground is mapped by using another pair of electrodes connected to a sensitive voltmeter ‘+ Aresistive subsurface body, current ines move away fromit and for conductive subsurface body, current lines move towards it Types: + Profiling + Used to detect lateral changes in resisivy by throwing light on the change in subsurface lithology + Sounding = Used fo determine vertical changes in resistivily to reveal changes in lithology at a particular place with increasing depth USE: zed fo map boundaries betwoon layors having different conductivitios ‘employed in engineering geophysics to map bedrock Used in groundwater studies to determine salinity. - The induced polarization (IP) ‘makes use ionic exchanges on the surfaces of metallic grains (disseminated sulphides) Other categories: + Bectromagnetic method * detect anomalies in the inductive properties of the earth's subsurface rocks alternating voltage is introduced into the earth by induction from transmitting Cols and the ampittude and phase shift of the induced potential generated in the subsurface are measured by detecting coils and recorded + used to detect metalic ore bodies + Selt- potential method + used fo detect the presence of certain minerals which react with electrolytes in the earth to generate electrochemical potentials ‘+ Induce polarization methodSEISMIC METHOD CONTROLLING PROPERTIES: Elastic property differences PRINCIPLE: + Based on the principle that subsurface rock formations bear different elastic properties + Due to the differences, velocities of seismic wave propagation through the subsurface layers of earth, suffer reflection or critical reflection ave at the surface of ‘earth where they are detected by geophones + the depth of various elastic boundaries can be determined from the time taken by the waves to travel through the subsurface formation and from the seismic wave velocities of the media + geophones are fixed at suitable intervals on the ground, and the seismic wavesreach the surface and are recorded, time-distance curves are constructed based on the times of their arrival + direct waves are the fist fo reach the geophones, the distance beyond the point is called the critical distance 2 TYPES of SEISMIC METHODS: 12. Selsmic Reflection Method ‘SEISMIC REFLECTION: + The seismic signal is reflected back to the surface at layer interfaces and is recorded at distances less than depth of investigation. + used to map the structure of subsurface formations by measuring the times required. for a seismic wave, generated in the earth by a near surface exploration of ‘dynamite, mechanical impact or vibration, to retum to the surface after reflection {rom interface between formations having different physical properties + Variations in the reflection times from place to place on the surface indicate structural features in the strata below. + Depths to reflecting can be determined from the times using seismic velocity information. + Reflections from depths as great as 20,000 feet can be observed from a single ‘explosion, so that in most areas, geologic structures can be determined throughout the sedimentary section + USED TO locate and map features such as antictines, fauits, salt domes and reefs. ‘Many of these are associated with the accumulation of oll and gasb. Seismic Refraction Method + Effective for depths more than 100m but are not suitable for shallow exploration + Are employed for investigating depths from close surface to several Klometer deep + Shallow Seismic Refraction are found effective in investigation the suitability of foundation sites for civil engineering structures SEISMIC REFRACTION: + The signal returns to the surface by refraction at subsurface interfaces and is recorded at distances much greater than depth of investigation. = RADIOMETRIC METHOD ‘CONTROLLING PROPERTY: Natural radioactivity of rocks and ores PRINCIPLE Notmal radioactivity varies in lfferent types of rocks: i.e. lgneous Rocks: decreases with decreasing acidity. rocks that contain radioactive ore bodies will exhibit very high radioactivity giving rise to anomaties during surveys profile form this method clearly describes the subsurface lithology, structure and ore body INSTRUMENTS USED: (i) Detector (i) Amplifier or recording unit (i) Power supply APPLICATION: Exploration of radioactive substances such as uranium and thorium Location of rare minerals Geological mapping Exploration of oll and gas Ground water studies+ GEOTHERMAL METHOD ‘CONTROLLING PROPERTY: Thermal conductivity PRINCIPLE ‘= Temperature distribution on the surface of earth is due to three different sources: {i) Heat received from the sun {i) Heat conveyed from the hot interior of earth due to conduction and convection (i) Heat due to decay of radioactive minerals in the earth crust * Correction are applied to eliminate solar heat component and heat contribution of radioactive mineral decoy + Once corrections are made, the residual values of temperature distribution on the earth's surface can be interpreted in terms of subsurface structures, rock formation ‘and ore bodies MATERIALS/ INSTRUMENT: Thermistors thermometers are used for measuring the temperature on the earth surface, shallow holes or in deep bore holes Crystal detectors and radiometers are also used APPLICATION: Deep structural studies Ore deposits Ground water studies Delineation of salt-water freshwater interfaces ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL SITE INVESTIGATION SITE INVESTIGATION AND GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION * Process of collecting necessary information for safe and economic design, construction and maintenance of civil engineering structures, environmental management or extraction/development of resources SITE INVESTIGATION AND GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION = SITEINVESTIGATION Information on hydrology + Meteorology = Environment + Natural resources * Activities and topography‘= GROUND INVESTIGATION ‘= Information Ground and groundwater Conditions ‘| MONITORING. Time dependent change in ground movements, ground water fluctuation and movement PURPOSE: Understand SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS in terms of: + Soil and rock profile ‘+ Geological features ‘+ Position and variation of ground water table ‘+ Physical properties of soll and rock ‘+ Identity present contamination ii any) = Gather general data of adjacent structures, hydrological data, topography, Soll maps, seismicity THREE MAJOR PARTS OF SITE INVESTIGATIONS 1. PLANNING * Obtain reliable data with minimum cost of explorations * Decide on quantity and quality depending on type, size and importance of project and whether investigation is preliminary or detained 2. EXECUTION + Collection of disturbed and/or undbtubed samples of subsurface strata from flekd + Conducting in-situ tests of subsurface material and directly or indirectly obtaining properties + Study of ground water conditions and collection of samples for chemical analysis * Geophysical exploration * Laboratory testing of samples 3. REPORT WRITING. = Description of site conditions: = Topographic features, hydraulic conditions, existing structures [supplemented by plans/drawings) Description of nature, type and importance of proposed construction Description of field and lab tests carried out ‘Analysis and discussion of data collected information Preparation of charts, tables, and graphs Calculations and recommendationsGENERAL OBJECTIVES of SITE INVESTIGATIONS: ° + ° es * ‘Assess suitabilly of site for proposed structure Evaluate impact of construction on existing site conditions on proposed project Anticipate what can be expected in the future (during construction and performance of structure) Develop criteria for design and construction based specific site physical parameters Recommend corrective measures {if necessary) ‘SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES of SITE INVESTIGATIONS: * * ° ° * Determine depth and nature of sol/rock at ste and stratification ‘Observe drainage conditions from and into the site and G water effects ‘Assess special construction problems with respect fo existing structures nearby Identify potential geological hazards: landsides, earthquakes, flooding, volcanoes, etc Perform some in-situ tests: permeability, bearing capacity, shear strength, compressibiity/ settlement behavior Obtain disturbed and undisturbed soll and rock samples for visual identification and ‘appropriate lab tests ‘Assess quantity and quality and proximity of construction materials for proposed project ‘ON-SITE and REMOTE INVESTIGATIONS must include: Poe eeoeeee Nature of immediately underlying soll and rock Geology and geological structures of project and adjacent areas Topography and vegetation Ground water situations Gullving and natural siopes Depth to bedrock Types of materials excavated and Stability of excavation Presence/ absence of toxic wastes Position of utiiies and Permission 10 access property Influence factors of site selection /rejection Dill site to assess parameters {it necessary)ELEMENTS/ PHASES OF INVESTIGATION 1. Formulating investigation/stating question ‘* Once questions are framed the following aspects are defined: ‘Q) Detail or amount of required information b) Scope of investigation ) Size of area 4) Time available (required time) 4 Some cases may be time limited by other factors, Time is a function of need of engineer, season, and location 2. Data collection (secondary or primary) OFFICE STUDY ‘ Gathering all existing information: > Geology, geomorphology, hydrogeology, population, accessiilly, aerial Photography Reduces time of field work if conducted properly Secondary data collection is completed Upon completion of secondary data: > Available source selected » Information extracted and data is organized in usable form » Compared with required data and enable to give a guide to select ‘appropriate methods for acquiting it eee SURFACE EXPLORATION Locating springs, seeps ‘Mapping landsides Measuring structural parameters of rock outcrops Data transfer to map (end product of investigation or used for spatial distribution of other information SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION * Direct examination by = Test pits, renches, driling + Indirect examination by + Geophysical methods + Data compiled in form of "Geologic profiles, graphic logs, 3D representationsData interpretation Interpretation starts with analysis of data in light of question Analysis results serve as basis for developing conclusions and recommendations Actual investigation data analysis occurs throughout data collection To avoid extraneous data oF failure to collect data not initially recognized relevant % Touninterpret: Understand role of measurement scales ‘ Make data manageable for analysis ‘ Apply analytical techniques sooo ‘communication final step in an investigation ‘answers developed by the investigation should be transferred to the user for action ©. the user: individual, company manager, government board, court, etc no single way of communication is appropriate in all cases presentation the public, oral communication, waitten in a defined format Conclusions must be supported by data and analysis confidence in the conclusion means the user must be able fo see how the data supports the conclusions assist reader or listener in understanding the findings by stating logical consequences of conciusion (especially for less technical background) 4 use pictures, diagrams, and other nonverbal means of communication oom eee ‘STAGES OS SITE INVESTIGATION Initial or Preliminary/ Reconnaissance study Involves collection of source information Collection of data from man’s activities such as wells, quarries, mines ete Walk over site (eldwork) Detailed study{site Exploration) (surface and subsurface exploration) 2Main goals: Determine and interpret surtace and subsurface conditions that influence design and construction project Evaluate behaviour, characteristics and engineering significance of earth materials 'present or those intended for use in construction 2 types of exploration 9) Surface ‘+ Surface information (sol and rock) understand geological process which formed the soll and rocks (natural outcrops, river cuts, etc)b) Subsurface ' Know thickness of overburden/soil in the absence of exposures permitting identification of underlying bedrock Know uncertainty of the relation of springs and seeps to the regional groundwater table '& Identify nature of discontinuities in orientation in the subsurface METHODS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION DIRECT METHODS 1. Diiling/Boreholes/Probes ‘4 Estabish correlation between lthologic units of vertical succession 4 Evaluate the physical conditions of rocks such as rock quality designation + Collect samples of various rock units for laboratory tests 4 Cary out water pressure fests TYPES OF BORING a. AUGER BORINGS ‘+ Simplest method of exploration and sampling Power driven or hand operated & Maximum depth is 1om ‘& Suitabie in all sols above groundwater table but only in cohesive soll below ‘groundwater table ‘+ Holow stem augers used for sampling or conducting Standard Penetration Test {4.1 SOLID (CONTINUOUS) FLIGHT AUGERS: + Continuous augers added in 1.5m having a diameter varying from 1020 204mm + Limited to non caving sols and depths less than 10m with finger or fsh tail bit at the front end to loosen soil ‘* Due fo limited application, continuous fight augers are generally not suitable for use in investigations requiring soll sampling ‘0.2 HOLLOW STEM AUGURS (HAS) ‘= Are very similar to the continuous fight auger exceptit has a large holow center ‘+ Added in 1.5m increment + Allow soil sampling without removal + Acts as temporary casing to stabilze borehole ‘* Generally imited to depts less than 30m + Limitations: © Cutting produces are mixed os they move up the auger fights and. ‘ae limited for visual observation purposesen 1@.3 BUCKET AUGERS BORINGS * Used for obtaining large disturbed samples = Diameters range from 0.60m to 1.2m + Increment of 0.3m to 0.6m depths + Good for gravelly soils and cobbles = Swivel mounted bottom valve prevents oss of material = Working below GW level possible = Construction of rooted piles with belled bucket augers = Typically advanced by truck-mounted drill "Boring is advanced by a rotation driling buked with cutting teeth mounded to the bottom * Diiling bucket is attached to the bottom of Kelly bat, which typically consists of two- or foursquare steel tubes assembled as one inside ‘another enabling the Kelly bar to telescope to the bottom of the hole b. Rotary Drilling % Used in clay, sana and rocks + Not used for materials containing large percentage of gravel size and larger ¢. Percussion Drilling 4 Used for making holes in rocks, boulders and other hard strata 4 Advantage: used for all types of materials including driling holes in glacial ‘ils 4 Disadvantage: material at the bottom of the hole is disturbed by heavy blows 4 quite expensive than others . Core Drilling Used for driling holes and obtaining rock cores Diiling bits | rotary driling: drag bits for clays and loose sands 4 Ticon roller bits for dense coarse-grained granular soils, cemented zones ‘and soft or weathered rock ‘Manual Hand Auger Method Hand operated Power Augers Drifting 4 Exploratory drifts made horizontally into the ground to know the subsurface geological conditions and to know the depth of fresh sound rock ‘4 Commonly used for dam abutment investigations5. Test Pits/ Trenches + Shallow visual investigations and take sample from top few meters of soll 4 Economical and rapid 4 Excavation with hand tolls, backhoe etc 4 1 103m deep can be extended to 6m cc. INDIRECT METHODS, ‘4 Geophysical Techniques 3. Implementation 4, Post construction Stage CLASSIFICATIONS OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS GRAVITY METHODS GRAVITY METHODS GRAVITY METH FR sta in Ore deposit explorations Solving regional geological problems *+ Oil.and natural gas deposits exploration Solving some engineering problems Engineering: ‘Mapping of dam sites, earthquake problems, tracing buried river channel‘Magnetic Methods Magnetic “anomaly” caused by fault = Magnetic anomaly as eT NetowaeyELECTRICAL METHODSEISMIC METHOD| SEISMIC METHODS es ae y " «| E100} Fis) ~~ . » ” 30 Doce) Deen IM Tine 90m Tine= 758 »| | } 2 oi I oo | iis) fis i = 2 | =e. ee Dasa (nd Dee) SEISMIC METHODS SEISMIC METHODS [Relationship Between Curveand Parameters. | Seismic RefractionRADIOMETRIC METHODS Igneous rock ayers What do we investigate? ANOMALIES IN EARTH ae SUBSURFACE ls