STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY + deals with the geometric relationships of rocks and geologic features in general 1 studies the 30 geometry from micro to macro scale of rocks to explain the deformation processes the rocks experienced since their origination '% it introduces the physical side of Geological Sciences and emphasizes: ‘+ Geometry - shape, orientation, position, size, etc.) + Motion - beginning and ending positions and paths of parficles and bodies— deformation or change in geometry) + Mechanics - explanations of why the geometry and motion are as they are) ROCK MECHANICS theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behaviour of rock branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock to the force fields of its physical environment + BRANCHES: ‘Q) Structural rock mechanics + concerned with the stability of engineering structures in which the material is predominantly rock. b) Comminution ‘+ which s concemed with the reduction of rock to small fragments by the application ‘of external forces as in diiling, blasting, cutting and grinding Scale Terms + Global: © Ascole covering almost the entire world + Regional or Provincial: © Roughly definable; generally corresponds to @ physiographic province. Taurus Mountains, Himalayan Plato. Macroscopic or Map Scale: © Larger than an area one can see from a particular point on the ground. ‘Mesoscopic: © Anarea visible from a particular point on the ground (outcrop to hand sample) Microscopic: © Visible with the help of an optical microscope. ‘Submicroscopic: ©. Visible the with help of an advanced microscopic device like TEM (Transmission electron microscopy) or SEM (scanning electron microscope) Penetrative: © Choractetizes the entire body of the rock + Non-penetrative: © Does not characterize the entire body of the rock (ex. a part of the body) e+ =a 8 8 +‘STRUCTURE Primary structures: ‘+ structures that develop during the formation of the rock ‘represent the local conditions of the environment within which the rock forms (Davis & Reynolds, 1996) Ex. Bedding, ripple mark or cross bedding in sedimentary rocks Secondary structures: structures that develop in sedimentary or igneous rocks after lthfication, and in metamorphic rocks during or after their formation Fundamental secondary structures are joints and shear fractures; faults, folds, cleavage, foliations, ineations, shear zones (Davis & Reynolds, 1996). ne Important Terms in Measurement Trend: The direction of a horizontal line specified by its bearing or azimuth. Bearing: The horizontal angle measured east or west from the true north or south. ‘Azimuth: The horizontal angle measured clockwise from the true north. Strike: the trend of a horizontal line on an inclined plane. itis marked by the line of the intersection with a horizontal plane. (Davis & Reynolds, 1996). + Inclination: The vertical angle, measured downward from the horizontal toa sloping plane or line. Fracture + alocal separation or discontinuity plane in a geologic formation, such as joints or faults + very narrow zones, offen thought of as surfaces, associated with discontinuities in displacement and mechanical properties (strength or stiffness) + commonly referred to as cracks in material science and rock mechanics-oriented literature shear fracture or slip surface: a fracture along which the relative movement is parallel to the fracture + fault: more commonly restricted to discontinuities with larger offset '& Distinct fracture surfaces along which rocks have been offset by movement parallel to the fracture surface. ‘% slip surface: used for fractures with fracture-parallel movements regardless of the ‘amount of displacement and is consistent with the traditional use of the term faultExtension fractures 4 are fractures that show extension perpendicular to the walls, are typical for deformation under low or no confining pressure, and form at low differential stress 4 the most common type of extension fracture at or near the surface of the Earth and involve very small strains '& Tensile Fractures are extension fractures that form under conditions where at least one of the stress axes is tensile 4 Joints hove litle or no macroscopically detectable displacement, but close ‘examination reveals that most joints have a minute extensional displacement across the joint surfaces ‘+ separation in rock where the amount of separation is not greater than the displacement associated with the opening of the fracture. + Fissures: When filed with cir or fluid; more open than joints, and are characteristic of the uppermost few hundred meters of the solid crust + Veins: Minerab-filed extension fractures + Dikes: magmo-filed fractures sre pet Hotes n paving fot ne Apache Ihesiy gues oom fe. Note goune Junction, nal County, Atona. Polo Token set decent wth Senge misnn nov Avout 3917 Senor ontonae@0Faults + Distinct fracture surfaces along which rocks have been offset by movement parallel to the fracture surface. ‘Macroscopic scale ‘Mesocopic scale Thrust faulting of Jurassic sedimentary rock at Ketobe knob ‘long the San Rafael swell in central Utah (shortening occures; Davis & Reynolds 1996). The San Andreas Fault systemis aright lateral stike-sip fault Thin section of feldspar in the Salli granodiorite cut by microfaults; note bookshelf order of feldspar fragments, (Hetzel tol, 1995, JCS) Folds "4 Folds ore planar surfaces that are curved or bent due fo external forces. + 2types: + antictine is c type of fold that is an arch-tke shape and has its oldest beds at its core. 4 syncline is a fold with younger layers closer to the center of the structure‘Macroscopic scale “Anticines at SandymouthBay at Comwall UK {http://wwew.stacey.peck- media.co.uk/bude-wak) Landsatimage of large anticines in the ZagrosMountains (NASA). ‘Microscopic scale \Microfolds in a metamorphic rock: phyllite from the eastern Alps of Italy + is any penetrative planar fabric or layering in a rock. (Marshak & Mitra, 1988) Examples of planar fabric: Foliationin folded, metamorphic rocks . Devonian Gile Mountain Formation, Quechee Gorge Vermoont, US. (Vermont Geological Survey)Lineation '% 1s prefered linear alignment of elements in rocks. (Davis & Reynolds, 1996) This photograph ilustrates « pronounced and prominent stretching lineation plunging steeply to the north, as a rake upon the main shear foliation Block diagram of mineral ineation ‘Shear zone 4 Is a.general term for a relatively narrow zone with subparallel boundaries in which rocks ‘are more highly deformed than rocks adjacent to the zone. (Marshak & Mitra, 1988) ‘Simpitied model of the connection between faults, which normally form in the upper crust, ‘and classic ductile shear zones (Fossen, 2010, Cambridge Press).‘symbology in structural geology ‘Some common symbol whose usage is well established: Explanation Geologie contac, dashed on the coast where bedrock i cnt aed actons ponds and kes ——- Normal fault, inferred wher lin is dated Probable normal fault 2 pane she ofboaing 2 Overtumad bods $_ Verical bee, op ononth @D —Hovizoetal beds Z__ Dpand she of ition Oe Vericat tation Honzoetal lotion Strike-stip fault inferred where line is ote “Thrust fault, sch on upper pte, inferred where line x dashed Fault, divection of movement uncertai Probable fault 15 _, Dip sds of eeavage 1 Vertial cteavngn Es seca S_Dipandevite ct joins A Vertaljonts f Hetent EE t}mmem yeti - Anticline x Syncline ——\— Overturned Anticline Overturned SynclineWAVE THEORY ‘SEISMIC VELOCITY Elastic energy propagates through the earth in different ways and at different speeds. Each wave has a distinct particle motion, elastic deformation and speed of propagation. The speed of propagation depends upon the elastic properties and the density of the medium. ELASTIC PROPERTIES used fo define physical deformation experienced in response to an applied mechanical force energy from intial elastic deformations are transferred to adjacent materials Energy transfer continues as deformation propagates away from the source. Seismic waves are used to describe the speed, direction and location of elastic deformations as they Propagate through materials. ELASTIC DEFORMATION implies that material returns fo original volume and shape once the applied force is removed; therefore conserves energy. Change in volume and/or shape occurs when a mechanical force is applied. This is commonly described in terms of: a) stress bjStrain ‘STRESS is defined as the internal reaction of the body to the external force applied to a body over Its cross-sectional area. [MAIN TYPES OF STRESS © Normal stress- reaction perpendicular to the surface of object. © Compressive stress - reaction due to compressive force. ‘© Tensile stress — reaction due to tensile force 2 Shear siress reaction in the tangential surface ‘Compressive Stress Tensile Stress f ee 7 ee ; ~— CompressiveShear Stress gs zw 4 o Fig. 11 Shear stress FP FE STRAIN is the deformation of a material under the infivence of an applied stress. ‘+ ELASTIC STRAIN. For relatively small strains, body will recover its original shape and volume when stress is removed ‘+ PLASTIC STRAIN. For large strain, the body deforms continuously and may even fracture Unlike elastic strain, this type permanently alters the shape of the body. ‘MATERIAL ELASTIC PROPERTIES ‘Seismic waves cause the earth to undergo linear elastic deformation; an application of Hooke’s Law assumes a linear relationship between stress and strain: Oae LAME PARAMETERS ‘These are two material dependent quantities denoted byhand ui that arise instrain- stressrelationships. Shear modulus (11 or G) “*Blostic modulus (A) -{Young's modulus, Eor Bulk modulus, K) ‘SHEAR MODULUS The parameter defines resistance of object fo shear. © Sometimes referred to as the modulus of rigidity. © When a block of material is subjected to a shear stress, it experiences a shear strainELASTIC MODULUS, ‘Also referred fo as the modulus of incompressibilty, itis the resistance of a material to elastic compression. ‘* Buk modulus, K. The ratio of volumetric stress to the volumetric strain '* Young's modulus, ¥ or E. The ratio of linear (longitudinal) stress to the linear (longitudinal) strain op Fig. 13 Bulk modulus diagram. POISSON'S RATIO wot “The ratio of transverse strain to longitudinal strain due to a longitudinal stress.” ‘The decrease in length could be compensated for by ' decrease in pore space. — Fe. 15 Yossie and Related to all elastic moduli: Poisonsrate dara iro fom 3K =26 Susurfoce Wt eenged under CC ”” ceaaG me E=26(1+n) B= 3K(1—2n) ‘SEISMIC WAVE VELOCITIES They define the speed at which vatious elastic deformations propagate through materials. Rocks ‘and other materials can be characterized by their elastic properties, but seismic velocities represent ‘2 more practical set of physical properties for seismic methods. TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES 1. Body waves. Seismic waves that move through the interior of earth. 1. Pressure waves (P-waves) + Also known as Primary waves + are compressional waves in which particle motion is in the direction of the ‘wave propagation + travel faster than other seismic waves, hence they are the first signal from earthquake to ave at any affected location or at a seismograph ‘+ may be transmitted through gases, liquids, or solids.b. Shear waves (S-waves) + also known as Secondary waves or elastic S-wave. + are waves in which the particle motion is perpendicular to the direction 0 wave propagation S Wave 2. Surface waves. Waves that travel near the earth's surface. a. Rayleigh waves. They are elliptic particle motion; amplitude decreases with dept. + Prograde. Same direction as the propagating wave. '* Retrograde. Opposite direction as propagating wave. Rayleigh Wave b. Love waves. Particle motion is parallel to earth's surface and perpendicular to direction of wave propagation. Amplitude of lateral motion decreases with depth. Travel faster than Rayleigh waves but do not travel as fast as P or ‘Swaves.Love Wave P-S WAVES OF COMMON MATERIALS [Material | Pware | Swave | om Swave Ale 343, N/A ‘salt 4500-5500 2500-3100, water 1450-1500 N/A anhydrite 4000-5500 2200-3100 lee ‘2400-3800 1700-1900 Limestones_ 3500-6000 2000-3000 on 1200-1250 N/A Dolomites 3500-6500 1900-3600 Dry Sande 300.700 100-300 Granite 4500.6000 2500-3300 ‘Wet Sands 400-1200 100-500 Basalt 15000-6000 2400-2600, Saturated Gneiss 4400-5200 2700-3200 Shales/clay 1500-2009 400-609 aay 2200-2700 1000-1400 Porous and (chalk: 2300-2600 1100-1300 Saturated 1100 - 2500 200-800 paris 2000-2000 750-1500 Sendetone P-WAVE AND S-WAVE VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS. ULTRASONIC ELASTIC WAVE VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS Put Gener ‘oxcscope eI SorceTamisar — echeTanuer | To measure the P-wave ans $-wave velocities = fora given rock, a core samples is taken. The core sample is then held in place between two piezomettic transducers. i \ oem Plezometric transducers contain materials which contract and expand in response to ‘an applied voltage.'A. MINERALOGY AND STRUCTURE ‘+ Determines its bulk modulus, shear modulus and density ‘© Moduli detines P-wave and S-wave velocities ‘+ Igneous, metamorphic, carbonate and anhydfite rocks. © Have relatively large seismic velocities © Only deform under extreme compressional and shear stresses, therefore ‘characterized by larger bulk and shear modull + Soils and most sedimentary rocks: 2 Lower seismic velocities. ‘©. Sandstones and sois, clays have a tendency to present in load-bearing Positions. ©. Seismic velocities are heavily influenced by clay content. ©. Small abundancies of clays have shown to significantly reduce the seismic velocity by reducing shear modulus. B. POROSITY ‘* The most significant factor affecting seismic wave velocities. ‘+ Seismic waves travel faster in solids compared in fluids. ‘+ S-waves unable to propagate through fluids ‘* Higher porosity of substance will decrease both the P-wave and S-wave velocities. Seismic wave propagation becomes less efficient when forced through a fluid. ‘* The pore structure also plays an important role in reducing the efficiency of seismic wave propagation within rocks. C. PORE FLUID AND SATURATION © Pore fluid © Pore fluid determines the elastic properties of the pore space. © Pewave velocity of a rock is less impacted by porosity if the pore space is saturated due to P-wave velocity being larger in water and oil than in air. © Pore saturation © Pawave and S-wave velocilies increase as pore saturation increases. © Described in a rudimentary manner using Wylie's equation. D. UTHIFICATION ‘* Describes the geological process where unconsolidated sediments become consolidated through compaction and cementation. ‘+ Sediments and sols become compacted when subjected to tectonic ‘compression or under the weight of overlying geological units.‘+ Cementation: © Refers to chemical fluid processes in which pore space is replaced by a precipitate and mineral grains become fused to one another. ©. Incteases the incompressibilty and rigidity of the sedimentary rock. Increases bulk and shear moduli © Responsible for increasing the seismic velocities. ° GROUTING Injection of a sry oF a liquid solution into a soil or rock formation ‘One of ways in which ground water can be controlled during civil engineeringworks Relatively costly and so wastage must be controlled ‘Achieved by use of additives which improve the geling properties of the grout and limit its spread through the ground. GROUTING TECHNIQUES 1. PERMEATION GROUTING + Also known as cement grouting or pressure grouting + Fils cracks or voids in soll and rock and permeates coarse, ‘granular soils with flowable particulate grouts to create a ‘cemented mass. + Grout flows into soil voids freely with minimal effect. ‘COMMON USES: = Create barriers to groundwater flow + Underpin foundations ‘+ Provide excavation support ‘+ Stabilize and strengthen granular soils 8B. DISPLACEMENT ~ SOIL FRACTURE GROUTING. ‘+ Also known as compensation grouting. ‘+ Injection of a cement slurry grout, hydro-fracturing sol, creating lenses ‘+ The lenses compact surrounding soil and then lft the ‘overlying soll and structures. ‘+ Grout rapidly penetrates into a fractured zone created ‘when the grout pressure is greater than tensile strength of soll orrock. ‘COMMON USES: + Re-evel structures + Stabilize overlying structures during tunnelingC. DISPLACEMENT - COMPACTION GROUTING. «It involves the injection of a low slump, mortar grout to density loose, granular sols and stabilize subsurface voids or sinkholes. ‘* Grout remains more or less intact as a mass and exerts Pressure on soil, ‘COMMON USES: * Suitable for rubble ils, poorly placed fils, loosened or collapsible soils, soluble rocks and liquefiable soils + Often selected for treatment beneath existing structures because the columns do not require structural connection to the foundations. + Decrease or corect settlement + Increase bearing capacity + Stabilize sinkholes or reduce sinkhole potential 1D. JET OR REPLACEMENT - DISPLACEMENT GROUTING + Uses high velocity fluid jets to construct cemented soil of varying geometries in the ground. COMMON USES: {@. Underpin foundations such as quay walls and heavy structures. b. Provide excavation support. . Seal the bottom of planned excavations. (GROUT CHARACTERISTICS 1. GROUTABILITY Quality of a grout must be sufficiently fluid to enter the soil quickly The movement should not be too fast. Pumping pressure should not be large enough for particles of soll o be disturbed by which grouting pressure is limited to 20kN/m?. To obtain satisfactory performance grain size distribution should be known because. it shall show the relationship between the grout particle size and the void dimensions.2. STABILITY ‘+ Capacity of grout to remain in a fluid state and not segregate into separate ‘components. 3. PERMANENCE ‘+ Resistance the grout possesses against being displaced from the soil voids with time. 4. TOXICITY '* Capacity of grouts to contaminate the grout water. 5. SETTING TIME ‘+ Time required for the grout to set into cemented mass or gel. Early setting causes difficulty in the grout reaching Its destination. '* Late setting causes the grout being washed away if seepage is occurring through sol. ‘GROUT MATERIALS 1. Suspensions. Grout particles in suspension in a liquid medium, ‘Cement + Water, clay, etc 2. Emukion. Minute droplets of liquid in suspension. Asphatt or bitumen with water 3. Solutions. Liquid homogenous mixture of two of more materials ‘Chemical grouts TYPES OF GROUTING MATERIALS 1. Cement grouting. ‘Cement (or cementitious grout) is used for grouting materials with a_ high permeabilty. Neat cement and water or a mixture of sand (4 parts to cement (1 part) is the usual ‘composition. 2. Bentonite grouting. Produced trom clay which has thixtotropic properties — forms a highly water-resistant gel which, when mited with additives, can create o permanent barier to water flow. Itis ‘used where sol particles are too small for cement grouting, most commonly to combat seepage in alluvial sols beneath the foundations of dams or other water-bound structures.3. Chemical grouting. Used in sols of medium to coarse grading. Materials such as sodium siicate and calcium Cchlotide are mixed together in quid from and solidified into a gel. Ithas the advantages of allowing economical spacing of bore holes, greater penetration of the grout, and more flexbilty in terms of the time of grouting. [MAIN PROCESSES @. Twoshot" process. Pipes are driven into the ground. One chemical is injected followed by another meaning that the reaction, and soll sengthening, is rapid. b. Oneshot’ process. This involves chemical mixing prior to injection, with the hardening being delayed by the composition. This allows for wider borehole spacing. 4. Resin grouting. As opposed fo chemical grouts, resin grouts have a very low viscosity which are able to penetrate find sands. The type of resin used depends on the chemical content of the local water table and may result in diferent times for setting. ‘COMMON TYPES: ) Tannin-based grouts b) Phenol-formaldehyde cc) Resorcinolformaldehyde 5. Bituminous Grouting. Serve as a suitable grouting material that ca be injected into fine sands as an impermeable borer to water. Soil sength wil not be increased, but cut-off walls beneath dams and other water-bound structures can be formed effectively.