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History of the Modern Suspension Bridge

Suspension Bridge
History of the Modern
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History of the Modern Suspension Bridge

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History of the Modern

Suspension Bridge
Solving the Dilemma between
Economy and Stiffness

Tadaki Kawada
Translated by Harukazu Ohashi
Edited by Richard Scott

History of the Modern Suspension Bridge

 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Kawada, Tadaki, 1935-

[Kindai tsuribashi no rekishi. English]
History of the modern suspension bridge : solving the dilemma between economy and stiffness /
Tadaki Kawada ; translated by Harukazu Ohashi ; edited by Richard Scott.
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p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7844-1018-9
1. Suspension bridges—Design and construction—History. I. Scott, Richard, 1956
Feb. 10- II. Title.
TG400.K34213 2011
624.2’309—dc22
2009049073

Published by American Society of Civil Engineers

1801 Alexander Bell Drive
Reston, Virginia 20191
www.pubs.asce.org

Any statements expressed in these materials are those of the individual authors and do not necessar-
ily represent the views of ASCE, which takes no responsibility for any statement made herein. No
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Cover photographs courtesy of Jason Hsu /Wikimedia Commons (Akashi Kaikyo Bridge) and
Mary K. Baird /MorgueFile (Spider web).

Copyright © 2010 by the American Society of Civil Engineers.

All Rights Reserved.
ISBN 978-0-7844-1018-9
Text originally published in Japanese by Kensetsutosho.
© 2002 Tadaki Kawada
ISBN 4-87459-216-3
Manufactured in the United States of America.

18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 12345

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Contents

preface to the english edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

1 The Emergence of Modern

Suspension Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Universality of Primitive Suspension
Bridges and Their Structure 1
Suspension Bridges Were Unknown to Western
Civilization until the Medieval Period 8
The Birth of the Modern Suspension Bridge 18
Finley’s Glory and Setback 21

2 Trials and Errors in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Introduction to the United Kingdom 27
Accidents in the United Kingdom and
Problems Relating to Stiffness 36
Introduction to France 46
French-Style Suspension Bridges 52
Early Suspension Bridge Theory and
Its Limitations 60

History of the Modern Suspension Bridge

 vi history of the modern suspension bridge

3 North American Engineers Develop the

Rigid Suspension Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Homecoming to America 71
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The Niagara Railway Suspension Bridge 77

John Roebling 80
The Brooklyn Bridge 86

4 Emergence of the Deflection Theory

and Its Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Theory of the Stiffened Suspension Bridge 97
The Emergence of the Deflection Theory 102
The Development of Suspension Bridges in
the Early Twentieth Century 106
The Trend toward Longer Spans 110
Two Large Projects in San Francisco 117

5 Ambush: The Dynamics of Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Disaster of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge 129
The Dynamics of Wind 135
Inevitable Accident or Human Error? 140
Aftermath in America following the Tacoma
Narrows Bridge Disaster 146

6 New Developments beyond North America . . . . 159

From North America to Europe: British
Challenge for Innovation 159
Aerofoil Revolution 164
Glory and Tragedy of the Severn Bridge 172
Mass: Engineers’ Forgotten Asset 182

7 Two Record-Breaking Suspension Bridges . . . . . 193

Japan’s Akashi Kaikyo Bridge 193
Denmark’s Storebælt Bridge 201
The End of the Century: The Millennium
Bridge 214

History of the Modern Suspension Bridge

 contents vii

8 Epilogue: No End to the Dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . 225

The Development of Modern Suspension
Bridges and Stiffness 225
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Prospects for the Twenty-First Century 227

Lessons from History: Concluding Remarks 233

index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
about the author, translator, and editor . . . . . 245

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Preface to the English Edition

Japan, from humble forays into the field in the

1950s, today stands as a leading builder of suspension
bridges. Its engineers have taken tremendous strides over
the past four decades, brilliantly adapting contemporary
practice emerging out of the ashes of the 1940 collapse of
the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, and devising new methods
of analysis, design, construction, and maintenance. For
more than a decade the longest suspension bridge in the
world—the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge—has stood as dramatic
testimony to this remarkable progress, as have many other
large suspension bridges built in this island nation.
No small figure in this transformation has been
Dr. Tadaki Kawada. Dr. Kawada’s long association with
suspension bridges—as an academic, practicing engineer,
and head of a large bridge construction firm—has brought
him into intimate contact with the theory, history, design,
and building of large suspension bridges. His association
with the massive Honshu-Shikoku project, which alone
involved 10 suspension bridges, has occupied much of his
working life. This experience has brought profound knowl-
edge, deep understanding, and a unique perspective to the
story that unfolds over the pages that follow—a story of
suspension bridges, the largest, most dramatic, and grace-
ful of bridge forms.

ix

History of the Modern Suspension Bridge

 x history of the modern suspension bridge

Dr. Kawada’s narrative is enriched by two other qualities. His passion

for the historical aspects of suspension bridge development has been mani-
fested in his authorship of several Japanese-language books on the subject.
These books have contributed much to that nation’s knowledge and appre-
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ciation of the international nature of suspension bridge history. His exten-

sive contributions to Japanese developments in the field have also infused
this book, providing a Japanese perspective on a history long penned by
North American and European writers.
Now, an English-language audience has the opportunity to benefit
from Dr. Kawada’s experience and knowledge. Dr. Kawada uses an impor-
tant theme, that of tension between the economy of construction and the
need for stiffness, to recount the trials and tribulations of the fascinating
and sometimes turbulent history of the modern suspension bridge. This ten-
sion (perhaps an appropriate metaphor, given the subject) has consistently
shaped suspension bridge design since the inception of the modern form by
American Judge Finley in the early 1800s. Through this lens, Dr. Kawada
vividly emphasizes that the lessons of yesteryear—even those of two centu-
ries past—remain relevant to practicing engineers today and to the public
that crosses the bridges engineers design, build, and maintain.
The lessons learned in the aftermath of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge
collapse generated new knowledge to build safe, efficient, and stable suspen-
sion bridges. But these structures—even in today’s world of vast engineering
knowledge, sophisticated modeling, and computing power—can still pro-
duce unexpected and unpleasant surprises, as attested by the vexing (but
eventually solved) vibration of London’s ultramodern Millennium pedes-
trian bridge across the Thames in 2000. Dr. Kawada’s theme of balancing
economy and stiffness provides an absorbing framework by which to explore
the range of design challenges—from static and aerodynamic stability all the
way to mass psychology—that have faced engineers from the earliest days
of the suspension bridge to the structures of today. Moreover, this approach
has enduring utility in assessing where the future development of suspension
bridges may lead, as Dr. Kawada explores at the book’s conclusion.
In preparing this translation of Dr. Kawada’s book, we would like to
express our thanks to a number of people who made this project possible.
First, our sincere appreciation goes to Dr. Tadaki Kawada for embracing this
project so fully and for assisting us at various points during its preparation,
including furnishing of many of his own photographs and illustrations. We
would also like to recognize the untiring efforts of Dr. Shigeru Echigo, who
performed yeoman service in obtaining the many publishing permissions for
photographs, illustrations, and charts which made it possible for this book
to faithfully mirror the original Japanese edition. Without Dr. Echigo’s per-

History of the Modern Suspension Bridge

 preface to english edition xi

sistence, patience, and organization, this book would not be what you see
before you. Our sincere thanks also go to Betsy Kulamer of ASCE Press for
shepherding the book through the myriad processes that lead to publication,
and for her patience, humor, and always-positive and enthusiastic outlook in
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the face of what may have at times seemed insurmountable obstacles. Matt
Boyle, ASCE books production manager, provided a friendly and encourag-
ing hand as the book moved through production. Also at ASCE, Corinne
Addison shouldered the task of putting all of the illustration permissions in
order. And finally, our thanks to Anda Divine, whose deft touch at copyediting
is so evident in the final product.
It is our hope that this translation captures the eloquence of the origi-
nal Japanese-language edition of Dr. Kawada’s 2002 book, and in so doing
communicates to future generations of engineers the continuing relevance
of the themes of economy and stiffness for spans that may someday dwarf
even the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge.

Harukazu Ohashi, translator, Tokyo, Japan

Richard Scott, editor, Peterborough, Canada
September 2009

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Preface

This book is intended to contribute to the future

development of suspension bridges by tracing how modern
suspension bridges have evolved from their early form as
they appeared in Western civilization only 200 years ago.
The book explores how suspension bridges have been
developed to make such gigantic structures as the Akashi
Kaikyo Bridge in Japan and the Storebælt Bridge in Den-
mark feasible at the end of the twentieth century. The
developments, trials, and errors experienced during the
course of suspension bridge development are described
and thoroughly illustrated.
“When he was thinking about how to build a bridge
across the River Tweed, Sir Samuel Brown stopped while
observing a spider’s web. Right at this time he discovered
the suspension bridge” (Bender 1872). This anecdote, in
which the concept of the modern suspension bridge was
born through the observation of a spider’s web, is similar to
how Newton gleaned a hint of universal gravitation from
a falling apple.
Compared with masonry and timber bridges, which
dominated bridge construction in the nineteenth century,
a suspension bridge—made feasible by virtue of lower
labor and material requirements and a shorter construc-
tion period—was extremely advantageous economically.
As it became known that a catalyst for this development
was the observation of a spider’s web, modern suspension

xiii

History of the Modern Suspension Bridge

 xiv history of the modern suspension bridge

bridges also became flexible and undulating, that is, lacking stiffness. How
to produce the required stiffness in modern suspension bridges without sac-
rificing the superior characteristic of economy is a problem that has since
preoccupied engineers.
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The dual problem of stiffness and economy in suspension bridges

introduces conflicting concepts. A heavy structure, while meeting high
stiffness requirements or the need for a robust suspended structure, can be
uneconomical. In contrast, when economy is overly emphasized, the bridge
can lack stiffness, and examples of problems caused by this approach are
too numerous to count. Over the past 200 years of advances in materi-
als and methods, the introduction of new design theories, and the use of
wind tunnels to refine design concepts, modern suspension bridges have
been built with constantly improving technology. With the wisdom of and
unceasing efforts by engineers, the conflict between stiffness and economy
in modern suspension bridges has been nearly conquered, as evidenced by
the enormous Akashi Kaikyo Bridge (nearly 2,000 m in span), completed
in 1998. The modern suspension bridge at the end of the twentieth century
has attained the following status: “The basic concept is that of a suspension
bridge . . . [using] . . . tried-and-tested techniques” (Binney 2000).
However, an unexpected event involved London’s pedestrian-only Mil-
lennium Bridge over the Thames River, which was built in 2000 to celebrate
the two millenia since the birth of Christ. This bridge made full use of “estab-
lished technology,” yet had to be closed and was out of service just 3 days
after its opening due to vibration caused by a lack of stiffness. The ghost of
inadequate stiffness—once thought to have been expunged by engineers after
200 years—was still alive and asserted itself in this state-of-the-art bridge.
The steps taken since the emergence of modern suspension bridges
very much reflect a history of the struggle to conquer the conflict between
stiffness and economy. And, I should say, that this struggle has not yet finally
come to an end at the beginning of the twenty-first century.

Tadaki Kawada
Tokyo, Japan
November, 2002

References
Bender, C. (1872). “Historical Sketch of Improvements in Suspension Bridges to
the Present Time.” Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
ASCE, New York.
Binney, M. (2000). “Revolutionary design liable to give off bad vibration.” The
Times (London), June 12.

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Acknowledgments

This book was started as a doctoral thesis and was

completed under the guidance of Professor Yozo Fujino of
the Graduate School for Engineering Research at the Uni-
versity of Tokyo. I offer my special thanks for his support.
Professor Emeritus Manabu Ito, Professor Osamu Shino-
hara, Professor Masahiko Kunijima, and Associate Profes-
sor Masato Abe of the Graduate School for Engineering
Research of the University of Tokyo, Professor Hiromichi
Higashihara of the Earthquake Research Institute of the
University of Tokyo, and finally Dr. Kunikatsu Nomura
of Kawada Industries, Inc.—all these authorities kindly
reviewed the manuscript before its completion and pro-
vided me with invaluable advice. I deeply thank them all.
For obtaining permissions from many people and
sources who gladly approved the use of photographs, I
must also extend my thanks to Dr. Shigeru Echigo and
his staff at the Research Division of Kawada Industries,
Inc., and Mr. Sean J. Johnston and Ms. Yoko Ohmiya of
Kawada Industries, Inc., who also generously devoted their
time to the tedious work of proofreading and to develop-
ing the index and the figures in this book.
Only upon completion of the book did I fully become
aware of how many people had helped me in its creation. I
sincerely appreciate their efforts.

xv

History of the Modern Suspension Bridge