Artificial_Intelligence_AI_Applied_in_Civil_Engineering_1714617671

Artificial
Intelligence (AI)
Applied in Civil
Engineering
Edited by
Nikos D. Lagaros and Vagelis Plevris
Printed Edition of the Topics Published in
Applied Sciences, CivilEng, AI, Symmetry and Mathematics
https://www.mdpi.com/topics
Artificial Intelligence (AI) Applied in
Civil Engineering
Civil Engineering
Editors
Nikos D. Lagaros
Vagelis Plevris
MDPI • Basel • Beijing • Wuhan • Barcelona • Belgrade • Manchester • Tokyo • Cluj • Tianjin
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Nikos D. Lagaros Vagelis Plevris
National Technical University Qatar University
of Athens Qatar
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Contents
About the Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Nikos D. Lagaros and Vagelis Plevris

Artificial Intelligence (AI) Applied in Civil Engineering
Reprinted from: Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 7595, doi:10.3390/app12157595 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Marco Martino Rosso, Raffaele Cucuzza, Angelo Aloisio, Giuseppe Carlo Marano
Enhanced Multi-Strategy Particle Swarm Optimization for Constrained Problems with an
Evolutionary-Strategies-Based Unfeasible Local Search Operator
Zeyu Li, Hongbing Chen, Bin Xu and Hanbin Ge

Hybrid Wind Turbine Towers Optimization with a Parallel Updated Particle Swarm Algorithm
Raffaele Cucuzza, Marco Martino Rosso, Angelo Aloisio, Jonathan Melchiorre, Mario Lo
Giudice, Giuseppe Carlo Marano
Size and Shape Optimization of a Guyed Mast Structure under Wind, Ice and Seismic Loading
Juanli Guo, Mingchen Li, Zixin Jiang, Zhoupeng Wang and Yangkong Zhou
Optimized Design of Floor Plan and Components of Prefabricated Building with Energy-Cost
Effect
Esra Uray, Serdar Carbas, Zong Woo Geem and Sanghun Kim
Parameters Optimization of Taguchi Method Integrated Hybrid Harmony Search Algorithm for
Engineering Design Problems
Reprinted from: Mathematics 2022, 10, 327, doi:10.3390/math10030327 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Sepehr Sarjamei, Mohammad Sajjad Massoudi and Mehdi Esfandi Sarafraz

Frequency-Constrained Optimization of a Real-Scale Symmetric Structural Using Gold Rush
Algorithm
Reprinted from: Symmetry 2022, 14, 725, doi:10.3390/sym14040725 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Shitai Bao, Keying Han, Lan Zhang, Xudong Luo and Shunqing Chen
Pavement Maintenance Decision Making Based on Optimization Models
Nikos Ath Kallioras and Nikos D. Lagaros

MLGen: Generative Design Framework Based on Machine Learning and Topology
Optimization
Reprinted from: Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 12044, doi:10.3390/app112412044 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Jaun Gu, Minhyuck Lee, Chulmin Jun, Yohee Han, Youngchan Kim and Junwon Kim
Traffic Signal Optimization for Multiple Intersections Based on Reinforcement Learning
Peigen Li, Haiting Xia, Bin Zhou, Feng Yan and Rongxin Guo
A Method to Improve the Accuracy of Pavement Crack Identification by Combining a Semantic
Segmentation and Edge Detection Model
v
Jinxin Liu and Kexin Li
Research on an Improved SOM Model for Damage Identification of Concrete Structures
Sheng Li, Yang Qiu, Jinpeng Jiang, Honghai Wang, Qiuming Nan and Lizhi Sun
Identification of Abnormal Vibration Signal of Subway Track Bed Based on Ultra-Weak FBG
Sensing Array Combined with Unsupervised Learning Network
Xiaomei Yang, Yongshan Chen, Shuai Teng and Gongfa Chen

A Novel Method for Predicting Local Site Amplification Factors Using 1-D Convolutional
Neural Networks
Zhaocheng Yan, Zihan Jin, Shuai Teng, Gongfa Chen and David Bassir
Measurement of Bridge Vibration by UAVs Combined with CNN and KLT Optical-Flow
Method
Dejiang Wang, Jianji Cheng and Honghao Cai

Detection Based on Crack Key Point and Deep Convolutional Neural Network
Gerivan Santos Junior, Janderson Ferreira, Cristian Millán-Arias, Ramiro Daniel, Alberto
Casado Junior and Bruno J. T. Fernandes
Ceramic Cracks Segmentation with Deep Learning
Umair Iqbal, Johan Barthelemy, Wanqing Li and Pascal Perez

Automating Visual Blockage Classification of Culverts with Deep Learning
Landon Calton and Zhangping Wei

Using Artificial Neural Network Models to Assess Hurricane Damage through Transfer
Learning
Wen-Hui Lin, Ping Wang, Kuo-Ming Chao, Hsiao-Chung Lin, Zong-Yu Yang and Yu-Huang
Lai
Wind Power Forecasting with Deep Learning Networks: Time-Series Forecasting †
Zaili Chen, Kai Huang, Li Wu, Zhenyu Zhong and Zeyu Jiao
Relational Graph Convolutional Network for Text-Mining-Based Accident Causal Classification
Mohammed Amin Benbouras, Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor, Hamma Zedira, Laala Ghelani and
Lina Lefilef
Forecasting the Bearing Capacity of the Driven Piles Using Advanced Machine-Learning
Techniques
Yan Su, Kailiang Weng, Chuan Lin and Zeqin Chen

Dam Deformation Interpretation and Prediction Based on a Long Short-Term Memory Model
Coupled with an Attention Mechanism
vi
Guoyan Zhao, Meng Wang and Weizhang Liang
A Comparative Study of SSA-BPNN, SSA-ENN, and SSA-SVR Models for Predicting the
Thickness of an Excavation Damaged Zone around the Roadway in Rock
Reprinted from: Mathematics 2022, 10, 1351, doi:10.3390/math10081351 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Tao Ma, Lizhou Wu, Shuairun Zhu and Hongzhou Zhu

Multiclassification Prediction of Clay Sensitivity Using Extreme Gradient Boosting Based on
Imbalanced Dataset
Yun Xiang, Jingxu Chen, Weijie Yu, Rui Wu, Bing Liu, Baojie Wang and Zhibin Li
A Two-Phase Approach for Predicting Highway Passenger Volume
Ching-Hsue Cheng, Ming-Chi Tsai and Yi-Chen Cheng

An Intelligent Time-Series Model for Forecasting Bus Passengers Based on Smartcard Data
Pravee Kruachottikul, Nagul Cooharojananone, Gridsada Phanomchoeng and Kittikul

Kovitanggoon
Development of a User-Centric Bridge Visual Defect Quality Control Assisted Mobile
Application: A Case of Thailand’s Department of Highways
Yang Zhang, Rui Li and Jun Chen

The Cooperative Control of Subgrade Stiffness on Symmetrical Bridge–Subgrade Transition
Section
Jianfei Huang, Dewen Kong, Guangzong Gao, Xinchun Cheng and Jinshi Chen
Data-Driven Reinforcement-Learning-Based Automatic Bucket-Filling for Wheel Loaders
Chao Chen, Tianbin Li, Chunchi Ma, Hang Zhang, Jieling Tang and Yin Zhang
Hoek-Brown Failure Criterion-Based Creep Constitutive Model and BP Neural Network
Parameter Inversion for Soft Surrounding Rock Mass of Tunnels
Yan-Ting Lin, Yi-Keng Chen, Kuo-Hsin Yang, Chuin-Shan Chen and Jen-Yu Han
Integrating InSAR Observables and Multiple Geological Factors for Landslide Susceptibility
Assessment
Ashraf M. Zenkour, Daoud S. Mashat and Ashraf M. Allehaibi

Thermoelastic Coupling Response of an Unbounded Solid with a Cylindrical Cavity Due to a
Moving Heat Source
Reprinted from: Mathematics 2022, 10, 9, doi:10.3390/math10010009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
Seokjae Heo, Sehee Han, Yoonsoo Shin and Seunguk Na

Challenges of Data Refining Process during the Artificial Intelligence Development Projects in
the Architecture, Engineering and Construction Industry
Luodi Xie, Huimin Huang and Qing Du

A Hierarchical Generative Embedding Model for Influence Maximization in Attributed Social
Networks
vii
Luodi Xie, Huimin Huang and Qing Du
A Co-Embedding Model with Variational Auto-Encoder for Knowledge Graphs
Reprinted from: Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 715, doi:10.3390/app12020715 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
viii
About the Editors
Nikos D. Lagaros
Dr. Nikos D. Lagaros is the Dean of the School of Civil Engineering, National Technical
University of Athens (NTUA), Greece, and Professor of Structural Optimization for the Institute
of Structural Analysis and Antiseismic Research. He is the Director of the Digital Technology
Laboratory for Technical Projects. Prior moving to NTUA, he was Assistant Professor at the
University of Thessaly, Greece. He also served as Visiting Professor in the Department of Biological
Engineering at MIT, and in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at McGill University.
Dr. Lagaros is an active member of the computational mechanics research community, and his
publication track record includes more than 140 peer-reviewed journal papers, 10 books and 25
book chapters, and he has presented his work at numerous international venues. His h-index is 43
according to Google Scholar, with his work receiving more than 6000 citations.
Vagelis Plevris
Dr. Vagelis Plevris is an Associate Professor of Structural Engineering in the Department of Civil
and Architectural Engineering, Qatar University. He holds a bachelor’s degree in Civil Engineering
from the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), an MSc from NTUA on ”Structural Design
and Analysis of Structures”, an MBA from Athens University of Economics and Business and a
PhD in Computational Mechanics from NTUA. His research areas cover the fields of finite element
analysis, earthquake engineering, optimum design of structures, reliability and probabilistic analysis
of structures, and neural networks and their applications in engineering.
ix
applied
sciences
Editorial
Artificial Intelligence (AI) Applied in Civil Engineering
Nikos D. Lagaros 1 and Vagelis Plevris 2, *
1 Institute of Structural Analysis and Antiseismic Research, School of Civil Engineering, National Technical
University of Athens, Heroon Polytechneiou 9, 157 80 Zographou, Greece; nlagaros@central.ntua.gr
2 Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Qatar University, Doha P.O. Box 2713, Qatar
* Correspondence: vplevris@qu.edu.qa
1. Introduction
In recent years, artificial intelligence (AI) has drawn significant attention with respect
to its applications in several scientific fields, varying from big data handling to medical
diagnosis. The use of AI is already present in our daily lives with several uses, such as
personalized ads, virtual assistants, autonomous driving, etc. Not surprisingly, AI method-
ologies have found a wide range of uses and applications in engineering fields, including
civil and structural engineering [1,2], with impressive results [3–5]. Figure 1 shows the
research articles related to AI published in the field of civil engineering. In particular, these
are results from the Scopus database (www.scopus.com, obtained on 2 June 2022), using
the query “TITLE-ABS-KEY ((“artificial intelligence” or “AI”) and (“civil” or “structural” or
“transportation” or “geotechnical” or “hydraulic” or “environmental” or “construction” or “shm”
or “structural health”)) and PUBYEAR > 1999 and (LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, “ENGI”))”, which
returned 14,059 document results in total (for years from 2000 to 2022). The increase in
AI studies with great acceleration shows that the use of AI in civil engineering is gain-
ing momentum and will keep increasing in the coming years, bringing new innovations
and applications.
Citation: Lagaros, N.D.; Plevris, V.

Civil Engineering. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12,
7595. https://doi.org/10.3390/
app12157595
Received: 5 June 2022

Accepted: 27 July 2022
Published: 28 July 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Figure 1. Published articles (in Scopus) using AI in civil engineering-related fields (2000–2021).
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. This research topic contains applications and recent advances of AI in civil engi-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. neering problems, promoting cross-fertilization between these scientific fields. In par-
This article is an open access article ticular, the focus is on hybrid studies and applications related to structural engineering,
distributed under the terms and transportation engineering, geotechnical engineering, hydraulic engineering, environmen-
conditions of the Creative Commons tal engineering, coastal and ocean engineering, structural health monitoring, as well as
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// construction management.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 7595. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12157595 1 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 7595
2. Contributions
The research topic has been quite successful, gathering 35 contributions in total, from
19 different countries around the world, covering a broad range of topics related to the
applications of AI in civil engineering. Three MDPI journals participated by cross-listing the
research topic. Most of the articles (29) were published in the “Applied Sciences” journal,
while 3 of them were published in “Mathematics” and another 3 in “Symmetry”.
The articles are divided into 6 groups, as follows: (i) Optimization methods and ap-
plications (7 articles), (ii) Combined machine learning and optimization methodologies
(2 articles), (iii) Machine learning in identification problems (3 articles), (iv) Applications of
convolutional neural networks (8 articles), (v) Combined and multiple AI-based methodolo-
gies (6 articles), and (vi) Other AI-based methods, formulations, and applications (9 articles).
A brief description of each article, for every category, is presented in the following sections.
2.1. Optimization Methods and Applications

Rosso et al. [6] propose an enhanced multi-strategy Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)
variant to solve constrained problems with a different approach to the classical penalty
function technique. The authors propose several improvements to the original algorithm,
including a new local search operator based on the Evolutionary Strategy (ES). Li et al. [7],
propose an optimization approach with a parallel updated particle swarm optimization
(PUPSO) algorithm aiming at minimizing the objective function of the levelized cost of
energy of the prestressed concrete–steel hybrid wind turbine towers. This is conducted in a
life cycle perspective which represents the direct investments, labor costs, machinery costs,
and the maintenance costs.
Cucuzza et al. [8] study the size and shape optimization of a guyed radio mast for
radiocommunications, using the genetic algorithm (GA) and carrying out both static and
dynamic analyses considering the action of wind, ice, and seismic loads. Guo et al. [9],
propose the use of GA, correlation analysis, and two parametric design methods (floor
plan generation method and component selection method) for optimizing the building
performance of prefabricated buildings.
Uray et al. [10] use the Taguchi method integrated hybrid harmony search algorithm,
carry out a statistical investigation of the optimum values for the control parameters of the
harmony search algorithm and examine their effects on the best solution. The new hybrid
method has been successfully applied to different real-world engineering optimization
problems. Sarjamei et al. [11] use the Gold Rush Optimization (GRO) algorithm for the
optimal design of real-scale symmetric structures under frequency constraints. The efficacy
of the concept of cyclic symmetry to minimize the needed time is assessed with three
examples, including Disk, Silo, and Cooling Tower.
Bao et al. [12], investigate the decision-making problem of pavement maintenance
prioritization considering both quality and cost. They consider a linear optimization model
that maximizes maintenance quality with limited maintenance costs and a multi-objective
optimization model that maximizes maintenance quality while minimizing maintenance
costs. These models are employed in making decisions for actual pavement maintenance
using sequential quadratic programming and GA.
2.2. Combined Machine Learning and Optimization Methodologies

3D printing is already established in the production processes of several industries
while more are continuously being added. Lately, parametric design has become popular
in the architectural design literature, while topology optimization has become part of the
design procedure of various industries. Kallioras and Lagaros [13] propose MLGen, a novel
generative design framework which integrates machine learning (ML) into the generative
design practice. Several benchmark topology optimization problems are examined to show
the ability of MLGen to efficiently handle different engineering problems.
In order to deal with dynamic traffic flow, adaptive traffic signal controls using rein-
forcement learning are being studied. Gu et al. [14] propose a reinforcement learning-based
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Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 7595
signal optimization model with constraints. The model maintains the sequence of typical
signal phases and considers the minimum green time. It is trained using Simulation of
Urban MObility (SUMO), a microscopic traffic simulator and it is evaluated in a virtual
environment similar to a real road with multiple intersections.
2.3. Machine Learning in Identification Problems

In recent years, deep learning-based detection methods have been successfully applied
to pavement crack detection problems. In this field, Li et al. [15] propose a method to
improve the accuracy of crack identification by combining a semantic segmentation and
edge detection model. Their work is inspired by the U-Net semantic segmentation network
and holistically nested edge detection network. A side-output part is added to the U-Net
decoder that performs edge extraction and deep supervision. A network model is proposed,
combining two tasks that can output the semantic segmentation results of the crack image
and the edge detection results of different scales. The model can also be used for other
tasks that need both semantic segmentation and edge detection. On the topic of concrete
structures, Liu and Li [16] propose an improved self-organizing mapping (SOM) neural
network (NN) model to solve the problem of intelligent detection of damage to modern
concrete structures under complex constraints. The method is based on a small number of
samples and the use of a self-developed 3D laser scanning system. The improved SOM
model method fully combines the network topology and its unique image features and
can accurately identify structural damage, contributing to the realization of high-precision
intelligent health monitoring of damage to modern concrete structures.
In railway engineering, the performance of the passing train and the structural state of
the track bed are common concerns regarding the safe operation of the subway. Monitoring
the vibration response of the track bed structure and identifying abnormal signals within it
can help address these concerns. In this direction, Li et al. [17] propose an unsupervised
learning-based methodology for identifying the abnormal signals of the track beds de-
tected by the ultra-weak fiber optic Bragg grating sensing array. The experimental results
demonstrate that the established unsupervised learning network and the selected metric
for quantifying error sequences can serve the threshold selection well, based on the receiver
operating characteristic curve.
2.4. Applications of Convolutional Neural Networks

In earthquake engineering, the analysis of site seismic amplification characteristics
is one of the most important tasks of seismic safety evaluation. Yang et al. [18] propose
a new prediction method for the amplification characteristics of local sites, using a CNN
combined with real-time seismic signals. The CNN is used to establish the relationship
between the amplification factors of local sites and eight parameters, while the training
and testing samples are generated through observed and geological data. The results
show that the CNN method can provide a powerful tool for predicting the amplification
factors of local sites both for recorded and unrecorded positions. Yan et al. [19] propose a
measurement method of bridge vibration by unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) combined
with convolutional neural networks (CNNs) and the Kanade–Lucas–Tomasi (KLT) optical-
flow method. The KLT optical-flow method is used to track the target points on the structure
and the background reference points in the video to obtain the coordinates of these points
on each frame, while the characteristic relationship between the reference points and the
target points is learned by a CNN according to the coordinates of the reference points and
the target points. The objective is to correct the displacement time–history curves of target
points containing the false displacement caused by the UAV’s egomotion.
Based on the features of cracks, Wang et al. [20] propose the concept of a crack key
point as a method for crack characterization and establish a model of image crack detection
based on the reference anchor points method, named KP-CraNet. The accuracy of the model
recognition is controllable and can meet both the pixel-level requirements and the efficiency
needs of engineering. The results show that the method can improve crack detection
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Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 7595
quality and has a strong generalization ability. Dos Santos Junior et al. [21] propose an
architecture for segmenting cracks in facades with Deep Learning (DL) that includes an
image pre-processing step. The authors also propose the Ceramic Crack Database, a set of
images to segment defects in ceramic tiles. The proposed model can adequately identify
the crack even when it is close to or within the grout.
Blockage of culverts by transported debris materials is the salient contributor to
originating urban flash floods, with conventional hydraulic modeling having no success
in addressing the problem. Iqbal et al. [22] explore a new dimension to investigate the
issue by proposing the use of intelligent video analytics (IVA) algorithms for extracting
blockage-related information. Their research aims to automate the process of manual visual
blockage classification of culverts from a maintenance perspective by remotely applying DL
models. On the other hand, Calton and Wei [23] use transfer learning on three advanced
NNs, ResNet, MobileNet, and EfficientNet, and apply techniques for damage classification
and damaged object detection to a post-hurricane image dataset comprised of damaged
buildings from the coastal region of the southeastern USA. The dataset includes 1000 images
for the classification model with a binary classification structure containing classes of floods
and non-floods and 800 images for the object detection model with four damaged object
classes, i.e., damaged roof, damaged wall, flood damage, and structural damage.
Lin et al. [24] aim at the long-term (24–72 h ahead) prediction of wind power with
a mean absolute percentage error of less than 10% by using the Temporal Convolutional
Network (TCN) algorithm of DL networks. In their experiment, they perform TCN model
pretraining using historical weather data and the power generation outputs of a wind
turbine from a Scada wind power plant in Turkey.
Chen et al. [25] propose a text-mining-based accident causal classification method
based on a relational graph convolutional network (R-GCN) and pre-trained bidirectional
encoder representation from transformers (BERT). The proposed method avoids preprocess-
ing such as stop word removal and word segmentation, but also avoids tedious operations,
while the dependence of BERT retraining on computing resources can also be avoided.
2.5. Combined and Multiple AI-Based Methodologies

Some of the research works use multiple AI-based methodologies, either for compar-
ison purposes or in a combined way to achieve better results. In particular, Benbouras
et al. [26] elaborate on a new alternative model for predicting the bearing capacity of piles
based on eleven new advanced ML methods, in order to overcome the problems of the
time-consuming and costly traditional methods. The modeling phase uses a database of 100
samples collected from different countries. Additionally, eight relevant factors are selected
in the input layer based on recommendations from the literature. Su et al. [27] propose a
data processing framework that uses a long short-term memory (LSTM) model coupled
with an attention mechanism to predict the deformation response of a dam structure. The
results of the case study show that, of all tested methods, the proposed coupled method per-
forms best. In addition, it was found that temperature and water level both have significant
impacts on dam deformation and can serve as reliable metrics for dam management.
Zhao et al. [28] use a sparrow search algorithm to improve a backpropagation NN,
and an Elman NN and support vector regression models to predict the thickness of an
excavation damaged zone. The proposed model can provide a reliable reference for the
thickness prediction of an excavation-damaged zone and is helpful in the risk management
of roadway stability. Ma et al. [29] investigate the performance of the extreme gradient
boosting (XGboost) method in predicting multiclass of clay sensitivity, and the ability of the
synthetic minority over-sampling technique (SMOTE) in addressing imbalanced categories
of clay sensitivity. The results reveal that XGBoost shows the best performance in the
multiclassification prediction of clay sensitivity.
In transportation engineering, Xiang et al. [30] propose a two-phase approach in an
effort to predict highway passenger volume. The datasets subsume highway passenger
volume and impact factors of urban attributes. The findings provide useful information
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Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 7595
for guiding highway planning and optimizing the allocation of transportation resources.
Cheng et al. [31] use smartcard data from the bus system to identify important variables
that affect passenger flow. These data are combined with other influential variables to
establish an integrated-weight time-series forecast model. The results show that the model
can improve passenger flow forecasting based on three bus routes with three different
series of time data.
2.6. Other AI-Based Methods, Formulations, and Applications

Kruachottikul et al. [32] aim to improve collaboration on bridge inspections that
typically require the involvement of many people, personal judgement, and extensive travel
to survey bridges across the country of Thailand. One major challenge is to standardize
human judgement. To address this, the authors develop a user-centric bridge visual defect
quality control mobile application to improve collaboration and assist field technicians to
conduct visual defect inspections. Based on nonlinear finite element numerical simulation
and synergistic theory, the cooperative control problems of the bridge–subgrade transition
section are studied in the work by Zhang et al. [33]. Huang et al. [34] propose a data-
driven reinforcement-learning (RL)-based approach to achieve automatic bucket-filling.
An automatic bucket-filling algorithm based on Q-learning is developed to enhance the
adaptability of the autonomous scooping system. A nonlinear, non-parametric statistical
model is also built to approximate the real working environment using the actual data
obtained from tests.
Chen et al. [35] summarize the main factors affecting the large deformation of soft rock
tunnels, including the lithology combination, weathering effect, and underground water
status, by reviewing the typical cases of largely-deformed soft rock tunnels. The method
can be used to invert the geological parameters of the surrounding rock mass for a certain
point, which can provide important mechanical parameters for the design and construction
of tunnels. Lin et al. [36] introduce a modern space remote sensing technology, InSAR, as a
direct observable for the slope dynamics. The InSAR-derived displacement fields and other
in situ geological and topographical factors are integrated, and their correlations with land-
slide susceptibility are analyzed. Moreover, multiple ML approaches are applied with the
goal to construct an optimal model between these complicated factors and landslide suscep-
tibility. Zenkour et al. [37] introduce the thermoelastic coupled response of an unbounded
solid with a cylindrical hole under a traveling heat source and harmonically altering heat.
A refined dual-phase-lag thermoelasticity theory is used for this purpose. A generalized
thermoelastic coupled solution is developed by using Laplace’s transforms technique.
Heo et al. [38] highlight that many human resources are needed on the research and
development (R&D) process of AI and discuss factors to consider in the current method of
development. Labor division of a few managers and numerous ordinary workers as a form
of the light industry appears to be a plausible method of enhancing the efficiency of AI R&D
projects. Inspired by the powerful ability of NNs in the field of representation learning,
Xie et al. [39] design a hierarchical generative embedding model (HGE) to map nodes
into latent space automatically. Then, with the learned latent representation of each node,
they propose an HGE-GA algorithm to predict influence strength and compute the top-K
influential nodes. Extensive experiments on real-world attributed networks demonstrate
the outstanding superiority of the proposed HGE model and HGE-GA algorithm compared
with the state-of-the-art methods, verifying the effectiveness of the proposed model and
algorithm. Xie et al. [40] incorporate a co-embedding model for KG embedding, which
learns low-dimensional representations of both entities and relations in the same semantic
space. To address the issue of neglecting uncertainty for KG components, they propose a
variational auto-encoder that represents KG components as Gaussian distributions.
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Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 7595
Author Contributions: All authors contributed to every part of the research described in this paper.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research has been financed by the ADDOPTML project: “ADDitively Manufactured
OPTimized Structures by means of Machine Learning” (No: 101007595).
Acknowledgments: This research has been supported by the ADDOPTML project: “ADDitively
Manufactured OPTimized Structures by means of Machine Learning” (No: 101007595) belonging
to the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions (MSCA) Research and Innovation Staff Exchange (RISE)
H2020-MSCA-RISE-2020. Their support is highly acknowledged.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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7
applied
sciences
Article
Enhanced Multi-Strategy Particle Swarm Optimization for
Constrained Problems with an Evolutionary-Strategies-Based
Unfeasible Local Search Operator
Marco Martino Rosso 1 , Raffaele Cucuzza 1, *, Angelo Aloisio 2 and Giuseppe Carlo Marano 1
1 DISEG, Department of Structural, Geotechnical and Building Engineering, Politecnico di Torino,

Corso Duca degli Abruzzi, 24, 10128 Turin, Italy; marco.rosso@polito.it (M.M.R.);
giuseppe.marano@polito.it (G.C.M.)
2 Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering Department, Università degli Studi dell’Aquila,
Via Giovanni Gronchi n.18, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy; angelo.aloisio1@univaq.it
* Correspondence: raffaele.cucuzza@polito.it
Abstract: Nowadays, optimization problems are solved through meta-heuristic algorithms based
on stochastic search approaches borrowed from mimicking natural phenomena. Notwithstanding
their successful capability to handle complex problems, the No-Free Lunch Theorem by Wolpert and
Macready (1997) states that there is no ideal algorithm to deal with any kind of problem. This issue
arises because of the nature of these algorithms that are not properly mathematics-based, and the
convergence is not ensured. In the present study, a variant of the well-known swarm-based algorithm,
the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), is developed to solve constrained problems with a different
approach to the classical penalty function technique. State-of-art improvements and suggestions
are also adopted in the current implementation (inertia weight, neighbourhood). Furthermore, a
Citation: Rosso, M.M.; Cucuzza, R.; new local search operator has been implemented to help localize the feasible region in challenging
Aloisio, A.; Marano, G.C. Enhanced
optimization problems. This operator is based on hybridization with another milestone meta-heuristic
Multi-Strategy Particle Swarm
algorithm, the Evolutionary Strategy (ES). The self-adaptive variant has been adopted because of its
Optimization for Constrained
advantage of not requiring any other arbitrary parameter to be tuned. This approach automatically
Problems with an Evolutionary-
determines the parameters’ values that govern the Evolutionary Strategy simultaneously during the
Strategies-Based Unfeasible Local
Search Operator. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12,
optimization process. This enhanced multi-strategy PSO is eventually tested on some benchmark
2285. https://doi.org/10.3390/ constrained numerical problems from the literature. The obtained results are compared in terms of
app12052285 the optimal solutions with two other PSO implementations, which rely on a classic penalty function
approach as a constraint-handling method.
Academic Editors: Nikos D. Lagaros,
Vagelis Plevris and Jong Wan Hu
Keywords: particle swarm optimization (PSO); multi-strategy PSO; self-adaptive evolutionary
Received: 13 January 2022 strategies (ES); local search operator; constraints handling
Accepted: 15 February 2022
Published: 22 February 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

with regard to jurisdictional claims in
1. Introduction
published maps and institutional affil- In optimization problems, the aim is optimizing certain mathematical functions, called
iations. Objective Functions (OF) f ( x). These problems can be divided into single-objective or
multi-objective problems, depending on the number of OFs, and a further subdivision for
single-objective problems is based on the presence of constraints. Unconstrained problems
are defined as:
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
min{ f ( x)} (1)
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. x∈Ω
This article is an open access article meanwhile, constrained problems are defined as:
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons min{ f ( x)}
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// x∈Ω
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ s.t. gq ( x ) ≤ 0∀q = 1, . . . , nq (2)
4.0/). hr ( x) = 0 ∀r = 1, . . . , nr
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About the Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Nikos D. Lagaros and Vagelis Plevris

Zeyu Li, Hongbing Chen, Bin Xu and Hanbin Ge

Sepehr Sarjamei, Mohammad Sajjad Massoudi and Mehdi Esfandi Sarafraz

Nikos Ath Kallioras and Nikos D. Lagaros

Xiaomei Yang, Yongshan Chen, Shuai Teng and Gongfa Chen

Dejiang Wang, Jianji Cheng and Honghao Cai

Umair Iqbal, Johan Barthelemy, Wanqing Li and Pascal Perez

Landon Calton and Zhangping Wei

Yan Su, Kailiang Weng, Chuan Lin and Zeqin Chen

Tao Ma, Lizhou Wu, Shuairun Zhu and Hongzhou Zhu

Ching-Hsue Cheng, Ming-Chi Tsai and Yi-Chen Cheng

Pravee Kruachottikul, Nagul Cooharojananone, Gridsada Phanomchoeng and Kittikul

Yang Zhang, Rui Li and Jun Chen

Ashraf M. Zenkour, Daoud S. Mashat and Ashraf M. Allehaibi

Seokjae Heo, Sehee Han, Yoonsoo Shin and Seunguk Na

Luodi Xie, Huimin Huang and Qing Du

Citation: Lagaros, N.D.; Plevris, V.

Received: 5 June 2022

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 7595. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12157595 1 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

2.1. Optimization Methods and Applications

2.2. Combined Machine Learning and Optimization Methodologies

2.3. Machine Learning in Identiﬁcation Problems

2.4. Applications of Convolutional Neural Networks

2.5. Combined and Multiple AI-Based Methodologies

2.6. Other AI-Based Methods, Formulations, and Applications

1 DISEG, Department of Structural, Geotechnical and Building Engineering, Politecnico di Torino,

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2285. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12052285 9 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

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