Joumal of Experiential Education · 2005, Volume 28, No. 1 pp.

17-24

Positive Psychology and

Outdoor Education
Dene S. Berman and Jennifer Davis-Berman

A relatively new movement in psyciiology, positive psychology, has many

implications for the field of outdoor education. Positive psychology has
the goal of fostering excellence through the understanding and enhance­
ment of factors that lead to growth. It embraces the view that grovviA
occurs when positive factors are present, as opposed to the notion that it
is the result of dynamic tension. This article argues that traditional mod­
els of change that rely upon disequilibrium may not be the best to use in
outdoor programs. After presenting examples of positive psychological
applications to outdoor programs, implications for outdoor education and
therapy programs are discussed.

Keywords: Outdoor Education, Experiential Education, Positive

Psychology

Dene Berman is a pmcticing psychologist at Lifespan Counseling Associates,

and Clinical Professor of Professional Psychology at Wright State University.

Jennifer Davis-Berman is a Professor of Social Work at the University of Dayton.

This paper is based on a presentation as the 2003 Outdoor Leadership Visiting
Professor, Indiana University. Address correspondence to the authors at 1698
Forestdale Ave., Beavercreek, OH 45432; or by e-mail at: dene.berman@wright.edu.
18 Journal of Experiential Education

ositive psychology is a relatively new movement in the field of

Ρ psychology that has numerous implications for a wide variety

of outdoor education programs, especially those that are ther­
apeutic in nature. With their interest and investment in promoting and
enhancing human growth, such programs may benefit from an under­
standing of this positive frame of reference. This article will review some
of the basic tenets of positive psychology before analyzing its applicability
as a paradigm for outdoor programs.
Traditionally, psychology has focused on preventing and treating
human psychopathology. Clinically, the focus has been to identify and
often diagnose deficits in functioning and affect so the clinician might
assist the client in reducing these deficits. While there are certainly thera­
peutic benefits to this approach, it also contributes to a negative paradigm
of human functioning, relying on categorizing undesirable symptoms
(Asakawa, 2004). This "problem and deficit-focused" paradigm has been
widely accepted in the profession of psychology, and has been especially
prevalent in the United States since World War II (Seligman &
Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).

Positive Psychology
Recent developments in the field of psychology, however, have
begun to suggest the adoption of a new paradigm referred to as positive
psychology. Positive psychology has as its goal the fostering of excellence
through the understanding and enhancement of factors leading to growth.
Some of these factors include positive emotions, positive individual traits,
and prosocial attitudes (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Human
behavior is seen, through this perspective, as driven by positive human
traits. Rather than focus on deficits, positive psychology examines these
positive traits and attributes, with an eye toward strengthening them or
facilitating their development in clients. These traits are critically impor­
tant, as they can lead to the development of stable personality and physi­
cal states like resiliency (Fredrickson, 2001; Schmidt, 1998), optimism
(Seligman, 1990), and even better physical health (Salovey, Rothman,
Detweiler, & Steward, 2000) over time. Instead of focusing on decreasing
negative symptoms in therapy, a positive psychology approach would
focus more on enhancing client strengths.
The "flow" experience has been widely cited and examined as an
important part of positive psychology, which has also been discussed in
the outdoor literature (e.g., Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999).
2005, Volume 28, No. 1 19

According to flow theory, human behavior and action are motivated by a

desire to reach a state of flow. In order to experience flow, one must feel
that he/she is deeply involved in an experience, highly motivated, cogni-
tively efficient, and truly enjoying the experience (Csikszentmihaiyi,
1990). Individuals must feel that their ability to deal with the situation
matches the challenges presented in the situation (Massimini,
Csikszentmihaiyi, & Carli, 1987). The attainment of a flow experience can
be seen as a motivator for positive behaviors. An "autotelic" person is one
who is motivated intrinsically, and thus, is more likely to puirsue and
achieve flow experiences (Csikszentmihaiyi & Csikszentmihaiyi, 1999).
Importantly, the quality of an experience is related to both the perceived
challenges of the experience and the individual's perceived skill level in
dealing with the challenge inherent in the experience.
It seems that positive psychology represents a more growth-oriented
model of human functioning than a more deficit-oriented approach.
Clinical interventions can be designed to enhance functioning that is
already positive, and to facilitate the development and growth of positive
personality traits. Those who possess these traits are more likely to suc­
ceed in having flow experiences. These flow experiences are like peak
experiences, yet their success depends on both the challenge of the situa­
tion and the individual's perceived skill level. Given the nature of many
outdoor programs, where challenge and skill are often critical factors, the
perspective of positive psychology appears to be a natural fit.

Positive Psychology and Outdoor Education

One of the dominant conceptions of motivation for change in many
types of outdoor education programs has perhaps best been espoused by
Luckner and Nadler (1997). They suggest that people learn and change
when they are in a state of dynamic tension. This state is achieved when
there is disequilibrium, brought about by an intemal conflict. The conflict
occurs when there are challenges to a person's perceived sense of safety
and security. Thus, change is the result of the person's desire to alleviate
a negative internal state. This method of change is often described as tak­
ing someone out of his/her comfort zone, which is posited as an essential
ingredient for change to occur. The following quote from Luckner and
Nadler (1997, p. 24) illustrates this perspective:

Tiiere are conditions or states that people can be placed in, in order to
accentuate disequilibrium, dissonance, disorder, frustration, or anxiety.
Enhancing these feelings increases the need to order, restructure, or alter
one's cognitive map of the world and oneself in an effort to restore equilib­
rium.... Understanding these conditions and finding ways to create them
can increase your ability to promote change.
20 Journal o f Experiential Education

This model of change bears a striking resemblance to many of psy­

chology's early theories and approaches. For example, Freud suggested
that the person has basic needs that often go unfulfilled. The longer these
needs go unfulfilled, the greater the urge to satisfy these needs, thereby
diminishing an increasingly negative state of being (Hall, 1954).
From a clinical psychology perspective, this traditional approach to
creating change should be examined. The current "conventional wisdom"
in psychology suggests that clients often need safety, security and pre­
dictability in order to feelfi-eeto work on change (e.g.. Trull, 2005). In fact,
it might even be ethically suspect to encourage clients to experience higher
levels of anxiety or perceived risk in order to facilitate change (Canter, 1994).
In addition to ethical concems, some important clinical issues related
to this deficit model of change should be highlighted. First, exposure to
perceived risk and anxiety can become debilitating for people, working
against the process of change. When participants are in such a state of high
anxiety that they feel they are in survival mode, meaningful work on
issues or change is unlikely (Davis-Berman & Berman, 2002). Second, anx­
iety and perception of risk are very subjective experiences. Participants'
experience with and tolerance of anxiety vary widely. In fact, for some, the
mere experience of being in the outdoor environment may be a big leap
out of the "comfort zone." To then employ strategies that increase this ten­
sion could be detrimental (Davis-Berman & Berman, 2002). Finally, when
participants are placed in situations with little perceived control and high
perceived risk, they may change some behaviors in order to cope and bet­
ter conform, but these changes will probably not be intemalized very well.
It is through success and experiences of personal control that people gen­
erally make positive attributions about the environment, and about their
experiences and outcomes in that environment (Seligman, 1990). This is
not to say that change doesn't occin as a result of negative circumstances
or life events. Anecdotal accounts abound about the experience of turning
adversity or even tragedy into life-changing and life-enhancing experi­
ences (e.g., Armstrong & Jenkins, 2003). Naturally occurring positive
change resulting from crisis or traiuna, however, is quite different from the
adoption of this type of paradigm for guiding outdoor programs.
In the field of outdoor education, an altemative perspective has been
developed and is exemplified by the assertion that people change for pos­
itive reasons, within the context of supportive communities (Mitten, 1999;
Warren, 1999). This approach discusses the importance of creating a
healthy, supportive community in which people can act on their positive
strivings. Communities are created when there is an emergence of condi­
tions such as: working with nature, experiencing the outdoors because of
an appreciation of the environment, and safety and sharing with a focus on
group members' strengths. Originally conceived as a feminist perspective.
2005, Volume 28, No. 1 21

compatibility with positive psychology suggests a broader application.

The use of the "flow" model in conceiving and executing outdoor
programs is another example of the relevance of positive psychology to out­
door education and therapy programs. This focus on strengths can be seen
by examining flow experiences, where the individual experiences a sense
of control, concentration, and confidence in his/her perceived ability to be
successful. The person who experiences flow is in a state akin to Maslow's
(1954) peak experience. In this state, people are fully-functioning, have
clarity of purpose, and lose themselves in their activities. They are "at
one" with what they are doing. However, an activity that leads to flow for
one person is not predictive of what will lead to flow for someone else, as
flow experiences are unique for each person. It is hard to imagine that
these conditions of flow could exist for someone who was experiencing
disequilibrium, discomfort, or some of the other negative states that have
been associated with the aforementioned models of outdoor education or
psychology.
Just as individuals seek out activities that lead to flow experiences
(autotelic activities), participants in outdoor education programs are often
seeking states of being that are different than those they have in everyday
life. These experiences might be best understood and framed by positive
theories of change that focus on how people can be helped to become
stronger, feel better, develop their uniqueness, and otherwise grow.
Leberman and Martin (2002) recently addressed this issue in the
outdoor literatiue. Using two samples of Outward Bound participants,
they looked at the relationship between activities that took participants
out of their comfort zones, and the extent to which they related to and
leamed fi-om those activities, as opposed to perceived learning from activ­
ities that were not seen as risky. Their results indicated two interesting
findings. First, the activities that took people out of their comfort zones
were, for the most part, not those from which they leamed the most. And
second, the activities from which they leamed the most were primarily
social, creative, and reflective. These findings certainly are not definitive;
nevertheless, they support a more positive model of change, and suggest
that participants leamed more when in positions of safety.

Shifting Paradigms
It has thus far been suggested that the emphasis on perceived risk
and moving participants out of their comfort zones is in need of more
examination. Perceived risk is a very subjective experience. Leaders can­
not assume that their perceptions are the perceptions of everyone. Even if
the majority of participants seem to perceive risk similarly, one caimot
assume that these perceptions are the same for all participants.
22 Joumal of Experiential Education

Anotlier potential consequence of a model tliat incorporates

disequilibrium as a necessary condition of change is that disequilibrium
often leads to crisis. In fact, the goal of crisis intervention is the resolution
of disequilibrium and a return to the prior state of equilibrium (Dixon,
1979). Without this resolution, emotional reactions like anxiety or other
symptoms may emerge.
Many outdoor education programs are intended to work with vul­
nerable populations. Others are targeted toward people who have been
diagnosed with mental health and/or physical health problems. Increasing
anxiety or aggravating any other mental health symptoms is not only an
undesirable outcome when working with these populations, but it puts
participants at added risk.
If the perceived risks of a situation are too high for a participant, the
impact can be counterproductive at best, and damaging at worst. This can
lead to a difficult situation, as leaders with good intentions may misjudge
the impact of a situation on participants, or may not be able to assess the
participants' level of anxiety and threat.
It is quite possible that simply participating in an outdoor program
represents a dramatic departme from the comfort zone, and that any other
push would be harmful. Based on the ideas of positive psychology, this
perspective suggests that the greatest amount of change and growth comes
from a place of comfort, security and acceptance (Davis-Berman &
Berman, 1994). This is consistent with Maslow's (1954) ideas about the
hierarchy of human needs; the imperative being that for healthy g r o w ^
and functioning, the basic needs of security and love must first be met.
Safety and security may be especially important when the participants
have struggled with mental health problems, or have been victims of abuse
or neglect. Interestingly, many outdoor programs cater to troubled youth
or special populations, many of whom could be considered to be vulner­
able. Many programs with adolescents are particularly harsh, and some
are even survivalist in their orientation. This approach may ultimately
serve to be quite damaging (Davis-Berman & Berman, 1994).
Consistent with the ideas from positive psychology, outdoor educa­
tion programs, whose goals are to encourage both personal growth and
change, should take steps to try to reduce the perception of risk in pro­
grams. Underlying this assumption is the belief that, for many, just partic­
ipating in a program increases one's sense of threat and instability, and that
further threat potentially could be damaging. This is not to say that all per­
ceived risk should be eliminated. T h e leaders, however, must assess each
participant and make the appropriate choices. Although labor intensive,
each participant's tolerance for risk and anxiety could be clinically
assessed and evaluated prior to the start of the program. Special attention
2005, Volume 28, No. 1 23

should be paid to participants who report past abuse, instability, and issues
related to safety and security in their lives. Empathy on the part of the staff
completing this assessment is critical to assessing emotional risk and to
designing programs that minimize perceived risk. They should cater the
therapeutic program to the needs and capabilities of the participants.
Instead of trying to create change by increasing risk, outdoor educa­
tors and therapists can increase motivation by helping to create autotelic
experiences. This can be accomplished by helping people enjoy the experi­
ence and use skills they develop within a context of friendship and support,
in which there is emotional release and the ability to measure oneself
against his/her own ideals and others. These activities promote attention to
the present moment and activities; there are defined goals and identifiable
means for reaching them, and feedback and information about one's striv­
ing toward the goals (Csikszentmihaiyi & Csikszentmihaiyi, 1999). As posi­
tive psychology has grown in popularity, the study of success and growth,
rather than an emphasis on deficit, has emerged. Similarly, the field of out­
door education should challenge itself to move away from negative models
of change to further help people find, develop, and use their gifts.
This article is meant to stimulate thinking and conversation among
professionals in the outdoor education and outdoor therapy fields. It is
hoped that professionals will think about these ideas and apply them clin­
ically, as well as in relation to program development. This article is also
meant to stimulate thought and discussion among students, and encour­
age them to consider varying theoretical paradigms.
Program models should be developed that incorporate the initial
assessment of participants. Activities and outdoor modalities should then
be chosen to enhance safety, security and the participant's perception of
being able to respond well to the program's challenges. Qualitative
research should then be conducted that examines the process of creating
and fostering an environment in outdoor programs that is supported by
the positive psychology paradigm. These kinds of studies would involve
asking the participants themselves about the necessary conditions for
change. Quantitative studies should then be done to compare programs
utilizing more traditional models of change (e.g., Luckner & Nadler, 1997)
with approaches built on a positive psychology paradigm to compare both
short-term change and the stability of change over time.
24 Joumal of Experiential Education

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